1 00:00:02,600 --> 00:00:06,880 Speaker 1: Happy Saturday. Continuing on with our recent dictionary theme, today's 2 00:00:06,920 --> 00:00:10,160 Speaker 1: classic is the Great Vowel Shift, or A Brief History 3 00:00:10,200 --> 00:00:13,440 Speaker 1: of English, which originally came out on February twenty ninth, 4 00:00:13,520 --> 00:00:17,360 Speaker 1: twenty sixteen. This one is less about dictionaries and more 5 00:00:17,400 --> 00:00:20,960 Speaker 1: about how the English language developed and continues to evolve. 6 00:00:22,040 --> 00:00:25,720 Speaker 1: Some emails we got after this episode came out include 7 00:00:25,760 --> 00:00:28,840 Speaker 1: that some people prefer the term Britain in Ireland to 8 00:00:29,120 --> 00:00:32,320 Speaker 1: the British Isles, although Britain and Ireland kind of leaves 9 00:00:32,360 --> 00:00:34,960 Speaker 1: out the many smaller islands that are also part of 10 00:00:34,960 --> 00:00:40,040 Speaker 1: that archipelago. And also that Scottish Gallic is pronounced Gallic 11 00:00:40,120 --> 00:00:42,479 Speaker 1: and not Gaelic, which is how I said it in 12 00:00:42,560 --> 00:00:49,640 Speaker 1: the episode Enjoy Welcome to Stuff You Missed in History Class, 13 00:00:49,840 --> 00:00:59,080 Speaker 1: a production of iHeartRadio, Hello, and Welcome to the podcast. 14 00:00:59,160 --> 00:01:03,280 Speaker 1: I'm Tracy and I'm Holly Frye. At the end of 15 00:01:03,280 --> 00:01:06,200 Speaker 1: our recent episode on the Honeywar, we read a listener 16 00:01:06,280 --> 00:01:10,399 Speaker 1: mail from an Egyptologist about honorary transposition and hieroglyphics, and 17 00:01:10,440 --> 00:01:12,920 Speaker 1: that led us into this little digression about how hard 18 00:01:12,920 --> 00:01:14,720 Speaker 1: it can be to figure out how to pronounce words 19 00:01:14,720 --> 00:01:17,600 Speaker 1: and languages that nobody speaks anymore. And I made this 20 00:01:17,760 --> 00:01:21,360 Speaker 1: random aside about how I had thought way back when 21 00:01:21,360 --> 00:01:23,600 Speaker 1: Holly and I first got on the podcast, I thought 22 00:01:23,600 --> 00:01:28,760 Speaker 1: about doing an episode about the Great vowel Shift. We 23 00:01:28,840 --> 00:01:33,560 Speaker 1: have never gotten nearly so much response to any other random, 24 00:01:33,680 --> 00:01:37,760 Speaker 1: weird thing we said on the show as we have 25 00:01:37,920 --> 00:01:41,800 Speaker 1: about the Great vowel Shift. I was astonished. Were you astonished? 26 00:01:42,360 --> 00:01:44,720 Speaker 1: Who knew? I had no idea how people were like 27 00:01:44,840 --> 00:01:49,000 Speaker 1: rabidly excited for this content. Yeah, it was an astounding 28 00:01:49,120 --> 00:01:51,160 Speaker 1: number of people that asked us to talk about it. 29 00:01:51,480 --> 00:01:54,320 Speaker 1: We got another email over the weekend after this had 30 00:01:54,320 --> 00:01:57,160 Speaker 1: already been like the outline had been written in everything. 31 00:01:57,880 --> 00:02:00,600 Speaker 1: When I mentioned on Twitter that an astound number of 32 00:02:00,600 --> 00:02:04,000 Speaker 1: people had asked, more people asked after that. Only one 33 00:02:04,040 --> 00:02:06,760 Speaker 1: person asked that we not do that, So I'm sorry 34 00:02:06,800 --> 00:02:12,160 Speaker 1: that person is outvoted. I just I can't get over 35 00:02:12,400 --> 00:02:14,079 Speaker 1: how many people have asked for it, because this was 36 00:02:14,120 --> 00:02:16,560 Speaker 1: really at the tail end of the show. To be candid, 37 00:02:16,600 --> 00:02:18,680 Speaker 1: we know there are people who have checked out by 38 00:02:18,680 --> 00:02:20,079 Speaker 1: that point, Like we know there are a lot of 39 00:02:20,120 --> 00:02:24,080 Speaker 1: people who don't listen to listener mail, But every possible 40 00:02:24,120 --> 00:02:26,600 Speaker 1: way people have to talk to us they did to 41 00:02:26,720 --> 00:02:29,240 Speaker 1: ask us to talk about the Great vowel Shift, so 42 00:02:29,280 --> 00:02:31,079 Speaker 1: the eyes have it. Today, we are going to talk 43 00:02:31,120 --> 00:02:34,160 Speaker 1: about the Great vowel Shift. But because it is, like 44 00:02:34,200 --> 00:02:38,080 Speaker 1: I said, a little Inside Baseball, thirty entire minutes about vowels, 45 00:02:38,120 --> 00:02:39,680 Speaker 1: I think would be a little much for most people. 46 00:02:39,720 --> 00:02:41,680 Speaker 1: So we're going to put it in the greater context 47 00:02:42,120 --> 00:02:44,320 Speaker 1: of the history of English, of the English language, and 48 00:02:44,320 --> 00:02:46,280 Speaker 1: that comes with its own caveat, which is that there 49 00:02:46,280 --> 00:02:49,079 Speaker 1: are whole books about the history of the English language. 50 00:02:49,520 --> 00:02:53,840 Speaker 1: My alma mater had a semester long literature class about it, 51 00:02:54,160 --> 00:02:56,480 Speaker 1: and it wasn't even just like a like it wasn't 52 00:02:56,480 --> 00:03:02,720 Speaker 1: a one hundred level literature class prerequisites. And there's a 53 00:03:02,760 --> 00:03:05,440 Speaker 1: podcast called The History of English and that has run 54 00:03:05,520 --> 00:03:08,760 Speaker 1: for sixty seven episodes so far. So obviously we are 55 00:03:08,760 --> 00:03:11,679 Speaker 1: not going to talk about every single thing there is 56 00:03:11,720 --> 00:03:14,280 Speaker 1: to mention in the history of English, and we're not 57 00:03:14,320 --> 00:03:17,280 Speaker 1: going to get too deep into the very technical linguistic 58 00:03:17,400 --> 00:03:19,200 Speaker 1: terms that are used to describe a lot of it. 59 00:03:19,520 --> 00:03:21,560 Speaker 1: What we are going to talk about is how the 60 00:03:21,600 --> 00:03:26,560 Speaker 1: history of English runs alongside a greater story, which is 61 00:03:26,639 --> 00:03:32,320 Speaker 1: basically all about conquering people and being conquered. So the 62 00:03:32,400 --> 00:03:35,920 Speaker 1: history of English begins before the arrival of Germanic peoples, 63 00:03:35,960 --> 00:03:38,400 Speaker 1: who came to be known as the Anglo Saxons in 64 00:03:38,440 --> 00:03:41,720 Speaker 1: the British Isles. The Anglo Saxons arrived in what is 65 00:03:41,760 --> 00:03:45,640 Speaker 1: now England and Wales from the European continent. Some came peacefully, 66 00:03:45,760 --> 00:03:50,720 Speaker 1: although others definitely arrived as invaders and conquerors. According to 67 00:03:50,720 --> 00:03:54,680 Speaker 1: be the Venerable, the Anglo Saxons included three distinct groups, 68 00:03:55,000 --> 00:03:58,040 Speaker 1: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes. Their arrival in 69 00:03:58,080 --> 00:04:00,920 Speaker 1: England started toward the middle of the fifth century, and 70 00:04:00,960 --> 00:04:03,960 Speaker 1: the language that developed in the wake of their arrival 71 00:04:04,240 --> 00:04:07,400 Speaker 1: is now known as Old English. Its roots come from 72 00:04:07,440 --> 00:04:10,120 Speaker 1: a number of Germanic languages and their dialects, with the 73 00:04:10,160 --> 00:04:15,200 Speaker 1: primary contributors being West Germanic, Old Frisian, Old Franconian, and 74 00:04:15,360 --> 00:04:19,480 Speaker 1: Old High German. Before the arrival of the Anglo Saxons, 75 00:04:19,600 --> 00:04:21,839 Speaker 1: the people of the British Isles spoke a variety of 76 00:04:21,880 --> 00:04:25,680 Speaker 1: Celtic languages. It's also possible that some people spoke Latin, 77 00:04:25,760 --> 00:04:28,279 Speaker 1: since the Roman Empire had governed parts of Britain for 78 00:04:28,320 --> 00:04:30,800 Speaker 1: about three hundred and fifty years from the year forty 79 00:04:30,839 --> 00:04:34,479 Speaker 1: three to the year four ten. It's not completely clear, though, 80 00:04:34,520 --> 00:04:36,919 Speaker 1: how well Latin survived after the end of the Roman 81 00:04:37,000 --> 00:04:40,039 Speaker 1: rule in what the Empire referred to as Britannia in 82 00:04:40,160 --> 00:04:43,880 Speaker 1: four ten. Nor should all these different Celtic speaking peoples 83 00:04:43,920 --> 00:04:47,000 Speaker 1: be lumped together in one cultural group. The idea that 84 00:04:47,040 --> 00:04:50,560 Speaker 1: the British Isles were once inhabited by a monolithic cultural 85 00:04:50,600 --> 00:04:54,760 Speaker 1: group called the Celts is really an eighteenth century invention. Yeah, 86 00:04:54,760 --> 00:04:57,760 Speaker 1: all these different Celtic speaking peoples had their own unique 87 00:04:57,800 --> 00:05:00,600 Speaker 1: cultures and their own unique ways of living. They were 88 00:05:00,600 --> 00:05:04,279 Speaker 1: not one sort of people known as the Celts. Several 89 00:05:04,360 --> 00:05:07,120 Speaker 1: of the Celtic languages that existed in the British Isles 90 00:05:07,160 --> 00:05:09,920 Speaker 1: when the Anglo Saxons arrived, which are classified as the 91 00:05:09,960 --> 00:05:15,440 Speaker 1: insular Celtic languages, still exist today. Welsh, Scottish, Gaelic, Irish, Cornish, 92 00:05:15,520 --> 00:05:17,400 Speaker 1: and Manx, which is spoken in the Isle of Man 93 00:05:17,400 --> 00:05:21,400 Speaker 1: are all examples of insular Celtic languages. Celtic languages were 94 00:05:21,400 --> 00:05:24,479 Speaker 1: once common on the European continent as well, but apart 95 00:05:24,480 --> 00:05:27,240 Speaker 1: from Britain, which was really an insular Celtic language that 96 00:05:27,320 --> 00:05:30,719 Speaker 1: was carried from the British Isles back to Brittany, Celtic 97 00:05:30,839 --> 00:05:33,640 Speaker 1: languages didn't survive well on the continent, being on the 98 00:05:33,680 --> 00:05:38,400 Speaker 1: fourth or fifth century. While several insular Celtic languages survive today, 99 00:05:38,520 --> 00:05:41,800 Speaker 1: some thanks to intentional efforts to preserve them, all of 100 00:05:41,839 --> 00:05:47,960 Speaker 1: the continental Celtic languages are extinct. Insular Celtic languages didn't 101 00:05:48,000 --> 00:05:51,159 Speaker 1: wind up adding very many words to English, though. This 102 00:05:51,279 --> 00:05:53,359 Speaker 1: is one reason why if you do speak English but 103 00:05:53,400 --> 00:05:56,200 Speaker 1: don't speak a Celtic language, trying to sound out a 104 00:05:56,200 --> 00:05:59,720 Speaker 1: word from a Celtic language can be a completely baffling experience. 105 00:06:00,400 --> 00:06:03,520 Speaker 1: It's possible that the insular Celtic languages had an influence 106 00:06:03,600 --> 00:06:06,800 Speaker 1: on grammar and pronunciation in Old English, but when it 107 00:06:06,839 --> 00:06:09,840 Speaker 1: comes to the individual words and the letters and sounds 108 00:06:09,920 --> 00:06:12,040 Speaker 1: used to make them, there really was not a lot 109 00:06:12,080 --> 00:06:14,960 Speaker 1: of sharing going on. Yeah, I'm sure there is some 110 00:06:15,279 --> 00:06:19,120 Speaker 1: like a hilarious video somewhere that English speakers trying to 111 00:06:19,160 --> 00:06:25,719 Speaker 1: pronounce Welsh. Not only like the spelling of Welsh words 112 00:06:25,800 --> 00:06:29,560 Speaker 1: doesn't follow a pattern that English speakers recognize really well, 113 00:06:29,600 --> 00:06:33,520 Speaker 1: the letters themselves are pronounced differently than they are in English. 114 00:06:33,920 --> 00:06:37,200 Speaker 1: The Anglo Saxons and their languages were firmly established in 115 00:06:37,240 --> 00:06:40,039 Speaker 1: England by the sixth century, and there are lots of 116 00:06:40,080 --> 00:06:43,799 Speaker 1: English words in use today that came from these Germanic languages, 117 00:06:43,839 --> 00:06:48,440 Speaker 1: although they generally had different spellings and pronunciations at the time. 118 00:06:48,800 --> 00:06:50,600 Speaker 1: A lot of these words are really short, and they 119 00:06:50,600 --> 00:06:56,720 Speaker 1: describe everyday objects and things. So baker, beer, sheep, bird, eel, book, father, world, 120 00:06:56,760 --> 00:06:59,920 Speaker 1: and wright are all examples of English words that existed 121 00:07:00,560 --> 00:07:03,600 Speaker 1: that were also part of these Germanic Old English words. 122 00:07:04,040 --> 00:07:07,080 Speaker 1: The words for England and English also come from these 123 00:07:07,160 --> 00:07:11,480 Speaker 1: Germanic roots. There were plenty of longer, more complex words 124 00:07:11,520 --> 00:07:14,720 Speaker 1: in Old English as well, but the shortest words used 125 00:07:14,760 --> 00:07:17,680 Speaker 1: for the most everyday things and ideas were the most 126 00:07:17,680 --> 00:07:20,760 Speaker 1: commonly used and consequently had the most staying power in 127 00:07:20,760 --> 00:07:23,640 Speaker 1: the evolution of the language. More than half of the 128 00:07:23,720 --> 00:07:26,720 Speaker 1: thousand most common words in Old English still exist in 129 00:07:26,760 --> 00:07:31,360 Speaker 1: the English language today. Conversely, about eighty percent of the 130 00:07:31,480 --> 00:07:35,760 Speaker 1: thousand most common words in English today came from Old English, 131 00:07:36,000 --> 00:07:39,240 Speaker 1: which to me adds a delightful layer to Randall Munroe's 132 00:07:39,240 --> 00:07:43,200 Speaker 1: book Thing Explainer, which is a book that explains complicated 133 00:07:43,200 --> 00:07:47,640 Speaker 1: stuff using the only the one thousand most common words 134 00:07:47,680 --> 00:07:50,000 Speaker 1: in English. So I like the idea of reading that 135 00:07:50,080 --> 00:07:54,920 Speaker 1: book pretending that you're reading Old English instead. But in 136 00:07:54,960 --> 00:07:57,520 Speaker 1: spite of the simplicity of the Old English words that 137 00:07:57,560 --> 00:08:00,320 Speaker 1: remain in English today, a lot of Old englis Ulish 138 00:08:00,400 --> 00:08:03,200 Speaker 1: was kind of complicated in a different way than how 139 00:08:03,200 --> 00:08:07,000 Speaker 1: today's English is complicated. In Old English, verbs could change 140 00:08:07,000 --> 00:08:10,440 Speaker 1: their position in the sentence for emphasis or grammatical reasons, 141 00:08:10,920 --> 00:08:13,120 Speaker 1: and a number of inflections were used to change the 142 00:08:13,200 --> 00:08:17,280 Speaker 1: meanings of words. Inflections still exist today. Adding an S 143 00:08:17,360 --> 00:08:19,320 Speaker 1: to a noun to make it plural is an example 144 00:08:19,320 --> 00:08:22,000 Speaker 1: of inflection, as is adding an ed to a verb 145 00:08:22,040 --> 00:08:24,840 Speaker 1: to make it in the past tense. But Old English 146 00:08:24,840 --> 00:08:27,640 Speaker 1: had a lot more inflections for a lot more reasons 147 00:08:27,680 --> 00:08:30,040 Speaker 1: than modern English does, and applied them to a lot 148 00:08:30,120 --> 00:08:33,360 Speaker 1: more parts of speech. Words in Old English were also 149 00:08:33,440 --> 00:08:35,520 Speaker 1: often gendered in a way that they are not in 150 00:08:35,600 --> 00:08:39,760 Speaker 1: modern English. Germanic languages also aren't the only root of 151 00:08:39,800 --> 00:08:43,079 Speaker 1: Old English. In the late sixth century, so one hundred 152 00:08:43,080 --> 00:08:45,800 Speaker 1: and fifty or two hundred years after the Anglo Saxon 153 00:08:45,960 --> 00:08:50,199 Speaker 1: Saxon invasion of England began, Christian missionaries began arriving in 154 00:08:50,240 --> 00:08:52,400 Speaker 1: the British Isles as well, and they brought with them 155 00:08:52,400 --> 00:08:55,440 Speaker 1: a language that was not entirely new to the region, 156 00:08:55,600 --> 00:09:00,400 Speaker 1: which was Latin. Latin began to influence Old English, and 157 00:09:00,440 --> 00:09:03,320 Speaker 1: the Latin alphabet was also used to write Old English 158 00:09:03,640 --> 00:09:05,959 Speaker 1: with the addition of a couple of characters to represent 159 00:09:06,040 --> 00:09:09,400 Speaker 1: the th sound, the most famous being the character thorn. 160 00:09:10,320 --> 00:09:13,000 Speaker 1: The first Latin English glossaries date back to the year 161 00:09:13,040 --> 00:09:16,319 Speaker 1: seven hundred, and some scholars argue that this is really 162 00:09:16,360 --> 00:09:19,920 Speaker 1: the birth of Old English as a language. We still 163 00:09:19,960 --> 00:09:23,000 Speaker 1: have some literature that was written in Old English around today. 164 00:09:23,160 --> 00:09:26,280 Speaker 1: The most famous pieces are probably the epic poem Beowulf, 165 00:09:26,280 --> 00:09:29,240 Speaker 1: which is one of my favorite things, and for prose, 166 00:09:29,320 --> 00:09:33,040 Speaker 1: the writings of King Alfred the Great. The next big 167 00:09:33,120 --> 00:09:36,439 Speaker 1: changes to the English language were also the result of invasions. 168 00:09:37,000 --> 00:09:40,560 Speaker 1: Starting in the eighth century, Scandinavians made their way to England, 169 00:09:40,960 --> 00:09:44,240 Speaker 1: all the folks we broadly classify as Vikings, and while 170 00:09:44,240 --> 00:09:47,319 Speaker 1: there are definitely English words that have Norse roots, most 171 00:09:47,320 --> 00:09:50,240 Speaker 1: of this influence on the language itself didn't come along 172 00:09:50,320 --> 00:09:52,679 Speaker 1: until a bit later, after the next big shift in 173 00:09:52,720 --> 00:09:54,920 Speaker 1: the language, which we're going to talk about, but first 174 00:09:55,000 --> 00:09:56,559 Speaker 1: we are going to have a word from a sponsor. 175 00:10:06,120 --> 00:10:09,520 Speaker 1: So Old English was spoken in much of what's now 176 00:10:09,559 --> 00:10:12,720 Speaker 1: known as England and Wales from roughly the sixth to 177 00:10:12,840 --> 00:10:16,559 Speaker 1: the eleventh centuries, and from there it gradually shifted into 178 00:10:16,960 --> 00:10:20,080 Speaker 1: Middle English, which is one of the languages associated with 179 00:10:20,160 --> 00:10:23,200 Speaker 1: the medieval period in Britain. As we talked about at 180 00:10:23,240 --> 00:10:25,720 Speaker 1: the top of the show, Old English was the language 181 00:10:25,720 --> 00:10:28,920 Speaker 1: invaders and colonists from the European continent brought to the 182 00:10:28,920 --> 00:10:31,559 Speaker 1: island after the end of the Roman Empire. In Britain, 183 00:10:32,200 --> 00:10:34,880 Speaker 1: the shift into Middle English was the result of invasions 184 00:10:34,920 --> 00:10:38,640 Speaker 1: as well. Middle English came about thanks to influences from 185 00:10:38,679 --> 00:10:43,840 Speaker 1: the Normans, the Vikings, and Christian missionaries. The Norman invasion 186 00:10:43,920 --> 00:10:47,679 Speaker 1: was famously marked by past podcast subject the Battle of Hastings, 187 00:10:47,720 --> 00:10:50,040 Speaker 1: which took place in ten sixty six, and the Battle 188 00:10:50,040 --> 00:10:53,720 Speaker 1: of Hastings was also documented in the Biotapestry, which was 189 00:10:53,760 --> 00:10:58,240 Speaker 1: also another past podcast subject. Over the next one hundred 190 00:10:58,320 --> 00:11:01,439 Speaker 1: years or so following the Battle of Hayess, English went 191 00:11:01,480 --> 00:11:04,800 Speaker 1: through a number of shifts and revisions. Some scholars refer 192 00:11:04,880 --> 00:11:08,160 Speaker 1: to this period as transitional English because so many different 193 00:11:08,200 --> 00:11:11,240 Speaker 1: influences on the language were still making their way through 194 00:11:11,240 --> 00:11:14,840 Speaker 1: how people really spoke and wrote. A big shift was 195 00:11:14,880 --> 00:11:19,360 Speaker 1: in grammar the number of inflections dropped dramatically, particularly when 196 00:11:19,360 --> 00:11:22,400 Speaker 1: it came to nouns, and a lot of the more complex, 197 00:11:22,559 --> 00:11:25,400 Speaker 1: lengthy words from Old English that didn't survive until today 198 00:11:25,400 --> 00:11:29,200 Speaker 1: were replaced by words from other languages, basically the languages 199 00:11:29,280 --> 00:11:32,680 Speaker 1: being spoken by the various peoples who were invading England. 200 00:11:33,400 --> 00:11:36,239 Speaker 1: William the Conqueror, who invaded at the Battle of Hastings, 201 00:11:36,280 --> 00:11:39,400 Speaker 1: spoke Norman French, and the ruling class that he brought 202 00:11:39,440 --> 00:11:42,880 Speaker 1: with him did as well. Because of this French influence, 203 00:11:42,880 --> 00:11:45,600 Speaker 1: for a time, much of the literature written in England 204 00:11:45,679 --> 00:11:49,160 Speaker 1: was largely in Anglo Norman. Anglo Norman also became the 205 00:11:49,240 --> 00:11:52,160 Speaker 1: language favored by the nobility, the court system, and the 206 00:11:52,200 --> 00:11:55,080 Speaker 1: schools as well. Some of the most famous works of 207 00:11:55,120 --> 00:11:57,760 Speaker 1: literature from the Middle Ages were written in Anglo Norman, 208 00:11:57,840 --> 00:12:01,720 Speaker 1: including Tristan and Eisold and The Lay of Marie de France. 209 00:12:02,320 --> 00:12:05,640 Speaker 1: The next most popular scholarly language in England was Latin, 210 00:12:05,800 --> 00:12:08,880 Speaker 1: thanks to the influence of Christian missionaries. Because of this 211 00:12:09,040 --> 00:12:12,480 Speaker 1: prevalence of both French and Latin, and the fact that 212 00:12:12,520 --> 00:12:15,000 Speaker 1: French and Latin have a lot in common, sometimes it's 213 00:12:15,040 --> 00:12:17,200 Speaker 1: really hard to tell whether a word that exists in 214 00:12:17,240 --> 00:12:20,360 Speaker 1: English today really came from French or Latin. This is 215 00:12:20,400 --> 00:12:23,760 Speaker 1: particularly true because some French words are borrowed from Latin, 216 00:12:23,840 --> 00:12:27,480 Speaker 1: and then the English words were borrowed from French. Regardless, though, 217 00:12:27,520 --> 00:12:30,480 Speaker 1: following the Norman invasion, lots of words with French or 218 00:12:30,559 --> 00:12:35,360 Speaker 1: Latin roots made their way into English, including peace, animal, imagination, 219 00:12:35,720 --> 00:12:39,480 Speaker 1: and prison. The Viking raids into England pretty much stopped 220 00:12:39,480 --> 00:12:42,240 Speaker 1: after the Norman invasion, However, by the time they did, 221 00:12:42,280 --> 00:12:45,520 Speaker 1: there were a lot of people in England, particularly Northern England, 222 00:12:45,760 --> 00:12:49,160 Speaker 1: who spoke one of their early Scandinavian languages that would 223 00:12:49,200 --> 00:12:53,800 Speaker 1: eventually grow into Swedish, Norwegian, Danish and the like. None 224 00:12:53,800 --> 00:12:57,000 Speaker 1: of these languages gained a long term foothold in England, 225 00:12:57,320 --> 00:13:00,920 Speaker 1: but lots of English words come from scant Navan roots 226 00:13:00,920 --> 00:13:04,160 Speaker 1: that were started during this time. As with old English 227 00:13:04,200 --> 00:13:07,160 Speaker 1: words that are still spoken today, many of them are short, 228 00:13:07,240 --> 00:13:10,559 Speaker 1: one or two syllable words that name everyday objects and ideas. 229 00:13:10,960 --> 00:13:16,319 Speaker 1: Some of the nouns from sc Scandinavian origins include cow, bull, root, 230 00:13:16,400 --> 00:13:21,640 Speaker 1: and skin. Verbs include take, scare, flit, and want. The 231 00:13:21,679 --> 00:13:27,400 Speaker 1: pronoun they also has Scandinavian origins. Eventually, all of these 232 00:13:27,440 --> 00:13:30,520 Speaker 1: influences coalesced into a language that if you can read 233 00:13:30,600 --> 00:13:33,840 Speaker 1: Modern English, you can probably read as well, although it 234 00:13:33,880 --> 00:13:37,160 Speaker 1: may be a bit more difficult. The words themselves tend 235 00:13:37,200 --> 00:13:39,920 Speaker 1: to be familiar, even though their spellings and pronunciations are 236 00:13:39,960 --> 00:13:43,920 Speaker 1: often inconsistent. By the thirteen hundreds, Middle English had become 237 00:13:43,960 --> 00:13:47,080 Speaker 1: the favored language in England and literature was being written 238 00:13:47,080 --> 00:13:49,320 Speaker 1: in it. Some of the most famous works in Middle 239 00:13:49,360 --> 00:13:52,760 Speaker 1: English include the Canterbury Tales, Sir Gawaine and The Green 240 00:13:52,840 --> 00:13:55,520 Speaker 1: Knight in the Book of Marjorie Kemp, which is of 241 00:13:55,559 --> 00:13:58,920 Speaker 1: course the subject of a past podcast. The first complete 242 00:13:58,960 --> 00:14:01,920 Speaker 1: English translation of the Bible was in Middle English as well. 243 00:14:03,120 --> 00:14:06,120 Speaker 1: On a Brief Digression about Marjorie Camp. That was one 244 00:14:06,120 --> 00:14:09,600 Speaker 1: of the first episodes that I researched for the podcast, 245 00:14:10,360 --> 00:14:12,160 Speaker 1: and I had chosen to do it because it was 246 00:14:12,360 --> 00:14:15,600 Speaker 1: something that I already had enough familiarity with that I 247 00:14:15,640 --> 00:14:18,440 Speaker 1: felt like I could get into it and not be 248 00:14:18,559 --> 00:14:21,000 Speaker 1: starting from absolute square one. In one of the first 249 00:14:21,040 --> 00:14:23,680 Speaker 1: podcasts I ever researched, and I went to get my 250 00:14:23,760 --> 00:14:26,680 Speaker 1: college copy of the Book of Marjorie Camp off of 251 00:14:26,720 --> 00:14:29,120 Speaker 1: the bookshelf, and I opened it up and it was 252 00:14:29,120 --> 00:14:31,840 Speaker 1: in Middle English. And I was like, oh, oh, I do. 253 00:14:33,360 --> 00:14:35,360 Speaker 1: I do not have time to puzzle my way through 254 00:14:35,400 --> 00:14:37,600 Speaker 1: Middle English for this podcast, and so I had to 255 00:14:38,160 --> 00:14:42,120 Speaker 1: order a Modern English version of it. One of the 256 00:14:42,120 --> 00:14:44,600 Speaker 1: reasons that I found it difficult was that Middle English 257 00:14:44,640 --> 00:14:47,600 Speaker 1: was in a lot of ways not very standardized. Surviving 258 00:14:47,680 --> 00:14:50,440 Speaker 1: manuscripts from the era vary a lot from one another, 259 00:14:50,480 --> 00:14:52,760 Speaker 1: even when they are literally copies of the exact same 260 00:14:52,800 --> 00:14:56,520 Speaker 1: piece of literature. In addition to lots of inconsistencies and 261 00:14:56,560 --> 00:15:00,000 Speaker 1: spelling and grammar, there were specific dialects that existed off 262 00:15:00,000 --> 00:15:02,840 Speaker 1: all over the British Isles, and many people still spoke 263 00:15:02,840 --> 00:15:06,560 Speaker 1: a Celtic language as their primary or only language during 264 00:15:06,560 --> 00:15:10,160 Speaker 1: this time. Toward the end of the fifteenth century, English 265 00:15:10,160 --> 00:15:12,240 Speaker 1: had its next big shift, and we are going to 266 00:15:12,320 --> 00:15:15,080 Speaker 1: talk about that after we have another pause for a 267 00:15:15,080 --> 00:15:27,480 Speaker 1: sponsor break. After Middle English came perhaps not surprisingly, Early 268 00:15:27,560 --> 00:15:30,920 Speaker 1: Modern English. The King James Bible and Shakespeare's plays are 269 00:15:30,920 --> 00:15:33,720 Speaker 1: both in Early Modern English, and as with Middle English, 270 00:15:33,800 --> 00:15:36,280 Speaker 1: if you can read Modern English today things that are 271 00:15:36,320 --> 00:15:38,840 Speaker 1: written right now, you can probably read it too, but 272 00:15:38,880 --> 00:15:40,600 Speaker 1: it might take your brain a little bit more work. 273 00:15:41,520 --> 00:15:43,640 Speaker 1: In a lot of ways, the shift from Old English 274 00:15:43,720 --> 00:15:46,240 Speaker 1: to Middle English seems a lot more dramatic than from 275 00:15:46,280 --> 00:15:49,080 Speaker 1: Middle English to Early Modern English, and that makes a 276 00:15:49,080 --> 00:15:52,400 Speaker 1: lot of logical sense. The transition from Old English to 277 00:15:52,440 --> 00:15:55,120 Speaker 1: Middle English was brought about in large part by the 278 00:15:55,160 --> 00:15:58,760 Speaker 1: influence of multiple other languages on Old English, but the 279 00:15:58,800 --> 00:16:01,440 Speaker 1: shift from Middle English to Early Modern English was a 280 00:16:01,440 --> 00:16:05,200 Speaker 1: lot more about standardizing a language that already existed. English 281 00:16:05,320 --> 00:16:09,000 Speaker 1: vocabulary continued to grow, but mostly through the inclusion of 282 00:16:09,080 --> 00:16:12,520 Speaker 1: more words from languages people were already familiar with, or 283 00:16:12,560 --> 00:16:16,600 Speaker 1: other romance languages that had similar roots. This was the 284 00:16:16,720 --> 00:16:21,120 Speaker 1: rise of pedantry in the English language. Different scholars set 285 00:16:21,120 --> 00:16:24,520 Speaker 1: about trying to set rules specifically for English and the 286 00:16:24,640 --> 00:16:28,120 Speaker 1: nitpicking other writers who broke those rules. It's a trend 287 00:16:28,200 --> 00:16:32,760 Speaker 1: that continues to annoy editors today. Various writers, including seventeenth 288 00:16:32,760 --> 00:16:36,400 Speaker 1: century writer and critic John Dryden, decreed that English should 289 00:16:36,480 --> 00:16:40,640 Speaker 1: follow the rules of Latin and then effectively applied Latin's 290 00:16:40,680 --> 00:16:44,600 Speaker 1: structure to English, so rules like don't end sentences with 291 00:16:44,680 --> 00:16:47,880 Speaker 1: prepositions are made up from during this time to try 292 00:16:47,920 --> 00:16:51,600 Speaker 1: to make English conform to Latin rules. Alexander Pope and 293 00:16:51,680 --> 00:16:53,680 Speaker 1: Jonathan Swift did a lot of writing about the need 294 00:16:53,720 --> 00:16:57,440 Speaker 1: to standardize English as well, and consensus among linguists today 295 00:16:57,600 --> 00:17:00,880 Speaker 1: is that you can try to permanently effect a language 296 00:17:00,920 --> 00:17:03,400 Speaker 1: all you want, but as long as people are actually 297 00:17:03,440 --> 00:17:08,600 Speaker 1: speaking it, it will continue to evolve. Beginning in the 298 00:17:08,640 --> 00:17:12,240 Speaker 1: middle of the seventeenth century, people started proposing that there 299 00:17:12,280 --> 00:17:15,360 Speaker 1: be a formal academy of English to document the language 300 00:17:15,640 --> 00:17:18,919 Speaker 1: and make sure it stayed quote pure. This didn't happen, 301 00:17:19,040 --> 00:17:22,800 Speaker 1: but through the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, dictionaries did flourish. 302 00:17:22,960 --> 00:17:29,040 Speaker 1: English gradually became standardized. Perhaps inconveniently, this exact same time 303 00:17:29,160 --> 00:17:32,800 Speaker 1: that people were writing dictionaries and standardizing rules for how 304 00:17:32,840 --> 00:17:35,200 Speaker 1: to speak and spell English was happening at the same 305 00:17:35,240 --> 00:17:39,840 Speaker 1: time as people were completely shifting how they pronounced things right, 306 00:17:39,880 --> 00:17:42,080 Speaker 1: at the same time that people were literally documenting how 307 00:17:42,119 --> 00:17:45,040 Speaker 1: to spell, people were starting to say things differently from 308 00:17:45,080 --> 00:17:48,240 Speaker 1: how they were spelled. To be clear, this shift did 309 00:17:48,400 --> 00:17:51,680 Speaker 1: take hundreds of years to play out. Pronunciations were shifting 310 00:17:51,720 --> 00:17:55,120 Speaker 1: back in the twelfth century, but just as the language 311 00:17:55,160 --> 00:17:57,880 Speaker 1: was finishing that shift into the sixteenth century, people were 312 00:17:57,880 --> 00:18:01,119 Speaker 1: writing dictionaries based on the old spellings of words that 313 00:18:01,200 --> 00:18:04,320 Speaker 1: no longer matched how we say them, and a piece 314 00:18:04,359 --> 00:18:08,040 Speaker 1: of this was the Great vowel shift, essentially where people 315 00:18:08,080 --> 00:18:11,320 Speaker 1: pronounced long vowels moved up and back in their mouths. 316 00:18:11,800 --> 00:18:15,720 Speaker 1: And the reason that uh Tracy had described this as 317 00:18:15,720 --> 00:18:18,440 Speaker 1: being a little too inside baseball is because it's really 318 00:18:18,480 --> 00:18:22,360 Speaker 1: difficult to both research and describe without a working knowledge 319 00:18:22,400 --> 00:18:27,520 Speaker 1: of linguistics and phonology. We're going to assume most of 320 00:18:27,520 --> 00:18:29,840 Speaker 1: our listeners don't have that, and I'm so I'm going 321 00:18:29,880 --> 00:18:33,520 Speaker 1: to take an extremely simple, basic approach to explaining this. 322 00:18:34,000 --> 00:18:37,359 Speaker 1: If you ever had to memorize the prologue to Chaucer's 323 00:18:37,359 --> 00:18:40,560 Speaker 1: Canterbury Tales in Middle English, you probably remember the first 324 00:18:40,600 --> 00:18:45,160 Speaker 1: lines which start wanted that Opril with his shoes Sota 325 00:18:45,680 --> 00:18:48,840 Speaker 1: the draft of March hath Parson to the Rota. And 326 00:18:48,920 --> 00:18:51,840 Speaker 1: in modern English, that's when April with his shower sweet 327 00:18:51,840 --> 00:18:54,880 Speaker 1: with fruit. The drought of March has pierced to the root. 328 00:18:55,800 --> 00:18:59,440 Speaker 1: So during the Great vowel shift, for example, Rota became 329 00:18:59,480 --> 00:19:04,760 Speaker 1: pronounced as root, April became april, or to look at 330 00:19:04,800 --> 00:19:07,640 Speaker 1: it with some other words. The word height, like how 331 00:19:07,680 --> 00:19:10,320 Speaker 1: tall you are today, would have been pronounced more like 332 00:19:10,400 --> 00:19:14,199 Speaker 1: heat and feet. The things at the end of people's 333 00:19:14,280 --> 00:19:18,840 Speaker 1: legs would have been pronounced fet and hate like really 334 00:19:18,880 --> 00:19:23,119 Speaker 1: disliking pedantry would have been pronounced more like hot. And 335 00:19:23,160 --> 00:19:25,520 Speaker 1: these were not the only shifts in pronunciation that went 336 00:19:25,560 --> 00:19:28,639 Speaker 1: on in early modern English. There are whole other vowel 337 00:19:28,680 --> 00:19:31,919 Speaker 1: pronunciations that used to be unique but now sound identical. 338 00:19:32,280 --> 00:19:35,679 Speaker 1: People also stopped pronouncing a lot of consonants, as you 339 00:19:35,680 --> 00:19:38,879 Speaker 1: could probably hear in the Canterbury Tales example. But the 340 00:19:38,920 --> 00:19:42,240 Speaker 1: early modern period is also when we stopped produce pronouncing 341 00:19:42,359 --> 00:19:45,800 Speaker 1: the K, the G, and the H in the word night, 342 00:19:46,480 --> 00:19:51,000 Speaker 1: so we don't take that event a much more complicated word. 343 00:19:52,000 --> 00:19:54,560 Speaker 1: We also stop saying the b in lamb and the 344 00:19:54,640 --> 00:19:58,480 Speaker 1: tea in thistle. Basically a lot, but not all, of 345 00:19:58,520 --> 00:20:01,840 Speaker 1: the complete discrepancies between how we spell things and how 346 00:20:01,880 --> 00:20:06,280 Speaker 1: we say them in English arose in early modern English. Apparently, 347 00:20:06,560 --> 00:20:08,960 Speaker 1: for all the listeners at home who cannot see the outline, 348 00:20:09,040 --> 00:20:16,280 Speaker 1: this is where I also had discrepancies in typing. There 349 00:20:16,320 --> 00:20:19,840 Speaker 1: are a lot of theories for why all of this happened. 350 00:20:20,080 --> 00:20:23,760 Speaker 1: There are scholars who blame migration that followed the Black Death. 351 00:20:24,160 --> 00:20:26,800 Speaker 1: Others just say it's a natural drift in how we 352 00:20:26,840 --> 00:20:30,119 Speaker 1: pronounce things, and it's still going on today. The general 353 00:20:30,160 --> 00:20:32,640 Speaker 1: consensus though, is basically it's a mystery. We don't really 354 00:20:32,640 --> 00:20:35,560 Speaker 1: know why everybody changed how they said their vowels. There 355 00:20:35,600 --> 00:20:38,479 Speaker 1: are also some naysayers among linguists who say that this 356 00:20:38,520 --> 00:20:42,200 Speaker 1: whole thing is extremely exaggerated and that it wasn't nearly 357 00:20:42,240 --> 00:20:47,359 Speaker 1: as pronounced or important as people position it as today. 358 00:20:47,800 --> 00:20:51,159 Speaker 1: And to be clear, people did figure out the vowel 359 00:20:51,200 --> 00:20:55,280 Speaker 1: shift by examining things like verse like what words rhymed 360 00:20:55,320 --> 00:20:59,199 Speaker 1: with what other words, and misspellings and documents with the 361 00:20:59,240 --> 00:21:02,480 Speaker 1: idea that if you were spelling something the way it sounded, 362 00:21:03,040 --> 00:21:05,560 Speaker 1: the misspelling that you make would change over time as 363 00:21:05,600 --> 00:21:09,560 Speaker 1: the vowel pronunciation shifted, so to some extent, our very 364 00:21:09,640 --> 00:21:13,159 Speaker 1: understanding of these pronunciations here is kind of an educated guess. 365 00:21:14,560 --> 00:21:17,840 Speaker 1: Toward the end of the early modern period, people continued 366 00:21:17,840 --> 00:21:21,800 Speaker 1: to be very concerned with standardizing and perfecting English. In 367 00:21:21,840 --> 00:21:26,200 Speaker 1: the eighteen hundreds, professionally printed materials became increasingly standard in 368 00:21:26,240 --> 00:21:30,680 Speaker 1: their spelling, grammar, and style, but people's personal papers continued 369 00:21:30,680 --> 00:21:33,240 Speaker 1: to be all over the place. People have made much 370 00:21:33,240 --> 00:21:36,280 Speaker 1: of the fact that Jane Austen's handwritten drafts are full 371 00:21:36,280 --> 00:21:39,720 Speaker 1: of what are considered errors but really that's how ordinary 372 00:21:39,840 --> 00:21:43,160 Speaker 1: non pedants wrote at the time. Yeah, people were much 373 00:21:43,160 --> 00:21:47,200 Speaker 1: more casual in their personal correspondence than the increasingly standard 374 00:21:47,240 --> 00:21:50,879 Speaker 1: professionally printed work. From the end of the Early Modern period, 375 00:21:50,920 --> 00:21:53,800 Speaker 1: English progressively became more and more like the language that 376 00:21:53,840 --> 00:21:57,120 Speaker 1: we recognize today. It's probably safe to say that most 377 00:21:57,119 --> 00:22:00,320 Speaker 1: people find Jane Austen and Charles Dickens, who were in 378 00:22:00,359 --> 00:22:03,639 Speaker 1: Late Modern English, easier to read than William Shakespeare or 379 00:22:03,680 --> 00:22:06,880 Speaker 1: Alexander Pope, who wrote in Early Modern English, and much 380 00:22:06,960 --> 00:22:09,920 Speaker 1: much easier than Marjorie Camp who was writing in Middle English, 381 00:22:10,200 --> 00:22:13,520 Speaker 1: and a million times easier than the Epic of Beowulf 382 00:22:13,560 --> 00:22:15,960 Speaker 1: as written in Old English, which I'm not sure I 383 00:22:16,000 --> 00:22:19,159 Speaker 1: could make out without a dictionary, I definitely could not. 384 00:22:20,000 --> 00:22:22,760 Speaker 1: While the development of English into a modern language is 385 00:22:22,800 --> 00:22:25,720 Speaker 1: most about who invaded England and then an effort to 386 00:22:25,720 --> 00:22:29,400 Speaker 1: standardize the result, English today is also defined by where 387 00:22:29,440 --> 00:22:32,760 Speaker 1: England went after that. The most obvious is the variations 388 00:22:32,760 --> 00:22:35,960 Speaker 1: in slang, pronunciation and dialects in places that were or 389 00:22:36,000 --> 00:22:39,000 Speaker 1: are still part of the British Empire. English does not 390 00:22:39,160 --> 00:22:43,280 Speaker 1: sound quite the same in Australia, Canada, England, Ireland, Scotland, Wales, 391 00:22:43,320 --> 00:22:46,920 Speaker 1: the United States, India. In each of these places, English 392 00:22:46,920 --> 00:22:49,520 Speaker 1: also has its own loanwords that are unique to the 393 00:22:49,600 --> 00:22:54,120 Speaker 1: languages being spoken there before English arrived. But it's not 394 00:22:54,200 --> 00:22:57,480 Speaker 1: just about the nuances and what's considered standard English. In 395 00:22:57,520 --> 00:23:00,919 Speaker 1: all of these different countries, there are also creoles and 396 00:23:01,040 --> 00:23:04,280 Speaker 1: dialects that have involved that have evolved in tandem with 397 00:23:04,359 --> 00:23:07,399 Speaker 1: English all over the world. As an example, in the 398 00:23:07,440 --> 00:23:10,800 Speaker 1: Americas and the Caribbean, there are English based creoles that 399 00:23:11,480 --> 00:23:14,639 Speaker 1: evolved as a result of the Transatlantic slave trade. They 400 00:23:14,720 --> 00:23:19,320 Speaker 1: draw from English West African languages and sometimes the language 401 00:23:19,320 --> 00:23:24,160 Speaker 1: of native peoples who were living in the area. Gulla, Jamaican, Patois, 402 00:23:24,320 --> 00:23:27,720 Speaker 1: Cayman Creole, and Bahamian Creole are all creoles that draw 403 00:23:27,760 --> 00:23:32,800 Speaker 1: from English African languages and sometimes each other. Australian Creole 404 00:23:32,880 --> 00:23:35,639 Speaker 1: and pitcern are examples of creoles that draw from English 405 00:23:35,720 --> 00:23:39,640 Speaker 1: and native people's languages in the Pacific. Pretty much anywhere 406 00:23:39,720 --> 00:23:43,200 Speaker 1: English speakers have colonized, there are also dialects of English 407 00:23:43,240 --> 00:23:46,760 Speaker 1: that have their own rules about grammar and pronunciation. One 408 00:23:46,800 --> 00:23:49,880 Speaker 1: example is African American Vernacular English, which is a law 409 00:23:49,960 --> 00:23:54,440 Speaker 1: in common with Southern English dialects, so that is an extremely, 410 00:23:54,480 --> 00:23:58,320 Speaker 1: extremely condensed history of the English language, of thanks in 411 00:23:58,359 --> 00:24:00,240 Speaker 1: part to how many people wanted us to talk about 412 00:24:00,240 --> 00:24:03,760 Speaker 1: the Great vowel shift. If you are a linguist, this 413 00:24:03,960 --> 00:24:08,840 Speaker 1: was probably the stuff that is way, like, you know, 414 00:24:08,920 --> 00:24:12,000 Speaker 1: way more stuff than what we just said. I suddenly 415 00:24:12,040 --> 00:24:14,280 Speaker 1: found myself mired in gosh, what things am I really 416 00:24:14,280 --> 00:24:18,440 Speaker 1: pedantic about? There's really only one. Well, what's really funny, 417 00:24:18,680 --> 00:24:22,480 Speaker 1: not funny. It's more annoying to me is that sometimes 418 00:24:22,480 --> 00:24:24,720 Speaker 1: we'll put like, let's say, for example, we'll put an 419 00:24:24,800 --> 00:24:28,160 Speaker 1: article on our Facebook page, and the article will end 420 00:24:28,440 --> 00:24:31,760 Speaker 1: the headline with a preposition, and someone will come and 421 00:24:31,760 --> 00:24:35,080 Speaker 1: make a comment about how one should not end sentences 422 00:24:35,119 --> 00:24:39,800 Speaker 1: with prepositions, and then I will provide numerous sources about 423 00:24:39,800 --> 00:24:44,080 Speaker 1: how that's actually fine, and then ninety percent of the 424 00:24:44,119 --> 00:24:47,840 Speaker 1: time the person just doubles down into how that that 425 00:24:48,040 --> 00:24:51,240 Speaker 1: is the right way, and you should make sure that 426 00:24:51,680 --> 00:24:54,000 Speaker 1: not to apply made up to rules to English. And 427 00:24:54,040 --> 00:24:57,359 Speaker 1: I'm like, but the things that you are making complaining 428 00:24:57,440 --> 00:25:01,560 Speaker 1: about is a made up rule? Yeah, Like, there is 429 00:25:01,680 --> 00:25:05,480 Speaker 1: definitely great value in learning how to speak and write well. 430 00:25:05,720 --> 00:25:08,640 Speaker 1: These are important skills to have in life. But then 431 00:25:08,680 --> 00:25:12,919 Speaker 1: you also really should think about how the way that 432 00:25:12,920 --> 00:25:14,639 Speaker 1: people talk, in the language that they use, in the 433 00:25:14,640 --> 00:25:17,520 Speaker 1: way people speak and right also reflects where they are 434 00:25:17,560 --> 00:25:20,399 Speaker 1: from and their upbringing, how much education they actually had 435 00:25:20,480 --> 00:25:24,520 Speaker 1: access to, their class, their ethnicity, Like, there's a whole 436 00:25:24,560 --> 00:25:27,040 Speaker 1: lot that goes into how people talk and write. So 437 00:25:28,600 --> 00:25:32,399 Speaker 1: pedantically nitpicking strangers on the internet about how they spelled 438 00:25:32,440 --> 00:25:35,800 Speaker 1: something wrong is perhaps not the best use of anyone's 439 00:25:35,800 --> 00:25:39,119 Speaker 1: time unless you are literally that person's English teacher, and 440 00:25:39,200 --> 00:25:41,520 Speaker 1: the thing you are nitpicking on the internet is literally 441 00:25:41,560 --> 00:25:48,760 Speaker 1: their class assignment that they did for you. You know, 442 00:25:48,840 --> 00:25:51,640 Speaker 1: for some people, that's their windmill that they tilt at. 443 00:25:51,680 --> 00:25:55,399 Speaker 1: I don't I find and I think you probably do 444 00:25:55,480 --> 00:25:58,800 Speaker 1: as well. Like people are surprised that I'm not one 445 00:25:58,800 --> 00:26:00,840 Speaker 1: of those. They're like, but you're an Eda, And I'm like, yeah, 446 00:26:00,840 --> 00:26:03,480 Speaker 1: But if you had it long enough, you realize that 447 00:26:03,560 --> 00:26:07,200 Speaker 1: even really fabulous, well educated people make typos and mistakes 448 00:26:07,200 --> 00:26:11,800 Speaker 1: when they're putting together manuscripts like it, did you understand 449 00:26:11,800 --> 00:26:13,639 Speaker 1: what they were getting at? Like you get that the 450 00:26:13,680 --> 00:26:15,879 Speaker 1: other stuff if you're doing it, you know along the 451 00:26:15,880 --> 00:26:21,680 Speaker 1: guidelines for like publication that that's usually my criteria are 452 00:26:22,040 --> 00:26:28,120 Speaker 1: U was the meaning understood. That's only that's a criterion 453 00:26:28,440 --> 00:26:35,960 Speaker 1: somebody is going to write about anyway. Thanks so much 454 00:26:36,000 --> 00:26:39,040 Speaker 1: for joining us on this Saturday. Since this episode is 455 00:26:39,080 --> 00:26:41,119 Speaker 1: out of the archive, if you heard an email address 456 00:26:41,200 --> 00:26:43,720 Speaker 1: or a Facebook RL or something similar over the course 457 00:26:43,760 --> 00:26:47,040 Speaker 1: of the show, that could be obsolete now. Our current 458 00:26:47,119 --> 00:26:52,679 Speaker 1: email address is History podcast at iHeartRadio dot com. You 459 00:26:52,720 --> 00:26:55,919 Speaker 1: can find us all over social media at missed in History, 460 00:26:56,280 --> 00:26:59,280 Speaker 1: and you can subscribe to our show on Apple podcasts, 461 00:26:59,280 --> 00:27:02,920 Speaker 1: Google podcasts, the iHeartRadio app, and wherever else you listen 462 00:27:02,920 --> 00:27:08,080 Speaker 1: to podcasts. Stuff you Missed in History Class is a 463 00:27:08,080 --> 00:27:12,440 Speaker 1: production of iHeartRadio. For more podcasts from iHeartRadio, visit the 464 00:27:12,480 --> 00:27:16,040 Speaker 1: iHeartRadio app, Apple podcasts, or wherever you listen to your 465 00:27:16,040 --> 00:27:16,760 Speaker 1: favorite shows.