Speaker 1: Welcome to Criminalia, a production of Shondaland Audio in partnership
Speaker 1: with iHeartRadio.
Speaker 2: Alexander the Great burned Persepolis to the ground during a
Speaker 2: night of drunken revelry after basically being enticed into doing
Speaker 2: so by a Greek courtesan named Tais. It said she
Speaker 2: told Alexander torching the royal palace would be among his
Speaker 2: crowning achievements, and it said she inspired action among his
Speaker 2: soldiers and followers to take up torches. That is, at
Speaker 2: least according to legend. In this episode, we'll talk about
Speaker 2: the downfall of the Persian Empire and why anyone would
Speaker 2: have wanted to torch Persepolis. Welcome to Criminalia. I'm Maria
Speaker 2: Tremarky and.
Speaker 1: I'm Holly Frye. If you're a regular listener to the show,
Speaker 1: you may recall our previous episode was also about ancient Greece,
Speaker 1: specifically Heristratus and ancient Greek who in three point fifty
Speaker 1: six BCE burned down the Temple of Artemis as a
Speaker 1: way to he hoped become famous. If you're not a
Speaker 1: regular follower, that's still a pretty good story explained in
Speaker 1: Ancient Greek mythology, The goddess Artemis was not available to
Speaker 1: protect the temple that night because she was attending a
Speaker 1: very important birth, the birth of the son of King
Speaker 1: Philip of Macedon, a child who grew up to also
Speaker 1: burned down some important places. We are talking about Alexander
Speaker 1: the third of Macedon, also known as Alexander the Greek.
Speaker 1: Alexander was born in Pella, Macedonia, an ancient city located
Speaker 1: in present day Greece, and when he turned thirteen, his
Speaker 1: father hired Aristotle, yes that Aristotle, to educate the heir
Speaker 1: to the throne on everything from leadership to natural science, philosophy, mathematics,
Speaker 1: and even zoology. At age twenty, Alexander took the throne
Speaker 1: when his father was assassinated. That took place in October
Speaker 1: of three thirty six BCE.
Speaker 2: Alexander already had military experience when he rose to power,
Speaker 2: and now on the throne, he intended to finish what
Speaker 2: his father had wanted to start, a war. Just before
Speaker 2: his death, Philip had been entertaining thoughts of invading the
Speaker 2: Persian Empire for reasons we could talk about for days.
Speaker 2: Alexander decided he would be the king to do so.
Speaker 2: Within a decade, he had conquered the Persian Empire, which
Speaker 2: meant his reign stretched from Greece to Punjab, India and
Speaker 2: he was only thirty years old.
Speaker 1: So let's talk about the Persian Empire and why it
Speaker 1: was something a king might want to conquer. Before there
Speaker 1: was Alexander, and before one of the defining powers of
Speaker 1: the ancient world, the Roman Empire, there existed the Persian Empire.
Speaker 1: The empire, which is also known as the Achemenid Empire,
Speaker 1: was established by Cyrus the Great in five point fifty BCE.
Speaker 1: In over two centuries grew into a vast imperial state
Speaker 1: of Western Asia. This is a region that includes the
Speaker 1: Middle Eastern and African countries, bordering the Red Sea and
Speaker 1: the Gulf of Aden. It was ruled by a king
Speaker 1: known as a shah, who relied upon what were known
Speaker 1: as regional satraps, and asatrap was an autonomous local governor
Speaker 1: who ruled a province known as a satrope, and in
Speaker 1: this structure they ruled in the name of their king
Speaker 1: and then they paid tribute to that king.
Speaker 2: Writings by Western historians established the historical narrative that Alexander's
Speaker 2: invasion was the first of many Western invasions that attempted
Speaker 2: to and there are air quotes on this civilize the East.
Speaker 2: Alexander is portrayed as a great military mind and leader,
Speaker 2: and is celebrated in Western history as the conqueror of
Speaker 2: the Persian Empire. His legacy, as you may imagine, may
Speaker 2: differ from the perspective of the Persians, though way back
Speaker 2: more than two millennia, the Persian Empire was very much
Speaker 2: worth conquering because it was actually the greatest empire there was.
Speaker 2: It covered more than two million square miles of land,
Speaker 2: and an estimated forty four percent of the world's population
Speaker 2: lived under Persian rule, extending from Anatolia and Egypt across
Speaker 2: western Asia to northern India and Central Asia. It was
Speaker 2: the largest empire of the world had ever seen. Compared
Speaker 2: to it, greecelok, well, it looked really tiny.
Speaker 1: We are going to take a break here for a
Speaker 1: word from our sponsors, and when we return we will
Speaker 1: talk about the Persian destruction of Athens and how the
Speaker 1: burning of Persepolis may have been revenge.
Speaker 2: Welcome back to Criminalia. Let's talk about Alexander's possible motivations
Speaker 2: for burning Persepolis.
Speaker 1: According to an article published in the Bulletin of the
Speaker 1: Institute of Classical Studies, It's believed that Alexander used propaganda
Speaker 1: to sell his war to the Greeks, circulating materials marketing
Speaker 1: the military action as quote a revenge campaign to avenge
Speaker 1: the wrongs committed in the Persian Wars one hundred and
Speaker 1: fifty years before. Wait, so you may be thinking revenge. Yeah,
Speaker 1: a little backstory here. The Persians had been defeated by
Speaker 1: the Greeks previously during two ill fated invasions of Greece,
Speaker 1: first by Darius the First also known as Darius the
Speaker 1: Great in four ninety BCE, and then by his son
Speaker 1: Xerxes in four eighty BCE. Some Greeks considered Alexander's invasion
Speaker 1: as a justified retaliation for one specific event that had
Speaker 1: occurred during xerxes invasion. When Xerxes invaded Greece, he was
Speaker 1: defeated by the Greeks at the battles of Salami, Plateaea,
Speaker 1: and Thermopylae, yet he managed to get all the way
Speaker 1: to Athens, where he burned down the acropolis. That's an
Speaker 1: event known to the Greeks as the Persian Destruction of
Speaker 1: Athens above any other reasons. Most historians believe seeking revenge
Speaker 1: for this event was Alexander's true motivation to set the
Speaker 1: Persian city of Persepolis on Faya.
Speaker 2: Alexander went to war and was victorious against the Persians
Speaker 2: at the battles of Granicus and Isis, both in present
Speaker 2: day Turkey. It was following those winds when he conquered Egypt,
Speaker 2: and it's also when he laid the foundations of the
Speaker 2: city of Alexandria, one of several cities he founded in
Speaker 2: his own name during his reign. Alexander's final military victory
Speaker 2: over Persia took place at Gagamela now northern Iraq in
Speaker 2: October of three thirty one BCE, between his army and
Speaker 2: the Persian army under King Darius I. The Persian army
Speaker 2: was enormous, though exact numbers of forces are unknown. Estimates
Speaker 2: vary from fifty thousand to one hundred and twenty thousand,
Speaker 2: and some ancient sources claimed the Persian king had assembled
Speaker 2: as many as a million soldiers. Darius also had two
Speaker 2: hundred chariots equipped with blades attached to their wheels, and
Speaker 2: fifteen war elephants that had been transported from his territories
Speaker 2: in India were deployed on the battlefield. The forces of
Speaker 2: the army of Masadon were significantly smaller its estimated Alexander
Speaker 2: had roughly forty thousand soldiers. Though his troops were outnumbered,
Speaker 2: Alexander was victorious. Historians estimate that around sixty thousand Persians
Speaker 2: were killed in battle and that Alexander's army had between
Speaker 2: five hundred to one thousand casualties. As a result of
Speaker 2: this victory, Alexander had conquered the Persian Empire and became
Speaker 2: its new ruler. Still today, his military strategies and tactical
Speaker 2: triumphs during this battle are considered an example of why
Speaker 2: he became known for his military greatness.
Speaker 1: Those battles were significant lens for Alexander, but this wasn't
Speaker 1: a case of just a couple of battles and that's
Speaker 1: that though. Let's talk about the fire and destruction he
Speaker 1: and his forces brought as he marched his way through
Speaker 1: the empire. The Persian city of Babylon surrendered to him
Speaker 1: without a fight, and then he was on to the
Speaker 1: cities of Susa and Persepolis. These were capital cities of
Speaker 1: the Persian Empire. There are two primary facts to know
Speaker 1: about Persepolis. One, its construction began under King Darius the
Speaker 1: First in five eighteen BCE, though it's thought to have
Speaker 1: been completed under the reign of his grandson ar de
Speaker 1: Xerxes the First, and two in three point thirty four BCE,
Speaker 1: Alexander burned it to ruins.
Speaker 2: We are going to take a break for word from
Speaker 2: our sponsor, and when we're back we will talk about
Speaker 2: the city of Persepolis and its grand and opulent palaces
Speaker 2: and buildings. Until that is, Alexander got there.
Speaker 1: Welcome back to Criminalia. Want to know what Persepolis looked
Speaker 1: like before Alexander left his mark. Let's talk about its
Speaker 1: structures and the destruction brought about by Alexander and his forces.
Speaker 2: Persepolis is the Greek name for the city Alexander Torch
Speaker 2: a Greek toponym meaning city of Persian, and it's the
Speaker 2: name most Westerners are familiar with. To Persians, it was
Speaker 2: known as Parsa. It was located in what's now southwestern Iran,
Speaker 2: at the foot of Kuerra Mott, known as the Mountain
Speaker 2: of Mercy. Persepolis was a capital city and was built
Speaker 2: on a half artificial, half stone terrace. It's known for
Speaker 2: its exceptionally grand staircases and gateways. Most walls were covered
Speaker 2: by sculptured freezes, many depicting gigantic winged bulls. Historians consider
Speaker 2: most of the structures of Persepolis to have been built
Speaker 2: actually during the reign of Xerxes.
Speaker 1: Persepolis was the seat of the government of the ancient
Speaker 1: Persian Empire, and it was enormous. Among the structures, there
Speaker 1: were nine important palaces and buildings. Let's start with the Apodana.
Speaker 1: Construction of the Apodana, which was also known as the
Speaker 1: Audience Hall, begin under Darius's rule and was finished by Xerxes.
Speaker 1: It was the largest and most opulent building in the complex.
Speaker 1: Some say it was also the most important. Appodanna is
Speaker 1: the Persian word equivalent to the Greek term hippostile, which
Speaker 1: describes a building with an interior space where its roof
Speaker 1: is supported by rows of columns. Literally, hippostile means under columns.
Speaker 1: This hall was the star of the complex, and it
Speaker 1: was mainly used for royal celebrations, receptions of foreign representatives,
Speaker 1: and events that required a special level of luxury and grandeur.
Speaker 1: Some modern archaeologists suggest that it was used for celebrating Noruz,
Speaker 1: the Persian New Year. To the north of the Oppadonna
Speaker 1: stood the Gate of Xerxes. Xerxes, who built the structure,
Speaker 1: originally named it the Gate of the Nations, a nod
Speaker 1: to how everyone who entered Persepolists had to do so
Speaker 1: through this entrance to the terrace, where then they would
Speaker 1: pay homage to the king. The second largest building of
Speaker 1: the Persepolist terrace was Throne Hall, was sometimes also called
Speaker 1: the hundred column Hall. Its construction began during Xerxes' reign
Speaker 1: and was completed by his son art Xerxes. The first
Speaker 1: Throne Hall was used mainly for receptions for representatives of
Speaker 1: all the subject nations of the Empire. And then adjacent
Speaker 1: to the Throne Hall was the Treasury, which also partly
Speaker 1: served as an armory, but because it was also used
Speaker 1: as a storehouse for the royals, in addition to currency
Speaker 1: and precious metals, it also held expensive treasures.
Speaker 2: And then there were two palaces, the Palace of Darius
Speaker 2: and the Palace of Xerxes. Twelve impressive columns supported the
Speaker 2: roof of the central hall in the Palace of Darius,
Speaker 2: his palace was also known as Tatara. Many reliefs depicting
Speaker 2: animals covered the walls, but on the northern and southern
Speaker 2: doorways the reliefs depicted the king fighting monsters. Xerxes Palace,
Speaker 2: also called Hadiz Palace, was almost twice as large as
Speaker 2: that of his father's. It had similar architectural features, as
Speaker 2: well as reliefs carved throughout the space, though none known
Speaker 2: were of Xerxes fighting monsters. Xerxes was king when Persepolis burned,
Speaker 2: and this palace took the brunt of the destruction, and
Speaker 2: it's believed this was the first building to be torched.
Speaker 2: Next the council Hall, some modern scholars believe it was
Speaker 2: a meeting place, though others believe it may have been
Speaker 2: a huge corridor between three building You could access the
Speaker 2: royal apartments from the council Hall via an intricate stairway
Speaker 2: which led to three doorways. While two of those doors
Speaker 2: were for official purposes, the third was a secret passage
Speaker 2: into a harem. The Harem of Xerxes was the home
Speaker 2: of the king's wives and concubines and contained twenty two apartments.
Speaker 2: In addition to access from the council hall, two ornate
Speaker 2: stairways connected the apartments with the Palace of Xerxes, and lastly,
Speaker 2: the Tomb of the Kings. Is the site of four
Speaker 2: burial tombs at Naksha Rostam. Only the tomb of Daryus
Speaker 2: the first has been identified without a doubt by associated inscriptions.
Speaker 2: The three other tombs discovered are believed to belong to
Speaker 2: his immediate successors, Xerxes art of Xerxes the first and
Speaker 2: Darius the second. There are other miscellane unknown structures that
Speaker 2: have been uncovered at the site of Persepolis, including what's
Speaker 2: thought to be housing towers and defensive walls. Experts believe
Speaker 2: that west of the Xerxes Palace may have been the
Speaker 2: site of the Palace of our de Xerxes the First.
Speaker 1: Modern scholars differ on the possible motivations Alexander may have
Speaker 1: had for destroying Persepolis, and they also differ on whether
Speaker 1: or not it was actually Alexander who burned it down.
Speaker 1: Maybe some have wondered it was an accident. Some accounts
Speaker 1: suggest that when Alexander entered the city, he was shocked
Speaker 1: by its extravagance and ordered it to be burned down. Then,
Speaker 1: of course, there is that revenge theory which is the
Speaker 1: most popular, and perhaps for good reason, overwhelmingly the story
Speaker 1: left to us in the historical record, including in the
Speaker 1: ancient writings of Diodorus, Siculus, arm Plutarch, as well as
Speaker 1: other ancient historians and chroniclers. Is this. It's said that
Speaker 1: Alexander and his army stayed in Persepolis for five months.
Speaker 1: He was known to hold games to celebrate his victories,
Speaker 1: and one night he and the forces of his army
Speaker 1: burned down Persepolis with torches while they were drunk, partying
Speaker 1: and inspired by Thius's call for revenge against the Persians
Speaker 1: and the call to seek a lot of loot as well.
Speaker 1: Who is this tious the woman who fired everyone up?
Speaker 1: She was what was known as a Hataira, an ancient
Speaker 1: Greek cortison who often accompanied Alexander and his army on campaigns.
Speaker 1: She was later married to Ptolemy the First, a Macedonian
Speaker 1: Greek general and successor of Alexander.
Speaker 2: So, speaking of Diodorus, that chronicler we just mentioned a
Speaker 2: moment ago, he was a first century BCE Greek historian
Speaker 2: who wrote that Persepolis was quote the richest city under
Speaker 2: the sun. And the private houses had been furnished with
Speaker 2: every sort of wealth over the years. He also documented
Speaker 2: that Alexander helped himself to roughly thirty five hundred tons
Speaker 2: of precious metals from Persepolis, and that he carried away
Speaker 2: innumerable pack animals. Deodorus continued quote Alexander ascended to the
Speaker 2: citadel terrace and took possession of the treasure there. This
Speaker 2: had been accumulated from the state revenues beginning with Cyrus,
Speaker 2: the first king of the Persians, down to that time,
Speaker 2: and the vaults were packed full of silver and gold.
Speaker 2: The total was found to be one hundred and twenty
Speaker 2: thousand talents when the gold was estimated in terms of silver.
Speaker 2: Because Alexander was thorough in destroying and looting Persepolis, there
Speaker 2: are only a few pieces of jewelry and several gold
Speaker 2: and silver coins left. Some silver buttons have also been found.
Speaker 2: Some everyday objects such as bulls and bottles have been recovered,
Speaker 2: but by far the biggest loss here is the culture
Speaker 2: of ancient Persia. Persians have condemned Alexander, not only for
Speaker 2: the destruction Persepolisk, considered the pride of the Persian Empire
Speaker 2: at the time, but also for encouraging destruction of cultural
Speaker 2: and religious sites throughout the Persian Empire.
Speaker 1: Alexander's legacy is far reaching and profound, and also quite short.
Speaker 1: He died in June of three, twenty three BCE, at
Speaker 1: the age of thirty two, and the cause of his
Speaker 1: death remains something of a mystery. Historians know that he
Speaker 1: fell ill and died in Babylon, an ancient city close
Speaker 1: to its modern day Baghdad, but it's unclear what happened,
Speaker 1: and as we see happen, a lot different versions of
Speaker 1: the story of how he died have developed over the years.
Speaker 1: Various theories suggest that perhaps he was a victim of malaria,
Speaker 1: or typhoid fever, or strychnine poisoning, or perhaps just something
Speaker 1: else entirely. According to a report published by the University
Speaker 1: of Maryland School of Medicine back in nineteen ninety eight,
Speaker 1: they theorize that atl Lexander died of typhoid fever. According
Speaker 1: to other historical writings about him, shortly before he died,
Speaker 1: he experienced tremors, sweats, and a severe fever, all symptoms
Speaker 1: of an infection or two symptoms of some poisons. Some
Speaker 1: sources suggest Alexander had severe abdominal pain, pain so great
Speaker 1: that he would scream, also a possible symptom of poisoning,
Speaker 1: and then there was the Macedonian aristocracy's penchant for assassination. Poisoning, though,
Speaker 1: is what's mentioned in most ancient accounts of Alexander's death,
Speaker 1: including the writings of Diodorus plutarch Aryan, as well as
Speaker 1: in Justinus's Epitome of Pompeo's Trogus histories.
Speaker 2: The first scientific investigation of the Persepolist site was conducted
Speaker 2: in nineteen thirty one after German archaeologist, geographer, and historian
Speaker 2: Ernst Emil Hersfeld was appointed excavation director by the Oriental
Speaker 2: Institute at the University of Chicago now known as the
Speaker 2: Institute for the Study of Ancient Culture's Museum. He described
Speaker 2: the city of Persepolis as quote the glory of the
Speaker 2: Persian world, and it's said he found the ancient site
Speaker 2: to be more impressive than the famous ruins of Palmyra
Speaker 2: and Syria. In nineteen seventy nine, UNESCO declared the ruins
Speaker 2: of Percephalis a World Heritage Site.
Speaker 1: Would you like a little lighter fluid?
Speaker 2: I hear there's some going around.
Speaker 1: Okay, this one was very exciting to me. And here's
Speaker 1: why Holly loves Persian.
Speaker 2: Food and why so let's do this.
Speaker 1: Like I love it. I would never claim to be
Speaker 1: an expert on it, but anytime I'm somewhere with a
Speaker 1: Persian restaurant, that's usually the one I'm gonna pick. Love,
Speaker 1: love love think it does not get enough representation in
Speaker 1: the when people are doing the different types of restaurants.
Speaker 1: I'm like, but do you have a Persian restaurant in
Speaker 1: your city? Because if not, you are missing out. One
Speaker 1: of the things that I really love about Persian food
Speaker 1: is the combination of fruit and florals that often goes on.
Speaker 1: And so I thought we would do a drink that
Speaker 1: is in that space because hello, guess what gets used
Speaker 1: a lot in Persian cooking and beverages. Roses?
Speaker 2: I know, like my favorite thing.
Speaker 1: Yeah, my favorite thing. Oh, I love it so much.
Speaker 1: We're going to make a drink that's really pretty easy.
Speaker 1: It does involve what I call a quick infusion. Now, normally,
Speaker 1: if you're building a drink, most experts will say start
Speaker 1: from cheapest ingredient to most expensive, So you're usually starting
Speaker 1: with put your citrus juice in first your syrups, et cetera.
Speaker 1: In this case, we're doing it a little backward. You're
Speaker 1: going to take i don't know, like a handful of
Speaker 1: culinary rosebud it's like the little baby ones and throw
Speaker 1: them in your shaker. Don't put any ice in yet,
Speaker 1: and then you're gonna put in an ounce and a
Speaker 1: half of gin and you're gonna muddle this together, so
Speaker 1: you basically want to make sure you have felt each
Speaker 1: one of those rosebuds get crushed along the way. You
Speaker 1: don't have to go bananas after that, but if you want,
Speaker 1: you can. You're not gonna hurt it. You're just gonna
Speaker 1: give it more rose flavor. And then once that is done,
Speaker 1: you can add a half ounce of rose syrups, so
Speaker 1: it is a bit rose heavy, three quarters of an
Speaker 1: ounce of apricot liqueur, three quarters of an ounce of lime,
Speaker 1: also very often used in Persian cuisine. And then you're
Speaker 1: gonna add your ice and give that a good shake,
Speaker 1: and then you'll just strain that over ice. You'll get
Speaker 1: some flex from those broken up rosebuds, which is quite
Speaker 1: pretty in the drink, and you just top it with
Speaker 1: club soda and you are ready for a refresher. I
Speaker 1: love this one because there's nothing heavy about it. You
Speaker 1: get all of those notes of flavor, you get the
Speaker 1: fruity note, you get the floral note. But because you're
Speaker 1: just using club soda, and because it's a gin based drink,
Speaker 1: like none of it feels heavy even with the rose
Speaker 1: syrup added in. It's a pretty gentle, lovely drink.
Speaker 2: It's taken me a long time to become a gin drinker,
Speaker 2: but I very much like the combination of a floral
Speaker 2: and a gin, and I think that helped me get there.
Speaker 2: So I'm super intrigued by this drink.
Speaker 1: Some gins will have a floral note that leans a
Speaker 1: little bit away from the juniper note. That is what
Speaker 1: most people that don't like gin don't respond well to.
Speaker 1: That's what they don't like. Because I for a long
Speaker 1: time was like gin tastes like pine sal to me.
Speaker 1: But then when I started trying different gins that have
Speaker 1: slightly different flavor profiles and have different notes in them,
Speaker 1: and I was like, oh, some gin is actually quite lovely.
Speaker 1: This one is pretty easy to do a mocktail out of.
Speaker 1: So instead of a rose infused gin, you're just gonna
Speaker 1: make rose tea. So take those culinary roastbuds, throw them
Speaker 1: in a little mini saucepan with a cup and a
Speaker 1: half of water, and let that simmer for a little bit.
Speaker 1: You can crush them down either before or after you
Speaker 1: simmer it. I would do before so they stay a
Speaker 1: little more. You don't get soggy ones that you're trying
Speaker 1: to push leader. And then in lieu of Apricott LIQUURR,
Speaker 1: you're just going to use like Apricott juice eCPC, or
Speaker 1: if you want to just take like apricotts, chop them up,
Speaker 1: make a slurry and then mix that with water. You
Speaker 1: can do that in lieu of a if you can't
Speaker 1: find Apricot juice. I love apricots in e barby thing.
Speaker 2: I'm actually people can't see this. I'm actually really sitting here.
Speaker 2: Started with this big smile, half laughing because it has
Speaker 2: it has apricot in it, which means I'm gonna drink it.
Speaker 1: Yeah, it's a really good I'm glad this came up
Speaker 1: now because it's such a good summer drink. And then
Speaker 1: all of the measures exactly the same, so you're still
Speaker 1: going to use an ounce and a half at that point,
Speaker 1: of your rose tea. You could probably ease back on
Speaker 1: the rose syrup because you're gonna have the Apricott juice,
Speaker 1: which is a little bit sweeter than an Apricot liqueur.
Speaker 1: Throw your limean, get your ice involved, top it with
Speaker 1: club soda, and you're ready for a beautiful sit in
Speaker 1: the sun or shade. And we're calling that the gardens
Speaker 1: of Persepolis because those things would have been growing there.
Speaker 2: What a lovely name for that drink.
Speaker 1: Oh, I'm so happy. Yeah, And it is a very yummy,
Speaker 1: this one where I put it together and I took
Speaker 1: a sip and I called out in such a way
Speaker 1: because I was excited that my husband thought something was wrong.
Speaker 1: It's like, nope, just a delicious cocktail.
Speaker 2: Nope, everything is perfecting.
Speaker 1: Is great. So we hope there's nothing wrong at your
Speaker 1: house and you make a delicious drink, whether it be
Speaker 1: a mocktail or a cocktail. We will be right back
Speaker 1: here next week with another story of fire and another drink.
Speaker 1: Criminalia is a production of Shondaland Audio in partnership with iHeartRadio.
Speaker 1: For more podcasts from Shondaland Audio, please visit the iHeartRadio app,
Speaker 1: Apple Podcasts or wherever you listen to your favorite shows,