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Hey, Orge, are 37 00:02:02,200 --> 00:02:05,680 Speaker 1: you preparing your kids for when the end times come? 38 00:02:06,280 --> 00:02:06,480 Speaker 5: Oh? 39 00:02:06,680 --> 00:02:10,480 Speaker 6: You mean when bananas go extinct? Or do you mean 40 00:02:10,520 --> 00:02:11,240 Speaker 6: when I retire? 41 00:02:11,639 --> 00:02:14,160 Speaker 1: Yeah? I mean the fall of civilization when we're all 42 00:02:14,280 --> 00:02:16,639 Speaker 1: listening to podcast in our caves. 43 00:02:17,520 --> 00:02:19,280 Speaker 6: I feel like I've been preparing my whole life. If 44 00:02:19,280 --> 00:02:21,840 Speaker 6: there's a post apocalyptic movie out there, I. 45 00:02:21,960 --> 00:02:24,680 Speaker 1: Probably see it. Well, then I hope you're teaching your 46 00:02:24,760 --> 00:02:28,639 Speaker 1: kids some useful skills, you know, blacksmithing, martial arts, cartooning. 47 00:02:28,919 --> 00:02:32,200 Speaker 6: Oh yeah, cartooning for sure, that's going to come in handy. 48 00:02:33,040 --> 00:02:35,160 Speaker 6: But you don't think they should learn a particle physics. 49 00:02:36,080 --> 00:02:38,520 Speaker 1: I don't know that anybody's going to be building colliders 50 00:02:38,560 --> 00:02:40,080 Speaker 1: out of sticks and rocks. 51 00:02:40,480 --> 00:02:43,079 Speaker 6: Isn't it fire? Doesn't it fire evolve particles colliding? 52 00:02:43,320 --> 00:02:45,880 Speaker 1: A fire is kind of a chemical accelerator. I suppose 53 00:02:45,880 --> 00:02:47,880 Speaker 1: there must be some collisions. 54 00:02:47,840 --> 00:02:49,960 Speaker 6: Or are you going to be like, you know, freezing 55 00:02:50,000 --> 00:02:52,000 Speaker 6: out there, and you're going to be like, oh no, no, sorry, 56 00:02:52,360 --> 00:02:54,160 Speaker 6: the fire is just not fundamental enough for me. 57 00:02:57,360 --> 00:02:59,320 Speaker 1: I think I would be hiding in my cave eating 58 00:02:59,360 --> 00:03:01,120 Speaker 1: the last of the world world's chocolate reserves. 59 00:03:01,800 --> 00:03:04,320 Speaker 6: Would that be a useful skill? You could be it 60 00:03:04,440 --> 00:03:07,880 Speaker 6: the world's only chocolate tear. Hopefully the zombies like chocolate. 61 00:03:09,560 --> 00:03:18,919 Speaker 1: Dark chocolate is the world's final currency. 62 00:03:27,400 --> 00:03:29,919 Speaker 6: I am Jorge make carctoonist and the author of Oliver's 63 00:03:29,919 --> 00:03:30,760 Speaker 6: Great Big Universe. 64 00:03:30,880 --> 00:03:33,639 Speaker 1: Hi, I'm Daniel. I'm a particle physicist and a professor 65 00:03:33,680 --> 00:03:37,200 Speaker 1: at uc Irvine, and I purposely got into particle physics 66 00:03:37,240 --> 00:03:38,840 Speaker 1: because it was useless. 67 00:03:39,040 --> 00:03:41,040 Speaker 6: You're like, how can I make my time here on 68 00:03:41,120 --> 00:03:42,440 Speaker 6: Earth less useful? 69 00:03:44,400 --> 00:03:47,440 Speaker 1: I wasn't so much worried about the positive practical benefits 70 00:03:47,480 --> 00:03:50,000 Speaker 1: as the negative. You know, my parents worked in the 71 00:03:50,000 --> 00:03:52,600 Speaker 1: weapons programs, and I really really didn't want to do 72 00:03:52,680 --> 00:03:55,040 Speaker 1: anything that could be used as the basis of a 73 00:03:55,080 --> 00:03:55,600 Speaker 1: death ray. 74 00:03:55,920 --> 00:03:58,760 Speaker 6: I see, but you could have picked something positively useful, 75 00:04:01,480 --> 00:04:04,440 Speaker 6: like making a chocolate Yeah, there you go, making people happy. 76 00:04:05,400 --> 00:04:07,360 Speaker 1: Well, you know, my dad did retire from the lab 77 00:04:07,400 --> 00:04:10,400 Speaker 1: and then became a blacksmith, so he's definitely got useful 78 00:04:10,400 --> 00:04:11,600 Speaker 1: skills for the end times. 79 00:04:11,720 --> 00:04:15,640 Speaker 6: He became a blacksmith. Wow, was he forging like swords 80 00:04:15,800 --> 00:04:18,760 Speaker 6: or internal combustion engines in your garage? 81 00:04:19,000 --> 00:04:22,400 Speaker 1: Or what swords? Spears? All kinds of stuff? 82 00:04:22,480 --> 00:04:26,320 Speaker 6: Yes, he's like, I want to eat more weapons. 83 00:04:28,960 --> 00:04:31,040 Speaker 1: I wish I were joking more and. 84 00:04:30,960 --> 00:04:35,600 Speaker 6: More direct, but anyways, Welcome to our podcast, Daniel and 85 00:04:35,680 --> 00:04:39,400 Speaker 6: Jorge Explain the Universe, a production of iHeartRadio. 86 00:04:38,800 --> 00:04:41,680 Speaker 1: In which our only weapon is our minds. As we 87 00:04:41,760 --> 00:04:45,520 Speaker 1: tackle the quest of understanding the universe, we go forging 88 00:04:45,560 --> 00:04:48,080 Speaker 1: through all of the craziness that's out there and try 89 00:04:48,120 --> 00:04:50,760 Speaker 1: to weave it all together into an explanation that makes sense. 90 00:04:51,160 --> 00:04:53,440 Speaker 1: We hope that whatever the universe is made out of 91 00:04:53,440 --> 00:04:56,440 Speaker 1: its tiny little basic bits, that somehow they're danced together 92 00:04:56,520 --> 00:05:00,080 Speaker 1: can explain everything that we experience in the universe. We 93 00:05:00,120 --> 00:05:02,799 Speaker 1: can somehow find fundamental laws, and then we can also 94 00:05:03,160 --> 00:05:04,359 Speaker 1: make sense of it all. 95 00:05:04,720 --> 00:05:07,440 Speaker 6: That's right. We try to hone our knowledge of signs 96 00:05:07,440 --> 00:05:10,800 Speaker 6: here and try to prepare you for the end times 97 00:05:11,040 --> 00:05:13,159 Speaker 6: when we'll all be looking up at the stars wondering 98 00:05:13,200 --> 00:05:15,080 Speaker 6: how do we all get here and how do we 99 00:05:15,120 --> 00:05:16,560 Speaker 6: avoid those pesky zombies. 100 00:05:18,440 --> 00:05:20,480 Speaker 1: I guess we should all try to sharpen our minds 101 00:05:20,480 --> 00:05:22,440 Speaker 1: so we can slice our way through these problems. 102 00:05:22,600 --> 00:05:25,960 Speaker 6: Yeah, I'm sure having physics knowledge will be helpful only 103 00:05:26,120 --> 00:05:30,839 Speaker 6: in the apocalypse, right, you can, I guess, try to 104 00:05:30,880 --> 00:05:33,040 Speaker 6: build a laser gun to fight the zombies. 105 00:05:34,000 --> 00:05:36,200 Speaker 1: If the zombies assigned a lot of homework problems, then 106 00:05:36,200 --> 00:05:37,360 Speaker 1: I'm definitely there to help. 107 00:05:38,920 --> 00:05:40,719 Speaker 6: Oh, that could be another way to defeat them. You know, 108 00:05:40,800 --> 00:05:43,880 Speaker 6: you give them physics problems that are so tricky that 109 00:05:43,920 --> 00:05:46,760 Speaker 6: their brains explode, and that everyone knows that's how you 110 00:05:46,800 --> 00:05:47,560 Speaker 6: kill zombies. 111 00:05:47,720 --> 00:05:54,440 Speaker 1: Wow, Yes, exactly too many into girls. 112 00:05:55,040 --> 00:05:55,680 Speaker 6: Coculus. 113 00:05:55,760 --> 00:06:02,920 Speaker 1: No, you know, Newton definitely believed in zombies. Really, Newton 114 00:06:02,920 --> 00:06:05,720 Speaker 1: definitely believed in some weird stuff. I don't know about zombies, 115 00:06:06,160 --> 00:06:09,039 Speaker 1: but you know, he was an alchemist and he definitely 116 00:06:09,120 --> 00:06:10,320 Speaker 1: was a fan of the arcane. 117 00:06:11,200 --> 00:06:13,560 Speaker 6: Wasn't he really into currencies too. 118 00:06:13,760 --> 00:06:15,520 Speaker 1: Mm hmmm, yeah, exactly. 119 00:06:15,560 --> 00:06:17,679 Speaker 6: At some point became like a coin master or something. 120 00:06:17,760 --> 00:06:19,320 Speaker 1: He was definitely a weird dude. 121 00:06:19,480 --> 00:06:23,839 Speaker 6: Yes, by word, do you mean a genius who basically 122 00:06:23,839 --> 00:06:24,760 Speaker 6: invented science? 123 00:06:26,160 --> 00:06:28,039 Speaker 1: I think that's actually giving him a little bit too 124 00:06:28,120 --> 00:06:31,000 Speaker 1: much credit. But yeah, he invented lots of physics and 125 00:06:31,400 --> 00:06:33,800 Speaker 1: big chunks of math, and I think he would be 126 00:06:33,880 --> 00:06:37,080 Speaker 1: pretty tickled if we could use calculus against the zombies. 127 00:06:37,440 --> 00:06:39,160 Speaker 6: Oh well, I'm sure a lot of people will be 128 00:06:39,360 --> 00:06:42,400 Speaker 6: relieved to learn it's useful for something after all that 129 00:06:42,440 --> 00:06:43,279 Speaker 6: work in high school. 130 00:06:43,640 --> 00:06:45,480 Speaker 1: Yeah, they can integrate it into their lives. 131 00:06:46,040 --> 00:06:50,200 Speaker 6: Oh boy, that was very ridico. But anyways, we do 132 00:06:50,360 --> 00:06:51,800 Speaker 6: like to think about the universe and we try to 133 00:06:51,839 --> 00:06:54,760 Speaker 6: explain it here on the podcast, and sometimes that involves 134 00:06:54,839 --> 00:06:56,000 Speaker 6: answering questions. 135 00:06:56,560 --> 00:06:58,800 Speaker 1: That's right, it's not just Isaac Newton who's thinking about 136 00:06:58,800 --> 00:07:01,719 Speaker 1: the nature of the universe. It's everybody. The goal of 137 00:07:01,760 --> 00:07:04,160 Speaker 1: science is to understand the universe, and that means for 138 00:07:04,240 --> 00:07:07,320 Speaker 1: everybody to figure it out, and that, of course means 139 00:07:07,320 --> 00:07:09,640 Speaker 1: everybody's got to be out there thinking about the universe, 140 00:07:09,720 --> 00:07:12,960 Speaker 1: asking questions, wondering how it all works, and we want 141 00:07:13,120 --> 00:07:15,400 Speaker 1: you to be doing that. We hope that this podcast 142 00:07:15,600 --> 00:07:19,000 Speaker 1: stimulates your curiosity. You hear on the podcast about the 143 00:07:19,040 --> 00:07:21,000 Speaker 1: questions we are asking, but we want to hear about 144 00:07:21,000 --> 00:07:23,840 Speaker 1: the questions you are asking, and then we want to 145 00:07:23,880 --> 00:07:26,520 Speaker 1: answer them. So if you have questions about the nature 146 00:07:26,520 --> 00:07:28,200 Speaker 1: of the universe or something you heard about on the 147 00:07:28,240 --> 00:07:31,640 Speaker 1: podcast or something you heard about on gas another podcast, 148 00:07:31,800 --> 00:07:35,600 Speaker 1: please write to me to questions at Danielanjorge dot com. 149 00:07:35,760 --> 00:07:36,760 Speaker 1: We'll clear it up for you. 150 00:07:36,920 --> 00:07:39,760 Speaker 6: Yeah, because it's part of human nature to be asking questions, 151 00:07:39,840 --> 00:07:42,760 Speaker 6: and it's totally fun to ask questions as well, and 152 00:07:42,800 --> 00:07:44,760 Speaker 6: so here in the podcast we sometimes like to answer 153 00:07:44,920 --> 00:07:47,200 Speaker 6: questions that listeners send us, and so to be on 154 00:07:47,240 --> 00:07:56,280 Speaker 6: the podcast, we'll be tackling listener questions number sixty six. 155 00:07:56,640 --> 00:07:58,720 Speaker 1: You have a sixty six related snide. 156 00:07:58,360 --> 00:08:02,520 Speaker 6: Comment warning, Daniel. If we keep going, we're gonna hit 157 00:08:02,720 --> 00:08:04,200 Speaker 6: listener questions six sixty six. 158 00:08:05,480 --> 00:08:06,720 Speaker 1: Oh, I thought you were going to warn you about 159 00:08:06,720 --> 00:08:09,680 Speaker 1: listener question sixty nine, where we turned everything upside down. 160 00:08:11,520 --> 00:08:16,840 Speaker 6: I have warned you repeatedly about that milestone, and you 161 00:08:16,920 --> 00:08:17,960 Speaker 6: don't seem very concerned. 162 00:08:18,080 --> 00:08:20,080 Speaker 1: I'm mindlessly barreling towards it. 163 00:08:21,120 --> 00:08:24,000 Speaker 6: We'll just maybe we'll record it, but then we'll censor it. 164 00:08:25,920 --> 00:08:28,040 Speaker 1: Maybe we'll just skip it. We'll go straight to seventy. 165 00:08:28,320 --> 00:08:30,240 Speaker 6: Yeah, seventy isn't sixty nine. 166 00:08:30,760 --> 00:08:34,360 Speaker 1: Nobody says that. Don't make that a thing. 167 00:08:35,280 --> 00:08:37,280 Speaker 6: I don't care if other people say, oh, I see, 168 00:08:37,559 --> 00:08:39,360 Speaker 6: but yeah. We do like to answer questions here on 169 00:08:39,400 --> 00:08:41,760 Speaker 6: the podcast that listeners said this, and so today we 170 00:08:41,840 --> 00:08:46,199 Speaker 6: have three awesome questions. They are about galaxies colliding but 171 00:08:46,360 --> 00:08:50,720 Speaker 6: extreme forces, and about the air we breathe. So let's 172 00:08:50,760 --> 00:08:53,640 Speaker 6: jump right in. Our first question comes from Pedra, who 173 00:08:53,720 --> 00:08:54,920 Speaker 6: hails from Boston. 174 00:08:55,600 --> 00:08:56,400 Speaker 1: Hi, Daniel, and Jor. 175 00:08:57,160 --> 00:09:00,000 Speaker 7: I'm routinely here not to worry about the impending collision 176 00:09:00,120 --> 00:09:03,920 Speaker 7: between our galaxy and the Andromeda galaxy, since the space 177 00:09:03,960 --> 00:09:07,280 Speaker 7: between the stars within each galaxy is so great there 178 00:09:07,280 --> 00:09:10,600 Speaker 7: won't be any direct collisions. However, on some of the 179 00:09:10,600 --> 00:09:14,360 Speaker 7: podcast episodes, it seems as though the orbital stability of 180 00:09:14,400 --> 00:09:17,559 Speaker 7: the planets in our solar system isn't all that great? 181 00:09:18,240 --> 00:09:21,800 Speaker 7: For example, some planets may have traded places, while other 182 00:09:21,840 --> 00:09:26,120 Speaker 7: planets could have been captured or ejected. So really, which 183 00:09:26,240 --> 00:09:29,000 Speaker 7: argument wins? Do I need to tell my descendants to 184 00:09:29,040 --> 00:09:31,920 Speaker 7: start worrying about it? In four point five billion years, 185 00:09:32,600 --> 00:09:34,560 Speaker 7: I really want them to see the Sun become a 186 00:09:34,559 --> 00:09:36,679 Speaker 7: red giant. Thanks for the great podcast. 187 00:09:37,160 --> 00:09:42,160 Speaker 6: All right, interesting question. Basically, should we be worried four 188 00:09:42,200 --> 00:09:43,400 Speaker 6: and a half billion years from now? 189 00:09:43,840 --> 00:09:48,240 Speaker 1: Yeah? Exactly if we're all alive? Or should the zombies 190 00:09:48,320 --> 00:09:51,360 Speaker 1: that have succeeded us, should they be worried about. 191 00:09:51,120 --> 00:09:54,520 Speaker 6: What's going to happen? I think that's the best part 192 00:09:54,520 --> 00:09:56,800 Speaker 6: of being a zombies. You don't have to worry about anything. 193 00:09:57,360 --> 00:09:59,040 Speaker 1: As long as you've killed off all the people who 194 00:09:59,120 --> 00:10:00,840 Speaker 1: might assign you homework problems, you're. 195 00:10:00,640 --> 00:10:02,679 Speaker 6: Fine, man. I think the best part of being a 196 00:10:02,760 --> 00:10:04,280 Speaker 6: zombie is you can just turn your brain off. 197 00:10:04,360 --> 00:10:06,000 Speaker 1: Don't you need to protect it from exploding? 198 00:10:06,080 --> 00:10:06,240 Speaker 5: Right? 199 00:10:06,360 --> 00:10:08,040 Speaker 1: Isn't that the kryptonite of zombies? 200 00:10:08,360 --> 00:10:10,319 Speaker 6: Well? I think fire also kills zombies. 201 00:10:10,360 --> 00:10:13,200 Speaker 1: Oh boy, wow, yeah, I'm so glad you've been doing 202 00:10:13,200 --> 00:10:13,720 Speaker 1: this research. 203 00:10:13,840 --> 00:10:15,400 Speaker 6: I'm glad the people I'll be hanging out with know 204 00:10:15,440 --> 00:10:16,600 Speaker 6: how to make a fire. 205 00:10:19,880 --> 00:10:22,520 Speaker 1: But I think Petra's question is really touching on two 206 00:10:22,600 --> 00:10:25,560 Speaker 1: things we hear about a lot in science, One that 207 00:10:25,600 --> 00:10:29,080 Speaker 1: our galaxy is colliding with another galaxy, and the other 208 00:10:29,200 --> 00:10:31,520 Speaker 1: that our solar system is kind of fragile, that the 209 00:10:31,679 --> 00:10:35,120 Speaker 1: orbits are not really that stable, and so he's worried 210 00:10:35,440 --> 00:10:37,840 Speaker 1: that even if stars are pretty dilute in the galaxy, 211 00:10:38,480 --> 00:10:40,160 Speaker 1: would our solar system get upset? 212 00:10:41,440 --> 00:10:45,040 Speaker 6: Basically, what's going to happen when our galaxy collides with Andromeda? 213 00:10:45,160 --> 00:10:45,240 Speaker 4: Like? 214 00:10:45,600 --> 00:10:47,520 Speaker 6: Be safe? Like, is nothing going to happen to us? 215 00:10:47,960 --> 00:10:51,520 Speaker 6: Or should we be concerned that maybe our plant might 216 00:10:51,559 --> 00:10:53,440 Speaker 6: get disrupted and thrown out into space. 217 00:10:53,679 --> 00:10:56,560 Speaker 1: Yeah, it's definitely a valid concern, and it touches on 218 00:10:56,600 --> 00:10:58,880 Speaker 1: a lot of really interesting physics. And first thing I 219 00:10:58,880 --> 00:11:02,120 Speaker 1: want to talk about is why Andrama is going to 220 00:11:02,160 --> 00:11:03,760 Speaker 1: collide with the Milky Way, because I get a lot 221 00:11:03,760 --> 00:11:07,080 Speaker 1: of questions about exactly this. People hear us talking about 222 00:11:07,080 --> 00:11:09,920 Speaker 1: how the universe is expanding and space is being created 223 00:11:10,320 --> 00:11:13,080 Speaker 1: between galaxies, and then they hear us talking about how 224 00:11:13,120 --> 00:11:15,480 Speaker 1: Andromeda is coming towards us and say, how does that 225 00:11:15,520 --> 00:11:18,600 Speaker 1: make any sense? Why isn't space expanding between us and 226 00:11:18,600 --> 00:11:22,040 Speaker 1: Andromeda and pushing it further and further away. And so 227 00:11:22,080 --> 00:11:24,679 Speaker 1: first we should try to reconcile that apparent contradiction. 228 00:11:25,040 --> 00:11:30,120 Speaker 6: Mm. Yeah, because we talked about like, how because dark 229 00:11:30,200 --> 00:11:33,280 Speaker 6: energy is expanding the universe, the galaxies out there getting 230 00:11:33,320 --> 00:11:35,640 Speaker 6: further and further away from us. But we've also talked 231 00:11:35,640 --> 00:11:38,560 Speaker 6: about how Drama is in a collision course with our galaxy. 232 00:11:38,800 --> 00:11:41,840 Speaker 1: Yeah, And the answer comes down to distances, and dark 233 00:11:41,960 --> 00:11:45,120 Speaker 1: energy is something that gets more powerful for distant objects. 234 00:11:45,240 --> 00:11:48,559 Speaker 1: It's basically like a chunk of space grows a little bit, 235 00:11:48,600 --> 00:11:51,480 Speaker 1: and so more chunks of space are growing more. So 236 00:11:51,520 --> 00:11:53,960 Speaker 1: a little tiny chunk of space is hardly growing, but 237 00:11:54,040 --> 00:11:58,199 Speaker 1: a vast distance between our galaxy cluster and a really 238 00:11:58,240 --> 00:12:01,720 Speaker 1: distant other galaxy cluster that's kind of growing a lot. 239 00:12:02,120 --> 00:12:05,000 Speaker 1: And gravity is the opposite. Gravity gets weaker with distance. 240 00:12:05,000 --> 00:12:08,480 Speaker 1: As things get further apart, gravity fades away. So for 241 00:12:08,480 --> 00:12:10,880 Speaker 1: stuff that's really close together, like the Earth and the Sun, 242 00:12:11,320 --> 00:12:15,280 Speaker 1: or even our galaxy in the neighboring galaxy, gravity wins 243 00:12:15,320 --> 00:12:18,439 Speaker 1: over dark energy. Things that are really really far apart, 244 00:12:18,480 --> 00:12:23,120 Speaker 1: like clusters of galaxies, not individual galaxies, dark energy is winning. 245 00:12:23,520 --> 00:12:25,400 Speaker 1: And most of the universe is far apart from most 246 00:12:25,440 --> 00:12:28,800 Speaker 1: of the universe, so mostly things are expanding away from 247 00:12:28,800 --> 00:12:32,000 Speaker 1: each other, but in little neighborhoods, like our cluster of galaxy, 248 00:12:32,160 --> 00:12:35,360 Speaker 1: stuff is still getting pulled together by gravity. So gravity 249 00:12:35,440 --> 00:12:37,800 Speaker 1: is the reason the Milky Way and Andromeda will collide 250 00:12:38,120 --> 00:12:39,199 Speaker 1: in a few billion years? 251 00:12:39,679 --> 00:12:41,520 Speaker 6: Is it gravity? Or is it just that we just 252 00:12:41,600 --> 00:12:44,720 Speaker 6: happen to be in a course that intercepts the course 253 00:12:44,720 --> 00:12:48,920 Speaker 6: of Andromeda, Like, is Indrameda really being attracted to our galaxy? 254 00:12:49,320 --> 00:12:51,760 Speaker 6: I mean, obviously it is, but is it really significant 255 00:12:52,160 --> 00:12:54,079 Speaker 6: to call it the main reason it's we're going to 256 00:12:54,120 --> 00:12:54,839 Speaker 6: collide with it? 257 00:12:54,840 --> 00:12:56,920 Speaker 1: It definitely is. I mean, the Milky Way Andromeda are 258 00:12:56,960 --> 00:13:00,000 Speaker 1: part of a cluster of galaxies, and that cluster exhibits 259 00:13:00,280 --> 00:13:03,160 Speaker 1: because of gravity, so it's holding it together, and the 260 00:13:03,160 --> 00:13:05,760 Speaker 1: galaxies are sort of sloshing around. It's not guaranteed at 261 00:13:05,800 --> 00:13:08,360 Speaker 1: any moment that they're going to hit each other, but 262 00:13:08,480 --> 00:13:11,160 Speaker 1: it's gravity that holds them together, that's pulling them together. 263 00:13:11,480 --> 00:13:14,400 Speaker 1: It's sort of like asking if a comet falls towards 264 00:13:14,400 --> 00:13:16,760 Speaker 1: the Sun and it collides to the Sun, why is 265 00:13:16,760 --> 00:13:19,120 Speaker 1: that Well, it's definitely because of the gravity. That doesn't 266 00:13:19,120 --> 00:13:21,600 Speaker 1: mean that every comet does collide with the Sun. Gravity 267 00:13:21,640 --> 00:13:23,800 Speaker 1: is not omnipotent. Sometimes comets go around the back of 268 00:13:23,840 --> 00:13:26,000 Speaker 1: the Sun in the same way in the local cluster. 269 00:13:26,320 --> 00:13:28,920 Speaker 1: Not every galaxy is gonna collide with every other galaxy 270 00:13:28,920 --> 00:13:32,120 Speaker 1: as soon as possible. Sometimes they pass around each other. 271 00:13:32,480 --> 00:13:34,560 Speaker 1: But it is gravity that's pulling these two together. 272 00:13:35,120 --> 00:13:36,600 Speaker 6: Well, I guess what I mean is like if you 273 00:13:36,640 --> 00:13:39,559 Speaker 6: have to asteroids, for example, in the Solar System, and 274 00:13:39,600 --> 00:13:41,959 Speaker 6: they're gonna collide with each other. I mean, sure, they're 275 00:13:42,000 --> 00:13:44,560 Speaker 6: in the Solar System together because of the gravity well 276 00:13:44,559 --> 00:13:46,520 Speaker 6: of the Sun, but the fact that they're colliding with 277 00:13:46,559 --> 00:13:49,240 Speaker 6: each other as opposed to not colliding, it's mostly just 278 00:13:49,320 --> 00:13:51,520 Speaker 6: kind of look right, Yeah. 279 00:13:51,320 --> 00:13:54,280 Speaker 1: It's gravity plus chance. It's possible to have a cluster 280 00:13:54,520 --> 00:13:58,160 Speaker 1: where galaxies like ours and Andromeda don't collide until later on. 281 00:13:58,960 --> 00:14:01,480 Speaker 1: Eventually everything is going to collide and it's all going 282 00:14:01,559 --> 00:14:04,400 Speaker 1: to collapse into one super massive black hole. So it's 283 00:14:04,440 --> 00:14:05,560 Speaker 1: really just a waiting game. 284 00:14:05,840 --> 00:14:07,520 Speaker 6: But the collision that's going to happen in four and 285 00:14:07,559 --> 00:14:11,760 Speaker 6: a half billion years, that's basically luck, right, It's not 286 00:14:11,800 --> 00:14:14,160 Speaker 6: like it's inevitable, like if our galaxy was moving a 287 00:14:14,160 --> 00:14:16,680 Speaker 6: few degrees in another direction, or to the right or 288 00:14:16,679 --> 00:14:19,120 Speaker 6: to the left, we wouldn't be colliding with Andromeda, would we. 289 00:14:19,400 --> 00:14:21,520 Speaker 1: Yeah, that's right. If you changed the initial conditions, that 290 00:14:21,520 --> 00:14:24,360 Speaker 1: collision might happen later. It also might happen earlier. Right, 291 00:14:24,680 --> 00:14:26,440 Speaker 1: It could be that we're lucky we got this far 292 00:14:26,640 --> 00:14:28,960 Speaker 1: now colliding with Andromeda. So yeah, the whole system is 293 00:14:29,080 --> 00:14:31,640 Speaker 1: very chaotic, but it is gravity. But gravity is really 294 00:14:31,680 --> 00:14:32,920 Speaker 1: the only force at play here. 295 00:14:33,200 --> 00:14:36,240 Speaker 6: M and So the reason we're worried about Andromeda and 296 00:14:36,280 --> 00:14:39,640 Speaker 6: not other galaxies is because the other galaxies are further away, 297 00:14:39,920 --> 00:14:42,720 Speaker 6: and those are definitely moving away from us because of 298 00:14:42,800 --> 00:14:46,080 Speaker 6: dark energy, or are some of them potentially getting closer 299 00:14:46,120 --> 00:14:46,400 Speaker 6: to us. 300 00:14:46,680 --> 00:14:50,320 Speaker 1: Everything in our galaxy cluster is gravitationally bound, which means 301 00:14:50,320 --> 00:14:52,920 Speaker 1: it has enough gravity to hold itself together and resist 302 00:14:53,000 --> 00:14:56,640 Speaker 1: the pull of dark energy. Galaxy clusters are like the 303 00:14:56,680 --> 00:15:00,240 Speaker 1: biggest thing that have that property. Anything that's larger than that, 304 00:15:00,400 --> 00:15:03,560 Speaker 1: what we call a supercluster, is probably too big and 305 00:15:03,640 --> 00:15:06,080 Speaker 1: too spread out for gravity to hold itself together, and 306 00:15:06,160 --> 00:15:08,040 Speaker 1: dark energy is going to win. So that's sort of 307 00:15:08,040 --> 00:15:11,200 Speaker 1: the tipping point. So anything that's in our galaxy cluster 308 00:15:11,720 --> 00:15:14,480 Speaker 1: is eventually going to collapse. Into one big super massive 309 00:15:14,480 --> 00:15:17,000 Speaker 1: black hole, and we're talking very very far in the. 310 00:15:16,960 --> 00:15:21,320 Speaker 6: Future unless dark energy changes, right, Yes, like if it accelerates, 311 00:15:21,360 --> 00:15:23,960 Speaker 6: then it's going to get a little more crowded, but 312 00:15:24,200 --> 00:15:26,800 Speaker 6: it or if it like weekends, things might get a 313 00:15:26,800 --> 00:15:27,400 Speaker 6: little room hear. 314 00:15:27,480 --> 00:15:29,920 Speaker 1: Yeah, I think it's the opposite. If dark energy accelerates, 315 00:15:30,240 --> 00:15:32,400 Speaker 1: then even our galaxy cluster is going to get torn 316 00:15:32,400 --> 00:15:35,480 Speaker 1: apart because it becomes more powerful than gravity. We talked 317 00:15:35,480 --> 00:15:37,680 Speaker 1: about that once on the podcast. There's even a theory 318 00:15:37,720 --> 00:15:40,400 Speaker 1: of like phantom dark energy, where dark energy gets so 319 00:15:40,480 --> 00:15:43,960 Speaker 1: powerful that it tears apart atoms and even protons. And 320 00:15:44,000 --> 00:15:47,680 Speaker 1: if dark energy weakens, then gravity wins over larger distances 321 00:15:47,720 --> 00:15:49,960 Speaker 1: and it might gather together even superclusters. 322 00:15:50,240 --> 00:15:51,840 Speaker 6: Right, that's what I meant. I meant the opposite of 323 00:15:51,840 --> 00:15:52,320 Speaker 6: what I said. 324 00:15:52,840 --> 00:15:55,200 Speaker 1: But you're definitely right on the conceptual part, which is 325 00:15:55,400 --> 00:15:57,520 Speaker 1: that we don't know what dark energy is or what 326 00:15:57,560 --> 00:15:59,400 Speaker 1: it's going to do, and we can't really predict it. 327 00:15:59,440 --> 00:16:02,760 Speaker 1: So this is assuming a naive extrapolation of dark energy, 328 00:16:03,000 --> 00:16:04,720 Speaker 1: which is basically all we can do at this point. 329 00:16:04,840 --> 00:16:07,040 Speaker 6: All Right, so we're in a collision course with Andromeda. 330 00:16:07,720 --> 00:16:09,280 Speaker 6: What's going to happen when we collide. 331 00:16:09,680 --> 00:16:11,920 Speaker 1: So when we collide with Andromeda, there's a bunch of 332 00:16:11,960 --> 00:16:14,520 Speaker 1: different components of the galaxy, and you really need to 333 00:16:14,560 --> 00:16:17,240 Speaker 1: think about each of them individually because they all have 334 00:16:17,320 --> 00:16:20,360 Speaker 1: different behavior. So, for example, the gas and the dust 335 00:16:20,720 --> 00:16:22,520 Speaker 1: that are in the two galaxies, those are going to 336 00:16:22,560 --> 00:16:24,520 Speaker 1: collide and you're going to get all sorts of dramatic stuff. 337 00:16:24,640 --> 00:16:27,080 Speaker 1: It's going to see the creation of lots of new stars, 338 00:16:27,360 --> 00:16:30,080 Speaker 1: which would be really exciting. But the stars themselves are 339 00:16:30,120 --> 00:16:31,960 Speaker 1: very different from the gas and the dust. Right, the 340 00:16:32,000 --> 00:16:34,280 Speaker 1: gas in the dust is very spread out. It's definitely 341 00:16:34,280 --> 00:16:36,600 Speaker 1: going to smash into the other stuff. But stars are 342 00:16:36,640 --> 00:16:39,080 Speaker 1: very different from gas and dust. They're not as spread out. 343 00:16:39,120 --> 00:16:41,800 Speaker 1: They're tiny, and they're clumpy, and they're really really dilute. 344 00:16:42,400 --> 00:16:45,640 Speaker 1: So when stars approach other stars, it's very hard for 345 00:16:45,680 --> 00:16:49,080 Speaker 1: them to actually collide because space is really really big 346 00:16:49,120 --> 00:16:51,040 Speaker 1: and the stars are really really far apart. 347 00:16:52,200 --> 00:16:54,240 Speaker 6: I guess how far apart are they? Like how far 348 00:16:54,320 --> 00:16:55,480 Speaker 6: is there are year's neighbor? 349 00:16:55,680 --> 00:16:58,920 Speaker 1: So our nearest neighbor is light years away, right, the 350 00:16:59,000 --> 00:17:02,280 Speaker 1: closest star to us almost four light years away, and 351 00:17:02,320 --> 00:17:05,320 Speaker 1: the Sun is the tiny fraction of a light year wide. 352 00:17:05,640 --> 00:17:07,760 Speaker 1: I mean, if you shrink, for example, the Sun down 353 00:17:07,800 --> 00:17:09,160 Speaker 1: to the size of a tennis ball that you could 354 00:17:09,160 --> 00:17:12,160 Speaker 1: hold in your hand, then the nearest neighbor star would 355 00:17:12,200 --> 00:17:14,359 Speaker 1: be four or five thousand miles away. 356 00:17:14,880 --> 00:17:18,399 Speaker 6: WHOA, that's like on the other side of the Atlantic kind. 357 00:17:18,280 --> 00:17:21,800 Speaker 1: Of yeah, exactly. So imagine you're throwing a tennis ball 358 00:17:21,840 --> 00:17:24,080 Speaker 1: and somebody on the other side of the ocean is 359 00:17:24,119 --> 00:17:26,520 Speaker 1: throwing a tennis ball. What are the chances that they're 360 00:17:26,520 --> 00:17:30,240 Speaker 1: going to hit each other over the ocean? Like basically zero? 361 00:17:31,240 --> 00:17:35,520 Speaker 6: But I guess how wide is the sphere of influence 362 00:17:35,560 --> 00:17:37,960 Speaker 6: of something like the Sun, Like how close do you 363 00:17:37,960 --> 00:17:40,040 Speaker 6: need to get to it before you feel it's gravity? 364 00:17:40,280 --> 00:17:43,360 Speaker 1: Yeah? Exactly, good point, because we're not actually just interested 365 00:17:43,400 --> 00:17:46,600 Speaker 1: in like a collision where like the two stars really 366 00:17:46,640 --> 00:17:49,520 Speaker 1: touch each other and merge and become one. Stars can 367 00:17:49,560 --> 00:17:52,080 Speaker 1: pull in each other if they're even near each other, right, 368 00:17:52,320 --> 00:17:55,080 Speaker 1: And that's really what Petra's question is about, is how 369 00:17:55,119 --> 00:17:57,479 Speaker 1: close does the star need to get to distort our 370 00:17:57,520 --> 00:17:59,960 Speaker 1: star or distort the orbit of stuff around the star? 371 00:18:00,040 --> 00:18:04,040 Speaker 1: Are right? Because near misses can destabilize things, and we 372 00:18:04,119 --> 00:18:06,760 Speaker 1: know that already in our galaxy because other stars are 373 00:18:06,920 --> 00:18:09,639 Speaker 1: moving relative to the Sun. Sometimes they come closer, sometimes 374 00:18:09,640 --> 00:18:12,639 Speaker 1: they come further away, and that can distort the orbits 375 00:18:12,640 --> 00:18:15,560 Speaker 1: of stuff in our Solar system. So it's not a clear, 376 00:18:15,640 --> 00:18:18,919 Speaker 1: crisp answer. It's not like there's a certain distance within 377 00:18:19,040 --> 00:18:22,720 Speaker 1: which something happens and out of which nothing happens. It's gradual, right. 378 00:18:22,720 --> 00:18:25,200 Speaker 1: The closer it comes, the greater the gravitational distortion. 379 00:18:26,400 --> 00:18:29,800 Speaker 6: But I guess maybe it depends on how unstable our 380 00:18:29,920 --> 00:18:34,399 Speaker 6: orbit is or how fragile our orbit is. Do you 381 00:18:34,400 --> 00:18:38,280 Speaker 6: have a sense of how precarious are a path around 382 00:18:38,280 --> 00:18:41,040 Speaker 6: the Sun is? Like if I bring in another Sun, 383 00:18:41,800 --> 00:18:45,240 Speaker 6: I don't know, a few million miles away, is it 384 00:18:45,280 --> 00:18:46,960 Speaker 6: going to affect us and kick us out of the 385 00:18:47,000 --> 00:18:49,600 Speaker 6: Solar System or maybe cause us to fall into the Sun, 386 00:18:49,720 --> 00:18:50,720 Speaker 6: or are we going to be okay? 387 00:18:51,040 --> 00:18:54,280 Speaker 1: Yeah, it's a good question. The Earth is pretty stable, 388 00:18:54,760 --> 00:18:56,840 Speaker 1: like just the Earth in the Solar System is a 389 00:18:56,840 --> 00:18:59,359 Speaker 1: pretty stable orbit. There's a lot of stuff going on 390 00:18:59,440 --> 00:19:02,240 Speaker 1: that's going to end fluence the Earth's orbit that makes 391 00:19:02,280 --> 00:19:05,440 Speaker 1: its orbit change. For example, like the Sun is losing mass, 392 00:19:05,480 --> 00:19:08,800 Speaker 1: so it's gravity shrinks. The Sun is also pushing on 393 00:19:08,880 --> 00:19:10,840 Speaker 1: the Earth, not just pulling on it with gravity but 394 00:19:10,920 --> 00:19:14,160 Speaker 1: its wind pushes on the Earth. There's effects of Jupiter, 395 00:19:14,800 --> 00:19:18,679 Speaker 1: there's gravitational radiation. But you're right, the biggest wild card 396 00:19:18,760 --> 00:19:21,679 Speaker 1: are like things from outside the Solar system. And this 397 00:19:21,760 --> 00:19:24,000 Speaker 1: is something we've thought about, not just in the case 398 00:19:24,040 --> 00:19:27,439 Speaker 1: of another galaxy, but again just stuff in our Solar system. So, 399 00:19:27,440 --> 00:19:30,560 Speaker 1: for example, there is a star it's called Glease seven 400 00:19:30,560 --> 00:19:33,520 Speaker 1: to ten that we've been tracking, and we predict that 401 00:19:33,600 --> 00:19:37,040 Speaker 1: it's gonna come kind of close to our star. It's 402 00:19:37,040 --> 00:19:40,199 Speaker 1: gonna come within one twenty fifth of the distance to 403 00:19:40,359 --> 00:19:45,480 Speaker 1: Proxima Centauri. So Proximus Centauri is four light years away, 404 00:19:46,000 --> 00:19:47,840 Speaker 1: and so this is gonna come like an eighth of 405 00:19:47,880 --> 00:19:49,879 Speaker 1: a light year away from our star. 406 00:19:50,280 --> 00:19:52,200 Speaker 6: Oh wait, wait, wait, so this is a star that's 407 00:19:52,240 --> 00:19:54,840 Speaker 6: gonna come within one twenty fifth of the nearest star. Yeah, 408 00:19:54,960 --> 00:19:57,200 Speaker 6: would it becomes the nearest star if it's coming close 409 00:19:57,240 --> 00:19:57,480 Speaker 6: to us? 410 00:19:57,920 --> 00:20:00,720 Speaker 1: Yeah, that's just for scale. Our current near stars four 411 00:20:00,800 --> 00:20:03,360 Speaker 1: light years away, this one's going to come within one 412 00:20:03,440 --> 00:20:07,199 Speaker 1: twenty fifth of that distance. Again in the far far future. 413 00:20:07,640 --> 00:20:09,960 Speaker 6: How far in the future, in about one and a 414 00:20:10,000 --> 00:20:14,399 Speaker 6: half million years. Oh that's pretty soon cosmically speaking. 415 00:20:14,840 --> 00:20:18,280 Speaker 1: Yeah, it's a lot of generations to survive between now 416 00:20:18,280 --> 00:20:20,480 Speaker 1: and then. But yeah, that's not far away, and it's 417 00:20:20,520 --> 00:20:23,080 Speaker 1: definitely a lot sooner than when the Milky Way collides 418 00:20:23,119 --> 00:20:24,119 Speaker 1: with Andromeda. 419 00:20:24,160 --> 00:20:26,639 Speaker 6: And this is a star that's like traveling through space 420 00:20:26,800 --> 00:20:30,720 Speaker 6: relative to us, or are we traveling close to it? 421 00:20:31,160 --> 00:20:33,000 Speaker 6: You know what I mean? Like, is this an anomaly 422 00:20:33,160 --> 00:20:36,000 Speaker 6: or in our quiet neighborhood or is it all part 423 00:20:36,040 --> 00:20:37,560 Speaker 6: of the movement of the stars. 424 00:20:37,920 --> 00:20:40,080 Speaker 1: It's part of all the movement of the stars around 425 00:20:40,119 --> 00:20:42,119 Speaker 1: the center of the galaxy. You know, all the stars 426 00:20:42,119 --> 00:20:45,280 Speaker 1: are orbiting the center, and they orbit at different velocities. Also, 427 00:20:45,280 --> 00:20:47,280 Speaker 1: the stars are moving up and down. They're sort of 428 00:20:47,320 --> 00:20:50,879 Speaker 1: like wiggling through the plane of the galaxy. And so 429 00:20:50,920 --> 00:20:54,240 Speaker 1: the stars that are in our immediate neighborhood change over 430 00:20:54,320 --> 00:20:56,760 Speaker 1: millions of years as these stars sort of swim through 431 00:20:56,760 --> 00:21:00,000 Speaker 1: the Lazy River differently. So this is a totally normal 432 00:21:00,119 --> 00:21:00,960 Speaker 1: thing to happen. 433 00:21:01,480 --> 00:21:03,480 Speaker 6: And what do scientists predict this is going to happen 434 00:21:03,560 --> 00:21:06,359 Speaker 6: when the start flies close to us? Is it gonna 435 00:21:07,000 --> 00:21:08,879 Speaker 6: disrupt us or are we going to feel it? 436 00:21:09,160 --> 00:21:11,520 Speaker 1: So we are probably not going to feel it directly, 437 00:21:11,560 --> 00:21:13,160 Speaker 1: in the sense that it's not going to come close 438 00:21:13,240 --> 00:21:16,159 Speaker 1: enough to perturb the Earth's orbit. So that's already kind 439 00:21:16,200 --> 00:21:19,000 Speaker 1: of an answer, Like you can come fairly close to 440 00:21:19,080 --> 00:21:21,720 Speaker 1: the Solar System, you know, within an ace of a 441 00:21:21,800 --> 00:21:23,879 Speaker 1: light year and really have no effect on the Earth's 442 00:21:23,920 --> 00:21:27,840 Speaker 1: orbit directly, but it could have serious impacts for life 443 00:21:27,880 --> 00:21:30,719 Speaker 1: on Earth because it could impact stuff that's in the 444 00:21:30,760 --> 00:21:33,600 Speaker 1: outer Solar System that could then rain down on the 445 00:21:33,600 --> 00:21:36,960 Speaker 1: Inner Solar System. The very far edges of the Solar System, 446 00:21:37,000 --> 00:21:40,200 Speaker 1: past Pluto and all the dwarf planets is a theoretical 447 00:21:40,240 --> 00:21:43,719 Speaker 1: cloud of trillions of icy objects called the Ort Cloud, 448 00:21:44,000 --> 00:21:47,040 Speaker 1: and we think it's probably the source of long period comets. 449 00:21:47,359 --> 00:21:49,760 Speaker 1: These things are really really far away compared to stuff 450 00:21:49,760 --> 00:21:52,760 Speaker 1: in the Inner Solar System or even to Pluto, and 451 00:21:52,840 --> 00:21:55,800 Speaker 1: so a nearby passing star could disturb some of these. 452 00:21:55,800 --> 00:21:57,439 Speaker 1: There's lots of them, and they take just like a 453 00:21:57,440 --> 00:22:00,840 Speaker 1: little nudge to fall out of their orbit come barreling 454 00:22:00,880 --> 00:22:03,080 Speaker 1: into the inner Solar System, where they could become very 455 00:22:03,160 --> 00:22:06,960 Speaker 1: high speed, very dangerous comets that could impact on the Earth. 456 00:22:07,440 --> 00:22:11,320 Speaker 6: WHOA, but it maybe it might get lucky not get 457 00:22:11,359 --> 00:22:14,399 Speaker 6: hit by, right, because even the space between us and 458 00:22:14,440 --> 00:22:15,399 Speaker 6: the Sun is huge. 459 00:22:15,520 --> 00:22:17,359 Speaker 1: Yeah, absolutely, we might get lucky, and we could get 460 00:22:17,400 --> 00:22:19,920 Speaker 1: protected by Jupiter. Right, Jupiter has a lot of gravity 461 00:22:19,960 --> 00:22:22,400 Speaker 1: and it tends to shield the inner Solar System by 462 00:22:22,400 --> 00:22:25,560 Speaker 1: pulling these things towards it. Like when comet Shoemaker Levey 463 00:22:25,600 --> 00:22:28,400 Speaker 1: came through the Solar System in the nineties, it impacted 464 00:22:28,440 --> 00:22:30,520 Speaker 1: on Jupiter and that wasn't an accident. Not only is 465 00:22:30,600 --> 00:22:33,840 Speaker 1: Jupiter just a much bigger target, but it has that gravity. 466 00:22:34,320 --> 00:22:35,760 Speaker 1: But it's not a die you want to roll. It's 467 00:22:35,800 --> 00:22:38,240 Speaker 1: sort of like playing cosmic Russian Roulette. You know, if 468 00:22:38,240 --> 00:22:40,720 Speaker 1: a star comes by and dislodges a lot of oork 469 00:22:40,760 --> 00:22:44,920 Speaker 1: cloud objects tens millions even for example, then we're gonna 470 00:22:44,920 --> 00:22:46,679 Speaker 1: have to get lucky a lot of times to avoid 471 00:22:46,720 --> 00:22:50,080 Speaker 1: being hit. So that's the most likely scenario for Glease, 472 00:22:50,240 --> 00:22:53,120 Speaker 1: and also for the collision between Andromeda and the Milky Way, 473 00:22:53,320 --> 00:22:55,040 Speaker 1: that our ort cloud gets perturbed. 474 00:22:55,480 --> 00:22:58,680 Speaker 6: Well well, but I guess what is the scenario that's 475 00:22:59,000 --> 00:23:01,159 Speaker 6: going to happen when we coll but Andrameda. Are we 476 00:23:01,200 --> 00:23:03,800 Speaker 6: going to see a lot of these stars flying as 477 00:23:03,840 --> 00:23:05,639 Speaker 6: close as Glee or is it going to be worse 478 00:23:05,840 --> 00:23:08,040 Speaker 6: because I imagine, you know, the nearest star to class 479 00:23:08,119 --> 00:23:10,320 Speaker 6: is pretty far away, but you know, we're colliding with 480 00:23:10,359 --> 00:23:14,440 Speaker 6: a cloud of one hundred billion stars. Maybe that increases 481 00:23:14,480 --> 00:23:16,160 Speaker 6: the chances of something flying closer. 482 00:23:16,320 --> 00:23:18,800 Speaker 1: Yeah. Actually, Andromeda is much bigger than the Milky Way. 483 00:23:18,800 --> 00:23:22,280 Speaker 1: There's lots more stars in Andromeda than in the Milky Way. 484 00:23:22,480 --> 00:23:24,800 Speaker 1: It's really a big, fat galaxy. I mean in a 485 00:23:24,880 --> 00:23:27,880 Speaker 1: very positive way. And so there's no specific answers. There's 486 00:23:27,920 --> 00:23:31,280 Speaker 1: just chances, right. The chances of a direct collision are zero, 487 00:23:31,680 --> 00:23:34,680 Speaker 1: the chances of a near miss are larger. The chances 488 00:23:34,720 --> 00:23:37,000 Speaker 1: of stars flying sort of within a light year or 489 00:23:37,000 --> 00:23:40,120 Speaker 1: so is reasonable. I haven't done the actual calculations, don't 490 00:23:40,119 --> 00:23:43,639 Speaker 1: have numbers, but qualitatively it's extraordinarily unlikely for a direct 491 00:23:43,640 --> 00:23:46,679 Speaker 1: star star collision. I think it's quite likely for a 492 00:23:46,720 --> 00:23:49,640 Speaker 1: near miss like Glease seven to ten. But I think 493 00:23:49,680 --> 00:23:52,560 Speaker 1: the most likely scenario is that no star comes really 494 00:23:52,600 --> 00:23:54,840 Speaker 1: anywhere near us. Even though there are a lot of them, 495 00:23:55,040 --> 00:23:57,040 Speaker 1: there are also very very spread out. 496 00:23:57,720 --> 00:23:59,320 Speaker 6: No, should we just think you're word for it, or 497 00:24:00,080 --> 00:24:02,679 Speaker 6: should maybe one of you guys get on the computer 498 00:24:02,760 --> 00:24:04,480 Speaker 6: and simulate this to figure it out. 499 00:24:05,119 --> 00:24:06,920 Speaker 1: We've got four and a half billion years to figure 500 00:24:06,960 --> 00:24:08,880 Speaker 1: it out. So yeah, that's enough computation time. 501 00:24:09,880 --> 00:24:13,119 Speaker 6: I don't know. I like to plan ahead as you know. No, 502 00:24:13,359 --> 00:24:14,280 Speaker 6: you gotta get ready. 503 00:24:14,400 --> 00:24:17,000 Speaker 1: The problem with these calculations is that the further in 504 00:24:17,040 --> 00:24:20,400 Speaker 1: the future you have to extrapolate, the more uncertainty there is. 505 00:24:20,960 --> 00:24:23,680 Speaker 1: Right Like, NASA can predict the path of these objects 506 00:24:23,680 --> 00:24:26,480 Speaker 1: for one hundred years very precisely. You ask them to 507 00:24:26,480 --> 00:24:28,520 Speaker 1: tell you where they're going to be in five billion years. 508 00:24:28,560 --> 00:24:32,520 Speaker 1: They have no idea because small uncertainties add up over 509 00:24:32,560 --> 00:24:36,240 Speaker 1: time to make those predictions essentially useless. So our understanding, 510 00:24:36,280 --> 00:24:38,159 Speaker 1: for example, of the dark matter in the Milky Way 511 00:24:38,200 --> 00:24:40,119 Speaker 1: will affect this, and the dark matter and Andrama and 512 00:24:40,160 --> 00:24:42,440 Speaker 1: the dark matter between us and them. So we could 513 00:24:42,480 --> 00:24:44,600 Speaker 1: do a calculation and give you a number, but it's 514 00:24:44,640 --> 00:24:46,359 Speaker 1: gonna be different next year, and it's gonna be different 515 00:24:46,359 --> 00:24:48,119 Speaker 1: in a million years, it's gonna be different in a 516 00:24:48,160 --> 00:24:48,960 Speaker 1: billion years. 517 00:24:49,200 --> 00:24:51,520 Speaker 6: Well, I mean, you don't need to predict what's going 518 00:24:51,600 --> 00:24:54,320 Speaker 6: to happen exactly, but could you maybe get a statistical sense, 519 00:24:54,359 --> 00:24:56,119 Speaker 6: Like if I take a cloud of stars like the 520 00:24:56,680 --> 00:24:59,840 Speaker 6: Andromeda galaxy, and you take a cloud of stars like 521 00:24:59,840 --> 00:25:01,960 Speaker 6: the the Milky Way galaxy, and you smash them into 522 00:25:01,960 --> 00:25:04,159 Speaker 6: each other at the speed are going what are the 523 00:25:04,240 --> 00:25:06,880 Speaker 6: chances or how likely or you know, how often would 524 00:25:07,040 --> 00:25:09,880 Speaker 6: star come near as enough to disrupt our orbit. 525 00:25:10,600 --> 00:25:13,439 Speaker 1: That's totally possible, and probably somebody is working on that, 526 00:25:13,560 --> 00:25:15,360 Speaker 1: but I haven't actually seen that number anywhere. 527 00:25:16,760 --> 00:25:20,240 Speaker 6: All right, Well, then the answer for Petra is hopefully 528 00:25:20,359 --> 00:25:22,960 Speaker 6: not nothing bad will happen. Daniel doesn't think. 529 00:25:23,280 --> 00:25:25,800 Speaker 1: Don't worry too much about Petra. Zombies are much more likely. 530 00:25:26,520 --> 00:25:30,119 Speaker 6: Yeah, don't collide with any zombies if you can't, especially 531 00:25:30,160 --> 00:25:30,879 Speaker 6: when it's with teeth. 532 00:25:31,240 --> 00:25:33,360 Speaker 1: But keep working on those intervals. That's going to save 533 00:25:33,400 --> 00:25:34,280 Speaker 1: you in the end times. 534 00:25:34,560 --> 00:25:36,840 Speaker 6: That's right. Bring your math book whenever you go out 535 00:25:36,920 --> 00:25:41,880 Speaker 6: foraging for you know, particle colliders to start your fire. 536 00:25:42,680 --> 00:25:44,639 Speaker 1: Or do what my dad did. Become a blacksmith and 537 00:25:44,720 --> 00:25:45,840 Speaker 1: make your own weapons. 538 00:25:46,119 --> 00:25:50,480 Speaker 6: Oh yeah, that's a good suggestion. Or just go to 539 00:25:50,720 --> 00:25:53,240 Speaker 6: Daniel's garage and you know, steal some of those swords. 540 00:25:54,280 --> 00:25:57,240 Speaker 1: I wouldn't recommend that. That's pretty well protected. 541 00:25:58,600 --> 00:26:02,879 Speaker 6: By math. If you come within ten meters, you'll be 542 00:26:02,920 --> 00:26:06,560 Speaker 6: faced with some physics questions, or you could just blast 543 00:26:06,560 --> 00:26:09,160 Speaker 6: the podcast out in speakers. They'll keep every one away. 544 00:26:09,800 --> 00:26:10,080 Speaker 5: All right. 545 00:26:10,160 --> 00:26:11,920 Speaker 6: Let's get to our other questions here today, and we 546 00:26:12,000 --> 00:26:16,040 Speaker 6: have some questions about extreme forces in the universe, and 547 00:26:16,320 --> 00:26:19,439 Speaker 6: about what kind of air are we all breathing? 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Terms apply. 612 00:29:40,920 --> 00:29:42,720 Speaker 1: When you pop a piece of cheese into your mouth 613 00:29:42,840 --> 00:29:45,960 Speaker 1: or enjoy a rich spoonful of Greek yogurt, you're probably 614 00:29:46,000 --> 00:29:50,000 Speaker 1: not thinking about the environmental impact of each and every bite, 615 00:29:50,080 --> 00:29:52,680 Speaker 1: but the people in the dairy industry are. US Dairy 616 00:29:52,760 --> 00:29:57,040 Speaker 1: has set themselves some ambitious sustainability goals, including being greenhouse 617 00:29:57,080 --> 00:29:59,640 Speaker 1: gas neutral by twenty to fifty. That's why they're working 618 00:29:59,640 --> 00:30:02,000 Speaker 1: hard at every day to find new ways to reduce waste, 619 00:30:02,080 --> 00:30:06,320 Speaker 1: conserve natural resources, and drive down greenhouse gas emissions. Take water, 620 00:30:06,360 --> 00:30:09,440 Speaker 1: for example, most dairy farms reuse water up to four 621 00:30:09,520 --> 00:30:12,960 Speaker 1: times the same water cools the milk, cleans equipment, washes 622 00:30:13,000 --> 00:30:15,800 Speaker 1: the barn, and irrigates the crops. How is US dairy 623 00:30:15,840 --> 00:30:19,560 Speaker 1: tackling greenhouse gases? Many farms use anaerobic digestors that turn 624 00:30:19,640 --> 00:30:23,520 Speaker 1: the methane from maneuver into renewable energy that can power farms, towns, 625 00:30:23,560 --> 00:30:25,640 Speaker 1: and electric cars. So the next time you grab a 626 00:30:25,680 --> 00:30:27,680 Speaker 1: slice of pizza or lick an ice cream cone, know 627 00:30:27,760 --> 00:30:30,440 Speaker 1: that dairy farmers and processors around the country are using 628 00:30:30,480 --> 00:30:33,960 Speaker 1: the latest practices and innovations to provide the nutrient dense 629 00:30:34,080 --> 00:30:36,800 Speaker 1: dairy products we love with less of an impact. Visit 630 00:30:36,880 --> 00:30:39,680 Speaker 1: us dairy dot com slash sustainability to learn more. 631 00:30:48,120 --> 00:30:51,280 Speaker 6: All right, we're answering listener questions, and our second question 632 00:30:51,480 --> 00:30:55,720 Speaker 6: comes from Dirk, who comes from the planet Earth. 633 00:30:56,080 --> 00:30:59,320 Speaker 1: I guess probably we hope so, no, we hope not. 634 00:31:00,760 --> 00:31:03,840 Speaker 6: Yeah, Hi Daniel and Jorge. 635 00:31:04,160 --> 00:31:06,800 Speaker 5: So I have a question about extreme forces. I know 636 00:31:06,880 --> 00:31:10,000 Speaker 5: gravity is one of the weakest forces in nature, but 637 00:31:10,080 --> 00:31:12,200 Speaker 5: it seems like there's no limit to how much gravity 638 00:31:12,240 --> 00:31:14,280 Speaker 5: there can be, and once you have enough of it, 639 00:31:14,400 --> 00:31:16,840 Speaker 5: an event horizon is formed and a black hole is made. 640 00:31:17,560 --> 00:31:20,240 Speaker 5: Even then more maths can be added and gravity will 641 00:31:20,240 --> 00:31:23,080 Speaker 5: continue to increase. Can this be done with any of 642 00:31:23,080 --> 00:31:26,800 Speaker 5: the other forces? Like can a magnetic field become so 643 00:31:26,800 --> 00:31:29,000 Speaker 5: strong that it forms its own kind of event horizon? 644 00:31:29,680 --> 00:31:31,640 Speaker 5: Or is there a limit that prevents the other forces 645 00:31:31,640 --> 00:31:33,880 Speaker 5: from increasing infinitely? Thank you? 646 00:31:34,520 --> 00:31:37,120 Speaker 6: All right, interesting question. I guess the question is how 647 00:31:37,160 --> 00:31:41,040 Speaker 6: extreme can other forces get? Can you make like a 648 00:31:41,080 --> 00:31:43,920 Speaker 6: magnetic black hole or a weak black hole. 649 00:31:44,600 --> 00:31:48,360 Speaker 1: Yeah, super fun question, really great to think about, and 650 00:31:48,440 --> 00:31:52,080 Speaker 1: I love the sort of philosophy behind this question. Trying 651 00:31:52,080 --> 00:31:54,680 Speaker 1: to make connections between forces and trying to understand the 652 00:31:54,720 --> 00:31:58,680 Speaker 1: differences between ideas. This is really how you make progress 653 00:31:58,680 --> 00:32:01,000 Speaker 1: in physics. How you build to consist model in your head, 654 00:32:01,440 --> 00:32:03,600 Speaker 1: try to understand where that model doesn't work and where 655 00:32:03,600 --> 00:32:06,160 Speaker 1: the pits don't fit together, and then try to understand 656 00:32:06,160 --> 00:32:08,840 Speaker 1: how they can possibly click together. So kudos to you, 657 00:32:08,880 --> 00:32:10,680 Speaker 1: Derek for thinking about it this way and for asking 658 00:32:10,720 --> 00:32:11,440 Speaker 1: this great question. 659 00:32:13,040 --> 00:32:16,280 Speaker 6: All Right, the question is Derek is wondering, like, we 660 00:32:16,360 --> 00:32:19,160 Speaker 6: know that a black hole happens when you gravity gets 661 00:32:19,200 --> 00:32:22,680 Speaker 6: so intense that it becomes basically a black hole with 662 00:32:22,720 --> 00:32:26,160 Speaker 6: an event horizon. Can that sort of thing happen with 663 00:32:26,280 --> 00:32:29,800 Speaker 6: the other forces in nature, like electromagnetism or the weak 664 00:32:29,840 --> 00:32:32,400 Speaker 6: force or the strong force. Can you get a situation 665 00:32:32,440 --> 00:32:35,000 Speaker 6: where the magnetic force is so strong it can maybe 666 00:32:35,040 --> 00:32:37,040 Speaker 6: creates its own kind of event horizon. 667 00:32:37,760 --> 00:32:41,360 Speaker 1: Yeah, So super fun question, and it's tempting to think 668 00:32:41,400 --> 00:32:44,200 Speaker 1: that there is because Derek probably thinks about gravity as 669 00:32:44,240 --> 00:32:46,840 Speaker 1: a force in the same way he thinks about magnetism 670 00:32:46,840 --> 00:32:51,320 Speaker 1: as a force, and that it creates an acceleration on objects. Right, 671 00:32:51,400 --> 00:32:54,560 Speaker 1: Two objects, as Newton described that have mass will pull 672 00:32:54,600 --> 00:32:57,520 Speaker 1: on each other the same way two objects with electric charge. 673 00:32:57,640 --> 00:33:00,440 Speaker 1: The electric force will pull on them or push on them, 674 00:33:00,760 --> 00:33:03,080 Speaker 1: and the strong force pulls and pushes on things that 675 00:33:03,160 --> 00:33:06,040 Speaker 1: have color charge. And so it's tempting to think about that. 676 00:33:06,120 --> 00:33:09,800 Speaker 1: It's very intuitive, but remember that gravity is not actually 677 00:33:09,800 --> 00:33:13,040 Speaker 1: a force. It's Our understanding of gravity today is that 678 00:33:13,080 --> 00:33:16,560 Speaker 1: it represents the curvature of space time itself, and in 679 00:33:16,600 --> 00:33:19,280 Speaker 1: many ways that's equivalent. Like most of the time, you 680 00:33:19,320 --> 00:33:21,880 Speaker 1: can think about the curvature of space time and from 681 00:33:21,920 --> 00:33:24,240 Speaker 1: that you can get exactly the same behavior that Newton 682 00:33:24,280 --> 00:33:28,560 Speaker 1: would have predicted, but it's also crucially different in many respects. 683 00:33:28,800 --> 00:33:31,040 Speaker 1: There's lots of things that the curvature of space time 684 00:33:31,080 --> 00:33:34,440 Speaker 1: can do that the simple force of gravity cannot do. 685 00:33:34,960 --> 00:33:38,440 Speaker 1: And form an event horizon is one of those things. 686 00:33:38,800 --> 00:33:41,960 Speaker 1: So Einstein's reconception of gravity as a curvature of space 687 00:33:42,000 --> 00:33:45,840 Speaker 1: time describes all of Newton's physics, but also more than that, 688 00:33:46,240 --> 00:33:49,520 Speaker 1: it doesn't just reformulate gravity as another way to think 689 00:33:49,520 --> 00:33:53,200 Speaker 1: about it, it adds new capacity to gravity. New things 690 00:33:53,200 --> 00:33:55,880 Speaker 1: that it can do. And so the force description of 691 00:33:55,920 --> 00:33:59,680 Speaker 1: gravity cannot create an event horizon, but the curvature description 692 00:33:59,800 --> 00:34:03,800 Speaker 1: of gravity can create event horizons. And so the other forces, 693 00:34:04,000 --> 00:34:07,160 Speaker 1: which can't be described in terms of curvature, can't create 694 00:34:07,200 --> 00:34:10,399 Speaker 1: event horizons. That's not something a force can do. Only 695 00:34:10,440 --> 00:34:12,000 Speaker 1: spacetime curvature can do that. 696 00:34:12,719 --> 00:34:15,560 Speaker 6: Well, I guess I might ask, are you sure about that? 697 00:34:16,760 --> 00:34:20,000 Speaker 6: Couldn't you define the event horizon as the point at 698 00:34:20,000 --> 00:34:22,480 Speaker 6: which the force of gravity is so strong that nothing 699 00:34:22,480 --> 00:34:23,120 Speaker 6: can escape it. 700 00:34:23,600 --> 00:34:26,600 Speaker 1: I'm definitely not sure about that, because we don't understand 701 00:34:26,640 --> 00:34:30,600 Speaker 1: gravity right. Gravity is really weird. Einstein's theory is beautiful, 702 00:34:30,640 --> 00:34:33,600 Speaker 1: but we also know that it's flawed. We don't understand 703 00:34:33,719 --> 00:34:37,200 Speaker 1: how singularities could form. We don't understand why gravity seems 704 00:34:37,239 --> 00:34:39,480 Speaker 1: to not be quantum mechanical, or if it is when 705 00:34:39,520 --> 00:34:42,920 Speaker 1: you zoom in enough, for example. So everything we say 706 00:34:42,960 --> 00:34:46,200 Speaker 1: here today assumes that GR is correct, but we know 707 00:34:46,320 --> 00:34:50,440 Speaker 1: that GR is not correct ultimately, and so there's lots 708 00:34:50,440 --> 00:34:52,360 Speaker 1: of things to be learned, and in the far future 709 00:34:52,560 --> 00:34:55,000 Speaker 1: this could all be totally wrong. So yeah, absolutely not, 710 00:34:55,440 --> 00:34:57,319 Speaker 1: But you're right. First, we should define what we mean 711 00:34:57,360 --> 00:35:01,040 Speaker 1: by an event horizon, right, and a black hole can exist. 712 00:35:01,040 --> 00:35:03,360 Speaker 1: The reason we have event horizons, the reason that curvature 713 00:35:03,680 --> 00:35:07,000 Speaker 1: can do this and the forces cannot, is that curvature 714 00:35:07,040 --> 00:35:10,120 Speaker 1: does something to space. It changes the shape of space, 715 00:35:10,239 --> 00:35:13,480 Speaker 1: like the relationship between points. So you can think about 716 00:35:13,480 --> 00:35:15,560 Speaker 1: it as like a region from which even a photon 717 00:35:15,719 --> 00:35:19,279 Speaker 1: cannot escape, right, And that again is something gravity can do. 718 00:35:19,360 --> 00:35:22,480 Speaker 1: But you can't do that with magnetism or electric force 719 00:35:22,600 --> 00:35:23,480 Speaker 1: or the strong force. 720 00:35:24,000 --> 00:35:25,960 Speaker 6: Well, I guess what I mean is, like you know, 721 00:35:26,600 --> 00:35:28,920 Speaker 6: for example, you might say that the Earth has an 722 00:35:28,920 --> 00:35:32,400 Speaker 6: event horizon, right, Like there's a point and a velocity 723 00:35:32,520 --> 00:35:35,560 Speaker 6: at which you can escape to Earth, and there's a 724 00:35:35,560 --> 00:35:38,720 Speaker 6: point at which you cannot escape Earth, right, So maybe 725 00:35:38,800 --> 00:35:40,640 Speaker 6: you might be able to call that the event horizon 726 00:35:40,680 --> 00:35:44,200 Speaker 6: of the Earth gravity, black holes, event horizon. It's just that. 727 00:35:44,320 --> 00:35:47,000 Speaker 6: But taking to the extreme where you're talking about not 728 00:35:47,040 --> 00:35:49,319 Speaker 6: even light being able to escape, I wonder if you 729 00:35:49,320 --> 00:35:51,759 Speaker 6: can do that the same with a magnetic field or 730 00:35:52,000 --> 00:35:54,120 Speaker 6: like a magnetic force, Like, is there a point at 731 00:35:54,120 --> 00:35:56,840 Speaker 6: which not even like a super fast moving charged particle 732 00:35:56,920 --> 00:36:01,520 Speaker 6: will escape the attractive force that something has Electromygnetically, I. 733 00:36:01,520 --> 00:36:04,680 Speaker 1: Mean, you can definitely form bound states right, Like the 734 00:36:04,680 --> 00:36:08,080 Speaker 1: Moon is bound to the Earth gravitationally, but it can 735 00:36:08,160 --> 00:36:11,800 Speaker 1: still escape, right, Or photons from the Moon can definitely 736 00:36:11,880 --> 00:36:15,560 Speaker 1: escape the gravitational system. And that's not just like a 737 00:36:15,680 --> 00:36:19,160 Speaker 1: difference in degree, it's a difference in kind. Right. The 738 00:36:19,200 --> 00:36:21,839 Speaker 1: inside of an event horizon really is cut off from 739 00:36:21,880 --> 00:36:24,920 Speaker 1: the rest of the universe. Nothing that happens there can 740 00:36:24,960 --> 00:36:28,000 Speaker 1: influence anything that happens outside the universe, whereas things that 741 00:36:28,040 --> 00:36:30,880 Speaker 1: happen on Earth can always influence things far away. It 742 00:36:31,000 --> 00:36:34,319 Speaker 1: just takes some time. So it's a question of like causality, 743 00:36:34,400 --> 00:36:37,080 Speaker 1: like are these things linked or not? Can one area 744 00:36:37,120 --> 00:36:40,360 Speaker 1: of space affect another? You can definitely attract things together, 745 00:36:40,400 --> 00:36:42,080 Speaker 1: and they can even be stuck together, and they can 746 00:36:42,120 --> 00:36:44,040 Speaker 1: be stable, and they can even last for millions or 747 00:36:44,080 --> 00:36:47,880 Speaker 1: billions of years or configurations like the proton might last forever, 748 00:36:48,560 --> 00:36:51,160 Speaker 1: but you know, the quarks inside the proton could still 749 00:36:51,200 --> 00:36:54,879 Speaker 1: potentially escape you give them enough energy. It's a bound state. 750 00:36:54,960 --> 00:36:56,800 Speaker 1: That's not the same thing as an event horizon. 751 00:36:57,000 --> 00:37:00,400 Speaker 6: But could you say that, like a charged ball ofity 752 00:37:00,560 --> 00:37:03,080 Speaker 6: has an escape velocity to it and a point at 753 00:37:03,080 --> 00:37:05,080 Speaker 6: which no charge particle can escape it. 754 00:37:05,280 --> 00:37:08,080 Speaker 1: A charge ball, for example, definitely has an escape velocity, 755 00:37:08,120 --> 00:37:10,680 Speaker 1: like there's a minimum energy you would need to escape 756 00:37:10,880 --> 00:37:13,960 Speaker 1: the potential well created by that ball, and things below 757 00:37:14,000 --> 00:37:15,560 Speaker 1: that energy are bound to it. But there is still 758 00:37:15,560 --> 00:37:18,239 Speaker 1: always an escape velocity. And that's why photons are a 759 00:37:18,320 --> 00:37:21,640 Speaker 1: useful way to think about event horizons because there's no 760 00:37:21,800 --> 00:37:24,640 Speaker 1: force that can bound a photon. Like, photons always move 761 00:37:24,960 --> 00:37:27,560 Speaker 1: at the speed of light locally, and there's no force 762 00:37:27,600 --> 00:37:30,160 Speaker 1: that can prevent them from doing that. But changing the 763 00:37:30,160 --> 00:37:33,200 Speaker 1: direction of space, right, changing the configuration of space the 764 00:37:33,239 --> 00:37:36,480 Speaker 1: way gravity does that can trap a photon because it 765 00:37:36,480 --> 00:37:38,480 Speaker 1: can change space from flat to curve. It can make 766 00:37:38,520 --> 00:37:41,560 Speaker 1: the photon move in a circle forever, which is sort 767 00:37:41,600 --> 00:37:44,359 Speaker 1: of amazing. And so that's why gravity can do this, 768 00:37:44,600 --> 00:37:46,080 Speaker 1: which no other force can do. 769 00:37:46,800 --> 00:37:52,120 Speaker 6: But I guess light is an electrically neutral right, Yeah, 770 00:37:52,239 --> 00:37:54,080 Speaker 6: So I wonder if you can envision, like, is there 771 00:37:54,440 --> 00:37:57,319 Speaker 6: a ball of charge. They can be so intense that 772 00:37:57,480 --> 00:37:59,400 Speaker 6: not even a core going at the speed of light 773 00:37:59,440 --> 00:38:02,520 Speaker 6: can escape it. You maybe call that the event horizon 774 00:38:02,840 --> 00:38:04,520 Speaker 6: of an electromagnetic force. 775 00:38:04,800 --> 00:38:06,759 Speaker 1: So you take a ball of charge has a very 776 00:38:06,760 --> 00:38:10,480 Speaker 1: strong electric force, right, and now imagine some electron near it, 777 00:38:10,520 --> 00:38:13,160 Speaker 1: and you're wondering, like is it possible to have that 778 00:38:13,200 --> 00:38:16,200 Speaker 1: ball be so electrically charged that even an electron moving 779 00:38:16,200 --> 00:38:19,080 Speaker 1: at the speed of light couldn't escape it. Yeah, yeah, 780 00:38:19,200 --> 00:38:21,359 Speaker 1: it's a great question. The problem is that electrons can't 781 00:38:21,440 --> 00:38:23,840 Speaker 1: move at the speed of light because they have mass. 782 00:38:24,200 --> 00:38:27,520 Speaker 6: Right, Well, of course I know this, but like, if 783 00:38:27,560 --> 00:38:29,440 Speaker 6: it was moving at the speed of light, is there 784 00:38:29,480 --> 00:38:31,719 Speaker 6: a point we're closing on nine point nine nine nine 785 00:38:31,760 --> 00:38:33,680 Speaker 6: percent of yeah, the speed of light. Is there an 786 00:38:33,680 --> 00:38:36,000 Speaker 6: event horizon for that ball of positive charge? 787 00:38:36,120 --> 00:38:38,520 Speaker 1: Right? And I bring up the velocity not just to 788 00:38:38,520 --> 00:38:41,279 Speaker 1: be like actually, but because velocity is the wrong way 789 00:38:41,280 --> 00:38:43,800 Speaker 1: to think about it, because for a massive object, energy 790 00:38:43,880 --> 00:38:45,680 Speaker 1: is the right way to think about it. As you say, 791 00:38:45,719 --> 00:38:47,319 Speaker 1: you can't get to the speed of light, you can 792 00:38:47,320 --> 00:38:49,840 Speaker 1: get arbitrarily close, but there's no limit to the amount 793 00:38:49,880 --> 00:38:52,920 Speaker 1: of energy that an electron can have, and so you 794 00:38:52,920 --> 00:38:55,640 Speaker 1: can just keep putting energy into that electron and eventually 795 00:38:55,680 --> 00:38:59,160 Speaker 1: it will escape that ball of charge. So no, there's 796 00:38:59,160 --> 00:39:01,480 Speaker 1: no way you can try crap an electron forever. You 797 00:39:01,520 --> 00:39:04,560 Speaker 1: can't create an event horizon using electric charge. You could 798 00:39:04,560 --> 00:39:06,879 Speaker 1: always just give that electron more energy and it would 799 00:39:06,960 --> 00:39:09,160 Speaker 1: escape your ball of charge, no matter how big it. 800 00:39:09,120 --> 00:39:13,440 Speaker 6: Is all right, So then the answer for Derek is no, 801 00:39:13,560 --> 00:39:15,319 Speaker 6: you can't make an electromagnetic black hole. 802 00:39:15,600 --> 00:39:17,799 Speaker 1: Yeah, And I think there's another wrinkle there, which is 803 00:39:17,840 --> 00:39:21,680 Speaker 1: something you brought up, which is photons are neutral electromagnetically, right, 804 00:39:22,160 --> 00:39:24,280 Speaker 1: And I think that's really cool and kind of weird 805 00:39:24,480 --> 00:39:27,959 Speaker 1: that photons, even though they carry electromagnetic information, they don't 806 00:39:28,000 --> 00:39:31,040 Speaker 1: feel the force themselves. And that's something true about all 807 00:39:31,040 --> 00:39:34,680 Speaker 1: of the forces, electromagnetism, the weak force, a strong force, 808 00:39:34,800 --> 00:39:37,680 Speaker 1: there are always some particles that are neutral to it, right, 809 00:39:37,719 --> 00:39:40,600 Speaker 1: So like the strong force can create really really strong 810 00:39:40,640 --> 00:39:43,479 Speaker 1: bound states, but then neutrinos ignore it, right, they would 811 00:39:43,480 --> 00:39:45,560 Speaker 1: just fly right through it. So in that sense, an 812 00:39:45,560 --> 00:39:48,719 Speaker 1: event horizon for like electromagnetism wouldn't really be an event 813 00:39:48,760 --> 00:39:51,440 Speaker 1: horizon even if you could make one, because some particles 814 00:39:51,440 --> 00:39:54,640 Speaker 1: ignore it. The amazing, awesome thing about gravity is that 815 00:39:54,719 --> 00:39:57,840 Speaker 1: nothing can ignore it. Gravity is just linked to energy. 816 00:39:57,960 --> 00:40:00,880 Speaker 1: So anything that has energy, we just basically anything in 817 00:40:00,920 --> 00:40:03,680 Speaker 1: the way we conceive of it is affected by gravity. 818 00:40:03,680 --> 00:40:04,720 Speaker 1: It's inescapable. 819 00:40:05,360 --> 00:40:09,040 Speaker 6: Oh all right, Hm, I'm still wondering, like could you 820 00:40:09,120 --> 00:40:11,400 Speaker 6: make that calculation? Like what did you take an electron 821 00:40:12,040 --> 00:40:14,600 Speaker 6: give it this speed of light. Could you use that 822 00:40:14,800 --> 00:40:18,880 Speaker 6: to compute a positive ball of charge strong enough for 823 00:40:19,000 --> 00:40:20,719 Speaker 6: which that's the escape velocity. 824 00:40:21,400 --> 00:40:23,600 Speaker 1: Well, if you have an electron and you effectively give 825 00:40:23,640 --> 00:40:26,480 Speaker 1: it velocity the speed of light, you're giving it infinite energy, 826 00:40:27,200 --> 00:40:30,120 Speaker 1: and of course that's impossible. But what that means is 827 00:40:30,440 --> 00:40:34,000 Speaker 1: that there is no ball of charge that's powerful enough 828 00:40:34,080 --> 00:40:36,640 Speaker 1: to bound it because there's infinite energy, so has more 829 00:40:36,760 --> 00:40:40,000 Speaker 1: energy than any energy level in that bound state unless 830 00:40:40,000 --> 00:40:42,120 Speaker 1: you make that ball infinite. Right, So now it's just 831 00:40:42,239 --> 00:40:44,000 Speaker 1: like infinity versus infinity. 832 00:40:44,320 --> 00:40:45,640 Speaker 6: Well, I guess what I mean is like, when you 833 00:40:45,680 --> 00:40:49,120 Speaker 6: compute the scape velocity of something escaping Earth, you're not 834 00:40:49,160 --> 00:40:52,840 Speaker 6: actually using the relativistic equations, right, You're just kind of 835 00:40:52,920 --> 00:40:56,040 Speaker 6: using more basic math. You're ignoring relativist effects. 836 00:40:56,120 --> 00:40:59,279 Speaker 1: Right, Yeah, the simplest calculations ignore relativistic effects. But I 837 00:40:59,280 --> 00:41:02,680 Speaker 1: don't think relativistic effects are really relevant for the Earth. 838 00:41:03,080 --> 00:41:05,279 Speaker 6: Right. But so let's say I do that for an 839 00:41:05,280 --> 00:41:09,080 Speaker 6: electron and I give it the speed of light. Could 840 00:41:09,080 --> 00:41:13,280 Speaker 6: I compute an event horizon, even though maybe it's not realistic, 841 00:41:13,320 --> 00:41:15,000 Speaker 6: but it is there one. 842 00:41:15,280 --> 00:41:17,640 Speaker 1: So you're saying, if I ignore the fact that electrons 843 00:41:17,640 --> 00:41:21,120 Speaker 1: can't go the speed of light and I ignore relativity. 844 00:41:21,440 --> 00:41:23,400 Speaker 1: Can we make an event horizon for an electron? 845 00:41:23,520 --> 00:41:25,880 Speaker 6: Yeah, just like when we compute the scape velocity of 846 00:41:25,880 --> 00:41:28,839 Speaker 6: a satellite or a spacecraft, we sort of ignore that too. 847 00:41:28,960 --> 00:41:31,880 Speaker 1: You can definitely calculate and escape velocity right or effectively 848 00:41:31,920 --> 00:41:35,240 Speaker 1: an energy beyond which the electron is free and below 849 00:41:35,280 --> 00:41:38,160 Speaker 1: which the electron is bound. So you can definitely calculate that. 850 00:41:38,280 --> 00:41:41,360 Speaker 1: You can ignore relativity, you can include relativity or whatever. 851 00:41:41,840 --> 00:41:44,400 Speaker 1: But in order to trap that electron forever so that 852 00:41:44,440 --> 00:41:47,439 Speaker 1: there's no chance it ever leaves, then you essentially need 853 00:41:47,480 --> 00:41:51,400 Speaker 1: an infinitely powerful electric force. You need an infinite amount 854 00:41:51,400 --> 00:41:53,799 Speaker 1: of charge to trap an electron that could effectively have 855 00:41:53,840 --> 00:41:54,640 Speaker 1: infinite energy. 856 00:41:56,560 --> 00:41:59,319 Speaker 6: So would that mean that my electric black hole is 857 00:41:59,440 --> 00:42:01,640 Speaker 6: infinitely or infinitely small. 858 00:42:04,719 --> 00:42:06,160 Speaker 1: It would be infinitely charged. 859 00:42:06,600 --> 00:42:09,200 Speaker 6: Oh does it have to be infinitely charged or could 860 00:42:09,200 --> 00:42:11,720 Speaker 6: it just be a charge but infinitely dense. 861 00:42:11,920 --> 00:42:14,400 Speaker 1: You might imagine bringing the electron like really really close 862 00:42:14,440 --> 00:42:17,560 Speaker 1: to that charge so that the electric force gets really powerful, 863 00:42:17,560 --> 00:42:20,319 Speaker 1: because the electric force also gets powerful as things get 864 00:42:20,320 --> 00:42:23,279 Speaker 1: really close together. But again, these are quantum objects. There's 865 00:42:23,280 --> 00:42:26,239 Speaker 1: always like a minimum effective radius. It's not really an 866 00:42:26,320 --> 00:42:28,640 Speaker 1: orbit but this is like a mean distance from the 867 00:42:28,680 --> 00:42:31,880 Speaker 1: center for the ground state, and so that effectively limits 868 00:42:31,880 --> 00:42:34,840 Speaker 1: how powerful these things can get. Like there's a reason 869 00:42:34,840 --> 00:42:37,280 Speaker 1: the hydrogen atom has a ground state and the electron 870 00:42:37,400 --> 00:42:40,240 Speaker 1: is not closer to it. It can't settle any closer, 871 00:42:40,480 --> 00:42:43,600 Speaker 1: and that effectively bounds like how strong the force can get. 872 00:42:44,000 --> 00:42:47,880 Speaker 6: Oh Man, So you're saying quantum mechanics ruins all the time. 873 00:42:49,160 --> 00:42:52,000 Speaker 1: Like usual, But you also have another question about like 874 00:42:52,120 --> 00:42:55,640 Speaker 1: why can't we describe the other forces in terms of curvature? 875 00:42:55,760 --> 00:42:58,239 Speaker 1: And there are people working on that, people wondering like, well, 876 00:42:58,440 --> 00:43:01,759 Speaker 1: what if electromagnetism actually is curvature but not in our 877 00:43:01,840 --> 00:43:04,879 Speaker 1: three D space? What if it's curvature in like additional 878 00:43:04,960 --> 00:43:08,239 Speaker 1: spatial dimensions. And nobody's really made that theory work, but 879 00:43:08,280 --> 00:43:11,279 Speaker 1: it's really fun to think about how electromagnetism might be 880 00:43:11,360 --> 00:43:14,480 Speaker 1: like curvature in other ways that we can't see it yet. 881 00:43:14,920 --> 00:43:17,319 Speaker 1: And even in that theory, you might be able to 882 00:43:17,360 --> 00:43:20,319 Speaker 1: describe electromagnetism as curvature, and you might wonder like can 883 00:43:20,360 --> 00:43:23,600 Speaker 1: I make event horizons in those other dimensions? But then 884 00:43:23,600 --> 00:43:26,200 Speaker 1: you wouldn't be making event horizons in our three D space. 885 00:43:26,200 --> 00:43:27,840 Speaker 1: Which I think is really what the question was. 886 00:43:28,120 --> 00:43:29,839 Speaker 6: So then it would be sort of like a black hole, 887 00:43:29,880 --> 00:43:30,960 Speaker 6: but in other dimensions. 888 00:43:31,040 --> 00:43:33,120 Speaker 1: It's pretty hard to think about, but it would be 889 00:43:33,160 --> 00:43:36,239 Speaker 1: curvature in other dimensions, and you might have event horizons 890 00:43:36,239 --> 00:43:39,800 Speaker 1: in those dimensions, but not in our dimensions, so pretty 891 00:43:39,840 --> 00:43:40,480 Speaker 1: wonky stuff. 892 00:43:40,520 --> 00:43:43,080 Speaker 6: There'd be holes in our black hole is basically. 893 00:43:42,760 --> 00:43:43,560 Speaker 1: What you're seeing. 894 00:43:43,880 --> 00:43:47,640 Speaker 6: Yeah, exactly, all right, Well that's an interesting answer for Derek. 895 00:43:48,080 --> 00:43:50,440 Speaker 6: Now let's get to our last question of today, and 896 00:43:50,520 --> 00:43:54,120 Speaker 6: it's about the air we breathe and where does part 897 00:43:54,120 --> 00:43:56,560 Speaker 6: of it come from? 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Terms and conditions apply. 959 00:47:27,320 --> 00:47:30,120 Speaker 6: We're answering listener questions here today, and our last question 960 00:47:30,239 --> 00:47:32,920 Speaker 6: comes from Steve Parrin from Quebec. 961 00:47:33,800 --> 00:47:38,000 Speaker 5: Hi, Daniel and Jorge, this is Steve Pagan from Quebec, Canada. 962 00:47:39,120 --> 00:47:42,000 Speaker 5: My question is where is all the nitrogen in our 963 00:47:42,080 --> 00:47:43,760 Speaker 5: atmosphere coming from? 964 00:47:44,120 --> 00:47:47,840 Speaker 1: And what role does it play? Amazing podcast guys, I 965 00:47:47,880 --> 00:47:48,880 Speaker 1: love it, Thank you? 966 00:47:49,920 --> 00:47:53,839 Speaker 6: All right, A pretty straightforward question here, Where does all 967 00:47:53,880 --> 00:47:57,279 Speaker 6: the nitrogen in our atmosphere come from? And what role 968 00:47:57,320 --> 00:47:57,840 Speaker 6: does it play? 969 00:47:57,960 --> 00:48:00,640 Speaker 1: Yeah, nitrogen is a big deal on Earth. Like most 970 00:48:00,640 --> 00:48:03,800 Speaker 1: of the atmosphere is nitrogen. You take a deep breath, 971 00:48:04,120 --> 00:48:07,120 Speaker 1: you think yourself as like gulping oxygen, but it's mostly 972 00:48:07,200 --> 00:48:10,520 Speaker 1: nitrogen that you're breathing in, which is kind of weird. 973 00:48:10,680 --> 00:48:12,880 Speaker 6: WHOA, what do you mean mostly? What are the percentages? 974 00:48:13,280 --> 00:48:17,000 Speaker 1: It's almost eighty percent of the air is nitrogen. 975 00:48:16,680 --> 00:48:20,800 Speaker 6: Eighty percent by like a volume mass or atoms. 976 00:48:20,520 --> 00:48:22,560 Speaker 1: It's seventy eight percent by mass. 977 00:48:23,000 --> 00:48:25,920 Speaker 6: Oh, and how much of it is oxygen? So it's 978 00:48:25,960 --> 00:48:27,719 Speaker 6: like most of the air is nitrogen. 979 00:48:27,840 --> 00:48:30,440 Speaker 1: It's seventy eight percent by quantity. 980 00:48:30,280 --> 00:48:32,920 Speaker 6: Meaning by volume or what do you mean by quantity 981 00:48:33,239 --> 00:48:34,240 Speaker 6: like number of atoms? 982 00:48:34,480 --> 00:48:37,319 Speaker 1: Yeah, like number of molecules. Actually, if you count it up, 983 00:48:37,520 --> 00:48:39,440 Speaker 1: if you take like a cubic meter of air and 984 00:48:39,480 --> 00:48:42,400 Speaker 1: you count all the molecules in it, seventy eight percent 985 00:48:42,440 --> 00:48:44,759 Speaker 1: of those are nitrogen and twenty one percent of those 986 00:48:44,800 --> 00:48:45,520 Speaker 1: are oxygen. 987 00:48:45,719 --> 00:48:47,040 Speaker 6: WHOA, no hydrogen. 988 00:48:47,160 --> 00:48:50,520 Speaker 1: There's almost no hydrogen in the atmosphere because it's very volatile. 989 00:48:50,560 --> 00:48:53,359 Speaker 1: Any hydrogen will react with the oxygen and make water. 990 00:48:53,600 --> 00:48:55,240 Speaker 6: So where did all this nigrogen come from? 991 00:48:55,360 --> 00:48:57,279 Speaker 1: Yeah, it's a really fun question. It goes back to 992 00:48:57,320 --> 00:48:59,799 Speaker 1: the whole origin of like why we have an atmosphere 993 00:48:59,800 --> 00:49:02,960 Speaker 1: in the first place, because it's kind of weird. You 994 00:49:03,000 --> 00:49:05,400 Speaker 1: know that we have enough gravity to like hold this 995 00:49:05,520 --> 00:49:10,279 Speaker 1: little super thin envelope of gas around the planet, And 996 00:49:10,360 --> 00:49:12,239 Speaker 1: if you think about how the planet came to be, 997 00:49:12,800 --> 00:49:14,960 Speaker 1: it's not clear, like why we have an atmosphere that 998 00:49:15,040 --> 00:49:18,279 Speaker 1: survived the formation of the Solar System, because as things 999 00:49:18,280 --> 00:49:20,560 Speaker 1: were condensing very early in the Solar System, it was 1000 00:49:20,600 --> 00:49:23,239 Speaker 1: a very volatile place. Like first of all, we're in 1001 00:49:23,280 --> 00:49:26,120 Speaker 1: the Inner Solar System, which means we're pretty close to 1002 00:49:26,160 --> 00:49:29,040 Speaker 1: the Sun, and so most of the hydrogen in the 1003 00:49:29,040 --> 00:49:31,400 Speaker 1: Inner Solar System was gobbled up by the Sun. Like 1004 00:49:31,440 --> 00:49:34,440 Speaker 1: the Sun has huge gravity. The reason that Earth was 1005 00:49:34,520 --> 00:49:37,560 Speaker 1: formed is because it's not hydrogen. It's because it's rocky, 1006 00:49:37,920 --> 00:49:41,200 Speaker 1: had like enough gravity to form its own little gravitational 1007 00:49:41,200 --> 00:49:44,000 Speaker 1: well and cluster stuff together before it all got gobbled 1008 00:49:44,040 --> 00:49:46,720 Speaker 1: up by the Sun. But that tends to gather together 1009 00:49:46,760 --> 00:49:49,120 Speaker 1: heavy things like rocks and metal, right, chunks of iron 1010 00:49:49,160 --> 00:49:52,160 Speaker 1: floating in space, not clouds of gas, most of which 1011 00:49:52,200 --> 00:49:54,920 Speaker 1: fell into the Sun. Some of it did form with 1012 00:49:54,960 --> 00:49:57,600 Speaker 1: the Earth, but then when the Sun started fusing, it 1013 00:49:57,680 --> 00:50:01,520 Speaker 1: created all this intense radiation and lasted away our atmosphere. 1014 00:50:01,840 --> 00:50:03,960 Speaker 1: So we might have had like a very thin hydrogen 1015 00:50:04,040 --> 00:50:07,600 Speaker 1: atmosphere to begin with, but then most of that got 1016 00:50:07,640 --> 00:50:11,399 Speaker 1: lost due to the solar radiation and then also collisions 1017 00:50:11,400 --> 00:50:14,000 Speaker 1: by heavy stuff, like the formation of the Moon was 1018 00:50:14,080 --> 00:50:17,440 Speaker 1: due to this collision with a protoplanet and that probably 1019 00:50:17,680 --> 00:50:19,560 Speaker 1: destroyed all the atmosphere we had initially. 1020 00:50:20,880 --> 00:50:23,600 Speaker 6: But I guess a deeper question is where did it 1021 00:50:23,640 --> 00:50:26,560 Speaker 6: all come from originally? Like it just got form inside 1022 00:50:26,560 --> 00:50:29,520 Speaker 6: the Sun like all the other heavy elements in previous 1023 00:50:30,239 --> 00:50:32,880 Speaker 6: iterations of the Sun or supernova or what. 1024 00:50:33,280 --> 00:50:35,640 Speaker 1: All the nitrogen and everything in our Solar system that 1025 00:50:35,719 --> 00:50:39,359 Speaker 1: isn't hydrogen was not made by our star, right, All 1026 00:50:39,400 --> 00:50:41,800 Speaker 1: that was made by previous stars. So like the deeper 1027 00:50:41,840 --> 00:50:44,560 Speaker 1: history is that we have mostly hydrogen formed in the 1028 00:50:44,640 --> 00:50:47,520 Speaker 1: very very early universe, tiny tiny trace amounts of helium, 1029 00:50:47,960 --> 00:50:49,520 Speaker 1: and then you have to wait for stars to be 1030 00:50:49,600 --> 00:50:52,320 Speaker 1: born hundreds of millions of years later to turn that 1031 00:50:52,400 --> 00:50:55,759 Speaker 1: hydrogen into heavier stuff. And so that nitrogen that you're 1032 00:50:55,800 --> 00:50:58,760 Speaker 1: breathing right now. Was made at the heart of stars 1033 00:50:58,880 --> 00:51:02,880 Speaker 1: previous generation, which burned created that nitrogen inside them, and 1034 00:51:02,920 --> 00:51:06,760 Speaker 1: then blew up and spread those heavier elements, including nitrogen 1035 00:51:06,840 --> 00:51:08,759 Speaker 1: and iron and copper and on carbon and all that 1036 00:51:08,800 --> 00:51:12,360 Speaker 1: good stuff throughout the galaxy, and then that re coalesced 1037 00:51:12,520 --> 00:51:15,279 Speaker 1: into our solar system. So all the nitrogen and the 1038 00:51:15,320 --> 00:51:17,719 Speaker 1: iron and all that stuff in our bodies and in 1039 00:51:17,800 --> 00:51:20,239 Speaker 1: the air and in the Earth was made by a 1040 00:51:20,280 --> 00:51:23,560 Speaker 1: different star that no longer exists whoa. 1041 00:51:23,480 --> 00:51:26,120 Speaker 6: And it was made at the core of that previous star, 1042 00:51:26,360 --> 00:51:27,400 Speaker 6: or when it exploded. 1043 00:51:27,719 --> 00:51:29,840 Speaker 1: The stuff that's iron or lighter was made to the 1044 00:51:29,880 --> 00:51:32,560 Speaker 1: core of that star. It's made by fusion, because when 1045 00:51:32,600 --> 00:51:35,759 Speaker 1: you fuse two lighter elements together, you release energy. But 1046 00:51:35,800 --> 00:51:38,879 Speaker 1: that's only true up to making iron. Beyond iron, when 1047 00:51:38,880 --> 00:51:41,719 Speaker 1: you fuse stuff together, it costs energy. So if a 1048 00:51:41,760 --> 00:51:44,080 Speaker 1: star starts to do that, it begins to dim and 1049 00:51:44,120 --> 00:51:47,600 Speaker 1: like steals away the energy. And stars need that energy 1050 00:51:47,640 --> 00:51:50,560 Speaker 1: to survive because they're fighting against gravity. Gravity is trying 1051 00:51:50,560 --> 00:51:52,719 Speaker 1: to compress them down into a black hole. And the 1052 00:51:52,760 --> 00:51:55,160 Speaker 1: only reason the star survives for millions or billions of 1053 00:51:55,239 --> 00:51:58,880 Speaker 1: years is that radiation pressure outwards. That's created by the 1054 00:51:59,040 --> 00:52:01,759 Speaker 1: energy released by fusion. If that goes away, then the 1055 00:52:01,760 --> 00:52:05,080 Speaker 1: star stars to collapse, and so stars can't make a 1056 00:52:05,120 --> 00:52:07,640 Speaker 1: lot of the heavier elements above iron. For that, you 1057 00:52:07,719 --> 00:52:10,120 Speaker 1: need either the death of the star, the supernova which 1058 00:52:10,120 --> 00:52:13,920 Speaker 1: has super dense conditions capable of creating those heavier elements, 1059 00:52:14,400 --> 00:52:17,160 Speaker 1: or things later on like collisions of neutron stars to 1060 00:52:17,200 --> 00:52:20,400 Speaker 1: create the heaviest elements. But nitrogen is made in the 1061 00:52:20,440 --> 00:52:22,760 Speaker 1: heart of those stars during normal fusion. 1062 00:52:24,000 --> 00:52:26,640 Speaker 6: So we're basically breathing dead stars. 1063 00:52:26,719 --> 00:52:30,879 Speaker 1: Every time you take a breath, it's a gift from 1064 00:52:30,920 --> 00:52:31,520 Speaker 1: those stars. 1065 00:52:31,719 --> 00:52:34,080 Speaker 6: You're basically breathing zombie star. 1066 00:52:34,360 --> 00:52:38,000 Speaker 1: Yes, exactly, zombie star brains. Take a deep breath. 1067 00:52:39,160 --> 00:52:44,480 Speaker 6: Yeah, smells delicious, smells like brains. So the previous star 1068 00:52:44,600 --> 00:52:47,239 Speaker 6: made the It was floating around just like all the 1069 00:52:47,360 --> 00:52:50,200 Speaker 6: hydrogen and carbon and dust and rocks that was made 1070 00:52:50,200 --> 00:52:54,120 Speaker 6: by previous stars when our Sun started burning, And then 1071 00:52:54,160 --> 00:52:56,239 Speaker 6: how did it end up on Earth or is it 1072 00:52:56,239 --> 00:52:58,799 Speaker 6: spread out all around the Solar System. 1073 00:52:59,080 --> 00:53:02,080 Speaker 1: It's all over the sol System. Nitrogen is everywhere, It's 1074 00:53:02,160 --> 00:53:06,040 Speaker 1: not just on Earth. And the nitrogen in our atmosphere 1075 00:53:06,200 --> 00:53:09,319 Speaker 1: ended up on Earth in an interesting way. Number One, 1076 00:53:09,440 --> 00:53:12,640 Speaker 1: it came from the bombardment of the Earth by like 1077 00:53:12,719 --> 00:53:16,640 Speaker 1: comets and asteroids that had like frozen nitrogen in them, 1078 00:53:16,840 --> 00:53:18,359 Speaker 1: and so we think, like a lot of the water 1079 00:53:18,480 --> 00:53:21,319 Speaker 1: on Earth may have come from comets. The same thing 1080 00:53:21,400 --> 00:53:25,360 Speaker 1: is true of nitrogen. So the early Earth was blasted clean. 1081 00:53:25,560 --> 00:53:27,880 Speaker 1: Essentially it was just a bare rock because of the 1082 00:53:27,920 --> 00:53:31,160 Speaker 1: solar radiation. But then it got a second atmosphere due 1083 00:53:31,160 --> 00:53:35,080 Speaker 1: to collisions and also because of nitrogen and other gases 1084 00:53:35,120 --> 00:53:39,200 Speaker 1: trapped inside the Earth which escaped out due to like volcanoes. 1085 00:53:39,760 --> 00:53:41,080 Speaker 1: You know, you have a lot of these gases in 1086 00:53:41,120 --> 00:53:43,040 Speaker 1: the early Earth, and as the Earth is settling, the 1087 00:53:43,040 --> 00:53:45,359 Speaker 1: heavy stuff goes down to the core and the lighter 1088 00:53:45,400 --> 00:53:47,719 Speaker 1: stuff rises in the mantle, and then some of that 1089 00:53:47,880 --> 00:53:51,080 Speaker 1: escapes through cracks in the Earth. So volcanoes and the 1090 00:53:51,120 --> 00:53:55,200 Speaker 1: bombardment of asteroids created our second atmosphere, which was mostly 1091 00:53:55,600 --> 00:53:59,200 Speaker 1: nitrogen and carbon dioxide. So that's where the nitrogen comes. 1092 00:53:59,000 --> 00:54:04,040 Speaker 6: From, and then eventually we got oxygen. But I guess 1093 00:54:04,320 --> 00:54:08,319 Speaker 6: the second part of the's question is what role does 1094 00:54:08,440 --> 00:54:11,480 Speaker 6: nitrogen play? Like do our bodies need nitrogen or do 1095 00:54:11,520 --> 00:54:12,720 Speaker 6: we just ignore it? Mostly? 1096 00:54:13,520 --> 00:54:16,960 Speaker 1: Yeah, it's definitely not inert. Nitrogen plays a really important 1097 00:54:17,040 --> 00:54:20,680 Speaker 1: role in the life cycle here on Earth. Like plants 1098 00:54:20,880 --> 00:54:22,880 Speaker 1: need nitrogen. It's a crucial part of a lot of 1099 00:54:22,880 --> 00:54:25,960 Speaker 1: amino acids, and so in order for plants to grow, 1100 00:54:26,360 --> 00:54:29,040 Speaker 1: you need nitrogen in the soil, a big component of 1101 00:54:29,080 --> 00:54:32,160 Speaker 1: like fertilizer that people are constantly putting onto their plants. 1102 00:54:32,160 --> 00:54:35,279 Speaker 1: Farmers impour huge amounts of it. The reason you put 1103 00:54:35,320 --> 00:54:37,960 Speaker 1: manure on fields is that it has nitrogen in it 1104 00:54:38,000 --> 00:54:41,279 Speaker 1: and other stuff. So plants need this nitrogen in order 1105 00:54:41,320 --> 00:54:43,960 Speaker 1: to grow. And there are these bacteria that will breathe 1106 00:54:44,000 --> 00:54:46,880 Speaker 1: the nitrogen from the atmosphere and then basically make it 1107 00:54:46,920 --> 00:54:50,400 Speaker 1: available for the plants. So there's a whole complicated nitrogen 1108 00:54:50,440 --> 00:54:54,239 Speaker 1: cycle that involves like these nitrogen fixing bacteria and then 1109 00:54:54,320 --> 00:54:56,719 Speaker 1: plants using it to grow, and animals eating it and 1110 00:54:56,719 --> 00:54:59,600 Speaker 1: then pooping it back out into the ground. And it's 1111 00:54:59,719 --> 00:55:02,160 Speaker 1: very complex cycle, but it's definitely not inert. It's a 1112 00:55:02,239 --> 00:55:03,319 Speaker 1: huge part of life on. 1113 00:55:03,239 --> 00:55:05,360 Speaker 6: Earth right right. And I just want to take a 1114 00:55:05,440 --> 00:55:07,160 Speaker 6: quick moment here to note that you were the first 1115 00:55:07,160 --> 00:55:09,440 Speaker 6: one to bring up poop in this episode, not me. 1116 00:55:11,520 --> 00:55:13,840 Speaker 1: Is that something you keep track of who says poop first? 1117 00:55:16,440 --> 00:55:18,680 Speaker 6: I'm just saying sometimes they get, you know, accused of 1118 00:55:20,520 --> 00:55:22,000 Speaker 6: cultural language podcast down. 1119 00:55:22,440 --> 00:55:24,640 Speaker 1: Yeah, well, you know that's the conversation we have at 1120 00:55:24,680 --> 00:55:26,920 Speaker 1: my house all the time because my wife works on 1121 00:55:27,120 --> 00:55:30,560 Speaker 1: the gut microbiome, like literally, what's happening inside your guts? 1122 00:55:31,000 --> 00:55:33,200 Speaker 1: And so the kids are always timing, like how long 1123 00:55:33,320 --> 00:55:36,359 Speaker 1: till mom brings up poop at the dinner table? Oh boy, 1124 00:55:36,719 --> 00:55:37,919 Speaker 1: and it's never very long. 1125 00:55:38,520 --> 00:55:43,600 Speaker 6: May should just call it nigrogen instead of poop nigrogen 1126 00:55:43,719 --> 00:55:47,799 Speaker 6: rich content. They'll spare your appetites. 1127 00:55:48,160 --> 00:55:49,680 Speaker 1: We're just fertilizing a conversation. 1128 00:55:50,320 --> 00:55:52,359 Speaker 6: Yeah, you just want to make it more fregrant. But 1129 00:55:52,480 --> 00:55:56,560 Speaker 6: I guess why is nigrogen important and biological processes? Is 1130 00:55:56,560 --> 00:55:59,319 Speaker 6: it something there's something special about that molecule, you know, 1131 00:55:59,320 --> 00:56:01,719 Speaker 6: because carbon as some special things about it that make 1132 00:56:01,760 --> 00:56:05,520 Speaker 6: it kind of crucial to life? Is legigend similar? 1133 00:56:06,000 --> 00:56:08,239 Speaker 1: Well, I think you're getting pretty deep into the chemistry here. 1134 00:56:08,600 --> 00:56:11,560 Speaker 1: You know, the amino acids are the basic building blocks 1135 00:56:11,600 --> 00:56:15,120 Speaker 1: of life, and having different kinds of atoms there, it 1136 00:56:15,120 --> 00:56:19,279 Speaker 1: gives you different options, different things you can build. But yeah, 1137 00:56:19,400 --> 00:56:25,040 Speaker 1: dot dot dot chemistry. I guess to be a Wikipedia later, 1138 00:56:27,880 --> 00:56:30,000 Speaker 1: I mean, na gigen is already at the edge of 1139 00:56:30,000 --> 00:56:33,000 Speaker 1: my ability to think about things. There's so many protons 1140 00:56:33,040 --> 00:56:36,080 Speaker 1: there it's crazy. And then you have it connected with. 1141 00:56:36,040 --> 00:56:38,080 Speaker 6: Another chem your brain would explode. 1142 00:56:38,160 --> 00:56:41,000 Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly, too many integrals from me. 1143 00:56:41,080 --> 00:56:43,239 Speaker 6: For as a physicist zombie. You just have to throw 1144 00:56:43,320 --> 00:56:47,080 Speaker 6: some chemistry questions at them, absolutely, and then their brains 1145 00:56:47,120 --> 00:56:47,840 Speaker 6: will explode. 1146 00:56:48,040 --> 00:56:50,759 Speaker 1: Yes, chemistry is our kryptonite for sure. And they don't 1147 00:56:50,760 --> 00:56:52,759 Speaker 1: even have to be that hard, just like my high 1148 00:56:52,760 --> 00:56:56,120 Speaker 1: schoolers ap chemistry questions. Whoa headache? 1149 00:56:56,160 --> 00:56:56,359 Speaker 9: Time? 1150 00:56:56,680 --> 00:56:56,919 Speaker 1: Right? 1151 00:56:57,080 --> 00:56:57,200 Speaker 3: Right? 1152 00:56:57,200 --> 00:57:03,919 Speaker 6: Hey Daniel, what's up? Regardless number big Welcome to Jorge 1153 00:57:04,000 --> 00:57:10,160 Speaker 6: explains the universe. All right, Well that's the answer for Steve, 1154 00:57:10,680 --> 00:57:13,200 Speaker 6: which is that the nigogen we're all breathing, eighty percent 1155 00:57:13,239 --> 00:57:16,840 Speaker 6: of the air we're breathing, came from a debt previous 1156 00:57:16,840 --> 00:57:19,880 Speaker 6: star in our solar system. Then it got formed with 1157 00:57:19,920 --> 00:57:22,160 Speaker 6: the rest of the Earth and the rocks and the 1158 00:57:22,200 --> 00:57:25,800 Speaker 6: other elements, and that's how we're breathing it today. That's right, 1159 00:57:25,920 --> 00:57:29,320 Speaker 6: Possibly from comets, possibly from the Earth burping. 1160 00:57:29,400 --> 00:57:31,640 Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. And there have been some people doing really 1161 00:57:31,640 --> 00:57:34,720 Speaker 1: interesting studies to try to understand exactly where this nitrogen 1162 00:57:34,800 --> 00:57:37,720 Speaker 1: came from, because not all nitrogen is the same, some 1163 00:57:37,760 --> 00:57:40,320 Speaker 1: of them have different isotope ratios, and you can tell 1164 00:57:40,400 --> 00:57:42,360 Speaker 1: like was it formed in the Outer Solar System or 1165 00:57:42,400 --> 00:57:45,800 Speaker 1: the Inner Solar System the molecules not the pure nitrogen 1166 00:57:45,800 --> 00:57:48,880 Speaker 1: which was made in the stars. And so there are 1167 00:57:48,880 --> 00:57:50,800 Speaker 1: these studies that tell us that some of the nitrogen 1168 00:57:50,880 --> 00:57:52,800 Speaker 1: on Earth came from the Inner Solar System and some 1169 00:57:52,880 --> 00:57:55,160 Speaker 1: definitely came from the Outer Solar System. So it's a 1170 00:57:55,240 --> 00:57:57,920 Speaker 1: similar question to like where did our water come from? 1171 00:57:58,200 --> 00:58:01,200 Speaker 6: All right, well, three awesome quiesce here today. Thanks to 1172 00:58:01,520 --> 00:58:04,120 Speaker 6: all of our listeners who sent in their questions. 1173 00:58:04,000 --> 00:58:06,720 Speaker 1: And thanks to everybody who asks questions. Please don't be shy. 1174 00:58:06,800 --> 00:58:09,959 Speaker 1: Write to us two questions at Danielanjorge dot com. You'll 1175 00:58:09,960 --> 00:58:11,200 Speaker 1: definitely hear back from us. 1176 00:58:11,360 --> 00:58:14,520 Speaker 6: We hope you enjoyed that. Thanks for listening, See you 1177 00:58:14,560 --> 00:58:15,000 Speaker 6: next time. 1178 00:58:20,040 --> 00:58:22,840 Speaker 1: For more science and curiosity, come find us on social 1179 00:58:22,920 --> 00:58:27,880 Speaker 1: media where we answer questions and post videos. We're on Twitter, Discorg, Instant, 1180 00:58:27,960 --> 00:58:31,680 Speaker 1: and now TikTok. Thanks for listening and remember that Daniel 1181 00:58:31,680 --> 00:58:35,160 Speaker 1: and Jorge Explain the Universe is a production of iHeartRadio. 1182 00:58:35,440 --> 00:58:39,880 Speaker 1: For more podcasts from iHeartRadio, visit the iHeartRadio app Apple 1183 00:58:39,920 --> 00:58:48,200 Speaker 1: podcasts or wherever you listen to your favorite shows. When 1184 00:58:48,240 --> 00:58:49,920 Speaker 1: you pop a piece of cheese into your mouth, you're 1185 00:58:49,960 --> 00:58:53,400 Speaker 1: probably not thinking about the environmental impact. But the people 1186 00:58:53,440 --> 00:58:56,320 Speaker 1: in the dairy industry are. That's why they're working hard 1187 00:58:56,400 --> 00:58:59,080 Speaker 1: every day to find new ways to reduce waste, conserve 1188 00:58:59,200 --> 00:59:03,320 Speaker 1: natural resources, and drive down greenhouse gas emissions. 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