Speaker 1: Welcome to Stuff you missed in history class from how
Speaker 1: Stuff Works dot com. Hello, and welcome to the podcast.
Speaker 1: And I'm wis. So when you were a kid, did
Speaker 1: you know what you wanted to be when you grew up.
Speaker 1: I wanted to be a millionaire and live in a mansion, okay, so,
Speaker 1: and then after that I wanted to be an author.
Speaker 1: So you're kind of on track. No, well, not for
Speaker 1: being a millionaire and an author. That's really hard to do. Um.
Speaker 1: I really thought for a long time as a child
Speaker 1: that I wanted to be an astronomer. Like I really
Speaker 1: thought that, uh. And I was obsessed with our World
Speaker 1: Book Encyclopedias and all of the various entries on the
Speaker 1: Solar System, and I would trace them and I would
Speaker 1: make these trifled pamphlets out of notepaper for each planet.
Speaker 1: But in the making of all of these pamphlets, which
Speaker 1: I published to my family, I would always get frustrated
Speaker 1: with Pluto because we just didn't have enough facts in
Speaker 1: the nineteen one edition of the World Book Encyclopedia to
Speaker 1: fill out one of my pamphlets. And I couldn't just
Speaker 1: keep tracing the circle over and over. You know what,
Speaker 1: if we had been on the fence about about bringing
Speaker 1: you to work with us, which we were not on
Speaker 1: a fence, but if we had been, this story would
Speaker 1: have been the cell Um. I also went through a
Speaker 1: phase where I did those on animals. I was really
Speaker 1: into publishing my own pamphlets as a kid. I don't
Speaker 1: know what that was about. You're also on track, Yeah,
Speaker 1: kind of, I said. I didn't become an astronomer except us,
Speaker 1: you know, an amateur that just enjoys it. Uh. But
Speaker 1: Pluto was always tricky because we never knew as much
Speaker 1: about it because of its distance, and it's relatively newer
Speaker 1: to humans in terms of it existing and being than
Speaker 1: other things, so we don't have as much research on it.
Speaker 1: We haven't known more now than certainly we did then
Speaker 1: even so, Yeah, but having not known that it was
Speaker 1: there until relatively recently, we haven't had as much time
Speaker 1: to gather information. Uh. There will be hopefully a lot
Speaker 1: more really soon. But so Pluto was discovered on February
Speaker 1: eighteenth and nineteen thirty, but of course it existed for
Speaker 1: a long time before then, and port Pluto was a planet,
Speaker 1: and then it was demoted and it was actually the
Speaker 1: only planet to have ever been discovered by an American.
Speaker 1: Just kind of an interesting point of note. I think
Speaker 1: it's also the only time that an astronomical announcement his
Speaker 1: drawn fury Well, yes, I can't think of any other
Speaker 1: fury inducing announcements about astronomy, you know, except for except
Speaker 1: for in the very very early days of astronomy, when
Speaker 1: you know, things like planets revolve around the Sun. Where yeah, well,
Speaker 1: I there have actually been a lot because any big
Speaker 1: discovery in astronomy often kind of shakes the sound of
Speaker 1: what came before it. So there there's been some outcry.
Speaker 1: We just didn't have as much media to cover it before.
Speaker 1: But it does make you wonder, how do we even
Speaker 1: think to look away out on the edge of our
Speaker 1: Solar system for this tiny little object that would have
Speaker 1: been very difficult to find, and how did scientists and
Speaker 1: researchers find it. So it starts with suspicion, Yes, yes,
Speaker 1: started thinking that it might be there, right Perceval Lowell,
Speaker 1: who was born in eighteen fifty five, it gets the
Speaker 1: credit for being the first person to suspect that Pluto
Speaker 1: was out there, passed the eight planets that were known
Speaker 1: to exist in the Solar System at that time, but
Speaker 1: he was never able to find conclusive evidence. And Lowell
Speaker 1: was a really interesting character. He had actually worked as
Speaker 1: a travel writer specializing in Asia, and as a foreign
Speaker 1: secretary before turning to astronomy. He had studied mathematics in college.
Speaker 1: He came from a very good family. Uh, and he's
Speaker 1: actually probably more famous for his belief that Mars was
Speaker 1: uh once inhabited by an alien species that had established
Speaker 1: agriculture and irrigation on the red planet. And those assertions
Speaker 1: may sound a little bit nutty to our ears today,
Speaker 1: but uh, the important thing is that Lowell's passion for
Speaker 1: astronomy and astronomical study actually led him to found the
Speaker 1: Lowell Observatory in Flagstaff, Arizona. And he was not only
Speaker 1: interested in Mars. Decades before Lowell's interest in astronomy, other
Speaker 1: astronomers had noted an irregularity in the orbit of Uranus,
Speaker 1: which led them to the discovery of Neptune. So you're
Speaker 1: trying to imagine how this works. As planets are orbiting,
Speaker 1: the Sun's gravity is pulling on them the gravity of
Speaker 1: other planetary bodies. They're also on each other. So because
Speaker 1: of the way that Uranus was orbiting, they were pretty
Speaker 1: sure there was something else out there, but even figuring
Speaker 1: Neptune's influence into all the orbital equations for your and
Speaker 1: us that there were still discrepancies between the mathematical predictions
Speaker 1: of the orbit and the actual observed orbit that you
Speaker 1: could see. This led to the theory that there was
Speaker 1: yet another planet in the Solar System beyond your Iness
Speaker 1: and Neptune, and Lowell became obsessed with finding it. Lowell
Speaker 1: performed his own mathematical calculations in an effort to pinpoint
Speaker 1: the likely location of what was being called at the time,
Speaker 1: planet X, and in nineteen o five he really just
Speaker 1: kind of developed a concerted effort and he and the
Speaker 1: staff of his observatory began an extensive search for this
Speaker 1: planet X. Lowell published his book Memoir on a trans
Speaker 1: Neptunian Planet in nineteen fifteen, and you can actually read
Speaker 1: that online. We'll have the link in our show notes.
Speaker 1: Love reading things on on me too. And Lowell actually
Speaker 1: died in November of nineteen sixteen. He was sixty one
Speaker 1: at the time and he had not yet found his
Speaker 1: missing planet, but he left behind a large monetary legacy
Speaker 1: to continue the search. His widow initially disputed the endowment,
Speaker 1: but the search went on. The funding had been depleted
Speaker 1: by the legal battle, but it still was enough to
Speaker 1: keep this uh search for planet X going. And that's
Speaker 1: where we get to Clyde Tombaugh, who was a very
Speaker 1: important figure in all of this. Tomba was born on
Speaker 1: February four six and Street, or Illinois, and he became
Speaker 1: interested in astronomy after he got a telescope as a
Speaker 1: gift from his uncle. He became so interested in the
Speaker 1: telescope that after high school, when he couldn't afford college,
Speaker 1: he studied optics on his own and in n he
Speaker 1: built himself a homemade telescope. He made more telescopes after
Speaker 1: that first one, even grinding the lenses and mirrors for
Speaker 1: them himself, which is pretty impressive in my book, Like that,
Speaker 1: I can't afford a college education, I'm going to study
Speaker 1: and kind of give myself one. To the point that
Speaker 1: he could grind his own lenses for telescopes, it's pretty impressive.
Speaker 1: It was a delicate It's delicate work. Yeah, uh. And
Speaker 1: Tomba's story goes almost like wonderfully fairy tale wish fulfillment here.
Speaker 1: So using these telescopes, he had built. He studied the
Speaker 1: night sky, and he had made drawings of Mars and
Speaker 1: Jupiter as seen through those telescopes, and he sent them
Speaker 1: to the Lowell Observatory more for like feedback on you know,
Speaker 1: if he was on the right track, if he was
Speaker 1: seeing the right things, etcetera. But instead of getting feedback,
Speaker 1: they were so impressed with his work that they actually
Speaker 1: offered him a job in astronomy, which he had never
Speaker 1: formally studied. So that speaks a lot to his sort
Speaker 1: of scientific mind on its own that he could just
Speaker 1: magically procure a job in atronomy without an advanced dedication.
Speaker 1: He was hired in to help with searching for a planet,
Speaker 1: the mysterious planet X, which Perceval Lowell had suspected was
Speaker 1: out beyond Neptune. Tomba used a blank comparator, which is
Speaker 1: an instrument that optically superimposes photographic plates so it's like
Speaker 1: they're blinked from one to another and researchers can see
Speaker 1: tiny differences between the two. And he did this in
Speaker 1: an attempt to track down Lewel's planet X. And the
Speaker 1: blank comparitor is really amazing, like it's kind of these
Speaker 1: tube photographic plates and you look through what's almost like
Speaker 1: a microscope eye piece, and you literally just flip back
Speaker 1: and forth. And we're talking about a photograph taken through
Speaker 1: a telescope with like thousands of tiny dots on it
Speaker 1: that are all heavenly bodies, and someone with a very
Speaker 1: keen eye tries to see any variance between the two
Speaker 1: because they're taking you know, aimed at the same place,
Speaker 1: but a little time distance apart. And it's I mean,
Speaker 1: if you just think about staring at a sheet of
Speaker 1: dots on like a piece of paper and trying to
Speaker 1: see which ones are different on two, you can get
Speaker 1: a sense of how yeah, so just monotonous this could
Speaker 1: potentially be. And attention to detail you have to have, right,
Speaker 1: It's like looking at the differences between two cells of
Speaker 1: a hand drawn animated filmy, but instead of looking at
Speaker 1: a nice pretty picture, you're looking at a field of stars,
Speaker 1: just dots on a page. Uh. However, tom Baugh obviously
Speaker 1: keen on attention to details, since he had self educated
Speaker 1: to the point that he could do some pretty impressive things. Uh,
Speaker 1: he managed to find what they were looking for. His
Speaker 1: work paid off pretty quickly, and it was the following
Speaker 1: year that he found what was called at the time
Speaker 1: the ninth planet. Uh. He pinpointed Pluto on February eighth,
Speaker 1: nineteen thirty and he was only twenty four at the time.
Speaker 1: It was a pretty early age to be making a
Speaker 1: very large, significant scientific discovery, again with no formal training.
Speaker 1: I just I keep coming back to that because he
Speaker 1: did so many impressive things without having gone to graduate
Speaker 1: school to get a PhD in astronomy. Yeah, well that
Speaker 1: happened later, but yes, So the payoff for all this,
Speaker 1: apart from the fact that he discovered a planet, is
Speaker 1: that he received the Jackson Guilt metal in gift from
Speaker 1: the Royal Astronomical Society. But even more importantly, he got
Speaker 1: a scholarship to the University of Kansas. He earned his
Speaker 1: bachelor's and continued to work at Lowell both during and
Speaker 1: after his studies. He also earned his master's in nineteen
Speaker 1: thirty nine. Tombau worked at Lowell for fourteen years altogether,
Speaker 1: and he discovered numerous heavenly bodies while doing his research there,
Speaker 1: including star clusters, comets, and galaxies. But back to Pluto,
Speaker 1: because I feel like tombos story is another one that
Speaker 1: could be another podcast on its own. He had a
Speaker 1: very interesting life. But the month after the discovery was made,
Speaker 1: they announced that they had found this heavenly body to
Speaker 1: the public on March thirteenth of nineteen thirty, which was
Speaker 1: also Percival Lowell's birthday, uh and on my onet of
Speaker 1: that year, after the public had submitted suggestions for the
Speaker 1: naming of this new heavenly body, the name was chosen,
Speaker 1: and it was allegedly submitted by an eleven year old
Speaker 1: girl from England, and it was Pluto. And Pluto is
Speaker 1: of course the Roman name for the Greek god of
Speaker 1: the underworld. But one of the significant things about choosing
Speaker 1: Pluto is that the symbol for Pluto includes representations of
Speaker 1: the letter P and the letter L, which were the
Speaker 1: initials for Percival Lowell. So it's kind of a nice
Speaker 1: way to name it on his behalf without naming it
Speaker 1: directly after him. So let's talk a little bit about
Speaker 1: this body that they found. It is extremely farrowing five
Speaker 1: point nine billion kilometers, which is three point seven billion
Speaker 1: miles from the Sun, and its diameter is two thousand,
Speaker 1: three d forty kilometers, which is uh one thousand, four
Speaker 1: hundred and fifty four miles, So it's less than one
Speaker 1: fifth the size of Earth, and it's actually smaller than
Speaker 1: our moon. It's also extremely cold. The surface temperature is
Speaker 1: around minus three seventy five degrees fahrenheit, which is minus
Speaker 1: to see us. Pluto solar year, which is the time
Speaker 1: it takes to travel around the Sun, takes the equivalent
Speaker 1: of two hundred and forty eight Earth years. It's circumference
Speaker 1: at the equator is four thousand, four hundred thirty seven
Speaker 1: point seven miles, which is seven thousand, two hundred thirty
Speaker 1: one point nine kilometers. And then we get to the moons,
Speaker 1: which are actually pretty interesting. So Pluto has five moons
Speaker 1: that we know of so far, Sharon Nick's Hydra P
Speaker 1: four and P five, and Sharon was discovered in It's
Speaker 1: about half the size of Pluto. And over the years
Speaker 1: a lot of astronomers have theorized that Pluto Sharon is
Speaker 1: actually a binary system, so Sharon doesn't revolve around Pluto.
Speaker 1: They're actually revolving around each other with a gravity gravitational
Speaker 1: point fixed between them. Uh. Just an interesting thing, and
Speaker 1: that is why there is a Jonathan Coulton song called
Speaker 1: Year My Moon that is about that very thing. Nick's
Speaker 1: and Hydra were discovered in two thousand five. P four
Speaker 1: was discovered in two thousand one, and P five was
Speaker 1: discovered in two thousand twelve. Scientists believe that the moons
Speaker 1: of Pluto were formed when the dwarf planet collided with
Speaker 1: another planet sized object. According to Mark show Walter, who
Speaker 1: is of the Seti Institute in Mountain View, California, he
Speaker 1: has this great quote, which is the Moon's form a
Speaker 1: series of neatly nested orbits, a bit like Russian dolls.
Speaker 1: Just a lovely image. Pluto's elongated orbit is also tilted
Speaker 1: in relation to the other planets. It actually passes inside
Speaker 1: the orbit of Neptune as it makes its way around
Speaker 1: the Sun. And then we get to the controversy. Uh,
Speaker 1: it's kind of sad. Pluto is the only celestial body
Speaker 1: ever to lose its status as a planet, so it's
Speaker 1: the only one that's ever been demoted, which is also
Speaker 1: a theme in the Jonathan Colton. In two thousand six,
Speaker 1: Pluto was reclassified as a dwarf planet and given the
Speaker 1: number designation of one thirty four DASH three forty. Because
Speaker 1: they're continued to be discoveries of heavenly bodies at the
Speaker 1: edge of the Solar System, and some of them were
Speaker 1: actually bigger than Pluto. It became clear that they needed
Speaker 1: to take another look at Pluto's status as a planet,
Speaker 1: so the International Astronomical Union created a definition of the
Speaker 1: word planet in two thousand six involving three criteria. UH. One,
Speaker 1: it has to be an object in space that orbits
Speaker 1: the Sun too, and this is obviously for planets in
Speaker 1: our Solar System. To it has to be a nearly round,
Speaker 1: rigid body. And three, it needs to clear the neighborhood
Speaker 1: around its orbit. But because Pluto orbits along the inner
Speaker 1: edge of the Kuiper Belt, UH, it doesn't meet the
Speaker 1: third criteria. Astronomers have discovered and identified more than one
Speaker 1: thousand other items in the Kuiper Belt that are really
Speaker 1: similar to Pluto and sometimes come near it, so it
Speaker 1: doesn't really meet that third criterion. Uh. The only rule, however,
Speaker 1: for dwarf planets is that they have to be round,
Speaker 1: so Pluto can be classified that way. And it's all
Speaker 1: kind of started because of a display that was going
Speaker 1: on that Neil de grass Tyson often gets the heat
Speaker 1: for at the Hayden Planetarium, where they just kind of
Speaker 1: quietly changed it up in their displays. I think in
Speaker 1: the year two thousand and then it kind of started
Speaker 1: getting a little bit of groundswell of discussion, and then
Speaker 1: this officially happened, and so Nil dess Tyson is often
Speaker 1: kind of labeled as the man who devoted Pluto, but
Speaker 1: he really wasn't. There was this whole other vote and
Speaker 1: discussion going on amongst other astronomers. It's just not through
Speaker 1: Neil de grass Tyson under a bus. That's just I
Speaker 1: don't want to throw any scientists under the bus. I
Speaker 1: don't want to throw anybody ever under a bup. Never
Speaker 1: they're doing they're doing work that's a lot of us
Speaker 1: don't have the the knowledge to do. And it's important
Speaker 1: to those of us that thought we wanted to be
Speaker 1: astronomers but didn't end up there. So in night, Clyde
Speaker 1: Tombaugh was inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame
Speaker 1: at the New Mexico Museum of Space History for his
Speaker 1: discovery of Pluto and other heavenly bodies. He died at
Speaker 1: his Los Cruces, New Mexico home, at the age of ninety,
Speaker 1: so he did not live to see his discovery bumped
Speaker 1: down to the list of dwarf planets UH. We are
Speaker 1: getting very close to what we hope will yield some
Speaker 1: really exciting information about Pluto UH. In July, of NASA's
Speaker 1: New Horizons probe is expected to fly by the dwarf
Speaker 1: planet UH, and so this will undoubtedly lead to new
Speaker 1: knowledge about Pluto, which still remains pretty mysterious to us
Speaker 1: compared to other parts of our Solar system because it
Speaker 1: is so far away. That will be the furthest out
Speaker 1: that we have sent this probe. Oh, I can't wait.
Speaker 1: I'm going to be that dufus that's like up at
Speaker 1: all hours of the night looking data to come in.
Speaker 1: I've been up at all hours of the night for
Speaker 1: a number of astronomical things for sure, Like oh, when
Speaker 1: the Mars were over landed, I was awake. I was
Speaker 1: texting my best friend like a fiend and kind of
Speaker 1: crying a little bit because I was I was up
Speaker 1: for the Mars rover. And then the next night was
Speaker 1: abe your shower. There's there's definitely been. That's one of
Speaker 1: the things that I think has just been awesome about
Speaker 1: the Internet is making it possible for just the people
Speaker 1: on the ground to get all the same things at
Speaker 1: the same time as the people in Michigan droll. Yeah,
Speaker 1: we had very little delay from the GPL people getting
Speaker 1: info to it being broadcast on television and the internet.
Speaker 1: If you have the the mission coverage channel is part
Speaker 1: of your cable package, which I'm lucky enough to have
Speaker 1: right well. And also now thanks to the Internet, when
Speaker 1: there is uh like a solar eclipse on the other
Speaker 1: side of the planet, you can watch it from your
Speaker 1: desk and though it not naytime where you are, with
Speaker 1: no risk to your eyesight. I just remember that being
Speaker 1: such a cautionary tale as a kid. There's gonna be
Speaker 1: an eclipse. Don't look, don't look at the sun. Uh.
Speaker 1: Astronomy it's the best thing. I would love to do
Speaker 1: more and more things on astronomy history because it's so
Speaker 1: wonderful and I just love science in general. So yeah,
Speaker 1: we'll see what the future holds for Pluto. Its history
Speaker 1: has been kind of interesting and unique in several ways
Speaker 1: in terms of our knowledge of it. Uh. And we'll see,
Speaker 1: maybe it will get reclassified yet again. Once the probe
Speaker 1: goes by, it go new horizons, find something new, Uh,
Speaker 1: then we'll discover it as some fabulous thing on it
Speaker 1: life now probably not it's not at least as we
Speaker 1: classify life so far, but we never knew. Hey, guess
Speaker 1: what what. I also have a couple of pieces of so.
Speaker 1: The first one is from our listener Tim, and Tim
Speaker 1: has a very cool job. He just British history at
Speaker 1: the Sorbonne in Paris. So Tim, I'll be visiting soon.
Speaker 1: I wish. Uh, yeah, that sounds dreamy to me. And
Speaker 1: he is writing to us about our podcasts on the
Speaker 1: Irish potato famine, and he says, where I grew up
Speaker 1: in the west of Ireland, the countryside is dotted with
Speaker 1: thousands of abandoned villages from this time, which were like
Speaker 1: cooperative farm hamlets of maybe ten or twelve dwellings. Often
Speaker 1: these have been totally reclaimed by the undergrowth and have
Speaker 1: no modern road connections. But if you tramp out into
Speaker 1: the field sometimes you notice that there's a cobbled path
Speaker 1: hidden in the grass beneath your feet, and then under
Speaker 1: the nearby brambles are old gateways and the remains of
Speaker 1: fireplaces and front doors. In old maps they have names
Speaker 1: and streets and village squares, and on new maps there's
Speaker 1: simply nothing. They're vanished. It really is quite sad to
Speaker 1: think of people who lived and loved here, perhaps dying
Speaker 1: in these houses or leaving on mass for their village
Speaker 1: to disappear from history. Sadder still is the fields around
Speaker 1: the villages U are invariably surrounded by a network of rigid,
Speaker 1: parallel lines in the landscape, the outlines of quote lazy
Speaker 1: bead potato fields where once the people of these villages
Speaker 1: pulled their rotting harvest out from the ground in devastation.
Speaker 1: I thought you might like that little personal detail that
Speaker 1: not many people notice. Uh, he's absolutely right, that's it's
Speaker 1: one of those things I never would have thought about. Uh.
Speaker 1: And not having you know, immediate access to that area
Speaker 1: it who would not have done something that I would
Speaker 1: have seen? And Pete manages it is interesting the way
Speaker 1: there are reclaims history on its own. Yeah. So I'm
Speaker 1: glad he pointed that out because people should know those
Speaker 1: were still there well and in a much less uh
Speaker 1: much less tragic sense. It reminds me that were there
Speaker 1: were train tracks that went near my house when I
Speaker 1: was a kid, and as shipping things by train became
Speaker 1: fallen out of favor, they were completely removed and within
Speaker 1: a couple of years you couldn't really tell unless you
Speaker 1: knew that they're been train tracks there. Yeah. I also
Speaker 1: have another piece of listener mail from our listener and
Speaker 1: and uh, it just made me so happy to read
Speaker 1: it that I wanted to share it. And Anne says, Hi,
Speaker 1: everybody at the podcast past and present, just wanted to
Speaker 1: thank you for being such a good company when I'm
Speaker 1: out walking. So far this year, we have logged three
Speaker 1: hundred and seventy five miles together, and you have helped
Speaker 1: me lose grace with this because it's serious. One pounds
Speaker 1: since last April. I haven't caught up on the present
Speaker 1: yet and I hope to never run out of podcast
Speaker 1: to sweat to Thanks again and keep up the great work.
Speaker 1: And you are awesome. That was why I just wanted
Speaker 1: to say that. Yeah, that was pretty cool. Uh, that's
Speaker 1: pretty inspiring. So thank you Anne for sharing that, because
Speaker 1: that's a really cool thing. Yeah, you should be lauded
Speaker 1: and jeered at all points. I love the idea of
Speaker 1: people listening to us while they're making healthy changes. Yeah, thoughtsome,
Speaker 1: do you listen to podcasts while you run? Never? I
Speaker 1: I have a hard time listening to podcast that's while
Speaker 1: I run. I do too. I can while I walk,
Speaker 1: for sure. I can absolutely while I'm walking or if
Speaker 1: I'm on the elliptical. Yeah, but when I around I
Speaker 1: need like running is my need. Yeah, there has to
Speaker 1: be music when I'm running. I do listen to a
Speaker 1: lot of podcasts when I'm traveling a long way, when
Speaker 1: I'm waiting for things. I have a confession to make,
Speaker 1: which is that I have self imposed a restriction where
Speaker 1: I'm not allowed to listen to podcasts while I'm driving
Speaker 1: because I get so absorbed in what is being discussed.
Speaker 1: I maybe don't make safe driving choices. I can't behind
Speaker 1: the wheel. Yeah, I do the opposite, where I get
Speaker 1: distracted by the fact that I'm driving mist I miss
Speaker 1: important things and I kind of go eat, what are you?
Speaker 1: What are they talking about? Now? So and you aren't
Speaker 1: awesome Again, I'll say it many times over. I'm thinking
Speaker 1: it constantly. If you want to share any historical info
Speaker 1: with us or your personal triumphs like AUNT, you can
Speaker 1: do so at History Podcast at Discovery dot com. Can
Speaker 1: also connect with us on Twitter at missed in History
Speaker 1: and at Facebook dot com slash history class stuff. We're
Speaker 1: on tumbler at missed in History dot tumbler dot com,
Speaker 1: and we're on Pinterest. If you would like to learn
Speaker 1: a little something more about what we talked about today,
Speaker 1: you can't. Go to our website and just type in
Speaker 1: Pluto in the search bar and you will get several
Speaker 1: different entries, one of which is why is Pluto no
Speaker 1: longer a planet? Which will go into a little bit
Speaker 1: greater detail about what we talked about today. If you
Speaker 1: want to research almost anything else you can think about,
Speaker 1: you can do that on our website, which is how
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