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Speaker 1: Lessons from the world's top professors anytime, any place, world

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Speaker 1: history examined and science explained. This is one day university Welcome.

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Speaker 1: You were listening to half hour history Secrets of the

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Speaker 1: Medieval World. I, of course, I'm your host, Mike Coscarelli.

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Speaker 1: Last time the emperors and the popes were jockeying for power.

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Speaker 1: Now we're leaving those squabbles behind for a bird's eye

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Speaker 1: view of how territories became nations and.

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Speaker 2: How nations became nation states.

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Speaker 1: We've got the Magna Carta, Columbus Louis, the fourteenth eleanor

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Speaker 1: of Aquitaine, King Richard. The name drops are ridiculous. Here's

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Speaker 1: Chris with the crash.

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Speaker 3: Course, let's say right from the beginning that when we

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Speaker 3: talk about nations, you can't think of borders and nations

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Speaker 3: and the un in the way we think of them nowadays.

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Speaker 3: Maybe we should talk about territories. But that's not quite

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Speaker 3: right either, because what we're getting toward is the nation state.

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Speaker 3: It's an early modern and modern construction, and it's something

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Speaker 3: that becomes very important in that period, and we live

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Speaker 3: with it every day of our lives today. But since

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Speaker 3: we are going toward nations, we're going in that direction.

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Speaker 3: I think it's okay to talk about nation building with

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Speaker 3: that caveat. And the reason we look upon this in

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Speaker 3: this way is that if you look at Europe about

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Speaker 3: nine hundred, right, so we have the early, the High

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Speaker 3: and the late Medieval period. So as we look at

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Speaker 3: it at the end of that early going toward that

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Speaker 3: High Midias period about nine hundred, and then we look

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Speaker 3: at Europe in fifteen hundred. Yeah, the map looks different,

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Speaker 3: there's no question about that. And so let's look first

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Speaker 3: in overview of some of these chunks, and then we

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Speaker 3: can look specifically at some of those chunks.

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Speaker 2: The first thing is France.

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Speaker 3: France does not look then like it looks now and

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Speaker 3: again these are very subtle and gray areas. There's a

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Speaker 3: very slow emergence of something called royal primacy in France.

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Speaker 3: France's borders move a lot. So even saying France is

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Speaker 3: kind of tough. We might want to put that in

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Speaker 3: quotation marks, because there's Aquitaine in the Bordeaux region and

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Speaker 3: the Norman region, and all of these have very very

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Speaker 3: strong leaders almost to the points of being kings, but

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Speaker 3: not quite being kings, and they can't quite get pushed

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Speaker 3: back by the person who's sitting in Paris, who's pretty strong.

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Speaker 2: He's a first among.

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Speaker 3: Equals, but he's got to keep these other people at

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Speaker 3: bay as well. So power is centered in Paris, but

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Speaker 3: you have other very very strong areas, and some of

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Speaker 3: those regions could be run by women. The one I

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Speaker 3: think of is Eleanor of Aquitaine, who's a great movie

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Speaker 3: done in the sixties called The Lion in Winter with

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Speaker 3: two great actors. Eleanor of Aquitaine is played by Catherine

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Speaker 3: Hepburn and Henry the Second of England is played by

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Speaker 3: Peter O'Toole, and they have this huge battle because Eleanor

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Speaker 3: basically controls all of Aquitaine, incredibly rich, incredibly important. She

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Speaker 3: can't be queen in the sense of being the total monarch,

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Speaker 3: but she's basically running England and France at the same time.

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Speaker 2: So the king in.

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Speaker 3: Paris is a king of Paris, the ancient capital, but

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Speaker 3: he doesn't have total sway over all of those other people. Meanwhile,

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Speaker 3: in England I just mentioned Henry the Second. In England,

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Speaker 3: Henry the Second is in a weird position because in

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Speaker 3: one way he is the King of England, but in

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Speaker 3: another way, as the Duke of Normandy, he's under the

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Speaker 3: King of France. And you really want to complicate it.

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Speaker 3: Eleanor of Aquitaine is married to Henry the Second, but

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Speaker 3: she used.

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Speaker 2: To be married to the King of France.

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Speaker 3: A reminder that England and France literally intermarried with each other.

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Speaker 3: And in the years eleven hundred and twelve hundred, as

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Speaker 3: late as thirteen hundred, the language at court in England.

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Speaker 3: In England was not English but French. England has another heritage.

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Speaker 3: It's the heritage of the Angles and the Saxons and

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Speaker 3: the Celts who had all been there in the central

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Speaker 3: portion of the island, and in the western portion of

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Speaker 3: the island, and in the eastern portion of the island.

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Speaker 3: Remember the Vikings at the Jorvik Center York as it's

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Speaker 3: called nowadays. So you also had this regionalization in England

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Speaker 3: as well, and this role of the local community. So

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Speaker 3: on paper a monarchy, in practice not so much. And

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Speaker 3: England and France are married together, why are they speaking

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Speaker 3: French in the English court? In eleven and twelve hundred,

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Speaker 3: ten sixty six, the Norman invasion, William, the Duke of

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Speaker 3: Normandy invades and becomes the William the Conqueror, and then

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Speaker 3: he's the same person who's called William the first King

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Speaker 3: of England. And this close relationship is not going to

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Speaker 3: get unlocked for three hundred years around thirteen fifty. It

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Speaker 3: begins around fourteen fifty, it ends the one hundred Years War.

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Speaker 3: So England and France from ten sixty six to fourteen

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Speaker 3: fifty three are in this very very close relationship. Then

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Speaker 3: you have Germany and the Holy Roman Empire. We've been

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Speaker 3: talking about that for some time, and I'll get to

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Speaker 3: that in a minute.

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Speaker 2: And then Spain.

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Speaker 3: Now we've been talking a little bit about Spain. Spain

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Speaker 3: is its own animal. Remember, Spain is dominated by Islam.

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Speaker 3: The Christians are pushing the Muslims down. From seven point

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Speaker 3: thirty two about ten eighty five is a halfway will

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Speaker 3: Mark with Toledo, which is about center in the box

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Speaker 3: of modern day Spain and Portugal. And the interesting thing

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Speaker 3: about the development of kingdom's plural kingdoms in Spain is

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Speaker 3: that they are coming together as the Christians are pushing

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Speaker 3: the Muslims down. The Christians are coming together to fight

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Speaker 3: a common enemy. Right, so they may not like each

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Speaker 3: other very much, but they have a common enemy.

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Speaker 2: The enemy of my enemy is my friend.

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Speaker 3: So that's how uniting takes place in Spain. Okay, a

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Speaker 3: little overview. Now, let's look at France, England, Germany and

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Speaker 3: Spain a little bit separately. France from about one thousand

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Speaker 3: to about fifteen hundred is ruled by a family called

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Speaker 3: Cupet cap Et, the Kapitian dynasty. Hugh Cupet was the

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Speaker 3: father of this family. But as I said earlier, the

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Speaker 3: king in Paris, the Kpetians control Paris and the surrounding area,

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Speaker 3: has very very severe limits within French territories, and they're

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Speaker 3: always fighting off these English claims as well. And yet

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Speaker 3: that king in Paris, in fact, the kings all over

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Speaker 3: have a much stronger royal Christian claim to authority. There

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Speaker 3: are much stronger liturgical, ritualistic religious overtones than you find

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Speaker 3: in England. France also has less experience with representation than England.

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Speaker 3: So what you have is a king and then a

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Speaker 3: court around him, the couria rageous and England, by contrast,

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Speaker 3: has something called parliament.

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Speaker 2: So the king and his court control a.

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Speaker 3: Small area but not much beyond that, whereas the king

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Speaker 3: in England has this other body over there called parliament

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Speaker 3: where power flows from the bottom up. So there's gonna

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Speaker 3: be some conflict there. Paris has something called a parliament,

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Speaker 3: but it's something that comes together rather infrequently. The King

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Speaker 3: of France preserves the law, but he is above the law.

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Speaker 2: Now that strikes us as odd.

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Speaker 3: When Pete Rose was thrown out of baseball by Bart Giamatti,

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Speaker 3: Bart Giamatti, the commissioner of baseball, said, let no man

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Speaker 3: think that he is above the game. And we say,

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Speaker 3: thinking perhaps to Nixon and Watergate, let no man think

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Speaker 3: that he is above the law. Well, that's exactly what

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Speaker 3: it was in Paris. The king preserves the law, but

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Speaker 3: he is above the law. He has stronger bloodlines, he

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Speaker 3: has prestige, he has aura. The stylized ritual in the

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Speaker 3: French court is going to last for centuries ahead.

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Speaker 2: Think of Louis the.

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Speaker 3: Fourteenth and Versailles, Louis the fifteenth, Louis the sixteenth.

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Speaker 2: And Marie Antoinette. The killing.

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Speaker 3: The beheading of Louis the sixteenth is so striking to

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Speaker 3: the world because this is a divine right monarchy. In fact,

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Speaker 3: they call themselves the ancient regime, the ancient regime, the.

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Speaker 2: Way it had always been.

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Speaker 3: So France, though it has these competing powers, has this

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Speaker 3: aura about it. So the French king, meaning the man

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Speaker 3: in Paris, has less territory under his direct control. We

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Speaker 3: call this institutional centralization the corea regis, but geographic decentralization,

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Speaker 3: how did it really work? Listen, the king in Paris

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Speaker 3: wants you to pay your taxes. If you pay your

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Speaker 3: taxes and show up to fight when he asks you,

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Speaker 3: the king is going to leave you alone. So Paris

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Speaker 3: is one the the biggest piece, the most prestigious piece.

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Speaker 2: In a patchwork.

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Speaker 3: You're not going to have a strong king of France

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Speaker 3: until fourteen fifty three. And you're not going to have

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Speaker 3: that strong king of France until they start pushing the

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Speaker 3: English out again they unite against a common enemy. Other

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Speaker 3: side of the channel, there's England. England has a stronger

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Speaker 3: drive to centralize in the France French, but they had

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Speaker 3: that longer tradition of local authority of Anglo Saxon. Even

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Speaker 3: in the area where the Vikings were. It was still

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Speaker 3: as late as Oney eleven hundred called the Dane law.

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Speaker 3: The area where the law of the Danes the people

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Speaker 3: from Denmark, the Vikings where that Law was in charge,

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Speaker 3: and that's around York, and then the Norman invasion in

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Speaker 3: ten sixty six when William beats Harold. If you've ever

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Speaker 3: seen the Bayeux tapestry, either in real life or in photos,

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Speaker 3: what you have is the story like in a series

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Speaker 3: of cartoons that would be pasted along a wall of

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Speaker 3: the battle. And so you see William crossing the channel,

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Speaker 3: and you see William attacking Harold, and Harold getting an

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Speaker 3: arrow in the eye and Harold falling off the horse,

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Speaker 3: and William taking the throne as an example of what

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Speaker 3: goes on between this other authority, this other power that

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Speaker 3: goes from the bottom up. Think of Magna carta. So

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Speaker 3: you have King John, remember King John from robin Hood.

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Speaker 3: In Robinhood, King John is Prince John and his brother

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Speaker 3: is Richard, the lion Hearted, both children by the way

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Speaker 3: of Henry the Second and Eleanor of Aquitaine. And King

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Speaker 3: Richard is off fighting the Crusades. He couldn't care less

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Speaker 3: about England. He's French in his heart, He's French in

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Speaker 3: his tongue. It's his language. He goes off fighting the Crusades.

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Speaker 3: He's killed while he's fighting the Crusades. Prince John becomes

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Speaker 3: King John, and he finds that he needs the baron's

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Speaker 3: help to rule, and so the barons force him to

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Speaker 3: sign something called the Great Charter or the Magna Carta

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Speaker 3: in the year twelve fifteen. Now it's often said, oh,

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Speaker 3: the Magna Carta doesn't have anything to do with us,

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Speaker 3: meaning everyday blue collar, middle class people.

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Speaker 2: That's true. King John signed the Magna Carta with.

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Speaker 3: The barons, and the barons aren't asserting they don't care

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Speaker 3: about rights and privileges for people below them. They care

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Speaker 3: about their rights. When they say our rights, that's what

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Speaker 3: they mean, their own rights. Nevertheless, trial by a jury

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Speaker 3: of your peers, being forced to be charged explicitly with

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Speaker 3: the crime within a certain amount of time what we

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Speaker 3: call habeas corpus. You could draw a line between the

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Speaker 3: Magna Carta and the reading of your miranda rights in

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Speaker 3: something that we call due process. And what is magna

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Speaker 3: carta fundamentally? Magna carta fundamentally is a restriction of state

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Speaker 3: power represented by the king against individuals. This is a

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Speaker 3: process that's called federalism, and it's something that Americans fight

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Speaker 3: about all the time.

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Speaker 2: What is the size of government?

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Speaker 3: How close should government be to people's private lives, and

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Speaker 3: because you always have this tradition of rising up against

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Speaker 3: a centralized state power in England, this is why monarchy

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Speaker 3: in England ultimately collapses with the glorious Revolution in sixteen

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Speaker 3: eighty eight.

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Speaker 2: Glorious because it is bloodless.

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Speaker 3: At the same time, in sixteen eighty eight, when Louis

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Speaker 3: the fourteenth is the son king in Versailles and basically

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Speaker 3: thinks he's God on Earth.

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Speaker 1: After the break, Chris catches us up on Germany and

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Speaker 1: the Holy Roman Empire and also explains how Columbus charmed

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Speaker 1: Queen Isabella.

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Speaker 3: What's going around in Germany now? Germany and the Holy

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Speaker 3: Roman Empire. If you take a look of the Holy

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Speaker 3: Roman Empire at this period, all the way up to

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Speaker 3: about fifteen hundred, you have these little states. If you

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Speaker 3: take a map of the United States and look not

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Speaker 3: at the borders of the states but the borders of

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Speaker 3: the counties. Jeez, who knows how many counties there are

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Speaker 3: within each state, that's kind of what Germany was like.

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Speaker 3: And so above that, so you had lots of counts,

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Speaker 3: lots of local dukes, lots of feudalism. But above that

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Speaker 3: you had that holy Roman Emperor. Just listen to the phrase. Right,

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Speaker 3: holy Roman Emperor, who was ever on that throne, says,

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Speaker 3: I'm tracing myself back to Henry the fifth, to Henry

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Speaker 3: the fourth, to Henry the third, to the Ottos, to

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Speaker 3: the Fredericks, to Charlemagne, to Constantine.

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Speaker 2: I am the defender of the faith.

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Speaker 3: I am king of the Romans, even though I'm up

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Speaker 3: here in Germany and Rome is down there. I am

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Speaker 3: king of the Romans as well. And the phrase that

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Speaker 3: they use is the translazzio imperi, the translation of the empire.

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Speaker 3: Now let's look at that word translation for a moment.

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Speaker 3: When I late from French into English, I'm taking words,

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Speaker 3: if you will, from one place to another place, when

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Speaker 3: relics of a saint in the Catholic tradition are moved

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Speaker 3: from one place to another. When Pope John Paul the

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Speaker 3: second was beatified in the spring of the year twenty eleven,

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Speaker 3: a few months before that, actually his body was translated moved,

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Speaker 3: not the body itself, but the tomb. The coffin was

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Speaker 3: moved from its original burial place underneath Saint Peter's to

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Speaker 3: a spot for veneration, and that spot it happens to

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Speaker 3: be right next to where Michelangelo's Pata is.

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Speaker 2: If you walk into Saint Peter's Basilica, you.

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Speaker 3: Go to the right and the first altar is the

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Speaker 3: piata and the second altar is the body of John

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Speaker 3: Paul the Second in the spring of twenty eleven, and

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Speaker 3: that is called the translation of the body.

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Speaker 2: So that's a physical translation.

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Speaker 3: This is a intellectual translation, in ideological translation, that the

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Speaker 3: empire has moved. Well, that shouldn't surprise us, because didn't

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Speaker 3: Constantine move the empire when they moved the capital of

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Speaker 3: the empire from the Latin west, the city of Rome,

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Speaker 3: to the Greek east, the village of Byzantium that he

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Speaker 3: renamed Constantinople. So why can't it move again? Remember Charlemagne

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Speaker 3: said that Achen was a nova Roma, a new Rome,

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Speaker 3: a Tertia Roma, a third Rome, Rome, Constantinople, Achen.

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Speaker 2: So this is not strange to the medieval mind.

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Speaker 3: And the name of the dynasty of the family name

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Speaker 3: was the Hohenstaufen, a series of autos and Henry's and Frederick's.

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Speaker 3: My students often ask me why don't they keep changing names?

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Speaker 3: Why don't they just take the same name again and

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Speaker 3: again and again, and the answer is, I don't know why.

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Speaker 3: But you also have many local authorities as well. However,

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Speaker 3: the Holy Roman Emperor holds sway over Germany in a

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Speaker 3: much stronger fashion than that King of Paris, call the

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Speaker 3: King of France holds over the people in France. That

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Speaker 3: Holy Roman Empire is going to be a problem for

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Speaker 3: the Church all the way up through Luther. Now let's

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Speaker 3: go back to Spain. When you say Spain, you think

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Speaker 3: of a country nowadays, and we always say Spain and Portugal,

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Speaker 3: that strip of land of Portugal, that small country that

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Speaker 3: has had a disproportionate influence on world history because of

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Speaker 3: Henry the Navigator and his school of navigation and those

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Speaker 3: great ship captains. Spain doesn't exist in the ancient world

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Speaker 3: in the way we think of it today. The Roman

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Speaker 3: Empire had a couple of provinces over there in Spain,

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Speaker 3: but when the Muslim come along, they take over the area.

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Speaker 3: But it was broken up into various regions, and the

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Speaker 3: region in Arabic was called al Andalus Andulacia.

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Speaker 2: You may have heard that word.

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Speaker 3: So if you're doing some reading and you see some

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Speaker 3: reference to all Andalus, that is a Muslim or an

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Speaker 3: Arabic reference to the region that we today called Spain

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Speaker 3: and Portugal dominated by the Muslims from seven thirty two

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Speaker 3: to fourteen ninety two, and having these smaller kingdoms fusing

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Speaker 3: together as the Christians defeat the Muslims. Now, we've talked

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Speaker 3: about that in general terms several times. Now let's look

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Speaker 3: at it more practically, and some of these names will

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Speaker 3: be familiar to you from your travels or your study. Barcelona,

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Speaker 3: for instance, becomes it's a small region which becomes the

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Speaker 3: Kingdom of Aragon, and that area gets married with a

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Speaker 3: local kingdom called Catalan, and in the eight hundreds those

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Speaker 3: two come together in larger kingdoms, smaller kingdoms becoming larger

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Speaker 3: kingdoms called Leon and Castile, and in the nine hundreds,

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Speaker 3: Castile goes to Navarre. Around the one thousands, and then

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Speaker 3: the big event, the Full of Toledo in ten eighty five,

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Speaker 3: and as the Christians are coming together and fusing their

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Speaker 3: authority together, it's working, right, so the kings can now

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Speaker 3: claim that they are defending the faith. They use the

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Speaker 3: exact same phrase as the Holy Roman emperors are using,

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Speaker 3: and it's working. They're coming together, they're gathering lands, and

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Speaker 3: as they defeat the Muslims, they gather those lands in

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Speaker 3: as well, so that eventually, in fourteen sixty nine, where

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Speaker 3: the very end of our period, we meet Isabella, Isabella

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Speaker 3: of Castile leone in the year fourteen sixty nine marries

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Speaker 3: Ferdinand of Aragon, and make no mistake, she was the

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Speaker 3: brains of that operation. And so Castillion gets together with Aragon.

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Speaker 3: They finally finish the reconquest with the fall of Granada

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Speaker 3: in the southernmost portion of Spain called Seville. And the

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Speaker 3: reason Columbus, as the phrase goes, sails the ocean blue

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Speaker 3: in fourteen hundred and ninety two, is that everybody saw

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Speaker 3: this coming. It was in inevitability. And Columbus had had

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Speaker 3: some trouble getting funding, and he was kind of flirting

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Speaker 3: with Isabella, and he said, come on, come on, give

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Speaker 3: me some money.

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Speaker 2: For some ships. And she said, I can't. Can't you

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Speaker 2: see him fighting the Muslims?

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Speaker 3: And he said to her, would you agree that when

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Speaker 3: you win, and we all know you're going to win,

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Speaker 3: your majesty, when you win, you'll give me money for

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Speaker 3: three ships.

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Speaker 2: And she says, yeah, yeah, yeah, yeah, crazy.

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Speaker 3: Genuine go away, And as the story goes, as the

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Speaker 3: legend goes, she walks into her throne room once she's

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Speaker 3: the battle is over and Granada has fallen, and she

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Speaker 3: mocks the Muslims, yelling allah Acbar.

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Speaker 2: Don't know whether it's true or not, but it's a

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Speaker 2: great insult to do it that way.

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Speaker 3: And Columbus bows before her and says, congratulations, your majesty,

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Speaker 3: Now can I have my three ships? So we have

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Speaker 3: this connection of all of these great events from the

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Speaker 3: end of a medieval effort that had begun seven hundred

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Speaker 3: years earlier. Let's bring this together in a little case study.

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Speaker 3: So in the last topic, we had a case study

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Speaker 3: of Gregory the seventh Pope and Henry the fourth Holy

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Speaker 3: Roman Emperor. Let's look at another case study, and it

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Speaker 3: again has the same topic. The clash is this question

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Speaker 3: of the king as a religious ruler.

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Speaker 2: Now pay attention to that phrase.

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Speaker 3: The king as a religious ruler and the pope as

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Speaker 3: a secular ruler. Nothing new here. Constantine thought he was

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Speaker 3: a religious ruler. Justinian thought he was a theocrat, a

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Speaker 3: theocratic king. Moving forward in time, Louis the fourteenth is

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Speaker 3: going to say he's a divine right king and the

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Speaker 3: Pope as a secular ruler, because Constantine had given the

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Speaker 3: Bishop of rome Land and then Peppin and the seven

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Speaker 3: hundreds had given the Bishop of rome Land. And we

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Speaker 3: talked about the question at the very end of the

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Speaker 3: last topic. We talked about the question of whether this

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Speaker 3: power in this land, what did that do to the

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Speaker 3: spiritual or moral authority? And some people saw it very

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Speaker 3: much as a corruption. And so some people say this

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Speaker 3: incidence that I'm going to talk about now is not

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Speaker 3: the high point but the low point of papal claims

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Speaker 3: to be emperor of the world, as some people said,

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Speaker 3: innocent the third claimed around twelve hundred.

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Speaker 2: Who's higher? Who can depose whom? Who?

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Speaker 3: Says French example, a pope by the name of Boniface

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Speaker 3: the eighth, known as a very political man who likely

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Speaker 3: engineered the abdication of the prior pope by the name

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Speaker 3: of Celestine.

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Speaker 2: And a French king, powerful French king fill up the

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Speaker 2: fourth in the sources.

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Speaker 3: In the French sources, he's Philippe LaBelle Fillip, the fair,

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Speaker 3: same guy, Phillip the fourth, Philipe.

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Speaker 2: Levelle Phillip the fair long rain.

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Speaker 3: We're talking about thirteen hundred, and the issue is taxation

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Speaker 3: without permission. The tradition was that if the French king

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Speaker 3: wants to tax the clergy, he must ask the pope

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Speaker 3: for permission.

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Speaker 2: Philip says, I don't have time for.

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Speaker 3: That, a I need money, and be quite frankly, I

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Speaker 3: don't have to ask him for permission because I'm the king.

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Speaker 3: They're subject to me as frenchmen. I'm going to tax them.

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Speaker 3: Boniface goes crazy over this and to say to show

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Speaker 3: that no, in fact, you are not in charge of

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Speaker 3: the church, even though it's in French territory. He reaches

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Speaker 3: into French territory, he reaches his religious authority in and

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Speaker 3: he creates a new diocese, and he names a new

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Speaker 3: bishop without asking the king's permission. So again, this is

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Speaker 3: a battle royal like Gregory the seventh and Henry the fourth,

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Speaker 3: and it has to do with ultimate authority, not unlike

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Speaker 3: the investiture controversy, temporal power and spiritual power. Boniface is

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Speaker 3: so strong in his claims that he puts out a

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Speaker 3: document that's called unam sanctam. Church documents are named after

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Speaker 3: the first couple of words. Sometimes it's an indication of

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Speaker 3: what the document is about. Sometimes it's not. In this case,

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Speaker 3: he's talking about unam sanctum one Holy and Apostolic Church.

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Speaker 2: There is one and one only, and that.

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Speaker 3: Church is the highest authority in heaven and on earth.

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Speaker 3: And therefore everyone on earth, if he wants to get

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Speaker 3: to Heaven, must absolutely, at all places and at all times,

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Speaker 3: acknowledge the ultimate authority on Heaven, in heaven and on earth,

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Speaker 3: of the pope, including a king. There is no way

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Speaker 3: Philip is going to stand for this. He sends his

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Speaker 3: men to chase Boniface. Boniface leaves Rome and he takes

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Speaker 3: refuge in a castle at a place called Ayani, and

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Speaker 3: something occurs called the Insult at Ayani. The forces are

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Speaker 3: coming in. Boniface is abandoned by his own people. He says,

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Speaker 3: the only safety I have right now is to sit

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Speaker 3: down and to dress myself in my full robes, wearing

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Speaker 3: the chasible, wearing the crown, the miter, the fancy triple crown,

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Speaker 3: wearing my ring, having my crozier.

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Speaker 2: They'll never do anything.

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Speaker 3: They burst through the door, and we're not quite sure

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Speaker 3: what happens. We know that they verbally abuse him, they

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Speaker 3: insult him. Did they physically abuse him? Did they strike him?

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Speaker 3: We're not quite sure, but what we do know is

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Speaker 3: that Boniface dies of the shock a few years later

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Speaker 3: because they had taken possession of him, basically taken im prisoner,

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Speaker 3: and for the next seventy five years, the papacy will

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Speaker 3: be in Avenue.

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Speaker 1: Thank you for listening to this episode of Half Hour History,

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Speaker 1: Secrets of the Medieval World. Next time, we're going back

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Speaker 1: to the Renaissance for spiritual awakening.

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Speaker 2: Half Hour History Secrets.

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Speaker 1: Of the Medieval World from One Day University is a

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