1 00:00:01,320 --> 00:00:04,280 Speaker 1: Welcome to Stuff You Missed in History Class, a production 2 00:00:04,400 --> 00:00:11,000 Speaker 1: of iHeartRadio. 3 00:00:12,039 --> 00:00:15,320 Speaker 2: Hello, and welcome to the podcast. I'm Tracy V. Wilson 4 00:00:15,600 --> 00:00:18,760 Speaker 2: and I'm Holly Frye. So in our episode on Nicks 5 00:00:18,920 --> 00:00:23,200 Speaker 2: Versus Headen, we mentioned that there was an intense rivalry 6 00:00:23,440 --> 00:00:28,040 Speaker 2: between Noah Webster and Joseph Emerson Wooster and their dictionaries, 7 00:00:28,080 --> 00:00:31,640 Speaker 2: which came to be known as the Dictionary Wars. I 8 00:00:31,680 --> 00:00:34,360 Speaker 2: don't remember if I described it exactly as a rivalry 9 00:00:34,479 --> 00:00:36,720 Speaker 2: in that episode. If I did, I kind of wish 10 00:00:36,840 --> 00:00:39,960 Speaker 2: that wasn't the word that I had chosen, because now 11 00:00:40,000 --> 00:00:43,200 Speaker 2: having researched it more, I don't think that's the best descriptor. 12 00:00:43,520 --> 00:00:45,720 Speaker 2: I said. There might be a future episode on it, though, 13 00:00:45,760 --> 00:00:50,680 Speaker 2: And here it is. This grew into a two parter, 14 00:00:50,800 --> 00:00:53,920 Speaker 2: and it's kind of tangled because Wooster and Webster, they 15 00:00:53,920 --> 00:00:58,200 Speaker 2: each had their own lives. The Dictionary Wars went on 16 00:00:58,760 --> 00:01:04,840 Speaker 2: long after Webster's death, whether Wooster wanted them to or not. 17 00:01:05,520 --> 00:01:08,440 Speaker 2: So in this what I decided to do, rather than 18 00:01:08,480 --> 00:01:12,560 Speaker 2: trying to lay out this whole thing strictly in chronological order, 19 00:01:13,360 --> 00:01:17,040 Speaker 2: We're going to have part one today's episode more about 20 00:01:17,080 --> 00:01:21,319 Speaker 2: these two men's biographies, and then Part two is more 21 00:01:21,400 --> 00:01:26,080 Speaker 2: detail about these dictionary wars. And as a note upfront, 22 00:01:26,880 --> 00:01:29,680 Speaker 2: a whole lot of the writing about the dictionary wars 23 00:01:30,360 --> 00:01:35,440 Speaker 2: differentiates among all these different editions of the dictionaries in question, 24 00:01:35,760 --> 00:01:38,640 Speaker 2: mainly by talking about the formats they were printed in, 25 00:01:39,319 --> 00:01:43,880 Speaker 2: using terms like octavo and quarto, So if you're not 26 00:01:43,920 --> 00:01:46,800 Speaker 2: familiar with that terminology, it comes from how books were printed. 27 00:01:46,880 --> 00:01:49,480 Speaker 2: So in a folio there would be one piece of 28 00:01:49,480 --> 00:01:52,600 Speaker 2: paper folded in half that would create four total pages 29 00:01:52,640 --> 00:01:54,920 Speaker 2: of a book, and then in a quarto the paper 30 00:01:55,000 --> 00:01:58,720 Speaker 2: was folded twice made eight pages, and then in octavo 31 00:01:59,040 --> 00:02:01,760 Speaker 2: threefolds made sixteen pages, and then it just goes on 32 00:02:01,840 --> 00:02:03,480 Speaker 2: from there. And in terms of the height of the 33 00:02:03,520 --> 00:02:07,360 Speaker 2: finished books, the folios are the tallest. Each successive size 34 00:02:07,400 --> 00:02:09,200 Speaker 2: is smaller than the last one, so like the folios 35 00:02:09,200 --> 00:02:13,160 Speaker 2: are big, hefty books, and a quarto would be like 36 00:02:13,280 --> 00:02:16,560 Speaker 2: much smaller. This is a totally reasonable way to talk 37 00:02:16,600 --> 00:02:20,000 Speaker 2: about these books. They were advertised that way at the time. 38 00:02:20,639 --> 00:02:22,880 Speaker 2: To some extent, these words are still around. I think 39 00:02:22,880 --> 00:02:25,560 Speaker 2: they come up most often talking about things like Shakespeare's 40 00:02:25,560 --> 00:02:27,880 Speaker 2: first folio and things like that. But this is just 41 00:02:27,960 --> 00:02:31,040 Speaker 2: not how books are printed anymore. In the context of 42 00:02:31,080 --> 00:02:33,880 Speaker 2: an audio podcast, that seems a little unwieldy, especially since 43 00:02:33,960 --> 00:02:36,519 Speaker 2: we know a lot of people listen to podcasts while 44 00:02:36,520 --> 00:02:39,240 Speaker 2: they're doing something else. So I'm sort of imagining somebody 45 00:02:39,280 --> 00:02:41,560 Speaker 2: in the middle of doing their dishes and going, wait, 46 00:02:41,639 --> 00:02:45,600 Speaker 2: which one was the quarto? What is a quarto? 47 00:02:45,720 --> 00:02:46,000 Speaker 1: Again? 48 00:02:46,440 --> 00:02:48,520 Speaker 2: So, if you're really familiar with all this or it's 49 00:02:48,560 --> 00:02:51,079 Speaker 2: connected to your field in this in some way, and 50 00:02:51,120 --> 00:02:53,560 Speaker 2: you're listening and you're like, why aren't they just calling 51 00:02:53,639 --> 00:02:59,600 Speaker 2: this the quarto, that's why. So because he was the 52 00:02:59,680 --> 00:03:02,520 Speaker 2: older of the two men and he started publishing first, 53 00:03:02,720 --> 00:03:05,840 Speaker 2: we're going to start with Noah Webster Junior. He has 54 00:03:05,880 --> 00:03:10,200 Speaker 2: also gotten significantly more attention from historians and biographers than 55 00:03:10,240 --> 00:03:13,480 Speaker 2: Wooster has, so his part of today's episode is going 56 00:03:13,520 --> 00:03:17,520 Speaker 2: to be longer than Worcester's. Webster was born on October sixteenth, 57 00:03:17,560 --> 00:03:21,120 Speaker 2: seventeen fifty eight, in the West Division of Hartford, Connecticut 58 00:03:21,200 --> 00:03:24,760 Speaker 2: that's now just West Hartford. His parents were Noah Webster 59 00:03:24,880 --> 00:03:27,600 Speaker 2: Senior and Mercy Steele Webster, and he was one of 60 00:03:27,639 --> 00:03:32,600 Speaker 2: their five children. When Webster started studying at Yale College, 61 00:03:32,800 --> 00:03:35,200 Speaker 2: it only had about one hundred and fifty students and 62 00:03:35,280 --> 00:03:38,920 Speaker 2: two professors. He took a brief break from studying there 63 00:03:38,960 --> 00:03:41,680 Speaker 2: to fight in the Revolutionary War, and then he graduated 64 00:03:41,680 --> 00:03:45,720 Speaker 2: in seventeen seventy eight. He wanted to study law, but 65 00:03:45,800 --> 00:03:48,760 Speaker 2: his family really couldn't afford to send him to law school, 66 00:03:48,840 --> 00:03:51,880 Speaker 2: so he became a teacher and studied law on his own. 67 00:03:52,600 --> 00:03:55,080 Speaker 2: He was admitted to the bar in seventeen eighty one, 68 00:03:55,360 --> 00:03:58,080 Speaker 2: but turned out he couldn't really make enough money as 69 00:03:58,120 --> 00:04:00,760 Speaker 2: a lawyer, so he turned his attention to something that 70 00:04:00,840 --> 00:04:05,160 Speaker 2: he thought was sorely needed, and that was schoolbooks for 71 00:04:05,360 --> 00:04:08,720 Speaker 2: children that were written in the United States by an 72 00:04:08,720 --> 00:04:13,440 Speaker 2: American rather than being imported from Britain. This was during 73 00:04:13,480 --> 00:04:15,560 Speaker 2: a time when there was a lot of debate in 74 00:04:15,600 --> 00:04:19,799 Speaker 2: the United States about language and literature. Some people, including 75 00:04:19,839 --> 00:04:23,120 Speaker 2: Thomas Jefferson, thought that as an independent nation, the United 76 00:04:23,120 --> 00:04:27,000 Speaker 2: States should be freed from the linguistic and literary expectations 77 00:04:27,080 --> 00:04:29,919 Speaker 2: of British English and should have a language and a 78 00:04:30,000 --> 00:04:33,480 Speaker 2: literary canon of its own. A lot of other prominent 79 00:04:33,520 --> 00:04:37,280 Speaker 2: figures thought the same, although this was not at all universal. 80 00:04:37,880 --> 00:04:40,640 Speaker 2: There were also people who thought North American slang and 81 00:04:40,680 --> 00:04:44,760 Speaker 2: pronunciations were vulgar and were not only ruining the English language, 82 00:04:45,120 --> 00:04:49,400 Speaker 2: but were also reinforcing stereotypes of Americans as coarse and ignorant, 83 00:04:49,720 --> 00:04:55,560 Speaker 2: and the battle continues today. It never ever ended. For 84 00:04:55,680 --> 00:04:59,440 Speaker 2: Webster and for others, this wasn't just about creating a 85 00:04:59,560 --> 00:05:03,520 Speaker 2: national identity for the United States. It was also connected 86 00:05:03,520 --> 00:05:06,720 Speaker 2: to the idea that a democracy could only flourish if 87 00:05:06,720 --> 00:05:11,520 Speaker 2: its citizens were educated, and that education required high quality 88 00:05:11,600 --> 00:05:15,200 Speaker 2: textbooks that did not, for example, include a bunch of 89 00:05:15,200 --> 00:05:18,440 Speaker 2: stuff about loyalty to the crown, which was common in 90 00:05:18,480 --> 00:05:22,560 Speaker 2: a lot of the imported textbooks, and Webster's words quote, 91 00:05:22,560 --> 00:05:25,520 Speaker 2: I have too much pride not to wish to see 92 00:05:25,560 --> 00:05:30,159 Speaker 2: America assume a national character. I have too much pride 93 00:05:30,200 --> 00:05:33,840 Speaker 2: to stand indebted to Great Britain for books to teach 94 00:05:33,880 --> 00:05:38,440 Speaker 2: our children the alphabet. Webster's first foray into all this 95 00:05:38,720 --> 00:05:42,120 Speaker 2: was the American Spelling Book, that was in seventeen eighty three, 96 00:05:42,360 --> 00:05:45,840 Speaker 2: the same year that the Revolutionary War ended. He was 97 00:05:45,880 --> 00:05:48,800 Speaker 2: inspired by a new Guide to the English Tongue in 98 00:05:48,880 --> 00:05:52,920 Speaker 2: five Parts by English cleric Thomas Dilworth, which was widely 99 00:05:53,000 --> 00:05:55,520 Speaker 2: used in the United States, even though it was clearly 100 00:05:55,560 --> 00:05:59,200 Speaker 2: written for British children and had some odd pronunciation rules. 101 00:06:00,000 --> 00:06:03,080 Speaker 2: Webster used this book as his starting point adapting it 102 00:06:03,120 --> 00:06:07,239 Speaker 2: for American use, and at some point afterward someone writing 103 00:06:07,320 --> 00:06:11,039 Speaker 2: under the name Dilworth's Ghosts accused him of plagiarizing it. 104 00:06:11,920 --> 00:06:15,760 Speaker 2: In seventeen eighty four, Webster published A Grammar and then 105 00:06:15,880 --> 00:06:20,000 Speaker 2: A Reader in seventeen eighty five. Together with the Speller, 106 00:06:20,200 --> 00:06:24,800 Speaker 2: they formed a Grammatical Institute of the English Language, comprising 107 00:06:24,839 --> 00:06:28,760 Speaker 2: an easy, concise, and systematic method of education designed for 108 00:06:28,839 --> 00:06:32,960 Speaker 2: the use of English schools in America. I didn't read 109 00:06:33,000 --> 00:06:35,360 Speaker 2: out the commas, but they're kind of sprinkled through there, 110 00:06:36,200 --> 00:06:37,800 Speaker 2: just a casual comma, do. 111 00:06:37,720 --> 00:06:39,039 Speaker 1: We need another? Yes? 112 00:06:39,480 --> 00:06:43,560 Speaker 2: Some of them seem extraneous. This became an immensely popular 113 00:06:43,600 --> 00:06:47,320 Speaker 2: work and was widely used until about nineteen hundred, selling 114 00:06:47,400 --> 00:06:52,479 Speaker 2: roughly seventy million copies. In addition to writing books that 115 00:06:52,520 --> 00:06:54,960 Speaker 2: he hoped would prepare children to be an active part 116 00:06:55,000 --> 00:06:59,520 Speaker 2: of a healthy democracy, Webster was writing about democracy itself. 117 00:07:00,279 --> 00:07:04,960 Speaker 2: His seventeen eighty five Sketches of American Policy advocated for, 118 00:07:05,040 --> 00:07:08,680 Speaker 2: among other things, a constitution that would end slavery and 119 00:07:09,360 --> 00:07:14,440 Speaker 2: institute a universal education program. Webster was very politically active 120 00:07:14,520 --> 00:07:16,760 Speaker 2: and was a big part of trying to establish a 121 00:07:16,760 --> 00:07:19,480 Speaker 2: culture in the early United States, and he was well 122 00:07:19,520 --> 00:07:24,400 Speaker 2: connected to people like George Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and Benjamin Franklin, 123 00:07:24,560 --> 00:07:29,320 Speaker 2: so he is sometimes described as a forgotten founder. As 124 00:07:29,360 --> 00:07:33,000 Speaker 2: soon as his first Speller was published, Webster also started 125 00:07:33,080 --> 00:07:38,280 Speaker 2: advocating for copyright laws. This was absolutely about protecting his 126 00:07:38,440 --> 00:07:43,640 Speaker 2: own interests. Who wasn't really motivated by having wider questions 127 00:07:43,680 --> 00:07:47,320 Speaker 2: about copyright law and what should be protected. At this point, 128 00:07:47,360 --> 00:07:51,080 Speaker 2: the basis of the US government was the Articles of Confederation, 129 00:07:51,360 --> 00:07:54,400 Speaker 2: which did not allow for the federal government to pass 130 00:07:54,440 --> 00:07:59,160 Speaker 2: a national copyright law. The Continental Congress had recommended that 131 00:07:59,200 --> 00:08:03,640 Speaker 2: the states each passed their own law, so Webster traveled 132 00:08:03,680 --> 00:08:06,840 Speaker 2: state to state and wrote to legislators and states that 133 00:08:06,880 --> 00:08:12,160 Speaker 2: he could not personally visit. After the US Constitution was ratified, 134 00:08:12,240 --> 00:08:16,600 Speaker 2: taking effect in seventeen eighty nine, Webster also lobbied for 135 00:08:16,720 --> 00:08:20,080 Speaker 2: a federal copyright law, the first of which was passed 136 00:08:20,160 --> 00:08:23,880 Speaker 2: in seventeen ninety. So, in addition to being described as 137 00:08:23,920 --> 00:08:28,000 Speaker 2: a forgotten founder, Webster is sometimes also called the father 138 00:08:28,160 --> 00:08:31,640 Speaker 2: of American copyright law, as he was working on that. 139 00:08:31,960 --> 00:08:36,160 Speaker 2: In seventeen eighty seven, Webster founded American magazine in New 140 00:08:36,240 --> 00:08:39,000 Speaker 2: York City, and then in seventeen eighty nine, when he 141 00:08:39,080 --> 00:08:41,920 Speaker 2: was thirty one and she was twenty three, he got 142 00:08:41,920 --> 00:08:46,559 Speaker 2: married to Rebecca Greenleaf. At first, she turned down his proposal, 143 00:08:46,640 --> 00:08:49,680 Speaker 2: but he wrote her a letter and sent it along 144 00:08:49,720 --> 00:08:52,559 Speaker 2: with a lock of his hair, saying quote, without you, 145 00:08:52,640 --> 00:08:54,920 Speaker 2: the world is all alike to me, and with you, 146 00:08:55,160 --> 00:08:58,960 Speaker 2: any part will be agreeable as a pledge of my sincerity, 147 00:08:59,160 --> 00:09:01,840 Speaker 2: except a lack of hair, and keep it no longer 148 00:09:01,880 --> 00:09:05,120 Speaker 2: than I deserve to be remembered. You must go, and 149 00:09:05,240 --> 00:09:07,800 Speaker 2: I must be separated from all that is dear to me, 150 00:09:08,320 --> 00:09:10,880 Speaker 2: but you will be attended by guardian angels and the 151 00:09:10,920 --> 00:09:15,760 Speaker 2: best wishes of your sincere and respectful admirer. They eventually 152 00:09:15,920 --> 00:09:19,360 Speaker 2: had six daughters and one son together, along with another 153 00:09:19,440 --> 00:09:22,520 Speaker 2: son who died while he was still a baby. So 154 00:09:22,640 --> 00:09:26,439 Speaker 2: I think that letter is pretty sweet and romantic. Definitely 155 00:09:26,440 --> 00:09:29,840 Speaker 2: intended to be so. But Webster did not have a 156 00:09:29,920 --> 00:09:36,920 Speaker 2: professional reputation as a sweetheart. He was described as extremely opinionated, combative, 157 00:09:37,160 --> 00:09:40,760 Speaker 2: hard to get along with, and rude. He also had 158 00:09:40,760 --> 00:09:43,760 Speaker 2: some controversial opinions. We'll be getting to some of them, 159 00:09:44,360 --> 00:09:49,080 Speaker 2: and that those opinions combined with his demeanor to earn 160 00:09:49,160 --> 00:09:52,440 Speaker 2: him a lot of detractors. He was also fond of 161 00:09:52,559 --> 00:09:56,800 Speaker 2: publishing anonymous pieces that either praised his own work or 162 00:09:56,840 --> 00:10:00,160 Speaker 2: attacked his critics. A little later in his life, he 163 00:10:00,240 --> 00:10:03,800 Speaker 2: also had an intense religious experience and became a devout 164 00:10:03,880 --> 00:10:06,480 Speaker 2: Calvinist and a born again Christian. And then after that 165 00:10:07,040 --> 00:10:09,760 Speaker 2: a lot of people found his work to be excessively 166 00:10:09,960 --> 00:10:15,400 Speaker 2: moralizing than his opinions to be increasingly conservative. Beyond that, 167 00:10:15,800 --> 00:10:19,200 Speaker 2: he also experienced depression and anxiety for a lot of 168 00:10:19,240 --> 00:10:22,239 Speaker 2: his life, and he referenced that often in his journals. 169 00:10:22,920 --> 00:10:26,960 Speaker 1: The same year he married Rebecca Greenleaf, Webster wrote Dissertations 170 00:10:27,000 --> 00:10:30,640 Speaker 1: on the English Language with Notes historical and critical, to 171 00:10:30,720 --> 00:10:33,720 Speaker 1: which is added by way of appendix, an essay on 172 00:10:33,800 --> 00:10:37,240 Speaker 1: a Reformed mode of Spelling, with doctor Franklin's arguments on 173 00:10:37,400 --> 00:10:41,840 Speaker 1: that subject. Similar to earlier, a lot of uh, just 174 00:10:42,000 --> 00:10:45,320 Speaker 1: kind of commas floating through there. It was dedicated to 175 00:10:45,360 --> 00:10:48,720 Speaker 1: Benjamin Franklin, and in it he argued for American English 176 00:10:48,760 --> 00:10:53,400 Speaker 1: to be separated from the English of Britain. This included 177 00:10:53,480 --> 00:10:57,840 Speaker 1: calling for reforms to how English was spelled. This set 178 00:10:57,880 --> 00:11:01,400 Speaker 1: in part quote, now is the time and this is 179 00:11:01,480 --> 00:11:05,040 Speaker 1: the country and which we may expect success in attempting 180 00:11:05,160 --> 00:11:09,360 Speaker 1: changes to language, science, and government. Delay in the plan 181 00:11:09,440 --> 00:11:13,920 Speaker 1: here proposed may be fatal. Under a tranquil general government, 182 00:11:14,040 --> 00:11:18,080 Speaker 1: the minds of men may again sink into indolence, A 183 00:11:18,200 --> 00:11:23,000 Speaker 1: national acquiescence in error will follow, and posterity be doomed 184 00:11:23,120 --> 00:11:28,200 Speaker 1: to struggle with difficulties which time and accident will perpetually multiply. 185 00:11:28,800 --> 00:11:32,000 Speaker 1: Let us then seize the present moment and establish a 186 00:11:32,200 --> 00:11:36,920 Speaker 1: national language as well as a national government. Along with 187 00:11:37,000 --> 00:11:41,080 Speaker 1: other changes, Webster argued that all superfluous or silent letters 188 00:11:41,120 --> 00:11:44,720 Speaker 1: should be omitted, so that, for example, the word bread 189 00:11:45,000 --> 00:11:48,439 Speaker 1: meaning the food would be spelled just b r ed 190 00:11:49,320 --> 00:11:51,640 Speaker 1: get rid of that extra A, and the word give 191 00:11:51,720 --> 00:11:54,920 Speaker 1: would have no silent e on the end. Letters that 192 00:11:55,000 --> 00:11:59,679 Speaker 1: had indefinite sounds should also be replaced, so grief would 193 00:11:59,679 --> 00:12:05,520 Speaker 1: become gr e, f daughter would become dawt er, and 194 00:12:05,720 --> 00:12:10,199 Speaker 1: chorus would become ko r us like a whole phonetic situation. 195 00:12:10,720 --> 00:12:15,480 Speaker 2: Yeah. In seventeen ninety, Webster published a collection of Essays 196 00:12:15,559 --> 00:12:20,280 Speaker 2: and fugitive Writings by Noah Webster. This was written using 197 00:12:20,360 --> 00:12:25,120 Speaker 2: his proposed spelling reforms, so in that title Fugitive does 198 00:12:25,120 --> 00:12:28,199 Speaker 2: not have an E on the end. This book was 199 00:12:28,320 --> 00:12:31,880 Speaker 2: quote designed to aid the principles of the revolution, to 200 00:12:32,040 --> 00:12:36,640 Speaker 2: suppress political discord, and to diffuse a spirit of inquiry 201 00:12:36,840 --> 00:12:39,840 Speaker 2: favorable to morals, science, and truth. 202 00:12:40,800 --> 00:12:45,160 Speaker 1: The preface begins quote The following collection consists of essays 203 00:12:45,240 --> 00:12:49,640 Speaker 1: and fugitive pieces written at various times and on different occasions, 204 00:12:50,000 --> 00:12:53,719 Speaker 1: as will appear by their dates and subjects. So Fugitive 205 00:12:53,800 --> 00:12:58,280 Speaker 1: repeats that spelling that Tracy just mentioned. Pieces is pee 206 00:12:58,480 --> 00:13:03,880 Speaker 1: ces written, doesn't have its initial W, as is spelled 207 00:13:03,920 --> 00:13:06,760 Speaker 1: with a Z instead of an S, will has only 208 00:13:06,800 --> 00:13:10,920 Speaker 1: one L, and a peer is spelled appe er. Although 209 00:13:10,960 --> 00:13:13,400 Speaker 1: I would make the case there's an extra P there 210 00:13:13,440 --> 00:13:14,280 Speaker 1: by his rules. 211 00:13:16,360 --> 00:13:20,160 Speaker 2: Now I'm like, did I accidentally No, I copied and that, 212 00:13:20,400 --> 00:13:23,680 Speaker 2: so I'm pretty sure, pretty sure that second P was 213 00:13:23,720 --> 00:13:29,040 Speaker 2: really there. The whole thing is like that, there's a 214 00:13:29,080 --> 00:13:33,560 Speaker 2: lot about English spelling that really does not make sense, 215 00:13:33,920 --> 00:13:38,360 Speaker 2: and this document did mostly spell words according to how 216 00:13:38,480 --> 00:13:41,760 Speaker 2: they sound. But it will probably come as no surprise 217 00:13:41,840 --> 00:13:44,040 Speaker 2: that a whole lot of people really made fun of 218 00:13:44,120 --> 00:13:47,120 Speaker 2: this book and Webster lost a lot of money on it. 219 00:13:47,679 --> 00:13:49,400 Speaker 1: So we're going to talk about some of his less 220 00:13:49,480 --> 00:13:53,360 Speaker 1: laughable but still controversial work. After a sponsor break. 221 00:14:02,520 --> 00:14:07,559 Speaker 2: In seventeen ninety three, Noah Webster founded two federalist newspapers, 222 00:14:07,679 --> 00:14:11,040 Speaker 2: the American Minerva and The Herald. He sold them both 223 00:14:11,080 --> 00:14:15,360 Speaker 2: in eighteen oh three. Before that, seventeen ninety five, he 224 00:14:15,440 --> 00:14:18,800 Speaker 2: published a call for physicians to send him all of 225 00:14:18,840 --> 00:14:22,880 Speaker 2: their thoughts on yellow fever. That's a disease that had 226 00:14:22,920 --> 00:14:27,240 Speaker 2: caused a horrific epidemic in Philadelphia two years before and 227 00:14:27,280 --> 00:14:31,680 Speaker 2: had also caused major outbreaks in other cities as well. 228 00:14:31,920 --> 00:14:35,560 Speaker 2: Perhaps because he had already established a name for himself 229 00:14:35,600 --> 00:14:39,760 Speaker 2: as a cantankerous man with weird opinions about spelling, he 230 00:14:39,960 --> 00:14:43,520 Speaker 2: got a lot of criticism from the medical establishment for 231 00:14:43,600 --> 00:14:46,600 Speaker 2: basically being a dilettante who was sticking his nose into 232 00:14:46,640 --> 00:14:50,480 Speaker 2: stuff that he could not possibly understand. He did not 233 00:14:50,600 --> 00:14:53,880 Speaker 2: give up, though, and in seventeen ninety six published a 234 00:14:53,920 --> 00:14:57,440 Speaker 2: collection of papers on the subject of Billious Fevers, which 235 00:14:57,480 --> 00:15:01,120 Speaker 2: was essentially a compendium of everything that known or believed 236 00:15:01,120 --> 00:15:04,800 Speaker 2: about yellow fever at the time. This was followed by 237 00:15:04,840 --> 00:15:08,320 Speaker 2: these seventeen ninety nine, A Brief History of Epidemic and 238 00:15:08,400 --> 00:15:12,440 Speaker 2: Pestilential diseases with the principal phenomena of the physical world 239 00:15:12,640 --> 00:15:16,920 Speaker 2: which precede and accompany them, and observations deduced from the facts. 240 00:15:16,960 --> 00:15:21,720 Speaker 2: Stated in two volumes totaling roughly seven hundred pages, all 241 00:15:21,760 --> 00:15:25,720 Speaker 2: of those spelled the way we would anticipate. Yes, However, 242 00:15:26,120 --> 00:15:28,480 Speaker 2: it does say that it's a brief work. When it's 243 00:15:28,520 --> 00:15:31,560 Speaker 2: seven hundred pages spread across two volume. 244 00:15:31,200 --> 00:15:35,840 Speaker 1: Lies were told. This became a standard medical text, basically 245 00:15:35,880 --> 00:15:40,680 Speaker 1: a chronological resource detailing as many epidemics and disease outbreaks 246 00:15:40,720 --> 00:15:42,680 Speaker 1: as Webster could find information on. 247 00:15:43,480 --> 00:15:45,880 Speaker 2: I mean, both of these had genuine value. We're talking 248 00:15:45,920 --> 00:15:49,640 Speaker 2: about a time when there is no Google. Everyone does 249 00:15:49,680 --> 00:15:53,000 Speaker 2: not have access to a medical library nearby. It was 250 00:15:53,320 --> 00:15:56,400 Speaker 2: like everything that was known in one place that people 251 00:15:56,440 --> 00:16:03,520 Speaker 2: could have on hand. Of Webster's efforts were particularly lucrative, 252 00:16:03,560 --> 00:16:06,520 Speaker 2: though except the speller. The Speller did pretty well. He 253 00:16:06,640 --> 00:16:09,400 Speaker 2: had a pretty big family, and that meant that their 254 00:16:09,440 --> 00:16:12,960 Speaker 2: living expenses were high, So the Websters moved from place 255 00:16:13,000 --> 00:16:15,880 Speaker 2: to places. They just tried to make ends meet. For 256 00:16:16,000 --> 00:16:19,760 Speaker 2: a time, they lived in Amherst, where Webster helped found 257 00:16:19,840 --> 00:16:24,080 Speaker 2: Amherst Academy and Amherst College in seventeen ninety eight, they 258 00:16:24,120 --> 00:16:26,520 Speaker 2: moved to New Haven, Connecticut, where they got a good 259 00:16:26,560 --> 00:16:29,520 Speaker 2: deal on a house because it had previously belonged to 260 00:16:29,640 --> 00:16:34,760 Speaker 2: Benedict Arnold. In eighteen hundred, Noah Webster Junior announced his 261 00:16:34,920 --> 00:16:40,000 Speaker 2: plan to write a dictionary, specifically an American dictionary. He 262 00:16:40,120 --> 00:16:43,280 Speaker 2: wanted it to follow the spelling reforms he advocated and 263 00:16:43,520 --> 00:16:46,120 Speaker 2: include words that had been added to the English language 264 00:16:46,160 --> 00:16:50,000 Speaker 2: in the United States. Its quotations and examples would come 265 00:16:50,040 --> 00:16:54,600 Speaker 2: from American sources, not British ones. Naturally, he got a 266 00:16:54,640 --> 00:16:57,080 Speaker 2: lot of criticism for this, for all of the reasons 267 00:16:57,080 --> 00:17:00,000 Speaker 2: that we have already discussed. Yeah, there were certainly people 268 00:17:00,040 --> 00:17:03,760 Speaker 2: who thought, yes, we need an American dictionary, but a 269 00:17:03,880 --> 00:17:06,760 Speaker 2: lot of people who thought that Noah Webster should not 270 00:17:06,880 --> 00:17:11,240 Speaker 2: be the person to do it. A lot of people 271 00:17:11,280 --> 00:17:15,119 Speaker 2: today write about Webster is having been a huge part 272 00:17:15,240 --> 00:17:18,960 Speaker 2: of creating a national identity for the United States. Through 273 00:17:19,080 --> 00:17:23,240 Speaker 2: this and other dictionaries and his other writing and other activities, 274 00:17:23,840 --> 00:17:29,040 Speaker 2: he repeatedly wrote about how creating a common national language would, 275 00:17:29,320 --> 00:17:32,960 Speaker 2: in his opinion, form the foundation of a national unity, 276 00:17:33,480 --> 00:17:37,840 Speaker 2: and his selections of American works for quotations and examples 277 00:17:37,840 --> 00:17:41,280 Speaker 2: in these dictionaries like that was reinforcing the idea that 278 00:17:41,320 --> 00:17:45,440 Speaker 2: the United States had its own literary canon, and that 279 00:17:45,560 --> 00:17:48,399 Speaker 2: canon had value. The US did not need to just 280 00:17:48,520 --> 00:17:52,520 Speaker 2: rely on works from Britain. But there's another way to 281 00:17:52,640 --> 00:17:55,760 Speaker 2: look at this as well. In a twenty fourteen essay 282 00:17:55,840 --> 00:17:59,320 Speaker 2: in William and Mary Quarterly, doctor Tim Cassidy frames this 283 00:17:59,359 --> 00:18:03,159 Speaker 2: as more about Webster uniting people in their hatred of 284 00:18:03,240 --> 00:18:06,879 Speaker 2: him quote. Webster did indeed play a role in forging 285 00:18:06,920 --> 00:18:11,760 Speaker 2: American national sentiment, but not because his ideas were popular, representative, 286 00:18:11,920 --> 00:18:16,560 Speaker 2: or accepted. Rather, by holding or seeming to hold very 287 00:18:16,680 --> 00:18:22,240 Speaker 2: unpopular positions about American language, Webster unintentionally catalyzed a large 288 00:18:22,280 --> 00:18:25,960 Speaker 2: media phenomenon in which other writers hastened to counter his 289 00:18:26,080 --> 00:18:30,040 Speaker 2: ideas with their own. Yeah, there were a lot, a 290 00:18:30,080 --> 00:18:33,760 Speaker 2: lot of other schoolbooks and dictionaries and things like that 291 00:18:33,880 --> 00:18:35,800 Speaker 2: during this era. He was not at all the only one. 292 00:18:36,520 --> 00:18:40,680 Speaker 2: So Webster published his compendious Dictionary of the English Language 293 00:18:40,680 --> 00:18:43,520 Speaker 2: in eighteen oh six. This was not the first English 294 00:18:43,560 --> 00:18:46,480 Speaker 2: dictionary written or published in the United States, and it 295 00:18:46,560 --> 00:18:49,600 Speaker 2: also was not the first dictionary to include words that 296 00:18:49,640 --> 00:18:53,280 Speaker 2: had been coined in North America. But this eighteen oh 297 00:18:53,320 --> 00:18:57,680 Speaker 2: six dictionary is often described as the first fairly comprehensive 298 00:18:57,760 --> 00:19:03,320 Speaker 2: dictionary of American English. It contained more than forty thousand words. 299 00:19:04,000 --> 00:19:09,520 Speaker 2: Webster did include some spelling changes, but these changes really 300 00:19:09,560 --> 00:19:13,520 Speaker 2: were not as radical as his essays and fugitive writings 301 00:19:13,560 --> 00:19:18,000 Speaker 2: had shown. This that he'd earlier called for. A few 302 00:19:18,000 --> 00:19:24,800 Speaker 2: words do stand out, though, such as women spelled wimmn. 303 00:19:25,440 --> 00:19:29,760 Speaker 2: He insisted this was the quote primitive and correct orthography. 304 00:19:30,920 --> 00:19:34,000 Speaker 2: He also claimed to have added five thousand new words 305 00:19:34,040 --> 00:19:37,760 Speaker 2: of American origin, although this included things like proper names 306 00:19:37,800 --> 00:19:41,040 Speaker 2: and adjective forms of words that had only been defined 307 00:19:41,080 --> 00:19:45,040 Speaker 2: as nouns in British dictionaries. Many of the new words 308 00:19:45,040 --> 00:19:50,560 Speaker 2: he included had roots in Algonquian languages, including skunk, moose, moccasin, 309 00:19:50,720 --> 00:19:54,680 Speaker 2: and squash. There were words that came from European languages 310 00:19:54,720 --> 00:19:58,240 Speaker 2: as well, including chowder, which likely came from French via 311 00:19:58,280 --> 00:20:01,960 Speaker 2: the maritime provinces of Canada in New England, cookie which 312 00:20:02,000 --> 00:20:06,280 Speaker 2: came from Dutch, and cafeteria, which came from Spanish via Mexico. 313 00:20:07,280 --> 00:20:11,119 Speaker 2: Although this is recognized as a noteworthy book, it was 314 00:20:11,200 --> 00:20:13,679 Speaker 2: met with a lot of criticism. It was not reviewed 315 00:20:13,720 --> 00:20:19,359 Speaker 2: particularly well. Eventually, Lyman Cobb, a young school teacher from 316 00:20:19,440 --> 00:20:23,640 Speaker 2: New York, became one of Webster's most vocal critics, not 317 00:20:23,760 --> 00:20:26,399 Speaker 2: just about this dictionary, but about his other work as well. 318 00:20:27,080 --> 00:20:32,560 Speaker 2: Cobb started publishing his own competing spellers and dictionaries and 319 00:20:32,600 --> 00:20:37,040 Speaker 2: other resources, in part because he thought Webster's were so bad. 320 00:20:37,920 --> 00:20:41,280 Speaker 2: Cobb's first Speller came out in eighteen twenty one, when 321 00:20:41,320 --> 00:20:44,439 Speaker 2: he was only twenty one, and a revised version followed 322 00:20:44,480 --> 00:20:48,600 Speaker 2: four years later. He also started publishing criticisms of Webster 323 00:20:48,680 --> 00:20:52,439 Speaker 2: in newspapers in eighteen twenty seven, and in eighteen thirty 324 00:20:52,480 --> 00:20:56,399 Speaker 2: one he collected all these many many pieces into a 325 00:20:56,400 --> 00:21:00,480 Speaker 2: critical review of the Orthography of Doctor Webster series of books. 326 00:21:01,240 --> 00:21:03,679 Speaker 2: Among other things, Cob pointed out that there were a 327 00:21:03,720 --> 00:21:08,240 Speaker 2: lot of discrepancies and inconsistencies among Webster's various books, like 328 00:21:08,840 --> 00:21:13,159 Speaker 2: different spellers or editions of the Dictionary contained different spellings 329 00:21:13,160 --> 00:21:15,960 Speaker 2: for the same words, or a word might be spelled 330 00:21:16,119 --> 00:21:19,199 Speaker 2: one way in its own entry in the dictionary, but 331 00:21:19,240 --> 00:21:21,840 Speaker 2: then spelled differently when it was used in definitions of 332 00:21:21,880 --> 00:21:26,160 Speaker 2: other words. Webster spent a lot of time publishing rebuttals 333 00:21:26,160 --> 00:21:30,400 Speaker 2: of Cobb's criticisms, as this was happening. Webster was also 334 00:21:30,560 --> 00:21:35,080 Speaker 2: working on another bigger dictionary. He finished it in January 335 00:21:35,119 --> 00:21:39,919 Speaker 2: of eighteen twenty five, after defining zimome or zinone as quote, 336 00:21:39,960 --> 00:21:44,360 Speaker 2: one of the constituents of gluten. On finishing this dictionary, 337 00:21:44,400 --> 00:21:47,040 Speaker 2: he wrote, quote, when I had come to the last word, 338 00:21:47,119 --> 00:21:50,320 Speaker 2: I was seized with a trembling, which made it somewhat 339 00:21:50,359 --> 00:21:54,080 Speaker 2: difficult to hold my pen steady for writing. This cause 340 00:21:54,119 --> 00:21:56,280 Speaker 2: seems to have been the thought that I might not 341 00:21:56,560 --> 00:21:59,480 Speaker 2: then live to finish the work, or the thought that 342 00:21:59,520 --> 00:22:02,199 Speaker 2: I was so near the end of my labors. But 343 00:22:02,280 --> 00:22:05,680 Speaker 2: I summoned strength to finish the last word, and then, 344 00:22:06,000 --> 00:22:08,679 Speaker 2: walking about the room a few minutes, I recovered. 345 00:22:09,880 --> 00:22:13,439 Speaker 1: It took three years to get this new dictionary into print, 346 00:22:13,760 --> 00:22:18,200 Speaker 1: and the process was laborious. At first. Webster couldn't find 347 00:22:18,200 --> 00:22:21,720 Speaker 1: a publisher, and eventually his son in law, Professor Chauncey 348 00:22:21,760 --> 00:22:26,800 Speaker 1: Goodrich of Yale College, connected him to Sherman Converse. Converse 349 00:22:26,840 --> 00:22:30,200 Speaker 1: and Goodrich wanted to address some of the same inconsistencies 350 00:22:30,240 --> 00:22:33,360 Speaker 1: and errors that had already been pointed out with Webster's work, 351 00:22:33,480 --> 00:22:38,399 Speaker 1: so James Gates Percival was hired as editor. Perceval was 352 00:22:38,520 --> 00:22:43,199 Speaker 1: very conscientious and detail oriented, but Webster disagreed with a 353 00:22:43,240 --> 00:22:47,960 Speaker 1: lot of his proposed edits, describing them as pedantry. Eventually, 354 00:22:48,000 --> 00:22:50,679 Speaker 1: Webster got so fed up that he fired Perceval, with 355 00:22:50,760 --> 00:22:56,080 Speaker 1: part of the dictionary still unedited. This dictionary, titled American 356 00:22:56,119 --> 00:22:59,240 Speaker 1: Dictionary of the English Language, came out in eighteen twenty 357 00:22:59,280 --> 00:23:03,040 Speaker 1: eight and contained more than sixty five thousand words. It 358 00:23:03,119 --> 00:23:06,960 Speaker 1: also contained etymologies as well as usage examples that came 359 00:23:07,000 --> 00:23:10,800 Speaker 1: from the writing of people like George Washington and Washington Irving, 360 00:23:10,880 --> 00:23:14,160 Speaker 1: as well as the Christian Bible. Rather than using lots 361 00:23:14,200 --> 00:23:18,679 Speaker 1: of British literature, a lot of sources say, Webster learned 362 00:23:18,840 --> 00:23:22,959 Speaker 1: twenty six languages to research the etymologies in this dictionary. 363 00:23:23,480 --> 00:23:26,240 Speaker 1: This included brushing up on languages that he already knew, 364 00:23:26,320 --> 00:23:29,960 Speaker 1: like Greek, Latin, Hebrew, French, and German, as well as 365 00:23:30,000 --> 00:23:33,520 Speaker 1: getting some familiarity with other languages from Europe, the Middle East, 366 00:23:33,560 --> 00:23:37,440 Speaker 1: and Asia. But he wasn't exactly using all this study 367 00:23:37,480 --> 00:23:41,320 Speaker 1: to accurately research the origin of each word. He was 368 00:23:41,359 --> 00:23:43,960 Speaker 1: trying to prove that the biblical story of the Tower 369 00:23:44,000 --> 00:23:47,080 Speaker 1: of Babel was true and that all of humanity had 370 00:23:47,119 --> 00:23:51,000 Speaker 1: originally spoken the same language in the words of Scribner's 371 00:23:51,000 --> 00:23:55,600 Speaker 1: Dictionary of American History, third edition quote. This etymology won 372 00:23:55,640 --> 00:24:00,000 Speaker 1: almost no acceptance at the time and remains universally discredited. 373 00:24:00,880 --> 00:24:05,640 Speaker 1: After publishing this dictionary, Webster renewed his call for a broader, 374 00:24:05,960 --> 00:24:11,200 Speaker 1: stronger federal copyright law. Under the seventeen ninety Copyright Act 375 00:24:11,280 --> 00:24:16,600 Speaker 1: that he had advocated for, copyright protection lasted for fourteen years, 376 00:24:16,720 --> 00:24:19,240 Speaker 1: which he did not think was very long. It also 377 00:24:19,560 --> 00:24:23,320 Speaker 1: expired if the author died before the end of that time. 378 00:24:23,840 --> 00:24:27,800 Speaker 1: Webster was seventy, so he had reason to be concerned 379 00:24:27,880 --> 00:24:31,400 Speaker 1: that if he died, his family might lose control over 380 00:24:31,480 --> 00:24:35,280 Speaker 1: his work, and then might also lose any income they 381 00:24:35,280 --> 00:24:38,080 Speaker 1: could have earned from it after his death. There were 382 00:24:38,119 --> 00:24:43,000 Speaker 1: also some loopholes that didn't protect American authors from pirated 383 00:24:43,160 --> 00:24:47,040 Speaker 1: versions of their work that were published in Britain. As 384 00:24:47,160 --> 00:24:51,240 Speaker 1: this dictionary was being prepared for printing, Goodrich and Converse 385 00:24:51,280 --> 00:24:54,639 Speaker 1: looked for someone to create an abridged version, something that 386 00:24:54,640 --> 00:24:59,400 Speaker 1: would be smaller, less expensive, and even more mainstream. Webster 387 00:24:59,520 --> 00:25:02,240 Speaker 1: didn't really have the time or energy to do this himself, 388 00:25:02,280 --> 00:25:05,040 Speaker 1: and he had started working on another project. This was 389 00:25:05,040 --> 00:25:08,080 Speaker 1: a version of the Bible with reformed spelling and with 390 00:25:08,200 --> 00:25:12,240 Speaker 1: anything that Webster thought was dirty taken out. So Convers 391 00:25:12,359 --> 00:25:14,600 Speaker 1: just hired someone else to do it, and that person 392 00:25:14,880 --> 00:25:16,560 Speaker 1: was Joseph Emerson Wooster. 393 00:25:17,520 --> 00:25:22,000 Speaker 2: Wooster already had an excellent reputation as a lexicographer and 394 00:25:22,080 --> 00:25:27,159 Speaker 2: a researcher. He had previously abridged Samuel Johnson's Dictionary of 395 00:25:27,200 --> 00:25:30,679 Speaker 2: the English Language, which was first published in seventeen fifty 396 00:25:30,720 --> 00:25:33,800 Speaker 2: five and was still one of the most widely used 397 00:25:33,840 --> 00:25:39,120 Speaker 2: and respected English dictionaries. Based on his reputation and his experience, 398 00:25:39,280 --> 00:25:41,919 Speaker 2: Wooster seemed like the right person for the job, but 399 00:25:42,000 --> 00:25:44,800 Speaker 2: he was also pretty reluctant to take it on because 400 00:25:44,880 --> 00:25:49,399 Speaker 2: he was already working on a dictionary of his own. Eventually, 401 00:25:49,720 --> 00:25:53,160 Speaker 2: Wooster took the job, and his abridged version of Webster's 402 00:25:53,160 --> 00:25:56,080 Speaker 2: Dictionary came out in eighteen twenty nine. 403 00:25:56,119 --> 00:26:01,680 Speaker 1: Webster himself was outraged. Con and Goodrich had basically cut 404 00:26:01,760 --> 00:26:04,359 Speaker 1: him out of all the planning and decision making about 405 00:26:04,359 --> 00:26:08,280 Speaker 1: this abridgement, probably on purpose because they knew he would 406 00:26:08,320 --> 00:26:11,399 Speaker 1: disagree with a lot of their decisions. Webster was so 407 00:26:11,560 --> 00:26:14,000 Speaker 1: upset that he decided to sell the rights to the 408 00:26:14,000 --> 00:26:18,400 Speaker 1: abridged version Goodrich, who was married to Webster's daughter, Julia, 409 00:26:18,840 --> 00:26:21,879 Speaker 1: talked him into selling the rights to him, arguing that 410 00:26:21,920 --> 00:26:24,040 Speaker 1: the book should at least stay in the family. 411 00:26:25,280 --> 00:26:29,280 Speaker 2: Worcester later published that dictionary he'd been working on, the 412 00:26:29,359 --> 00:26:32,800 Speaker 2: one that had made him reluctant to work on Webster's abridgment, 413 00:26:33,000 --> 00:26:38,320 Speaker 2: and eventually Webster accused him of plagiarism in that dictionary. 414 00:26:38,400 --> 00:26:42,639 Speaker 2: We will be talking more about that next episode. After 415 00:26:42,640 --> 00:26:46,440 Speaker 2: this dispute with Worcester, Webster seems to have become increasingly 416 00:26:46,560 --> 00:26:51,080 Speaker 2: angry and unwell, more like an ongoing series of illnesses 417 00:26:51,160 --> 00:26:55,840 Speaker 2: and discomforts, not really any particular major illness. He kept 418 00:26:55,880 --> 00:26:59,320 Speaker 2: trying to promote his books, attack the work of his competitors, 419 00:26:59,359 --> 00:27:03,280 Speaker 2: and arguing against the influence of British dictionaries and literature 420 00:27:03,280 --> 00:27:04,800 Speaker 2: on American English. 421 00:27:05,200 --> 00:27:10,040 Speaker 1: Webster's family also became increasingly divided for reasons connected to 422 00:27:10,119 --> 00:27:13,639 Speaker 1: his work. Late in his life, he assigned the copyright 423 00:27:13,760 --> 00:27:17,000 Speaker 1: for his Speller to his son William, to the horror 424 00:27:17,119 --> 00:27:20,280 Speaker 1: of his daughters and sons in law. William had tried 425 00:27:20,280 --> 00:27:22,879 Speaker 1: his hand at a bunch of different business ventures that 426 00:27:23,200 --> 00:27:26,920 Speaker 1: never worked out, and he was continually being bailed out 427 00:27:26,960 --> 00:27:31,000 Speaker 1: by his father. The Speller was the most profitable book 428 00:27:31,000 --> 00:27:34,080 Speaker 1: that Webster ever published, so the family was worried that 429 00:27:34,119 --> 00:27:36,639 Speaker 1: William was going to squander away income that they were 430 00:27:36,680 --> 00:27:41,639 Speaker 1: all relying on. Divisions also arose around how Goodrich had 431 00:27:41,640 --> 00:27:45,439 Speaker 1: handled the abridgment and the plagiarism dispute with Worcester. Some 432 00:27:45,600 --> 00:27:47,520 Speaker 1: of the family kind of felt like he had taken 433 00:27:47,560 --> 00:27:51,720 Speaker 1: advantage of Webster in his old age. In eighteen forty one, 434 00:27:52,000 --> 00:27:55,199 Speaker 1: Webster published another version of his dictionary. The Son was 435 00:27:55,320 --> 00:27:59,800 Speaker 1: an American Dictionary of the English Language, corrected and enlarged. 436 00:28:00,480 --> 00:28:03,399 Speaker 1: He died in new Haven, Connecticut two years later on 437 00:28:03,440 --> 00:28:07,120 Speaker 1: May twenty eighth, eighteen forty three, reportedly holding a copy 438 00:28:07,160 --> 00:28:10,439 Speaker 1: of his Speller on his deathbed. He was buried in 439 00:28:10,560 --> 00:28:15,800 Speaker 1: Grove Street Cemetery in New Haven, Connecticut. Today, Webster's dictionary 440 00:28:15,920 --> 00:28:18,920 Speaker 1: is under the name Merriam Webster. We're going to talk 441 00:28:18,960 --> 00:28:22,000 Speaker 1: a lot more about George and Charles Merriam in Part two. 442 00:28:23,000 --> 00:28:26,880 Speaker 1: They opened a printing and bookselling business in Springfield, Massachusetts 443 00:28:26,920 --> 00:28:30,680 Speaker 1: in eighteen thirty one, later buying unfinished copies of one 444 00:28:30,680 --> 00:28:33,760 Speaker 1: of Webster's dictionaries and eventually the rights to his work. 445 00:28:34,560 --> 00:28:38,240 Speaker 2: G and C. Merriam Company became a subsidiary of Encyclopedia 446 00:28:38,280 --> 00:28:42,840 Speaker 2: Britannica in nineteen sixty four, and that subsidiary was renamed 447 00:28:42,880 --> 00:28:47,480 Speaker 2: Merriam Webster Incorporated in nineteen eighty two. After we come 448 00:28:47,520 --> 00:28:49,960 Speaker 2: back from a sponsor break, we will talk about Joseph 449 00:28:50,000 --> 00:29:04,400 Speaker 2: Emerson Worcester. Joseph Emerson Worcester was one of fifteen children 450 00:29:04,520 --> 00:29:07,880 Speaker 2: born to Jesse and Sarah Parker Worcester. He was born 451 00:29:07,920 --> 00:29:11,880 Speaker 2: in Bedford, New Hampshire, on August twenty fourth, seventeen eighty four. 452 00:29:12,680 --> 00:29:15,160 Speaker 2: The Worcesters were a farming family, and for a lot 453 00:29:15,200 --> 00:29:18,360 Speaker 2: of his young life Joseph worked on the farm. He 454 00:29:18,400 --> 00:29:21,760 Speaker 2: didn't have access to a lot of, like really good education, 455 00:29:21,960 --> 00:29:24,160 Speaker 2: so he did a lot of study on his own. 456 00:29:25,280 --> 00:29:28,440 Speaker 2: Joseph was twenty one when he entered preparatory school at 457 00:29:28,440 --> 00:29:32,600 Speaker 2: Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, and he went on to 458 00:29:32,920 --> 00:29:36,520 Speaker 2: Yale College in New Haven, Connecticut four years later. He 459 00:29:36,600 --> 00:29:39,680 Speaker 2: graduated from Yale in eighteen eleven, the year he turned 460 00:29:39,720 --> 00:29:43,479 Speaker 2: twenty seven. In spite of the limits on their access 461 00:29:43,520 --> 00:29:47,200 Speaker 2: to education, nearly all of the Worcester siblings became teachers. 462 00:29:47,760 --> 00:29:51,600 Speaker 1: For Joseph. This started in Salem, Massachusetts, possibly because he 463 00:29:51,680 --> 00:29:55,800 Speaker 1: had some family there. One of his students was Nathaniel Hawthorne, 464 00:29:55,800 --> 00:29:58,560 Speaker 1: and he became Hawthorne's tutor after he had to leave 465 00:29:58,600 --> 00:30:01,160 Speaker 1: school to recover from an injury. 466 00:30:01,560 --> 00:30:06,240 Speaker 2: Wooster was described as shy and methodical, and as patient 467 00:30:06,320 --> 00:30:09,680 Speaker 2: and kind with his students, but he also had very 468 00:30:09,760 --> 00:30:14,800 Speaker 2: high standards and he really loved doing research. Thomas Wentworth 469 00:30:14,880 --> 00:30:19,720 Speaker 2: Higginson described him as quote want to sit silent, literally 470 00:30:19,840 --> 00:30:24,680 Speaker 2: by the hour, a slumbering volcano of facts and statistics 471 00:30:24,760 --> 00:30:25,959 Speaker 2: while others talked. 472 00:30:26,560 --> 00:30:29,480 Speaker 1: In addition to his work as a teacher, Wooster also 473 00:30:29,560 --> 00:30:33,520 Speaker 1: started writing books to use in schools. His A Geographical 474 00:30:33,560 --> 00:30:38,000 Speaker 1: Dictionary or Universal Gazetteer Ancient and Modern was published in 475 00:30:38,040 --> 00:30:42,360 Speaker 1: eighteen seventeen, followed by A Gazetteer of the United States 476 00:30:42,400 --> 00:30:46,320 Speaker 1: in eighteen eighteen. His Elements of Geography came out in 477 00:30:46,360 --> 00:30:49,720 Speaker 1: eighteen nineteen, and then Sketches of the Earth and Its 478 00:30:49,760 --> 00:30:54,000 Speaker 1: Inhabitants in eighteen twenty three. That same year he became 479 00:30:54,040 --> 00:30:57,000 Speaker 1: a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 480 00:30:57,560 --> 00:31:00,800 Speaker 1: Then three years later, so eighteen twenty six, he published 481 00:31:00,880 --> 00:31:06,000 Speaker 1: Elements of History, Ancient and modern accompanied by an historical atlas, 482 00:31:06,040 --> 00:31:10,600 Speaker 1: and then outlines of scripture geography with an atlas. During 483 00:31:10,640 --> 00:31:13,400 Speaker 1: these years, Wooster also moved a couple of times from 484 00:31:13,440 --> 00:31:18,600 Speaker 1: Salem to Andover and then to Cambridge, Massachusetts. Having written 485 00:31:18,840 --> 00:31:21,240 Speaker 1: six books on a range of subjects over the course 486 00:31:21,280 --> 00:31:25,520 Speaker 1: of a decade, including issuing revised editions that we did 487 00:31:25,560 --> 00:31:29,960 Speaker 1: not mention here, Wooster turned his attention to lexicography, or 488 00:31:30,040 --> 00:31:34,040 Speaker 1: the compilation of dictionaries and the principles and practices involved 489 00:31:34,120 --> 00:31:38,120 Speaker 1: with that compilation. As we mentioned earlier, he published an 490 00:31:38,160 --> 00:31:42,320 Speaker 1: abridgment of Samuel Johnson's seventeen fifty five Dictionary Needed that 491 00:31:42,360 --> 00:31:44,960 Speaker 1: in eighteen twenty eight, and then a year later he 492 00:31:45,080 --> 00:31:48,760 Speaker 1: was hired to create an abridged version of Webster's eighteen 493 00:31:48,840 --> 00:31:52,480 Speaker 1: twenty eight American Dictionary of the English Language. That abridgment 494 00:31:52,560 --> 00:31:55,600 Speaker 1: came out in eighteen twenty nine. Wooster put out his 495 00:31:55,680 --> 00:31:59,960 Speaker 1: own comprehensive, pronouncing an Explanatory Dictionary of the English Language 496 00:32:00,160 --> 00:32:03,760 Speaker 1: in eighteen thirty. This contained roughly the same number of 497 00:32:03,800 --> 00:32:07,600 Speaker 1: words as Webster's unabridged eighteen twenty eight dictionary, but as 498 00:32:07,640 --> 00:32:11,480 Speaker 1: a book it was shorter. It did not contain etymologies, 499 00:32:11,560 --> 00:32:14,600 Speaker 1: and his definitions tended to be a lot more concise. 500 00:32:15,360 --> 00:32:19,320 Speaker 1: That meant his dictionary was also less expensive than Webster's. 501 00:32:19,760 --> 00:32:21,960 Speaker 1: He also included what came to be known as the 502 00:32:22,080 --> 00:32:25,880 Speaker 1: compromise vowel, a sound in words like fast and dance 503 00:32:26,240 --> 00:32:28,760 Speaker 1: that was between the way a is pronounced in cat 504 00:32:28,880 --> 00:32:32,719 Speaker 1: or hat in the way it's pronounced in father. After 505 00:32:32,760 --> 00:32:36,320 Speaker 1: publishing this dictionary, Worcester went to Europe for several months 506 00:32:36,320 --> 00:32:40,920 Speaker 1: and collected resource materials on philology and lexicography. He got 507 00:32:40,920 --> 00:32:43,479 Speaker 1: back to the US in eighteen thirty one and started 508 00:32:43,480 --> 00:32:47,400 Speaker 1: working as editor for the American Almanac and Repository of 509 00:32:47,560 --> 00:32:52,160 Speaker 1: Useful Knowledge. This was an annual almanac that Worcester edited 510 00:32:52,240 --> 00:32:57,360 Speaker 1: until eighteen forty two. In eighteen thirty four, Webster accused 511 00:32:57,400 --> 00:33:01,240 Speaker 1: Wooster of plagiarism, claiming that Wooster had used material from 512 00:33:01,240 --> 00:33:05,800 Speaker 1: his abridgment of Webster's dictionary in his own work. This 513 00:33:06,200 --> 00:33:08,480 Speaker 1: was the start of the dictionary wars that we're going 514 00:33:08,520 --> 00:33:10,840 Speaker 1: to talk about in part two, But we'll go ahead 515 00:33:10,880 --> 00:33:14,240 Speaker 1: and note that Webster directed various people to comb through 516 00:33:14,240 --> 00:33:18,960 Speaker 1: Wooster's work looking for evidence against him, but they found nothing. 517 00:33:20,120 --> 00:33:24,240 Speaker 1: In eighteen thirty five, Worcester published his Elementary Dictionary of 518 00:33:24,280 --> 00:33:27,880 Speaker 1: the English Language that was shorter and simpler than his 519 00:33:27,960 --> 00:33:31,480 Speaker 1: comprehensive Pronouncing an Explanatory Dictionary, and it was meant to 520 00:33:31,520 --> 00:33:35,600 Speaker 1: be used in common schools. Like Worster's previous dictionary. This 521 00:33:35,800 --> 00:33:38,200 Speaker 1: was well reviewed and it sold well, and he was 522 00:33:38,240 --> 00:33:41,400 Speaker 1: able to move into a large set of rented rooms 523 00:33:41,480 --> 00:33:46,040 Speaker 1: in Cambridge, where one of his neighbors was Henry Wadsworth Longfellow. 524 00:33:46,400 --> 00:33:47,840 Speaker 1: I don't know if I ever want to do a 525 00:33:47,960 --> 00:33:52,560 Speaker 1: Henry Wadsworth Longfellow episode, but he sure has come up 526 00:33:52,600 --> 00:33:55,760 Speaker 1: a lot l He is like connective glue of American history, 527 00:33:55,760 --> 00:33:59,280 Speaker 1: I think. On November twenty eighth, eighteen forty one, Worster 528 00:33:59,360 --> 00:34:03,120 Speaker 1: Marian Amy Elizabeth McKean. He was fifty seven and she 529 00:34:03,320 --> 00:34:06,120 Speaker 1: was forty. He bought land and a house next to 530 00:34:06,160 --> 00:34:09,480 Speaker 1: the one where he had rented rooms. Amy's father was 531 00:34:09,480 --> 00:34:11,920 Speaker 1: a professor at Harvard, and she worked with Joseph on 532 00:34:11,960 --> 00:34:16,400 Speaker 1: his future writings. In eighteen forty six, Joseph Worcester published 533 00:34:16,440 --> 00:34:20,239 Speaker 1: his Universal and Critical Dictionary of the English Language. At 534 00:34:20,239 --> 00:34:23,759 Speaker 1: this point, Norah Webster was dead, he had died three 535 00:34:23,840 --> 00:34:28,880 Speaker 1: years previously, and Wooster's preface to this dictionary included a 536 00:34:28,920 --> 00:34:33,080 Speaker 1: note that none of its spellings or definitions had come 537 00:34:33,160 --> 00:34:38,879 Speaker 1: from Webster. He also, in that material cited Webster as 538 00:34:39,040 --> 00:34:44,040 Speaker 1: one of his sources for pronunciations, alongside British sources like 539 00:34:44,160 --> 00:34:48,120 Speaker 1: Webster is cited in the text of the dictionary, and 540 00:34:48,239 --> 00:34:54,160 Speaker 1: he praised Webster as a quote distinguished American lexicographer. As 541 00:34:54,200 --> 00:34:57,840 Speaker 1: this dictionary was going to print, Wooster was having trouble 542 00:34:57,840 --> 00:35:01,759 Speaker 1: with this site. Sometimes this is described as resulting from cataracts. 543 00:35:02,280 --> 00:35:04,799 Speaker 1: He had a series of surgeries after which he was 544 00:35:04,880 --> 00:35:07,480 Speaker 1: blind in his right eye and had partial sight in 545 00:35:07,560 --> 00:35:11,440 Speaker 1: his left. During his surgeries and recovery, he was really 546 00:35:11,560 --> 00:35:14,120 Speaker 1: not paying attention to what was going on in the news, 547 00:35:14,200 --> 00:35:17,880 Speaker 1: so some years passed before he learned that a huge 548 00:35:17,920 --> 00:35:22,360 Speaker 1: controversy had unfolded in the press, including a scathing review 549 00:35:22,360 --> 00:35:26,680 Speaker 1: of his work, apparently written at the behest of Webster's publishers. 550 00:35:27,480 --> 00:35:31,640 Speaker 1: Worcester also discovered that a publisher in London had put 551 00:35:31,680 --> 00:35:35,920 Speaker 1: out an edition of his own Universal and Critical Dictionary 552 00:35:35,920 --> 00:35:38,880 Speaker 1: of the English Language that said on its title page 553 00:35:38,960 --> 00:35:41,760 Speaker 1: that it was compiled from work by Noah Webster. 554 00:35:42,880 --> 00:35:47,360 Speaker 2: It was not. This was Worcester's own dictionary. This fueled 555 00:35:47,440 --> 00:35:51,560 Speaker 2: additional speculation that Wooster's work was suspect in some way, 556 00:35:51,680 --> 00:35:54,839 Speaker 2: even though he had never personally had any contact with 557 00:35:54,880 --> 00:35:58,680 Speaker 2: this London publisher and just had nothing to do with 558 00:35:58,800 --> 00:36:03,080 Speaker 2: this publisher's franklin inexplicable actions. This is also something we're 559 00:36:03,120 --> 00:36:05,799 Speaker 2: going to be talking about a lot more on Wednesday. 560 00:36:05,960 --> 00:36:10,520 Speaker 2: But Worcester found all of this just enormously upsetting. In 561 00:36:10,560 --> 00:36:15,400 Speaker 2: eighteen fifty five, Worcester published a pronouncing, explanatory and synonymous 562 00:36:15,400 --> 00:36:19,359 Speaker 2: Dictionary of the English Language. As its name suggests, this 563 00:36:19,400 --> 00:36:23,880 Speaker 2: one included synonyms, and it also included etymologies. Then in 564 00:36:23,920 --> 00:36:27,360 Speaker 2: eighteen sixty he published a four volume Dictionary of the 565 00:36:27,400 --> 00:36:32,440 Speaker 2: English Language. Joseph Emerson Worcester died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on 566 00:36:32,480 --> 00:36:36,319 Speaker 2: October twenty seventh, eighteen sixty five. At that point he 567 00:36:36,440 --> 00:36:40,239 Speaker 2: had been working on annotations for a future version of 568 00:36:40,280 --> 00:36:44,560 Speaker 2: that four volume dictionary. He was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, 569 00:36:44,600 --> 00:36:48,640 Speaker 2: which is also in Cambridge. Today, Noah Webster's name is 570 00:36:48,680 --> 00:36:51,960 Speaker 2: almost synonymous with the word dictionary. While people may not 571 00:36:52,000 --> 00:36:55,080 Speaker 2: have heard of Joseph Emerson Worcester at all, but during 572 00:36:55,120 --> 00:37:00,319 Speaker 2: his lifetime. Worcester's dictionaries were really well respected. Sometimes he's 573 00:37:00,360 --> 00:37:04,200 Speaker 2: described as wanting to preserve British pronunciations and usage, but 574 00:37:04,520 --> 00:37:08,120 Speaker 2: that's only somewhat true. He did use British sources in 575 00:37:08,160 --> 00:37:10,440 Speaker 2: his work, but he used American ones as well, and 576 00:37:10,520 --> 00:37:13,600 Speaker 2: he defaulted to British standards when there just wasn't really 577 00:37:13,680 --> 00:37:17,680 Speaker 2: a clear consensus. While Webster had been calling for spelling 578 00:37:17,719 --> 00:37:20,960 Speaker 2: reform and a replacement of British sources with American ones 579 00:37:21,320 --> 00:37:23,920 Speaker 2: and including words coined in the US that had not 580 00:37:24,040 --> 00:37:28,759 Speaker 2: become widely used, Wooster had been carefully creating well researched 581 00:37:28,760 --> 00:37:33,160 Speaker 2: dictionaries that focused on clarity and accuracy and quote the 582 00:37:33,200 --> 00:37:38,160 Speaker 2: prevailing and best usage of this country. Consequently, there were 583 00:37:38,200 --> 00:37:42,640 Speaker 2: a lot of institutions that preferred Worcester's dictionaries, including Harvard 584 00:37:42,840 --> 00:37:45,600 Speaker 2: and the University of Virginia, and he had a lot 585 00:37:45,640 --> 00:37:49,759 Speaker 2: of support. Amongst the very outspoken writers and speakers, one 586 00:37:49,840 --> 00:37:52,760 Speaker 2: was Oliver Wendell Holmes, who said at one point, quote 587 00:37:52,760 --> 00:37:56,319 Speaker 2: mister Wooster's dictionary, on which, as is well known, the 588 00:37:56,440 --> 00:38:00,320 Speaker 2: literary men of this metropolis are, by special statute allowed 589 00:38:00,360 --> 00:38:04,560 Speaker 2: to be sworn in place of the Bible. I think 590 00:38:04,600 --> 00:38:08,360 Speaker 2: that's a joke, but I still like it. Author and 591 00:38:08,480 --> 00:38:12,399 Speaker 2: minister Edward Everett Hale also remarked that the only two 592 00:38:12,440 --> 00:38:15,359 Speaker 2: books that would be needed to establish a new civilization 593 00:38:15,480 --> 00:38:21,080 Speaker 2: would be Shakespeare and Wooster's eighteen sixty Dictionary. So it makes. 594 00:38:20,880 --> 00:38:24,960 Speaker 1: Sense that Webster and later Charles and George Merriam had 595 00:38:25,000 --> 00:38:27,680 Speaker 1: seen Wooster and his work as a threat, and that 596 00:38:27,880 --> 00:38:30,319 Speaker 1: was a big part of the Dictionary wars. And we're 597 00:38:30,320 --> 00:38:32,120 Speaker 1: going to talk all about that next time. 598 00:38:32,960 --> 00:38:34,840 Speaker 2: Yeah. I know it's a little weird to kind of 599 00:38:34,840 --> 00:38:37,920 Speaker 2: have two parts of two different biographies and then a 600 00:38:38,000 --> 00:38:41,080 Speaker 2: selection of their work, But it also would have been 601 00:38:41,160 --> 00:38:43,680 Speaker 2: weird to like try to interweave it together, and that way, 602 00:38:43,719 --> 00:38:45,120 Speaker 2: I feel like would have been confusing. 603 00:38:45,719 --> 00:38:47,520 Speaker 1: Yeah, I think it makes perfect sense. 604 00:38:47,920 --> 00:38:52,440 Speaker 2: Thank you. I have some listener mail. It is from Caitlin. 605 00:38:53,200 --> 00:38:55,719 Speaker 2: The title of this email is John Nix and his 606 00:38:55,960 --> 00:39:00,959 Speaker 2: Four Sons, and Caitlyn wrote, Hi, Tracy and Holly. One 607 00:39:01,080 --> 00:39:04,560 Speaker 2: detail of Wednesday's Nicks versus head in episode caught in 608 00:39:04,600 --> 00:39:08,000 Speaker 2: my brain immediately John Nix's four sons and their shared 609 00:39:08,000 --> 00:39:10,719 Speaker 2: middle initial of W. I had to know if they 610 00:39:10,719 --> 00:39:14,320 Speaker 2: shared the same name. I started digging into genealogical records 611 00:39:14,360 --> 00:39:18,000 Speaker 2: and found John Junior in a notable New Yorker's eighteen 612 00:39:18,080 --> 00:39:20,720 Speaker 2: ninety six to eighteen ninety nine, listed with the middle 613 00:39:20,760 --> 00:39:25,080 Speaker 2: name William. John Senior died in eighteen ninety five, very 614 00:39:25,160 --> 00:39:29,239 Speaker 2: helpful to avoid generational confusion there. John was the only 615 00:39:29,320 --> 00:39:33,200 Speaker 2: Nixon that edition, though onward went the quest. An article 616 00:39:33,320 --> 00:39:37,280 Speaker 2: in Brooklyn Life from the seventeenth anniversary of the company 617 00:39:37,320 --> 00:39:40,919 Speaker 2: notes quote a rather singular fact relating to the fore 618 00:39:40,960 --> 00:39:44,320 Speaker 2: men who constitute the firm is that the middle initial 619 00:39:44,360 --> 00:39:49,759 Speaker 2: of each is W, which I find hilarious worth commenting on, 620 00:39:50,120 --> 00:39:53,960 Speaker 2: but not worth saying what it initializes. Using John Senior's 621 00:39:53,960 --> 00:39:56,520 Speaker 2: death year, I found an obituary that mentioned his birth year, 622 00:39:56,600 --> 00:39:59,480 Speaker 2: which was enough information to find someone on ancestry who 623 00:39:59,560 --> 00:40:03,440 Speaker 2: had traced that branch of the family tree. So John William, 624 00:40:03,840 --> 00:40:08,960 Speaker 2: George Washington, Frank Wesley, and Robert Williamson. There seemed to 625 00:40:09,000 --> 00:40:13,840 Speaker 2: be several other siblings, including a brother, Harry w between 626 00:40:13,920 --> 00:40:17,400 Speaker 2: George and Frank in age. Harry disappears between the eighteen 627 00:40:17,440 --> 00:40:20,320 Speaker 2: seventy and eighteen eighty censuses, and there's a burial record 628 00:40:20,360 --> 00:40:22,560 Speaker 2: for someone of that name and birth year for eighteen 629 00:40:22,600 --> 00:40:26,560 Speaker 2: seventy three. So not only is each w a different name, 630 00:40:26,560 --> 00:40:29,560 Speaker 2: but not a single Willard in the bunch, unless maybe 631 00:40:29,560 --> 00:40:32,680 Speaker 2: Harry an answer to a question that has zero impact 632 00:40:32,719 --> 00:40:34,960 Speaker 2: to the story being told, but which was satisfying to 633 00:40:35,040 --> 00:40:38,560 Speaker 2: hunt down anyway, Caitlyn. Okay, thank you Caitlyn so much. 634 00:40:38,640 --> 00:40:43,520 Speaker 2: This is literally the exact kind of rabbit hole I 635 00:40:43,760 --> 00:40:46,960 Speaker 2: will go down and have been known to go down 636 00:40:47,080 --> 00:40:51,239 Speaker 2: in the course of researching this show. But it was 637 00:40:51,360 --> 00:40:55,120 Speaker 2: not a rabbit hole I had time for this time. 638 00:40:56,280 --> 00:40:58,680 Speaker 2: It was it was an episode that was like, get 639 00:40:58,719 --> 00:41:02,160 Speaker 2: it going, got get a move on, stop wasting time. 640 00:41:03,160 --> 00:41:06,279 Speaker 2: So thank you so much Caitlin for doing that and 641 00:41:06,920 --> 00:41:10,600 Speaker 2: allowing me the pleasure of following following along with that, 642 00:41:10,800 --> 00:41:13,480 Speaker 2: with that journey, I think I think they've written to 643 00:41:13,520 --> 00:41:17,200 Speaker 2: us before. I'm pretty sure Caitlyn's name is jumping out 644 00:41:17,239 --> 00:41:18,960 Speaker 2: to me as familiar. So thank you so much, Caitlin. 645 00:41:19,040 --> 00:41:21,000 Speaker 2: Thank you for this email, Thank you for doing all 646 00:41:21,040 --> 00:41:25,919 Speaker 2: of that digging. Maybe at some point I will find 647 00:41:25,960 --> 00:41:28,279 Speaker 2: some other weird question that I actually do have time 648 00:41:28,360 --> 00:41:31,520 Speaker 2: to jump down a rabbit hole about. If you would 649 00:41:31,560 --> 00:41:33,359 Speaker 2: like to send us a note about this or any 650 00:41:33,360 --> 00:41:37,200 Speaker 2: other podcast or a history podcast atiheartradio dot com or 651 00:41:37,239 --> 00:41:39,359 Speaker 2: on social media ad Missed in History That's for You'll 652 00:41:39,360 --> 00:41:41,920 Speaker 2: find our Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, and Instagram, and you can 653 00:41:41,920 --> 00:41:45,160 Speaker 2: subscribe to the show on the iHeartRadio app and wherever 654 00:41:45,200 --> 00:41:52,759 Speaker 2: else you'd like to take your podcasts. Stuff you Missed 655 00:41:52,760 --> 00:41:55,919 Speaker 2: in History Class is a production of iHeartRadio. For more 656 00:41:55,960 --> 00:42:00,360 Speaker 2: podcasts from iHeartRadio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or 657 00:42:00,360 --> 00:42:02,280 Speaker 2: wherever you listen to your favorite shows.