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Speaker 1: Hey, Daniel, how should we open this episode?

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Speaker 2: Hmmm, maybe we should just think about the topic and

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Speaker 2: try to come up with something funny.

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Speaker 1: Can we think of anything funny after six hundred episodes?

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Speaker 2: I think we might be scraping the bottom of the

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Speaker 2: barrel of creativity here.

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Speaker 1: How about we just jumped the shark? Or have we

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Speaker 1: jumped the shark already?

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Speaker 2: I don't know why people are so down on jumping

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Speaker 2: the shark. That sounds like a lot of fun to me.

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Speaker 1: Jumping shark. I guess it depends on the shark. Like

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Speaker 1: a whale shark, that's pretty harmless, great white shark. I'd

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Speaker 1: rather steer clear.

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Speaker 2: I jump a dark matter shark any day.

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Speaker 1: Okay, we might have just jumped a shark for real time.

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Speaker 1: A dark matter shark. What are you talking about?

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Speaker 2: I have a special coming out of the Discovery Channel.

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Speaker 2: Dark matter weather matters, tornadoes and sharks.

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Speaker 1: It's a dark NATO.

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Speaker 2: You just named it.

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Speaker 1: Well, I had to jump at the chance.

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Speaker 3: You know.

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Speaker 1: Hi, I'm Hora, my cartoonist and the author of Oliver's

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Speaker 1: Great Big Universe.

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Speaker 2: Hi. I'm Daniel. I'm a particle physicist and a professor

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Speaker 2: at you see Irvine and I'm not a great water skier.

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Speaker 1: Are you a great skier at all? Or any kind

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Speaker 1: of skiing?

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Speaker 2: I'm bad at all sorts of high speed, dangerous and expensive.

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Speaker 1: But you want to jump the shark though it's a

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Speaker 1: little bit contradictory there. I guess you can jump the

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Speaker 1: shark and not be good at skiing.

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Speaker 2: Yeah, aspirations don't have to be realistic, right, Uh.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, I guess you don't want to jump the gun

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Speaker 1: on that. But anyways, welcome to our podcast, Daniel and

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Speaker 1: Jorge Explain the Universe, a production of iHeartRadio.

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Speaker 2: In which we try to jumpstart your understanding of the

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Speaker 2: nature of the whole universe, everything that's out there in

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Speaker 2: the cosmos. We seek to understand it and to break

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Speaker 2: it down and explain all of it to you. This

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Speaker 2: is your one stop shop for getting all of your

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Speaker 2: questions answered about literally everything in the universe.

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Speaker 1: That's right. We are literally jumping at the chance to

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Speaker 1: leap to conclusions about our amazing universe so that we

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Speaker 1: can understand it more and know not only how it

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Speaker 1: all works, but also what is our place in it

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Speaker 1: and what does it mean for us to be here

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Speaker 1: talking about it.

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Speaker 2: But we're also not shy to admit when we don't

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Speaker 2: know the answer, which is the case for most questions,

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Speaker 2: because it's not all that hard to gage yourself to

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Speaker 2: the forefront of human understanding or confusion about the nature

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Speaker 2: of this amazing, beautiful and kind of crazy cosmos. So

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Speaker 2: we encourage you to engage your brain and to think

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Speaker 2: about it yourselves. Do you understand how it works? What

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Speaker 2: questions do you have about how this universe operates?

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Speaker 1: Yeah, because it's with questions that all of science starts,

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Speaker 1: questions that are not just asked by scientists but also

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Speaker 1: people like you, because there are still a lot of

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Speaker 1: questions out there for us to try to find the

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Speaker 1: answer to.

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Speaker 2: And we want to hear your questions. We want to

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Speaker 2: know when there's something that doesn't make sense to you,

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Speaker 2: maybe something that we said, or something that you read,

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Speaker 2: or just an idea that you had about the universe

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Speaker 2: that isn't quite clicking in your brain. Send it to

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Speaker 2: us to questions at Danielandhorgey dot com. We really do

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Speaker 2: right back to everybody.

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Speaker 1: And sometimes we pick those questions to answer on the

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Speaker 1: podcast release. Try to answer it real, least talk about

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Speaker 1: it real, least admit we don't know the answer, but

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Speaker 1: it takes us a whole hour or to figure that out.

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Speaker 2: Sometimes we just jump over the question on water skis

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Speaker 2: instead of answering it, because that's all we're capable of.

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Speaker 1: Wait to wait the question. Is a shark in this analogy?

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Speaker 2: Would you rather the shark jumps over us? I mean,

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Speaker 2: I don't know how that works.

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Speaker 1: That would be pretty cool. So if it like freewheelly,

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Speaker 1: but instead of like an orca, it's a shark, Yeah,

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Speaker 1: jumping over us.

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Speaker 2: Free the sharks to do their own tricks. Man, Why

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Speaker 2: are they always the subject of the tricks and never

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Speaker 2: the object?

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Speaker 1: But is it jumping over us? Jumping at us? That's

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Speaker 1: a big difference. Or maybe it's jumping over me. To you,

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Speaker 1: that's an acceptable scenario.

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Speaker 2: Perhaps, But I'm jumping with a chance to dig into

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Speaker 2: these listener questions.

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Speaker 1: Oh I see, I see you trying to jump to

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Speaker 1: start this back on track? Busted because I jump the rail?

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Speaker 3: Is that?

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Speaker 1: Are we? Are we pushing it too much?

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Speaker 2: Now?

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Speaker 1: But yeah, we do like to ask our listener questions,

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Speaker 1: and so today we'll be tackling listener questions number sixty two.

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Speaker 2: That's right. We are very happy to be talking about

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Speaker 2: questions you have here on the podcast, so again, please

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Speaker 2: don't be shy write to me. I will answer your

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Speaker 2: questions questions at Danielandhorge dot com. And sometimes I'll hear

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Speaker 2: a question I think, ooh, I bet whoge has something

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Speaker 2: funny to say about this? Or I don't know how

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Speaker 2: to answer this just yet. Maybe I should do some

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Speaker 2: research and then we'll talk about it on the podcast.

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Speaker 1: Well, the answer is usually no, I don't have anything's

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Speaker 1: funny to say. I try, I try, But you know

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Speaker 1: we're talking about dark matter sharks. I mean, how could

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Speaker 1: you top that?

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Speaker 2: The jokes just write themselves, don't they they do?

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Speaker 1: Yeah, but yeah, we're answering listener questions here today, and

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Speaker 1: we have three great questions. We have a question about

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Speaker 1: the double slit experiment and photons. We have a question

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Speaker 1: about what the moon is made out of it's kind

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Speaker 1: of a cheesy question. And we also have a question

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Speaker 1: here about how particles interact or not interact with things

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Speaker 1: like you and me.

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Speaker 2: Yeah, super fun questions. Thank you everybody for sending in

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Speaker 2: your questions, and especially these volunteers who are brave enough

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Speaker 2: to send me the audio of themselves asking the questions, and.

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Speaker 1: So our first question comes from Renaldo Hi.

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Speaker 3: Horah, Hi Daniel. I was wondering I never would be

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Speaker 3: readly about the double slit experiment. We eventually read something

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Speaker 3: like you'll get an interference better even if we shoot

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Speaker 3: a single photon. My question is, how the hell do

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Speaker 3: we know there's a single photon if we can take

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Speaker 3: any measurements for obvious reasons. Thanks for the great podcast,

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Speaker 3: you guys.

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Speaker 1: Rock all right, Well, this question is kind of creating

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Speaker 1: an interference pattern in my head. I'm not quite sure

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Speaker 1: I understand it.

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Speaker 2: This question is about the double slit experiment and the

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Speaker 2: weird quantum behavior that emerges when you slow it down,

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Speaker 2: so you're sending single particles through it, one at a time,

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Speaker 2: And he's essentially asking like, how can you do that?

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Speaker 2: How can you make a single particle gun? How do

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Speaker 2: you know that you're sending one particle through the experiment

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Speaker 2: at a time.

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Speaker 1: Interesting, So, I guess we should maybe start by recapping

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Speaker 1: what the double slit experiment is. It's sort of a

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Speaker 1: classic experiment that it's always used in explanations of quantum

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Speaker 1: physics and physics classes to sort of explain the wave

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Speaker 1: slash particle nature of matter right, even light.

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Speaker 2: H although originally it was used to demonstrate the wavelike

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Speaker 2: nature of light. Two hundred years ago, before we had

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Speaker 2: any understanding of how light worked, people were debating as

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Speaker 2: light a particles, light a wave, and the prevailing theory

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Speaker 2: at the time was that it was a particle. But

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Speaker 2: then Young did this experiment with two slits. Basically, light

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Speaker 2: at a wall, but you have two little slits in

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Speaker 2: the wall. Each slit then serves as a source of light,

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Speaker 2: and beyond that you have a screen, and he saw

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Speaker 2: an interference pattern in the screen, which is the kind

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Speaker 2: of thing you expect to see if you have two

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Speaker 2: sources of waves, waves can add up to enhance each other,

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Speaker 2: or they can work in opposite directions to cancel each

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Speaker 2: other out. And that's exactly the kind of interference pattern

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Speaker 2: that Young saw on the screen. So he proved that

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Speaker 2: light has these wave like properties to using his original

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Speaker 2: double slit experiment, which was a bombshell at the time.

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Speaker 1: Interesting, is this an experiment people can do at home?

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Speaker 1: Like if I take a little piece of cardboard, you know,

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Speaker 1: cut out two slits on it next to each other,

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Speaker 1: and then I shine a flow am I going to

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Speaker 1: see an interference better.

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Speaker 2: It's possible to do this experiment at home. It's a

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Speaker 2: little bit touchy because you need very thin slits, and

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Speaker 2: you need those slits to be close together. So it's

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Speaker 2: not just like any two slices and a piece of

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Speaker 2: cardboard are going to give you this behavior. It depends

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Speaker 2: on the wavelength of light and the width of the slits,

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Speaker 2: and the distance between them has to be connected to

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Speaker 2: the wavelength of light. So it's a little bit tricky

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Speaker 2: to get right, but it is possible. I mean, young

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Speaker 2: did it two hundred years ago, So it's not like

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Speaker 2: you need fancy laser technology or anything.

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Speaker 1: Meaning if I just put two random slits next to

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Speaker 1: each other, it won't work.

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Speaker 2: Yeah, you'll probably just get two geometric shadows. To what

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Speaker 2: two geometric shadows like? You know when you do shadow puppets,

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Speaker 2: You hold up a flashlight and you put your hand

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Speaker 2: in front of it. Creates a shadow on the wall,

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Speaker 2: and the shape of the shadow is exactly the same

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Speaker 2: as the shape of your hand. Right, that's the idea.

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Speaker 2: It's a geometric shadow. But if you zoom in on

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Speaker 2: the edges of that, you'll see there really are very

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Speaker 2: small fringe effects. Those are the wave like behaviors of that.

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Speaker 1: Oh, so you can't see it really.

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Speaker 2: Zoom in carefully. Yeah, And then to get an interference pattern,

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Speaker 2: you need like two small slits that exhibit those wave

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Speaker 2: like behaviors at the fringes, and then they have to

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Speaker 2: be close together so they can interfere.

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Speaker 1: Mmmm. Now do I need like a laser or will

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Speaker 1: it flashlight work?

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Speaker 2: No, any source of light will work. You don't need

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Speaker 2: a laser or a laser is just like a single coherence

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Speaker 2: source of light of a single frequency. But you don't

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Speaker 2: need that. Any flashlight would work. But then there's the

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Speaker 2: quantum version of it. Because Young's version says, Okay, light

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Speaker 2: is like waves, and it's no big deal that waves

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Speaker 2: can interfere. It's cool that light is like waves, but

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Speaker 2: the fact that waves interfere is not a big deal.

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Speaker 2: The quantum version of this experiment says, well, if light

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Speaker 2: is made out of packets, then you could turn that

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Speaker 2: light source down, so the instead of sending like huge

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Speaker 2: numbers of photons so you're getting these waves, you're now

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Speaker 2: sending individual photons through the experiment. And the cool thing

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Speaker 2: is you still see an interference pattern even when there's

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Speaker 2: only one photon in the experiment at once. That's the

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Speaker 2: quantum version of it.

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Speaker 1: WHOA, well, okay, maybe let's take step back here. So

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Speaker 1: when I shine a light through these those slits, I

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Speaker 1: get an interference pattern on the wall. And by interference,

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Speaker 1: I mean like it alternates between light and dark spots

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Speaker 1: on the wall.

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Speaker 2: Exactly, the two sources are interfering. You have dark spots

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Speaker 2: where the two sources are waving in opposite directions by

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Speaker 2: the time they hit the wall, so they cancel out,

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Speaker 2: and bright spots where they're waving in the same direction,

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Speaker 2: so they add up coherently, they make a brighter source.

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Speaker 2: You get these stripes dark and light and darken light

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Speaker 2: on the wall. They give you the interference pattern.

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Speaker 1: Right, Like this sort of works with just regular like

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Speaker 1: water waves. Right if I have it like it's very

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Speaker 1: still lake, and I put a little plate with two

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Speaker 1: slits on it, and then then I create some waves

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Speaker 1: and the ways it goes through the slits on the

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Speaker 1: other side of the slits, the waves are gonna ripple in,

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Speaker 1: but they won't look like one smooth wave. It will

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Speaker 1: look like it's this ripple pattern.

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Speaker 2: Yeah, exactly, each slit accit basically a point source of

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Speaker 2: those waves. So you get these two circular waves coming

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Speaker 2: out from each slit and then those interfere. And you know,

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Speaker 2: waves interfering is also not new or weird thing. It

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Speaker 2: happens all the time with sound. Like you walk around

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Speaker 2: your living room and you hear your TV better or worse.

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Speaker 2: That's because the acoustics of your living room things are

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Speaker 2: canceling out or adding up or bouncing off of each

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Speaker 2: other or noise. Canceling headphones work this way. They create

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Speaker 2: exactly the sound necessary to interfere with the outside sound

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Speaker 2: to cancel it out. They push and pull in the

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Speaker 2: opposite way so that you hear nothing. So waves interfering

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Speaker 2: is a totally intuitive phenomenon. This is just life doing it.

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Speaker 2: That's the classical version. The quantum version is super cool

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Speaker 2: because now what's interfering. You have a single photon going

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Speaker 2: through the experiment at a time. The quantum version says,

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Speaker 2: that still gives you an interference pattern, right, right.

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Speaker 1: And that's a weird thing because like in the water experiment,

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Speaker 1: like water is this medium, right, It's like this a

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Speaker 1: wave is broad. It's acting in many places at the

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Speaker 1: same time, and it's interfering over here, and it's adding

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Speaker 1: the wave over there, and so you expect it to

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Speaker 1: be ripple at the end. But if you just dwing

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Speaker 1: like a single droplet of water, maybe you wouldn't expect that, right,

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Speaker 1: Like if I shoot like one atom of water like

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Speaker 1: H two molecular of H two out of two slits,

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Speaker 1: I might expect it to either make it through one

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Speaker 1: of the holes or maybe hit the wall and then

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Speaker 1: not nothing will come out the other side exactly.

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Speaker 2: But photons are not little drops of water. They are

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Speaker 2: quantum objects, and they have a probability to go through

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Speaker 2: one slit or the other slit, and it's the wave

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Speaker 2: function that corresponds to those probability that's doing the interfering.

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Speaker 2: So if the photon is allowed to have both possibilities,

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Speaker 2: it's wave function includes it going through both, and that

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Speaker 2: wave function can interfere with itself, and so that's what's

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Speaker 2: doing the interfering. The wave function for the photon is

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Speaker 2: doing the interfering when you have a single photon in

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Speaker 2: the experiment. That's why it's the quantum version, because classical

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Speaker 2: objects can't do that. They're just in one location.

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Speaker 1: Well, as I understand it. It's the probability that's interfering

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Speaker 1: with itself. Right. But at the end, when it hits

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Speaker 1: the wall, it's still going to be like one dot

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Speaker 1: or not a dot.

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Speaker 2: Right, Yeah, to be technically accurate. And it's the wave

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Speaker 2: function that's doing the interfering, not the probability. Probabilities don't

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Speaker 2: interference the wave function itself. But that's technical detail. The

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Speaker 2: concept is right, the possibility that it's going through the

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Speaker 2: other slid that's doing the interfering. And then when it

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Speaker 2: hits the screen, now it's interacting with the classical object.

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Speaker 2: And so Copenhagen quantum mechanics says, now the universe has

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Speaker 2: to make a choice. Now, it has to choose from

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Speaker 2: the various possibilities. And the cool thing is every photon

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Speaker 2: is the same probability distribution to land somewhere on the screen.

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Speaker 2: So you shoot individual photons through one at a time.

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Speaker 2: Each one, even if it has the same initial conditions,

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Speaker 2: can land in a different place on the screen, and

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Speaker 2: you slowly build up the same original interference pattern that

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Speaker 2: you saw when you had a brighter source of light.

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Speaker 1: Well, maybe let's walk us through this scenario. So I

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Speaker 1: shoot one photon that a double slid and follow along

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Speaker 1: with the photon. What happens to the photon?

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Speaker 2: Well, already we're in philosophical trouble because following along with

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Speaker 2: the photon means like where is the photon? But we

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Speaker 2: can follow along with the wave function. Right, the wave

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Speaker 2: function says the photon could go through slit A or

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Speaker 2: could go through slit B. Right, it's not determined.

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Speaker 1: But it is the wave function moving or is it

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Speaker 1: propagating from my flashlight?

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Speaker 2: The wave function is not necessarily a physical thing, right,

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Speaker 2: It describes possibilities. It's in a sort of abstract space

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Speaker 2: of possible outcomes, but it describes the photon and what

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Speaker 2: the photon might be doing as it moves through the universe.

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Speaker 2: It just it allows for multiple possibilities at once. So

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Speaker 2: you have like the physical space of the photon and

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Speaker 2: then the possibility space that the wave function exists in.

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Speaker 1: So then what happens to the photon wavefunction when it

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Speaker 1: hits the double slits?

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Speaker 2: So the wave function for the photon says, when you

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Speaker 2: hit the double slit, you could either have gone through

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Speaker 2: slit one or slit two. And the wave function then

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Speaker 2: acts as a source on either side of those slits

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Speaker 2: and then does the interference the same way we just

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Speaker 2: talked about for light interfering with itself or water waves

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Speaker 2: interfering with themselves. Wave functions follow wave mechanics, and the

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Speaker 2: can interfere in the same way. So you have these

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Speaker 2: sort of like sources of possibility, if you like, from

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Speaker 2: each slit, and those possibilities are interfering at the screen.

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Speaker 1: Is it sort of like the photon is going through

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Speaker 1: both slits at the same time, Like it's both left

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Speaker 1: and right, sort of like the short anger's cat, Like

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Speaker 1: it's going through both slits and it's coming out the

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Speaker 1: other side of the both slits, like if the cow

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Speaker 1: was dead or alive.

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Speaker 2: Very loosely speaking, it's sort of like that. But in reality,

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Speaker 2: although you hear in popular science all the time quantum

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Speaker 2: particles can be in two places at once, that's not

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Speaker 2: technically accurate. The more correct way to say it would

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Speaker 2: be that they have the possibility to be in two

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Speaker 2: places at once, and those possibilities can interfere. It's not

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Speaker 2: like the photon is coming out of both slits. It's

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Speaker 2: that it has the possibility to come out of both slits,

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Speaker 2: and in quantum mechanics, those possibilities can interfere with each

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Speaker 2: other before the universe even decides which one is true,

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Speaker 2: or if it ever decides.

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Speaker 1: When it comes out to the other side. There's the

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Speaker 1: two sources of ways of possibility, and then both ways interfere,

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Speaker 1: and then the result hits the wall. Yeah, right, Like,

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Speaker 1: if I should juice one photon at this those slid

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Speaker 1: some of them are going to hit the walls of

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Speaker 1: the slid, right, They're like some of them are going

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Speaker 1: to be totally blocked. Yeah, some of them are not

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Speaker 1: going to make it through, right.

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Speaker 2: Yeah, we're only talking about the ones that make it through, right, Right.

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Speaker 1: So then the ones that do make it through, I'm

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Speaker 1: not going to see a wave in the wall. I'm

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Speaker 1: going to see like a little thought right where the

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Speaker 1: photon hit. Yes, so just a single photon doesn't create

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Speaker 1: a ripple, right, single photon juice ends up on the wall.

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Speaker 2: Single photon ends up on the wall. Where on the

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Speaker 2: wall does it end up? Well, that's determined by the

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Speaker 2: wave function, And the wave function has various possibilities for

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Speaker 2: where that photon can end up, and those possibilities have

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Speaker 2: interfered with themselves. Do you have an interference pattern of possibilities. Now,

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Speaker 2: when the universe says where does this one photon end up?

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Speaker 2: It draws from the various possibilities, and there's a greater

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Speaker 2: chance that ends up in the bright regions and a

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Speaker 2: much lower, maybe zero chance that ends up in the

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Speaker 2: dark regions. Every photon is a new role of the

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Speaker 2: die and ends up in a different spot, even if

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Speaker 2: the initial conditions are the same. But then over time

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Speaker 2: it builds up the interference pattern because each photon follows

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Speaker 2: that possibility interference pattern.

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Speaker 1: Right Like, I shoot one photon and goes through it

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Speaker 1: hits the wall in a certain spot. I shoot another photon,

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Speaker 1: it hits it in another spot. Shoot another photon, it

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Speaker 1: hits it in another spot. It sort of seems random.

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Speaker 1: But if I shoot like a bazillion photons, then they're

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Speaker 1: going to make a pattern on the wall because they

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Speaker 1: all have sort of the same possibility wave pattern exactly.

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Speaker 2: So quantum mechanics is deterministic about the probability function on

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Speaker 2: the wall, it's not deterministic about an individual photon. Each

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Speaker 2: one is drawn randomly from that distribution. So the laws

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Speaker 2: of physics, instead of saying I'm going to tell you

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Speaker 2: exactly where a photon goes. Now they're saying, I'm going

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Speaker 2: to tell you what the probability distribution is. Each individual

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Speaker 2: photon is drawn from that probability distribution, and if you

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Speaker 2: shoot enough photons, you're going to figure out what that

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Speaker 2: distribution is. And that's the interference pattern on the screen.

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Speaker 1: Right, And I think it's because basically when you're shooting

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Speaker 1: the photon, there's sort of an inherent uncertainty. When I'm

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Speaker 1: shooting the photon, like I might think I know where

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Speaker 1: the tip of my laser gun is, but actually when

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Speaker 1: the photons come out, they have a certain fuzziness to them, right,

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Speaker 1: they had they have a certain uncertainty or probability about

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Speaker 1: where they actually are. So if there wasn't a double

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Speaker 1: slit barrier, that probability would just kind of spread out

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Speaker 1: and hit the wall in an even way, just look

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Speaker 1: look like a fuzzy cloud of thoughts. But because I

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Speaker 1: have the double slid it sort of messes with that

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Speaker 1: probability wave.

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Speaker 2: Exactly. In order to have the setup work, you need

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Speaker 2: to create a beam of photons which have the possibility

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Speaker 2: to go through slit A or slid B. If your

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Speaker 2: beam of photons was like already super duper precise, and

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Speaker 2: you aimed it at slit A with no chance of

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Speaker 2: them going through slip B. Then you wouldn't get the

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Speaker 2: interference path fuzzy enough beams so that an individual photon

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Speaker 2: has the possibility to go through A or B.

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Speaker 1: Right, Right, But.

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Speaker 2: Maybe we should get to Ronaldo's question.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, I was about to do that, but first the

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Speaker 1: thame we should talk. Well what his question is I

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Speaker 1: don't quite understand it. Is he talking about how do

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Speaker 1: you measure a photon? What is he talking about?

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Speaker 2: Well, I think he's saying, how do you know a

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Speaker 2: single photon is going through the experiment, Because in order

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Speaker 2: to create this interference pattern, you need to not measure

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Speaker 2: the photon, Like, if you try to measure the photon

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Speaker 2: whether it went through slit A or B, you collapse

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Speaker 2: away function and destroy the interference pattern. So you need

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Speaker 2: to have single photons go through the experiment, but not

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Speaker 2: touch them. So basically he's asking like, number one, technically,

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Speaker 2: how do you make a single photon anyway? And number two,

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Speaker 2: how do you know that you did?

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Speaker 1: I mean like, how do you detect it on the wall?

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Speaker 2: Yeah, Like, how do you tell the difference between one

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Speaker 2: photon and two photons, Like, how do you know you

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Speaker 2: didn't have two photons in the experiment at the same time?

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Speaker 1: Uh, can you shoot one at a time?

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Speaker 2: Yeah? I think he's asking how do you do that?

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Speaker 1: Oh? Okay, how do you shoot a photon at a time?

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Speaker 2: So it turns out to be quite tricky, right, Like

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Speaker 2: number one thing you could do is like take your

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Speaker 2: laser or your light source and just turn it down, right,

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Speaker 2: so it's like rarely mits photons. If a beam of

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Speaker 2: light is just like a huge number of photons, just

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Speaker 2: turn it down and eventually it'll break up into little blips. Right.

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Speaker 2: That's tricky though, because you can't really guarantee that you

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Speaker 2: have single photons. You might still get two photons. Is

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Speaker 2: a randomness to that process. If what you want is

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Speaker 2: like really absolute guarantee, and that's what these quantum dudes

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Speaker 2: are doing. They want absolute guarantees that there are single

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Speaker 2: photons in their experiments because they don't want philosophical loopholes, right,

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Speaker 2: And so that turns out to be much more challenging.

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Speaker 2: But we do have technology to do this. Now. What

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Speaker 2: you can do is take a crystal which has a

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Speaker 2: special property that it takes in a photon and it

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Speaker 2: breaks it into two photons of half the energy, so

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Speaker 2: you can use one photon to know that the other

439
00:20:42,760 --> 00:20:45,879
Speaker 2: photon was there without touching it. So you take a

440
00:20:45,880 --> 00:20:48,760
Speaker 2: beam of photons, you hit this special crystal and it'll

441
00:20:48,760 --> 00:20:51,600
Speaker 2: shoot out two photons in different directions, and you can

442
00:20:51,640 --> 00:20:53,840
Speaker 2: detect the second one. Be like, Okay, I can tell

443
00:20:53,880 --> 00:20:55,960
Speaker 2: that there was a photon there. I know when the

444
00:20:55,960 --> 00:20:58,280
Speaker 2: photon is coming, and that tells me that there was

445
00:20:58,280 --> 00:21:00,000
Speaker 2: a photon going in the other direction as well.

446
00:21:00,040 --> 00:21:03,040
Speaker 1: Well, you sort of split it into two. But I

447
00:21:03,040 --> 00:21:05,159
Speaker 1: guess the question is why do you have to do that? Like,

448
00:21:05,200 --> 00:21:07,399
Speaker 1: couldn't you just put a camera on the other side

449
00:21:07,480 --> 00:21:09,760
Speaker 1: and whenever the camera the texts a photon, it's like, oh,

450
00:21:09,920 --> 00:21:10,720
Speaker 1: that was one photon.

451
00:21:11,000 --> 00:21:13,040
Speaker 2: Yeah, But if you do that, then you've spoiled it, right,

452
00:21:13,080 --> 00:21:15,359
Speaker 2: You can no longer send that photon into your experiment

453
00:21:15,680 --> 00:21:16,600
Speaker 2: if you've detected it.

454
00:21:16,720 --> 00:21:18,040
Speaker 1: Now you put it at the end on the other

455
00:21:18,080 --> 00:21:20,880
Speaker 1: side of the slits. You mean just the screen, Yeah,

456
00:21:20,920 --> 00:21:22,399
Speaker 1: just the screen, isn't that what he's asking?

457
00:21:22,600 --> 00:21:24,920
Speaker 2: Yeah? But how do you know there was just one photon? Right?

458
00:21:25,000 --> 00:21:27,480
Speaker 1: Because you only detected one You only saw it on

459
00:21:28,240 --> 00:21:31,560
Speaker 1: your camera. Right. We have cameras that can detect single photons.

460
00:21:31,640 --> 00:21:34,320
Speaker 2: Right, we have cameras that are sensitives to single photons.

461
00:21:34,359 --> 00:21:36,680
Speaker 2: But we only know that they're sensitives to single photons

462
00:21:36,800 --> 00:21:40,040
Speaker 2: because we have confirmed beams of single photons using this

463
00:21:40,119 --> 00:21:42,520
Speaker 2: crystal trick. Otherwise you don't know if you're seeing a

464
00:21:42,560 --> 00:21:44,560
Speaker 2: single photon or if you're seeing two photons right on

465
00:21:44,600 --> 00:21:45,240
Speaker 2: top of each other.

466
00:21:45,359 --> 00:21:48,040
Speaker 1: Oh, you're talking about the scenario where they're on top

467
00:21:48,119 --> 00:21:51,440
Speaker 1: of each other. That's the scenario we're trying to avoid.

468
00:21:51,720 --> 00:21:53,600
Speaker 2: Yeah, we're trying to make sure we're really seeing an

469
00:21:53,640 --> 00:21:54,800
Speaker 2: individual photon.

470
00:21:55,359 --> 00:21:57,000
Speaker 1: Oh and not like two.

471
00:21:57,800 --> 00:22:00,440
Speaker 2: Yeah, exactly, because it's only if you have a single

472
00:22:00,440 --> 00:22:03,440
Speaker 2: photon in the experiment that the quantum version is weird.

473
00:22:03,640 --> 00:22:05,639
Speaker 2: Althoughwise it's like, yeah, you had a bunch of photons,

474
00:22:05,720 --> 00:22:08,120
Speaker 2: two photons interfered with each other, what's the big deal.

475
00:22:08,640 --> 00:22:11,320
Speaker 2: We want to see a single photon and an interference

476
00:22:11,359 --> 00:22:14,040
Speaker 2: pattern because that proves there's a quantum effect there, that

477
00:22:14,119 --> 00:22:17,120
Speaker 2: shows us the wave function is doing some weird physical

478
00:22:17,160 --> 00:22:17,920
Speaker 2: interference thing.

479
00:22:18,119 --> 00:22:19,879
Speaker 1: So then the idea is that you send one, but

480
00:22:19,920 --> 00:22:22,119
Speaker 1: you split into two, and so you catch one, so

481
00:22:22,160 --> 00:22:24,479
Speaker 1: you know that there's one and then but doesn't that

482
00:22:24,640 --> 00:22:26,520
Speaker 1: create sort of like entanglement problems.

483
00:22:26,640 --> 00:22:28,800
Speaker 2: Yes, the two are entangled, but not in a way

484
00:22:28,840 --> 00:22:30,959
Speaker 2: that's going to spoil the quantum state of the other

485
00:22:31,000 --> 00:22:33,359
Speaker 2: one for the experiment that you want to do, Like

486
00:22:33,400 --> 00:22:35,840
Speaker 2: they're entangled and that their energy has to add up

487
00:22:35,880 --> 00:22:39,080
Speaker 2: to the original photon. But that's not a problem, all right.

488
00:22:39,160 --> 00:22:41,199
Speaker 1: So then that's how you can tell that it was

489
00:22:41,240 --> 00:22:45,119
Speaker 1: a single photon. Mm hmmm. Is that then Rinaldo's is azer?

490
00:22:45,400 --> 00:22:48,120
Speaker 2: Yeah, I think so. And I think the other interesting

491
00:22:48,160 --> 00:22:50,280
Speaker 2: answer to Ronaldo is that it's harder to do with

492
00:22:50,320 --> 00:22:54,000
Speaker 2: photons for these reasons, and people actually did it with electrons,

493
00:22:54,040 --> 00:22:57,679
Speaker 2: single electrons before they did it with single photons, so

494
00:22:57,680 --> 00:23:00,000
Speaker 2: single photons sort of came after single electros.

495
00:23:00,920 --> 00:23:03,720
Speaker 1: Well, you can do with anything, right, any quantum particle. Yeah, exactly,

496
00:23:03,800 --> 00:23:09,560
Speaker 1: Petrino's shark shark particles. Right, But then would that make

497
00:23:09,600 --> 00:23:12,800
Speaker 1: it the double shark jumping experiment.

498
00:23:15,600 --> 00:23:18,040
Speaker 2: The jump shark experiment jumps the shark itself.

499
00:23:18,720 --> 00:23:21,679
Speaker 1: He squeezed the shark. All right, Well, great question, Ronaldo,

500
00:23:21,720 --> 00:23:24,520
Speaker 1: Thank you so much. Hopefully that answers your question. The

501
00:23:24,600 --> 00:23:27,560
Speaker 1: idea is that scientists are coming out with the clever experiments,

502
00:23:27,640 --> 00:23:30,240
Speaker 1: and so you can say that it which is one

503
00:23:30,320 --> 00:23:31,359
Speaker 1: with greater confidence.

504
00:23:31,680 --> 00:23:34,040
Speaker 2: Yeah, these are great questions. Thank you very much for

505
00:23:34,080 --> 00:23:36,960
Speaker 2: asking them, and I encourage everybody out there to send

506
00:23:37,040 --> 00:23:40,479
Speaker 2: us your questions questions at Daniel and Jorge dot com.

507
00:23:40,880 --> 00:23:42,879
Speaker 1: All right, we have two more awesome questions. One of

508
00:23:42,920 --> 00:23:45,280
Speaker 1: them is about what the moon is made out of

509
00:23:45,640 --> 00:23:48,560
Speaker 1: and the other one is about how particles interact or

510
00:23:48,560 --> 00:23:52,080
Speaker 1: not interact with all of us. So stay tuned for that.

511
00:23:52,880 --> 00:24:08,439
Speaker 1: But first let's take a quick break. We're answering listener

512
00:24:08,560 --> 00:24:12,760
Speaker 1: questions and our next question comes from Bruce from Saskatchewan, Canada.

513
00:24:13,560 --> 00:24:18,080
Speaker 4: Daniel and Jorge, you guys are awesome. I've got an

514
00:24:18,200 --> 00:24:22,600
Speaker 4: idea about valuable elements. If the Moon has been littered

515
00:24:22,640 --> 00:24:26,080
Speaker 4: with meteorites and asteroids, then would it not be an

516
00:24:26,119 --> 00:24:31,640
Speaker 4: excellent source of valuable elements. Platinum seems connected to molten material,

517
00:24:32,080 --> 00:24:37,320
Speaker 4: gold seems connected to supernova asteroids and meteoroids. Nicol seems

518
00:24:37,320 --> 00:24:43,280
Speaker 4: connected to materials, meteorites and the Earth's core. One thing

519
00:24:43,320 --> 00:24:47,200
Speaker 4: I know is you will wonderfully set me straight. Thank

520
00:24:47,200 --> 00:24:48,920
Speaker 4: you very much for everything you guys do.

521
00:24:49,720 --> 00:24:52,600
Speaker 1: All right, awesome questions. Basically, I think Bruce wants to

522
00:24:52,640 --> 00:24:54,359
Speaker 1: know if he should go to the Moon to do

523
00:24:54,440 --> 00:24:55,560
Speaker 1: some gold penning.

524
00:24:57,320 --> 00:24:59,560
Speaker 2: I think Bruce is asking us to invest in his

525
00:25:00,080 --> 00:25:01,320
Speaker 2: moon mining company.

526
00:25:02,520 --> 00:25:06,800
Speaker 1: Yeah, there you go. It's called my Moon. Oh Moon

527
00:25:06,840 --> 00:25:13,199
Speaker 1: of mine, we moon. But yeah, interesting question, like what

528
00:25:13,280 --> 00:25:15,440
Speaker 1: is the Moon made out of and does it have

529
00:25:15,720 --> 00:25:19,560
Speaker 1: maybe some of the valuable materials or metals that we're

530
00:25:19,640 --> 00:25:21,560
Speaker 1: sort of running out of here on Earth or that

531
00:25:21,640 --> 00:25:24,480
Speaker 1: we find really precious here on Earth, because you know,

532
00:25:24,480 --> 00:25:26,920
Speaker 1: it wasn't the Moon sort of made at the same

533
00:25:26,960 --> 00:25:29,640
Speaker 1: time as the Earth or came from the same rock.

534
00:25:30,320 --> 00:25:32,919
Speaker 2: Yeah. I think this is an interesting twist on like

535
00:25:33,080 --> 00:25:36,600
Speaker 2: asteroid mining. The idea there is that there are heavy

536
00:25:36,640 --> 00:25:40,480
Speaker 2: metals like gold and platinum and whatever, and everything in

537
00:25:40,520 --> 00:25:43,119
Speaker 2: the Solar system was made out of the same basic stuff.

538
00:25:43,160 --> 00:25:45,080
Speaker 2: So the Earth has a lot of gold and platinum

539
00:25:45,080 --> 00:25:47,800
Speaker 2: in it, the Moon must have some. Asteroids have some.

540
00:25:48,359 --> 00:25:50,080
Speaker 2: But when you have a big body like the Earth

541
00:25:50,160 --> 00:25:53,479
Speaker 2: or even the Moon as this molten phase, and then

542
00:25:53,560 --> 00:25:57,119
Speaker 2: things differentiate and a lot of the heavy valuable metals

543
00:25:57,200 --> 00:26:00,240
Speaker 2: on Earth have sunk down deep into the Earth. They're

544
00:26:00,240 --> 00:26:03,320
Speaker 2: not like sitting around on the surface. But asteroids, we

545
00:26:03,359 --> 00:26:05,400
Speaker 2: think have a lot of gold and platinum in them,

546
00:26:05,800 --> 00:26:09,000
Speaker 2: And he's basically asking, what about those asteroids that have

547
00:26:09,080 --> 00:26:12,000
Speaker 2: hit the surface of the Moon. Aren't they basically just

548
00:26:12,040 --> 00:26:15,320
Speaker 2: like big blobs of heavy, valuable metals sitting on the Moon.

549
00:26:15,520 --> 00:26:17,000
Speaker 2: Should we go up there and get it?

550
00:26:17,800 --> 00:26:20,879
Speaker 1: Oh? Interesting? So, like I think you're saying that the

551
00:26:21,040 --> 00:26:23,439
Speaker 1: Earth because it was a big ball of lava at

552
00:26:23,480 --> 00:26:27,440
Speaker 1: some point, Maybe the precious metals that we like so much,

553
00:26:27,640 --> 00:26:30,439
Speaker 1: do they sunk to the center of the Earth, And

554
00:26:30,480 --> 00:26:32,480
Speaker 1: so that's why it's so rare to find gold on

555
00:26:32,520 --> 00:26:33,000
Speaker 1: the surface.

556
00:26:33,280 --> 00:26:35,399
Speaker 2: So what you're saying, that's one reason. The other is

557
00:26:35,440 --> 00:26:37,520
Speaker 2: that like gold and some of these other metals really

558
00:26:37,600 --> 00:26:39,919
Speaker 2: like iron, and so they tend to mix with iron

559
00:26:40,040 --> 00:26:42,800
Speaker 2: and form weird alloys, and then they sink as the

560
00:26:42,840 --> 00:26:45,680
Speaker 2: iron sinks, as the heavier stuff tends to sink, especially

561
00:26:45,920 --> 00:26:47,040
Speaker 2: if it's iron loving.

562
00:26:48,440 --> 00:26:51,439
Speaker 1: But maybe an asteroid or a small body like the

563
00:26:51,440 --> 00:26:55,800
Speaker 1: Moon which didn't have as much gravity, maybe those metals

564
00:26:55,840 --> 00:26:57,040
Speaker 1: are closer to the surface.

565
00:26:57,240 --> 00:26:59,679
Speaker 2: Yeah, I don't think he's interested in the gold that

566
00:26:59,800 --> 00:27:01,600
Speaker 2: is part of the Moon. I think he's interested in

567
00:27:01,680 --> 00:27:04,080
Speaker 2: the stuff on the surface. And because asteroids are hitting

568
00:27:04,119 --> 00:27:06,280
Speaker 2: the surface of the Moon all the time, just like

569
00:27:06,320 --> 00:27:08,600
Speaker 2: they're hitting the Earth's atmosphere. Most of the time, when

570
00:27:08,640 --> 00:27:11,040
Speaker 2: they hit the Earth's atmosphere, they melt or they explode

571
00:27:11,119 --> 00:27:13,520
Speaker 2: or they turn into a fireball. But that doesn't happen

572
00:27:13,520 --> 00:27:15,399
Speaker 2: on the Moon, and the Moon they just land on

573
00:27:15,440 --> 00:27:17,879
Speaker 2: the surface. They make a crater, but they're still sitting there.

574
00:27:18,359 --> 00:27:21,240
Speaker 2: And so in principle, if you wanted to mine asteroids,

575
00:27:21,280 --> 00:27:23,399
Speaker 2: you could do it without going to the asteroid belt.

576
00:27:23,600 --> 00:27:25,240
Speaker 2: You could just go to the surface of the Moon

577
00:27:25,280 --> 00:27:25,960
Speaker 2: and pick them up.

578
00:27:27,640 --> 00:27:29,920
Speaker 1: But wouldn't that be the same as Earth, Like, don't

579
00:27:29,960 --> 00:27:31,960
Speaker 1: we get asteroids hitting us all the time? Too?

580
00:27:32,160 --> 00:27:34,240
Speaker 2: We do get asteroids hitting us all the time. The

581
00:27:34,240 --> 00:27:37,879
Speaker 2: bigger ones survive and actually, like early human civilization used

582
00:27:37,880 --> 00:27:40,360
Speaker 2: it as a source of heavy metals, Like a lot

583
00:27:40,400 --> 00:27:42,919
Speaker 2: of the swords and daggers in the very early times

584
00:27:42,960 --> 00:27:46,440
Speaker 2: and human civilization were made from like star metals. It's

585
00:27:46,440 --> 00:27:48,880
Speaker 2: pretty awesome we have these daggers that we can prove

586
00:27:49,000 --> 00:27:52,280
Speaker 2: or come from like meteorites. Before humans figured out like

587
00:27:52,320 --> 00:27:55,080
Speaker 2: how to do mining, right, there was the main source

588
00:27:55,160 --> 00:27:58,160
Speaker 2: of heavy metals on the surface of the Earth, right.

589
00:27:57,840 --> 00:27:59,680
Speaker 1: And that's how they got y radium, right.

590
00:28:02,640 --> 00:28:05,399
Speaker 2: That that happen right, jump the SHARKI eam also.

591
00:28:05,280 --> 00:28:07,879
Speaker 1: That's right, we're jumping the panther. But I think the

592
00:28:07,920 --> 00:28:11,360
Speaker 1: idea is that maybe like asteroids are richer in these metals,

593
00:28:11,400 --> 00:28:14,600
Speaker 1: perhaps because they haven't been a big ball of lava

594
00:28:14,640 --> 00:28:17,119
Speaker 1: with a lot of gravity where they sank out of reach.

595
00:28:17,840 --> 00:28:23,440
Speaker 1: Like maybe these asteroids have a higher concentration of these metals. Right, Yes, exactly,

596
00:28:23,680 --> 00:28:25,879
Speaker 1: they're being caught by the Moon and stain on the

597
00:28:25,920 --> 00:28:28,280
Speaker 1: surface of the Moon. Could we go pick them up?

598
00:28:28,440 --> 00:28:31,240
Speaker 2: Yes, I think that's exactly the question. And it's again

599
00:28:31,359 --> 00:28:34,159
Speaker 2: correlated to the question like should we go mine asteroids,

600
00:28:34,200 --> 00:28:36,560
Speaker 2: And that seems like maybe harder because asteroids are further

601
00:28:36,600 --> 00:28:38,760
Speaker 2: away than the moon, and you know, the Moon at

602
00:28:38,800 --> 00:28:41,479
Speaker 2: least has some gravity, et cetera, et cetera, And so

603
00:28:41,520 --> 00:28:43,720
Speaker 2: he's wondering, like, we can go to the moon. Shouldn't

604
00:28:43,720 --> 00:28:45,080
Speaker 2: we just go there and pick these up?

605
00:28:45,720 --> 00:28:47,440
Speaker 1: Well, obviously you need a metal detector.

606
00:28:49,040 --> 00:28:51,880
Speaker 2: You go mooncombing, you do need a metal detector. The

607
00:28:51,960 --> 00:28:55,400
Speaker 2: answer is that it is possible, but it's probably not

608
00:28:55,440 --> 00:28:58,320
Speaker 2: worth the money. It's probably would cost you more to

609
00:28:58,440 --> 00:29:00,680
Speaker 2: go and get those metals, and you would get for

610
00:29:00,760 --> 00:29:02,400
Speaker 2: selling them back here on Earth.

611
00:29:02,840 --> 00:29:05,000
Speaker 1: Oh, I see, because it costs so much to go

612
00:29:05,040 --> 00:29:05,479
Speaker 1: to space.

613
00:29:05,760 --> 00:29:08,080
Speaker 2: It does cost so much to go to space, it'd

614
00:29:08,080 --> 00:29:10,320
Speaker 2: be really complicated. Also, you know, there's like a lot

615
00:29:10,320 --> 00:29:14,920
Speaker 2: of difficult issues engineering wise to establishing any sort of

616
00:29:14,920 --> 00:29:17,880
Speaker 2: infrastructure on the Moon. You know, there's a lot of radiation.

617
00:29:18,320 --> 00:29:21,360
Speaker 2: The temperature variations on the surface of the Moon are crazy.

618
00:29:21,560 --> 00:29:24,280
Speaker 2: They get really hot, then it gets really cold. There's

619
00:29:24,320 --> 00:29:26,920
Speaker 2: lower gravity, which turns out to be like really hard

620
00:29:26,920 --> 00:29:29,640
Speaker 2: to do work in if it's low gravity. And so

621
00:29:29,840 --> 00:29:33,080
Speaker 2: just like establishing any sort of industry on the surface

622
00:29:33,120 --> 00:29:36,040
Speaker 2: of the Moon is difficult. And then there's the cost

623
00:29:36,080 --> 00:29:37,760
Speaker 2: of like bringing it back. You know, you're going to

624
00:29:37,880 --> 00:29:40,400
Speaker 2: launch from the surface of the Moon and bring stuff

625
00:29:40,440 --> 00:29:41,160
Speaker 2: back to Earth.

626
00:29:41,560 --> 00:29:44,360
Speaker 1: It's expensive, But that should be easier, shouldn't it because

627
00:29:44,880 --> 00:29:46,560
Speaker 1: the gravity and the Moon isn't that high?

628
00:29:46,920 --> 00:29:47,120
Speaker 2: Yeah?

629
00:29:47,160 --> 00:29:50,080
Speaker 1: Probably? Just could you like toss it over to the Earth.

630
00:29:51,240 --> 00:29:53,800
Speaker 2: To burn up in the Earth's atmosphere and waste all of.

631
00:29:53,720 --> 00:29:56,480
Speaker 1: Your and to catch it right before it hits Earth? Maybe?

632
00:29:56,800 --> 00:29:58,760
Speaker 2: Yeah, that doesn't sound dangerous at all. We're just like

633
00:29:59,040 --> 00:30:02,360
Speaker 2: dropping heavy rock into the gravity well of Earth. Oops.

634
00:30:02,480 --> 00:30:06,239
Speaker 1: Sorry that yeah, Well, I mean if you missed then

635
00:30:06,240 --> 00:30:08,600
Speaker 1: it'll get burned in the atmosphere. But if you write

636
00:30:09,760 --> 00:30:11,680
Speaker 1: like you're not going to send like a Manhattan sized

637
00:30:12,000 --> 00:30:14,240
Speaker 1: ball of gold, but you can, I don't know, send

638
00:30:14,280 --> 00:30:17,440
Speaker 1: like car sized balls and if you miss, it'll just

639
00:30:17,440 --> 00:30:17,920
Speaker 1: burn out.

640
00:30:18,240 --> 00:30:20,440
Speaker 2: Nope, I'm not counting on the restraint of Bruce and

641
00:30:20,480 --> 00:30:24,040
Speaker 2: his investors to not go after the Manhattan sized blob

642
00:30:24,080 --> 00:30:27,080
Speaker 2: of gold. But I read an analysis of this, because

643
00:30:27,080 --> 00:30:29,000
Speaker 2: people thought a lot about this, and they thought about

644
00:30:29,000 --> 00:30:33,440
Speaker 2: asteroid mining whatever, And one quote I read said, if

645
00:30:33,440 --> 00:30:36,040
Speaker 2: there were gold bars on the Moon, the best thing

646
00:30:36,040 --> 00:30:38,880
Speaker 2: you could do economically is to leave them there, Like

647
00:30:38,920 --> 00:30:40,880
Speaker 2: it would cost you more. Even if they were like

648
00:30:41,120 --> 00:30:43,840
Speaker 2: perfect gold bars just sitting on the surface of the Moon,

649
00:30:44,240 --> 00:30:46,080
Speaker 2: it would cost you more to go and get them

650
00:30:46,280 --> 00:30:47,840
Speaker 2: than you would be able to sell them for.

651
00:30:48,720 --> 00:30:52,800
Speaker 1: Well, it costs more given today's market, yes, and technology,

652
00:30:53,400 --> 00:30:55,480
Speaker 1: Like right now, the cost of gold is not enough

653
00:30:55,920 --> 00:30:59,160
Speaker 1: to overcome the cost of it. But maybe maybe it'll

654
00:30:59,160 --> 00:31:00,000
Speaker 1: get cheaper to go to space.

655
00:31:00,800 --> 00:31:02,479
Speaker 2: Maybe it will. And if we had like a space

656
00:31:02,560 --> 00:31:06,720
Speaker 2: elevator and an established infrastructure on the Moon, then maybe

657
00:31:06,720 --> 00:31:08,000
Speaker 2: this would be a cool thing to do.

658
00:31:08,240 --> 00:31:11,600
Speaker 1: Wait, wait, you're against throwing gold bars to Earth. But

659
00:31:11,640 --> 00:31:15,960
Speaker 1: you're pro building a giant elevator that might fall down.

660
00:31:17,160 --> 00:31:19,760
Speaker 2: I'm not pro. I'm just saying it would make Bruce's

661
00:31:19,800 --> 00:31:24,920
Speaker 2: company more realistic. I'm not an investor in Bruce's company.

662
00:31:25,000 --> 00:31:27,440
Speaker 2: Oh no, I have no legal obligations.

663
00:31:26,880 --> 00:31:29,800
Speaker 1: Here, but you know what I mean, like or maybe

664
00:31:29,840 --> 00:31:32,000
Speaker 1: like gold is not worth enough now, but maybe in

665
00:31:32,000 --> 00:31:34,640
Speaker 1: the future. Yeah, you know, when we start to run

666
00:31:34,680 --> 00:31:37,000
Speaker 1: out here on Earth, maybe will become super valuable.

667
00:31:37,120 --> 00:31:39,280
Speaker 2: It certainly could be. Yeah. Maybe Bruce has a very

668
00:31:39,360 --> 00:31:40,600
Speaker 2: long term business plan.

669
00:31:41,000 --> 00:31:43,720
Speaker 1: Yeah yeah. Or you know, there's already people going to

670
00:31:43,760 --> 00:31:46,080
Speaker 1: the moon, right, we were sending things. Why not pick

671
00:31:46,120 --> 00:31:47,880
Speaker 1: up a few gold bars? Well you're there.

672
00:31:48,560 --> 00:31:51,600
Speaker 2: It's heavy and that's complicated to pick that stuff up.

673
00:31:51,840 --> 00:31:55,440
Speaker 1: Right, right, But it's shiny, shiny and pretty.

674
00:31:56,120 --> 00:31:58,400
Speaker 2: Anyway, it's there, and if you can figure out the

675
00:31:58,560 --> 00:32:01,440
Speaker 2: economics of it, more power to you. I would not

676
00:32:01,600 --> 00:32:05,160
Speaker 2: invest in Bruce's company today, but you're right it might

677
00:32:05,200 --> 00:32:06,479
Speaker 2: one day make a profit.

678
00:32:06,680 --> 00:32:06,880
Speaker 4: Mmm.

679
00:32:07,480 --> 00:32:10,000
Speaker 1: Now, but can we see these asteroids from Earth? Like

680
00:32:10,320 --> 00:32:11,560
Speaker 1: you know, when we look at the moon, it just

681
00:32:11,560 --> 00:32:15,400
Speaker 1: looks like white dust. Basically, you don't see like flex

682
00:32:15,440 --> 00:32:17,360
Speaker 1: of gold, do you or do you?

683
00:32:17,400 --> 00:32:19,440
Speaker 2: No, you don't but you do see craters, and you

684
00:32:19,520 --> 00:32:21,720
Speaker 2: know what's at the center of every crater has to

685
00:32:21,760 --> 00:32:24,000
Speaker 2: be some sort of impact, and if you go to

686
00:32:24,000 --> 00:32:26,360
Speaker 2: the center of the crater, you can often find a

687
00:32:26,440 --> 00:32:29,280
Speaker 2: meteorite sitting there. The same thing is true here on Earth,

688
00:32:29,360 --> 00:32:32,440
Speaker 2: like meteor crater in Arizona. They went to the center

689
00:32:32,480 --> 00:32:34,680
Speaker 2: of it and they found like chunks of the meteor,

690
00:32:34,880 --> 00:32:39,000
Speaker 2: like pieces of that metallic object. So certainly possible to

691
00:32:39,040 --> 00:32:40,640
Speaker 2: find them if you know where the craters are. And

692
00:32:40,680 --> 00:32:42,520
Speaker 2: on the Moon, the craters are easy to spot. You

693
00:32:42,520 --> 00:32:44,960
Speaker 2: can see them with a telescope and definitely if you're

694
00:32:44,960 --> 00:32:47,040
Speaker 2: on the surface, you can find them, but you have to.

695
00:32:47,000 --> 00:32:49,239
Speaker 1: Go and dig around. Yeah, you might have to use

696
00:32:49,280 --> 00:32:50,120
Speaker 1: like a metal detector.

697
00:32:50,480 --> 00:32:52,560
Speaker 2: They're probably covered in a little bit of regolith from

698
00:32:52,600 --> 00:32:53,040
Speaker 2: the impact.

699
00:32:53,160 --> 00:32:56,400
Speaker 1: Yeah, right, right right. I wonder if you can see them,

700
00:32:56,400 --> 00:32:59,640
Speaker 1: like if you look at the you know, spectral wave

701
00:33:00,000 --> 00:33:00,960
Speaker 1: reflection on the Moon.

702
00:33:01,320 --> 00:33:03,800
Speaker 2: Yeah, And in fact, they have done some of these experiments.

703
00:33:04,040 --> 00:33:07,480
Speaker 2: There was a satellite called l CROSS, the Lunar Crater

704
00:33:07,720 --> 00:33:12,280
Speaker 2: Observation and Sensing satellite, that confirmed presence of gold on

705
00:33:12,320 --> 00:33:15,200
Speaker 2: the Moon's surface using exactly that kind of technique, you know,

706
00:33:15,240 --> 00:33:17,120
Speaker 2: like bouncing light off of it and seeing how it

707
00:33:17,160 --> 00:33:18,719
Speaker 2: reflects and the spectrum of it.

708
00:33:19,160 --> 00:33:21,840
Speaker 1: WHOA, Okay, what if Bruce goes to the moon, he

709
00:33:21,960 --> 00:33:24,760
Speaker 1: digs up these asteroids and he finds that they're made

710
00:33:24,760 --> 00:33:28,800
Speaker 1: out of a new metal, and he names him Cheesium.

711
00:33:32,000 --> 00:33:33,440
Speaker 2: Then he's completed the circle.

712
00:33:35,240 --> 00:33:39,920
Speaker 1: He's jumped the short probably. All right, Well, I think

713
00:33:39,920 --> 00:33:44,040
Speaker 1: that answers Bruce's question, which is that, yes, the moon

714
00:33:44,080 --> 00:33:48,600
Speaker 1: would be an excellent source of valuable elements like gold, platinum,

715
00:33:48,600 --> 00:33:51,680
Speaker 1: but right now it's too expense. It's good to go

716
00:33:51,720 --> 00:33:52,120
Speaker 1: get them.

717
00:33:52,440 --> 00:33:53,600
Speaker 2: Yeah, I think that's true.

718
00:33:53,800 --> 00:33:56,920
Speaker 1: But maybe in the future Space Driver will become cheaper,

719
00:33:57,840 --> 00:34:00,640
Speaker 1: so stay tuned for that. Let's to get thro our

720
00:34:00,720 --> 00:34:03,640
Speaker 1: last question, and this one is about how particles interact.

721
00:34:04,120 --> 00:34:06,480
Speaker 1: So we'll tackle that one, but first let's take another

722
00:34:06,600 --> 00:34:21,279
Speaker 1: quick break. All right, we're answering listening to your questions

723
00:34:21,320 --> 00:34:23,240
Speaker 1: here today, and our last question of the day comes

724
00:34:23,280 --> 00:34:24,400
Speaker 1: from Rebecca.

725
00:34:25,080 --> 00:34:29,719
Speaker 5: I have a question, and it's about how particles interact.

726
00:34:30,480 --> 00:34:35,400
Speaker 5: Because you often talk about where the particles have interactions

727
00:34:35,440 --> 00:34:40,600
Speaker 5: with other particles, and then some particles either don't talk

728
00:34:40,719 --> 00:34:46,520
Speaker 5: very weakly interact, so muons can go straight through the

729
00:34:46,560 --> 00:34:51,440
Speaker 5: planet and neutrinos pretty much the same. But when you

730
00:34:51,560 --> 00:34:55,239
Speaker 5: say that, what does it actually mean when you say interaction?

731
00:34:56,080 --> 00:35:00,239
Speaker 5: Are you saying that they go into a field and

732
00:35:00,280 --> 00:35:09,600
Speaker 5: then have vibrating qualities within a field? Or for example,

733
00:35:10,280 --> 00:35:14,400
Speaker 5: an electron that's affected by a gravitational field, does it

734
00:35:14,480 --> 00:35:17,680
Speaker 5: go into the gravitational field and do something? Or is

735
00:35:17,719 --> 00:35:22,200
Speaker 5: it repelled by a gravitational field? Or similarly, a photon,

736
00:35:23,800 --> 00:35:28,040
Speaker 5: how do they actually interact at the quantum level with

737
00:35:28,640 --> 00:35:32,600
Speaker 5: the different fields? So how does a photon behave in

738
00:35:32,640 --> 00:35:37,759
Speaker 5: an electrical field or how does a electron behave in

739
00:35:37,840 --> 00:35:43,040
Speaker 5: a gravitational field? I really appreciate an explanation.

740
00:35:43,840 --> 00:35:47,040
Speaker 1: Oh boy, I can tell you're salivating for this answer, Daniel.

741
00:35:47,280 --> 00:35:52,000
Speaker 1: It's all about particles, particle physics, particle interactions. What does

742
00:35:52,040 --> 00:35:55,759
Speaker 1: it mean to interact? Oh boy, let's trap in.

743
00:35:56,080 --> 00:35:58,280
Speaker 2: Yeah. Well, I was wondering where you think we should

744
00:35:58,320 --> 00:36:00,840
Speaker 2: go with this question because there's a lot of stuff

745
00:36:00,880 --> 00:36:02,680
Speaker 2: in here, and I'm wondering if you got a sense

746
00:36:02,719 --> 00:36:04,560
Speaker 2: for like, what do you think she's really asking?

747
00:36:05,080 --> 00:36:08,440
Speaker 1: All right, Well, I think Rebecca is picturing the scenario where,

748
00:36:09,040 --> 00:36:12,200
Speaker 1: you know, we've often talked about Neutrina's flying through the

749
00:36:12,320 --> 00:36:15,040
Speaker 1: earth and going through us, going through our thumbs, but

750
00:36:15,160 --> 00:36:19,400
Speaker 1: not interacting with us. But we know that sometimes they

751
00:36:19,440 --> 00:36:23,480
Speaker 1: do interact. It sounds like she's asking, like what exactly

752
00:36:23,600 --> 00:36:26,680
Speaker 1: is happening when they interact, Like do the quantum fields

753
00:36:26,800 --> 00:36:31,440
Speaker 1: somehow interfere or something triggers an interaction?

754
00:36:32,000 --> 00:36:35,400
Speaker 2: Yeah, okay, so that's a cool question. And you know,

755
00:36:35,400 --> 00:36:38,480
Speaker 2: the short answer is that these things are quantum mechanical,

756
00:36:38,520 --> 00:36:42,560
Speaker 2: which means that everything is a probability. So neutrino, for examples,

757
00:36:42,640 --> 00:36:45,319
Speaker 2: passing through the earth, and that means that there's a

758
00:36:45,320 --> 00:36:48,520
Speaker 2: little ripple in the neutrino field. That's when a neutrino is,

759
00:36:48,560 --> 00:36:51,480
Speaker 2: it's a little ripple in the neutrino field, and it's

760
00:36:51,480 --> 00:36:53,440
Speaker 2: passing through the earth. And the Earth is made out

761
00:36:53,440 --> 00:36:56,600
Speaker 2: of quarks and electrons, which are little ripples and quark

762
00:36:56,640 --> 00:36:59,480
Speaker 2: and electron fields whatever. So you have these fields that

763
00:36:59,520 --> 00:37:01,600
Speaker 2: are all actually on top of each other, and there's

764
00:37:01,640 --> 00:37:04,239
Speaker 2: a ripple passing through one, and there's ripples in the

765
00:37:04,280 --> 00:37:09,040
Speaker 2: other ones, and those ripples have possibilities probabilities of interacting.

766
00:37:09,480 --> 00:37:12,800
Speaker 2: So every time a neutrino passes a quark, for example,

767
00:37:13,000 --> 00:37:16,280
Speaker 2: there's a possibility that it interacts, and the universe rolls

768
00:37:16,280 --> 00:37:18,880
Speaker 2: a die, and the dye is like ten to fifty

769
00:37:19,000 --> 00:37:22,120
Speaker 2: sides on it, and only one of those sides says yes,

770
00:37:22,160 --> 00:37:24,440
Speaker 2: the neutrino interacts, and the other ones say nope, it

771
00:37:24,480 --> 00:37:27,719
Speaker 2: ignores it. So every time a neutrino is passing by

772
00:37:27,760 --> 00:37:31,560
Speaker 2: a cork, the universe rolls this die and it says nope, nope, nope, nope, nope,

773
00:37:31,600 --> 00:37:34,520
Speaker 2: And then very occasionally it rolls the die and it

774
00:37:34,560 --> 00:37:37,680
Speaker 2: says yes. Then then neutrino interacts with that quark.

775
00:37:37,960 --> 00:37:41,920
Speaker 1: Is it related to like how close those two particles

776
00:37:41,960 --> 00:37:43,560
Speaker 1: fly next to each other?

777
00:37:43,760 --> 00:37:43,880
Speaker 3: You know?

778
00:37:43,920 --> 00:37:46,120
Speaker 1: I mean, like, let's forget the whole planet. Let's just

779
00:37:46,160 --> 00:37:49,040
Speaker 1: put like a one electron in the center of the Earth,

780
00:37:49,880 --> 00:37:55,040
Speaker 1: and then it's shoot one neutrino at it, like if

781
00:37:55,040 --> 00:37:56,879
Speaker 1: we know it's definitely not going to interact if it's

782
00:37:56,920 --> 00:37:59,680
Speaker 1: really far away from it, or can it? Are you

783
00:37:59,680 --> 00:38:01,239
Speaker 1: saying that it can't it can?

784
00:38:01,360 --> 00:38:03,319
Speaker 2: The probability depends on a lot of things, and one

785
00:38:03,320 --> 00:38:05,919
Speaker 2: of them is distance. You know, the old like one

786
00:38:05,960 --> 00:38:09,560
Speaker 2: over distance squared rule that comes out of these possibilities

787
00:38:09,600 --> 00:38:12,239
Speaker 2: to interact. And so the further away you are the

788
00:38:12,320 --> 00:38:16,360
Speaker 2: smaller the probability to interact. It also depends on other things,

789
00:38:16,400 --> 00:38:19,520
Speaker 2: like how much momentum is exchanged and the interaction, like

790
00:38:19,880 --> 00:38:23,200
Speaker 2: higher momentum exchange, like a bigger bounce back, is less

791
00:38:23,200 --> 00:38:26,200
Speaker 2: probable than like a slight interaction where they like barely

792
00:38:26,239 --> 00:38:29,160
Speaker 2: brush each other. So there's a whole spectrum of things there,

793
00:38:29,480 --> 00:38:31,160
Speaker 2: and all of them affect the probability.

794
00:38:31,239 --> 00:38:33,000
Speaker 1: Wait, what do you mean a bounce back? What did

795
00:38:33,040 --> 00:38:33,600
Speaker 1: you mean by that?

796
00:38:33,840 --> 00:38:36,880
Speaker 2: Well, imagine two scenarios. Like one is, neutrino flies by

797
00:38:36,920 --> 00:38:40,080
Speaker 2: an electron and its direction is only slightly changed. It's

798
00:38:40,080 --> 00:38:42,120
Speaker 2: basically going the same direction it was before. It's just

799
00:38:42,160 --> 00:38:45,080
Speaker 2: like dinged a little to the left, versus the neutrino

800
00:38:45,239 --> 00:38:47,480
Speaker 2: like hits a wall and comes back in the exact

801
00:38:47,520 --> 00:38:51,239
Speaker 2: opposite direction, Like it bounces back, it changes its momentum completely.

802
00:38:51,360 --> 00:38:53,440
Speaker 1: Well, I feel like we're jumping ahead a little bit.

803
00:38:53,440 --> 00:38:56,759
Speaker 1: So you're saying one possible interaction between these two things

804
00:38:56,840 --> 00:39:00,879
Speaker 1: is that they exchange momentum like they bump into each other,

805
00:39:01,040 --> 00:39:02,439
Speaker 1: as if there were little, bigger balls.

806
00:39:02,520 --> 00:39:05,360
Speaker 2: Yeah, exchanging momentum is the interaction. That's what an interaction

807
00:39:05,600 --> 00:39:08,279
Speaker 2: is. Is that energy is going from one field to the other.

808
00:39:08,760 --> 00:39:11,239
Speaker 2: If the neutrino interacts with the electron, it's momentum has

809
00:39:11,280 --> 00:39:13,640
Speaker 2: to change. That's what the interaction really is, is an

810
00:39:13,880 --> 00:39:16,560
Speaker 2: exchange of momentum between the two things. Just like when

811
00:39:16,560 --> 00:39:18,680
Speaker 2: two billion balls bounce off each other. What are they doing?

812
00:39:18,840 --> 00:39:21,879
Speaker 2: They're exchanging momentum, right, But.

813
00:39:21,960 --> 00:39:25,720
Speaker 1: Don't some of them kind of like transform into other things? Right?

814
00:39:26,080 --> 00:39:29,879
Speaker 1: Can't like two particles combine to make other particles. Isn't

815
00:39:29,880 --> 00:39:31,800
Speaker 1: that also one way they can interact.

816
00:39:32,080 --> 00:39:35,319
Speaker 2: Yes, absolutely, the neutrino and the electron could interact to

817
00:39:35,360 --> 00:39:37,359
Speaker 2: create like a w boson, Right, So both of them

818
00:39:37,400 --> 00:39:41,719
Speaker 2: could disappear. Absolutely. So it's all sorts of different possible outcomes,

819
00:39:42,080 --> 00:39:44,160
Speaker 2: and the universe picks from among those, and some of

820
00:39:44,200 --> 00:39:45,640
Speaker 2: those are more likely than others.

821
00:39:46,200 --> 00:39:49,880
Speaker 1: Oh okay, So then by interaction you mean several things.

822
00:39:49,880 --> 00:39:52,480
Speaker 1: They could bump and change each other's momentum, or they

823
00:39:52,480 --> 00:39:56,080
Speaker 1: can combine and create other particles. And you're saying this

824
00:39:56,200 --> 00:39:59,280
Speaker 1: interaction depends on the distance, And what else.

825
00:39:59,200 --> 00:40:02,000
Speaker 2: Depends on the distance depends on how much momentum is

826
00:40:02,040 --> 00:40:05,840
Speaker 2: being exchanged. A greater momentum exchange is less probable, like

827
00:40:05,920 --> 00:40:09,319
Speaker 2: you're more likely to have a glancing interaction than like

828
00:40:09,360 --> 00:40:10,600
Speaker 2: a bounce back interaction.

829
00:40:10,920 --> 00:40:12,600
Speaker 1: Wait wait, wait, wait, what what do you mean? The

830
00:40:12,680 --> 00:40:17,479
Speaker 1: faster my neutrino's going, the higher the probability it will what.

831
00:40:17,880 --> 00:40:19,879
Speaker 2: I wasn't referring to the speed of the neutrino. I'm

832
00:40:19,880 --> 00:40:23,360
Speaker 2: talking about the amount of momentum exchanged. So the greater

833
00:40:23,480 --> 00:40:27,480
Speaker 2: the difference between the initial and final neutrino momentum, the

834
00:40:27,560 --> 00:40:30,240
Speaker 2: less the probabilities. So the more you want to change

835
00:40:30,239 --> 00:40:33,319
Speaker 2: the neutrino's angle, for example, the less likely that's going

836
00:40:33,400 --> 00:40:36,320
Speaker 2: to happen. You're more likely to have a glancing interaction

837
00:40:36,640 --> 00:40:38,560
Speaker 2: than like a bounce back interaction.

838
00:40:38,719 --> 00:40:40,880
Speaker 1: Meaning like it's harder for the nutrina to hit the

839
00:40:40,920 --> 00:40:44,320
Speaker 1: electron head on than it is for it to miss

840
00:40:44,440 --> 00:40:44,960
Speaker 1: a little bit.

841
00:40:45,360 --> 00:40:47,520
Speaker 2: The classical picture in your head of particles is like

842
00:40:47,560 --> 00:40:50,960
Speaker 2: tiny little balls. That's why you sometimes bounce back, and

843
00:40:51,000 --> 00:40:53,040
Speaker 2: that's why you sometimes don't, because a bounce back is

844
00:40:53,080 --> 00:40:54,640
Speaker 2: like when you hit it head on and it comes

845
00:40:54,680 --> 00:40:57,239
Speaker 2: right back. These are quantum particles, so there's no like

846
00:40:57,320 --> 00:41:01,239
Speaker 2: hitting anything head on. There's just probabilities various outcomes, and

847
00:41:01,480 --> 00:41:03,320
Speaker 2: the bouncing back is less.

848
00:41:03,120 --> 00:41:07,360
Speaker 1: Likely because it's harder to hit it head on, or

849
00:41:07,400 --> 00:41:09,960
Speaker 1: it's harder for the center of the probability curve of

850
00:41:10,000 --> 00:41:12,240
Speaker 1: one to be aligned with the center of the probability

851
00:41:12,239 --> 00:41:13,040
Speaker 1: of the other one, right.

852
00:41:12,960 --> 00:41:16,200
Speaker 2: M yeah, sure, I mean that's what quantum mechanics tells us.

853
00:41:16,280 --> 00:41:19,000
Speaker 2: It tells us the various probabilities of things happening. And

854
00:41:19,040 --> 00:41:21,359
Speaker 2: the cool thing is that as you zoom out and

855
00:41:21,360 --> 00:41:23,920
Speaker 2: make these things bigger and bigger, it starts to align

856
00:41:23,960 --> 00:41:27,319
Speaker 2: more with our classical intuition, our naive sense of these

857
00:41:27,360 --> 00:41:29,799
Speaker 2: things as objects that are touching and pushing on each

858
00:41:29,800 --> 00:41:32,440
Speaker 2: other in the same way. Really, these are quantum interactions,

859
00:41:32,840 --> 00:41:35,880
Speaker 2: and various things have various probabilities. Like it's possible for

860
00:41:35,920 --> 00:41:38,080
Speaker 2: the neutrino to hit the electron head on and just

861
00:41:38,120 --> 00:41:40,239
Speaker 2: go right through it and not interact. In fact, that's

862
00:41:40,239 --> 00:41:41,600
Speaker 2: the most likely thing.

863
00:41:42,320 --> 00:41:44,640
Speaker 1: You mean, even though it's the most likely thing. Like

864
00:41:44,640 --> 00:41:46,840
Speaker 1: if I shoot the nautino head on to the electron,

865
00:41:47,200 --> 00:41:50,040
Speaker 1: you probably would say that most likely it's going to

866
00:41:50,040 --> 00:41:51,759
Speaker 1: get it head on and bounce back, but it could

867
00:41:51,800 --> 00:41:52,320
Speaker 1: not happen.

868
00:41:52,440 --> 00:41:53,759
Speaker 2: The most likely thing for it to do is to

869
00:41:53,840 --> 00:41:55,839
Speaker 2: just go right through the electron, even if it's right

870
00:41:55,960 --> 00:41:58,800
Speaker 2: exactly the same location, the neutrino can be right on

871
00:41:58,880 --> 00:41:59,560
Speaker 2: top of it. Yeah.

872
00:41:59,719 --> 00:42:01,439
Speaker 1: Yeah. What I mean is like, out of the things

873
00:42:01,480 --> 00:42:05,880
Speaker 1: that could happen, if something happens, even if you align

874
00:42:05,960 --> 00:42:07,680
Speaker 1: it perfectly and shoot it to say, head on, and

875
00:42:08,640 --> 00:42:11,000
Speaker 1: the most likely thing if something were to happen was

876
00:42:11,040 --> 00:42:13,279
Speaker 1: for it to bounce back. Not bounce back.

877
00:42:13,400 --> 00:42:15,000
Speaker 2: Yeah, it may not bounce back at.

878
00:42:14,960 --> 00:42:17,759
Speaker 1: All, because the probability depends on other things, not just

879
00:42:17,800 --> 00:42:18,560
Speaker 1: how close you are.

880
00:42:18,760 --> 00:42:20,919
Speaker 2: Yeah, not just how close you are. And it also

881
00:42:21,000 --> 00:42:24,000
Speaker 2: does depend on the initial velocity of the neutrino and

882
00:42:24,040 --> 00:42:26,840
Speaker 2: all sorts of things that go into the quantum mechanical calculation.

883
00:42:27,280 --> 00:42:29,640
Speaker 2: But the point is you get various probabilities of things happening.

884
00:42:29,680 --> 00:42:31,480
Speaker 2: It depends on lots of different factors.

885
00:42:31,800 --> 00:42:35,040
Speaker 1: Well maybe this is kind of what Rebecca is asking.

886
00:42:35,080 --> 00:42:36,960
Speaker 1: It's like, what exactly is going on? What are some

887
00:42:37,000 --> 00:42:39,960
Speaker 1: of these other factors that might cause these two things

888
00:42:39,960 --> 00:42:40,879
Speaker 1: to ignore each other.

889
00:42:41,280 --> 00:42:45,160
Speaker 2: I think the major ones are the distance between them, right,

890
00:42:45,239 --> 00:42:48,839
Speaker 2: and the initial momentum of both of the particles. Really

891
00:42:48,880 --> 00:42:52,120
Speaker 2: high speed particles are affected by special relativity, which sort

892
00:42:52,120 --> 00:42:55,640
Speaker 2: of changes their experience as they fly through space. They

893
00:42:55,680 --> 00:42:58,480
Speaker 2: see space as contracted as squeezed in front of them.

894
00:42:58,480 --> 00:43:01,480
Speaker 2: Everything is shortened. You take like a wall that's a

895
00:43:01,520 --> 00:43:04,000
Speaker 2: meter thick, and now it's much much shorter, but it's

896
00:43:04,040 --> 00:43:06,880
Speaker 2: more dense, and so that changes your probability to interact

897
00:43:06,880 --> 00:43:09,080
Speaker 2: with the atoms inside it, for example.

898
00:43:09,360 --> 00:43:11,440
Speaker 1: And so makes it harder, and it gives you a.

899
00:43:11,480 --> 00:43:14,680
Speaker 2: Higher probability of interacting with them. Actually, oh, higher probability

900
00:43:14,680 --> 00:43:17,360
Speaker 2: because now you have more of them. Yeah, because it's denser,

901
00:43:17,400 --> 00:43:18,279
Speaker 2: so you have more of them.

902
00:43:18,440 --> 00:43:20,759
Speaker 1: But like let's say we're still talking about one by

903
00:43:20,840 --> 00:43:23,400
Speaker 1: one electron and I'm shooting a natrina at it, is

904
00:43:23,440 --> 00:43:25,640
Speaker 1: it more likely for them to interact if I shoot

905
00:43:25,640 --> 00:43:29,480
Speaker 1: my neutrino super super fast or if it's cruising by slowly.

906
00:43:29,760 --> 00:43:31,960
Speaker 2: Low energy particles in general are going to be more

907
00:43:32,040 --> 00:43:34,680
Speaker 2: likely to interact qualitative that you can imagine, like they

908
00:43:34,719 --> 00:43:37,560
Speaker 2: have they spend more time in each other's vicinity, so

909
00:43:37,600 --> 00:43:40,160
Speaker 2: they're closer for longer period, so they get to like

910
00:43:40,280 --> 00:43:42,719
Speaker 2: roll the die more times. There's one way to think

911
00:43:42,719 --> 00:43:43,200
Speaker 2: about it.

912
00:43:44,160 --> 00:43:47,440
Speaker 1: I see. So basically, like if you want the nutrina

913
00:43:47,480 --> 00:43:49,239
Speaker 1: to hit the electron, you just got to hit it

914
00:43:49,280 --> 00:43:52,200
Speaker 1: it on and throw it slowly. So it's the same

915
00:43:52,239 --> 00:43:55,600
Speaker 1: as like throwing a bit a baseball. The slower you

916
00:43:55,640 --> 00:43:58,120
Speaker 1: throw it, the easier it is to hit the center

917
00:43:58,160 --> 00:43:59,600
Speaker 1: of the glove.

918
00:44:00,400 --> 00:44:02,880
Speaker 2: Yeah, that's true. So that's what you want to do.

919
00:44:02,920 --> 00:44:05,239
Speaker 2: If you want the electron and then trino to interact,

920
00:44:05,640 --> 00:44:07,359
Speaker 2: Throw it slowly right at each other.

921
00:44:07,480 --> 00:44:09,440
Speaker 1: Right, But even if you hit it dead on at

922
00:44:09,480 --> 00:44:12,040
Speaker 1: a slow speed, there's still a probability that they'll ignore

923
00:44:12,040 --> 00:44:12,439
Speaker 1: each other.

924
00:44:12,800 --> 00:44:16,640
Speaker 2: Right, Yeah, that's the most likely thing. By far. Neutrino's

925
00:44:16,760 --> 00:44:19,799
Speaker 2: almost always ignore everything, including electrons.

926
00:44:20,400 --> 00:44:23,360
Speaker 1: And I guess why is that? Is it because the

927
00:44:23,440 --> 00:44:26,920
Speaker 1: two quantum fields don't like each other, or they're not

928
00:44:27,239 --> 00:44:29,640
Speaker 1: likely to interact with each other. I mean it sounds

929
00:44:29,640 --> 00:44:31,960
Speaker 1: like it's a slam dunk if you're hitting it straight on.

930
00:44:32,640 --> 00:44:33,760
Speaker 1: Why wouldn't they interact.

931
00:44:34,239 --> 00:44:36,920
Speaker 2: Well, some fields just don't interact with other fields. And

932
00:44:37,000 --> 00:44:40,000
Speaker 2: some fields interact very strongly, and some fields interact very weakly.

933
00:44:40,280 --> 00:44:42,359
Speaker 2: And this is just like a number. You know, you're

934
00:44:42,400 --> 00:44:45,080
Speaker 2: calculating the probabilities, and you have all these factors momentum

935
00:44:45,160 --> 00:44:47,440
Speaker 2: and angle and distance whatever. Then there's also just a

936
00:44:47,560 --> 00:44:51,000
Speaker 2: number you multiply these calculations by. And it's different for

937
00:44:51,160 --> 00:44:54,279
Speaker 2: different pairs of fields, and in this case, it's the

938
00:44:54,320 --> 00:44:57,120
Speaker 2: weak interaction, and we know that weak interaction just has

939
00:44:57,160 --> 00:44:59,360
Speaker 2: a small number in front of it. Why is that

940
00:44:59,480 --> 00:45:02,320
Speaker 2: number week We don't really know. You know, the strong

941
00:45:02,320 --> 00:45:04,680
Speaker 2: force is a bigger number electromagnetism as a number close

942
00:45:04,719 --> 00:45:06,759
Speaker 2: to one over one hundred. The weak force has a

943
00:45:06,800 --> 00:45:09,640
Speaker 2: much smaller number. Gravities even weaker if you think about

944
00:45:09,640 --> 00:45:12,560
Speaker 2: it in a quantum scale. We don't know why these

945
00:45:12,600 --> 00:45:15,240
Speaker 2: numbers are stronger or weaker for various forces.

946
00:45:16,520 --> 00:45:18,839
Speaker 1: I see. So you're saying the weak the weak force

947
00:45:18,920 --> 00:45:20,920
Speaker 1: is weak and the strong force is strong.

948
00:45:21,320 --> 00:45:23,879
Speaker 2: Yes, and that's the description of what we've observed, right.

949
00:45:24,040 --> 00:45:28,080
Speaker 2: We also do know that these numbers change with energy. Actually,

950
00:45:28,160 --> 00:45:30,719
Speaker 2: as the universe gets hotter and denser and everything is

951
00:45:30,719 --> 00:45:34,360
Speaker 2: flying around higher speeds, these numbers in front of the fields.

952
00:45:33,960 --> 00:45:38,279
Speaker 1: Do change, so they become more likely to interact.

953
00:45:38,480 --> 00:45:41,040
Speaker 2: They do become more likely as the temperature of the

954
00:45:41,160 --> 00:45:43,839
Speaker 2: universe increases. So we think in the early universe these

955
00:45:43,880 --> 00:45:47,600
Speaker 2: probabilities were different, and the universe is now cooled and crystallized,

956
00:45:47,800 --> 00:45:50,320
Speaker 2: and the weak force ended up being quite weak. That

957
00:45:50,440 --> 00:45:52,040
Speaker 2: we think in the early history of the universe the

958
00:45:52,080 --> 00:45:55,080
Speaker 2: weak force might have been as strong as electromagnetism.

959
00:45:55,320 --> 00:45:58,200
Speaker 1: WHOA, it's just an inherent something about it just makes

960
00:45:58,239 --> 00:45:59,000
Speaker 1: it more reactive.

961
00:45:59,160 --> 00:46:02,080
Speaker 2: Yeah, it's called spontaneous symmetry breaking. We think that the

962
00:46:02,160 --> 00:46:04,759
Speaker 2: universe sort of like cracked in this way when it

963
00:46:04,840 --> 00:46:07,080
Speaker 2: was cooling and made the week force week and then

964
00:46:07,120 --> 00:46:10,360
Speaker 2: electromagnetism less week. We think in the early universe there

965
00:46:10,360 --> 00:46:13,279
Speaker 2: were really just one symmetric, beautiful bundle that was all

966
00:46:13,320 --> 00:46:15,840
Speaker 2: the same, and it cracked into these two halves that

967
00:46:15,880 --> 00:46:17,200
Speaker 2: are very different now.

968
00:46:17,400 --> 00:46:20,040
Speaker 1: And then it cracked the shark. Obviously, I mean, it

969
00:46:20,680 --> 00:46:25,879
Speaker 1: cracked the cork. But I guess maybe I wonder now

970
00:46:25,920 --> 00:46:29,040
Speaker 1: if Rebecca's question is, Okay, let's say I shoot antuna

971
00:46:29,120 --> 00:46:32,280
Speaker 1: an electron, I hit it it on and I rolled

972
00:46:32,280 --> 00:46:35,399
Speaker 1: it die, and the universe says, all right, let these

973
00:46:35,400 --> 00:46:39,000
Speaker 1: two particles interact. What's happening then, Yeah.

974
00:46:38,760 --> 00:46:42,000
Speaker 2: That's a great question. And in our current understanding, these

975
00:46:42,040 --> 00:46:45,200
Speaker 2: things are fundamental, so we have no insight into what's

976
00:46:45,239 --> 00:46:50,000
Speaker 2: going on inside them. Maybe something is happening, they're exchanging

977
00:46:50,200 --> 00:46:53,279
Speaker 2: little internal particles, or something is changing inside their state.

978
00:46:53,360 --> 00:46:55,719
Speaker 2: We don't know. Our current picture of them is that

979
00:46:55,760 --> 00:46:58,640
Speaker 2: we can't see inside of them, so we don't really know.

980
00:46:58,719 --> 00:47:00,480
Speaker 2: All we know is that we can describe the it's happening,

981
00:47:00,520 --> 00:47:02,960
Speaker 2: and it's like one unit of understanding. We don't know

982
00:47:02,960 --> 00:47:06,280
Speaker 2: how to crack it open. To us, it's essentially instantaneous

983
00:47:06,680 --> 00:47:09,960
Speaker 2: because we don't have any insight into the internal workings

984
00:47:10,000 --> 00:47:11,560
Speaker 2: of an electron or a neutrino.

985
00:47:11,800 --> 00:47:13,680
Speaker 1: Oh, I see, like you don't have an idea of like,

986
00:47:13,719 --> 00:47:15,839
Speaker 1: all right, you can play this out in slow motion,

987
00:47:15,960 --> 00:47:16,640
Speaker 1: is what you're saying.

988
00:47:16,880 --> 00:47:19,040
Speaker 2: Yeah. For example, it used to be that we understood

989
00:47:19,080 --> 00:47:22,239
Speaker 2: how neutrinos decay the same way neutrinos turned into a

990
00:47:22,280 --> 00:47:25,319
Speaker 2: proton an electron neutrino. How did that happen? We didn't

991
00:47:25,360 --> 00:47:27,400
Speaker 2: know there were all point particles to us. Now we

992
00:47:27,440 --> 00:47:30,360
Speaker 2: can see inside the proton, we can see what happens.

993
00:47:30,440 --> 00:47:32,279
Speaker 2: We can see that, oh, it's this quark turning into

994
00:47:32,360 --> 00:47:34,640
Speaker 2: that and that's why you get a neutron, and we

995
00:47:34,680 --> 00:47:37,799
Speaker 2: can understand the details inside of it. But we can't

996
00:47:37,840 --> 00:47:40,160
Speaker 2: tell that for the inside of an electron or a neutrino.

997
00:47:40,280 --> 00:47:43,920
Speaker 2: So maybe it's instantaneous and we're looking at fundamental interactions

998
00:47:43,920 --> 00:47:47,000
Speaker 2: to the universe, or maybe there's something happening inside of it.

999
00:47:47,080 --> 00:47:49,479
Speaker 2: We just can't see yet. That could happen in slow motion.

1000
00:47:49,840 --> 00:47:52,640
Speaker 2: So maybe it's just like one timestep of the universe,

1001
00:47:52,719 --> 00:47:55,640
Speaker 2: or maybe it's multiple ones. We can't tell the difference, well.

1002
00:47:55,600 --> 00:47:58,759
Speaker 1: Because it's happening so fast, or maybe because it is

1003
00:47:58,800 --> 00:47:59,840
Speaker 1: it's instantaneous.

1004
00:48:00,200 --> 00:48:03,080
Speaker 2: Both. Maybe it's so fast, maybe it's instantaneous. We can't

1005
00:48:03,080 --> 00:48:06,000
Speaker 2: tell the difference yet. We can't resolve those two differences.

1006
00:48:06,040 --> 00:48:08,719
Speaker 2: We don't have the technology to see those things. We

1007
00:48:08,760 --> 00:48:11,000
Speaker 2: can't look inside the electron, for example.

1008
00:48:12,239 --> 00:48:15,000
Speaker 1: Well, I wonder if, like some interactions, the two things

1009
00:48:15,040 --> 00:48:17,600
Speaker 1: sort of combine into pure energy in a way and

1010
00:48:17,640 --> 00:48:22,200
Speaker 1: then outcomes other particles. Maybe you may imagine these ripples

1011
00:48:22,680 --> 00:48:27,120
Speaker 1: kind of mixing together, becoming this blob, and then it

1012
00:48:27,200 --> 00:48:30,319
Speaker 1: ripples out into other things. Maybe is that how maybe you,

1013
00:48:30,360 --> 00:48:32,880
Speaker 1: as a particle physicists, think about it or see it.

1014
00:48:33,280 --> 00:48:35,960
Speaker 2: I see it as like energy transforming from one field

1015
00:48:35,960 --> 00:48:38,279
Speaker 2: to another. So, for example, you have an electron and

1016
00:48:38,320 --> 00:48:41,879
Speaker 2: a positron. They annihilate to make a photon. Right, that's

1017
00:48:41,920 --> 00:48:44,600
Speaker 2: like just energy does no matter anymore. The way I

1018
00:48:44,600 --> 00:48:46,919
Speaker 2: think about that is two ripples in the electron field,

1019
00:48:47,000 --> 00:48:49,640
Speaker 2: one the electron, the other a positron. Which is just

1020
00:48:49,680 --> 00:48:52,000
Speaker 2: like a different kind of ripple in the electron field

1021
00:48:52,400 --> 00:48:56,120
Speaker 2: come together, and then that energy slides over into another field. Right,

1022
00:48:56,120 --> 00:48:58,680
Speaker 2: the energy is gone from the electron field. It's slipped

1023
00:48:58,680 --> 00:49:02,160
Speaker 2: over into the photon field, the electromagnetic field. So those

1024
00:49:02,200 --> 00:49:05,839
Speaker 2: fields have coupled, They've transferred energy from one to the other,

1025
00:49:06,560 --> 00:49:08,719
Speaker 2: and so now the electron field is quiet and the

1026
00:49:08,760 --> 00:49:12,399
Speaker 2: electromagnetic field, the photons field is rippling because it has

1027
00:49:12,440 --> 00:49:15,640
Speaker 2: the particle in it. So I imagine all these fields sort

1028
00:49:15,640 --> 00:49:17,720
Speaker 2: of on top of each other and energy is sliding

1029
00:49:17,760 --> 00:49:19,200
Speaker 2: back and forth from one to another.

1030
00:49:19,560 --> 00:49:21,480
Speaker 1: Well, that's when they transform into each other. But what

1031
00:49:21,520 --> 00:49:23,719
Speaker 1: about like when they just bounce off each other.

1032
00:49:24,120 --> 00:49:26,520
Speaker 2: Yeah, that's exchanging momentum. So then you have like ripples

1033
00:49:26,560 --> 00:49:28,319
Speaker 2: that are approaching each other, and then they can go

1034
00:49:28,360 --> 00:49:31,680
Speaker 2: off in other directions. Right, They're still communicating by exchanging

1035
00:49:31,719 --> 00:49:33,360
Speaker 2: momentum or exchanging energy.

1036
00:49:34,120 --> 00:49:36,520
Speaker 1: Like a little bit of my horizontal energy, I give

1037
00:49:36,520 --> 00:49:38,640
Speaker 1: that to the other particle, and then that particle that

1038
00:49:38,760 --> 00:49:40,759
Speaker 1: moves a little bit in the horizontal.

1039
00:49:40,239 --> 00:49:41,440
Speaker 2: Direction, yeah, exactly.

1040
00:49:42,239 --> 00:49:45,760
Speaker 1: M all right, well then I think that is Rebecca's answer,

1041
00:49:45,840 --> 00:49:50,240
Speaker 1: which is, uh, Daniel has no idea, nobody has any idea.

1042
00:49:50,920 --> 00:49:53,200
Speaker 2: We have a current picture which we can use to

1043
00:49:53,239 --> 00:49:56,440
Speaker 2: do calculations which are extraordinarily accurate, but we don't understand

1044
00:49:56,440 --> 00:49:58,839
Speaker 2: the internals of it yet. We don't know if we're

1045
00:49:58,880 --> 00:50:00,920
Speaker 2: at the end of the story or or just step

1046
00:50:01,000 --> 00:50:04,799
Speaker 2: five out of ten thousand future experiments we hope will

1047
00:50:04,840 --> 00:50:05,680
Speaker 2: reveal the answers.

1048
00:50:05,880 --> 00:50:08,239
Speaker 1: Oh, Like, to us, it looks like they just bounce

1049
00:50:08,320 --> 00:50:10,799
Speaker 1: of each other. But maybe when you zoom in and

1050
00:50:11,640 --> 00:50:13,600
Speaker 1: you know, look at it in super high speed motion,

1051
00:50:13,760 --> 00:50:16,920
Speaker 1: maybe there's a little like sharks jumping from one particle

1052
00:50:16,920 --> 00:50:17,359
Speaker 1: to the other.

1053
00:50:17,600 --> 00:50:19,560
Speaker 2: Yeah, and if you give me one hundred billion dollars

1054
00:50:19,600 --> 00:50:21,560
Speaker 2: to build a shark collider, I can prove it.

1055
00:50:23,440 --> 00:50:23,920
Speaker 1: There you go.

1056
00:50:25,400 --> 00:50:28,319
Speaker 2: Maybe I can get Bruce's new Moon mining company to

1057
00:50:28,360 --> 00:50:29,280
Speaker 2: fund a big collider.

1058
00:50:29,560 --> 00:50:33,120
Speaker 1: Oh my goodness, it all comes together. We're gonna fund

1059
00:50:33,120 --> 00:50:38,520
Speaker 1: the little shark experiment with Moon Cheesy Cheesy.

1060
00:50:41,200 --> 00:50:44,279
Speaker 2: Don't invest in crypto, invest in Moon Cheesiam, it's a

1061
00:50:44,440 --> 00:50:48,520
Speaker 2: much more solid investment. Yes, put all your retirement money there.

1062
00:50:49,120 --> 00:50:52,520
Speaker 1: Yes, send us the money now, and in about a

1063
00:50:52,600 --> 00:50:56,799
Speaker 1: thousand years, when space travel is cheap, you might see

1064
00:50:56,800 --> 00:50:57,280
Speaker 1: a return.

1065
00:50:58,560 --> 00:50:59,120
Speaker 2: Sounds good?

1066
00:51:00,000 --> 00:51:02,600
Speaker 1: All right? Well, thanks to everyone who sent in their questions,

1067
00:51:02,680 --> 00:51:05,000
Speaker 1: so it's fun to see what people are curious about

1068
00:51:05,400 --> 00:51:10,440
Speaker 1: and to try to tackle these interesting mysteries of the universe.

1069
00:51:10,840 --> 00:51:13,759
Speaker 2: Thanks very much everybody who sends in your questions, and

1070
00:51:13,800 --> 00:51:17,719
Speaker 2: thanks everybody else out there for your curiosity. Empowers our

1071
00:51:17,800 --> 00:51:20,200
Speaker 2: science and our podcast and are jumping.

1072
00:51:20,520 --> 00:51:23,279
Speaker 1: We hope you enjoyed that. Thanks for joining us, See

1073
00:51:23,320 --> 00:51:23,879
Speaker 1: you next time.

1074
00:51:28,680 --> 00:51:31,560
Speaker 2: For more science and curiosity, come find us on social

1075
00:51:31,600 --> 00:51:35,520
Speaker 2: media where we answer questions and post videos. We're on Twitter,

1076
00:51:35,640 --> 00:51:39,239
Speaker 2: disc Org, Instant and now TikTok. Thanks for listening and

1077
00:51:39,320 --> 00:51:42,040
Speaker 2: remember that Daniel and Jorge Explain the Universe is a

1078
00:51:42,080 --> 00:51:46,640
Speaker 2: production of iHeartRadio. For more podcasts from iHeartRadio, visit the

1079
00:51:46,719 --> 00:51:50,919
Speaker 2: iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you listen to your

1080
00:51:50,920 --> 00:51:51,680
Speaker 2: favorite shows.