Speaker 1: How do some bees make meat honey? What are tapeworms
Speaker 1: up to in my tummy?
Speaker 2: Can light escape from a black hole? What process produces coal?
Speaker 1: Did Franklin hang that key from a kite? Why is
Speaker 1: dark chocolate better than white?
Speaker 2: How do moles smell underwater? Why is the planet getting hotter?
Speaker 1: How can humans live on Mars? What's the hold up
Speaker 1: with flying cars?
Speaker 2: The current state of space law? The powerful mantis, shrimp claw?
Speaker 1: Biology, physics, archaeology, forestry, really anything other than chemistry?
Speaker 2: What diseases do you get from your cat? Well, we'll
Speaker 2: find the answers to all of that.
Speaker 1: Whatever question keeps you up at night.
Speaker 2: Daniel and Kelly's answer will make it right.
Speaker 1: Welcome to another Listener Questions episode on Daniel and Kelly's
Speaker 1: Extraordinary Universe.
Speaker 3: Hi.
Speaker 2: I'm Daniel, I'm a particle physicist, and I've never read
Speaker 2: a poem on the podcast before.
Speaker 4: Hi.
Speaker 1: I'm Kelly Wiener Smith. And my husband just assumed that
Speaker 1: I'd be so bad at writing poems that when I
Speaker 1: read it out loud to my daughter, he left the
Speaker 1: room just so that he wouldn't be embarrassed. But you
Speaker 1: know what, I had fun.
Speaker 2: I hope he's blushing somewhere. Whenever he's listening to this, he.
Speaker 1: Might skip all of our Listener Questions episodes from here
Speaker 1: on out. But that's all right. I had a good time.
Speaker 2: Well that's too bad, because those are my favorite episodes.
Speaker 2: I love hearing what people are wondering about, helping them
Speaker 2: unravel their confusion and getting to the topics that are
Speaker 2: really in people's minds. It's my favorite way to interact
Speaker 2: with our audience.
Speaker 1: I love it as well, and I'm particularly excited about
Speaker 1: this Listener Questions episode. You know, one because my daughter's
Speaker 1: questions included and that's pretty cute. But two because we
Speaker 1: got a biology question for me that I was she
Speaker 1: is completely unaware of this group of species and they're
Speaker 1: so creepy and right up my alley and it was
Speaker 1: so much fun.
Speaker 2: All right, Well, let's not waste any more time. Let's
Speaker 2: dig into it today. We have questions about seasons on
Speaker 2: Binary Star systems, about meat, wasp honey, and about how
Speaker 2: gravity actually works.
Speaker 1: Let's do it.
Speaker 2: So our first question is from Aida. She's ten years
Speaker 2: old and she lives in Virginia, and I think she
Speaker 2: knows Kelly pretty well.
Speaker 1: Great place to live, I'll just throw that in there.
Speaker 2: Here's Ada's question.
Speaker 5: Hi. I'm Ada, I'm ten years old. I have a
Speaker 5: question for you. What would seasons be like if you
Speaker 5: were on a planet in a solar system that had
Speaker 5: two sons? Thank you?
Speaker 2: All right? I like how she gets right to the point.
Speaker 1: Yes, she's very succinct. I like that too.
Speaker 2: Is she reading a book about life on a solar
Speaker 2: system with two sons? Or where do you think this
Speaker 2: question came from?
Speaker 1: Gosh, you know, I'm sure it didn't come out of nowhere,
Speaker 1: but I don't know where she heard about solarsis with
Speaker 1: two suns. That sparkedness. Could have been science class at school.
Speaker 2: Maybe she's writing a science fiction novel and she needs
Speaker 2: some science consultation.
Speaker 1: That's right, Yes, and she reached out to the right person.
Speaker 2: Yeh, she certainly did. So let's dig into it first.
Speaker 2: Let's remind ourselves why we have seasons on Earth, and
Speaker 2: then we can teleport ourselves mentally to a solar system
Speaker 2: with two stars and think about that one. So, on Earth,
Speaker 2: the reason we have seasons is because the Earth is
Speaker 2: tilted right. The Earth goes around the Sun, and there's
Speaker 2: a plane there where all the planets go around the
Speaker 2: Sun in the same plane, and the Earth also spins,
Speaker 2: but the axis that it spins on is not perfectly
Speaker 2: perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, so it's tilted
Speaker 2: a little bit. It like leans over. Now, the Earth
Speaker 2: is a sphere, so you know what is really leaning.
Speaker 2: It's still a sphere when it's tilted. But what's leaning
Speaker 2: is that axis of spin, that axis that controls the
Speaker 2: day night cycle. So what's closer to the Sun is
Speaker 2: the Northern hemisphere the spin lets you define a northern
Speaker 2: and the southern hemisphere, Then the Northern hemisphere is closer
Speaker 2: to the Sun during the summer, and the Southern hemisphere
Speaker 2: is further from the Sun during the Northern hemisphere summer
Speaker 2: and the Southern hemisphere's winter. It's not actually accurate to
Speaker 2: say that the Northern hemisphere is any closer to the Sun.
Speaker 2: Is just more exposed to the Sun because it's leaning
Speaker 2: that direction, got it?
Speaker 1: And you know, I've got to admit that every once
Speaker 1: in a while, when I talk to like the few
Speaker 1: friends I have in Australia, I still forget that they're
Speaker 1: experiencing the opposite season that we are up here in
Speaker 1: North America. And we regularly have a disconnect.
Speaker 2: Yeah, exactly. And so if we didn't have a tilt.
Speaker 2: For example, if the Earth's axis of rotation was perfectly
Speaker 2: perpendicular to the plane of its orbit, then you wouldn't
Speaker 2: have any seasons. You just always have I guess spring
Speaker 2: or fall. Right, the days would be the same length
Speaker 2: all year round. Going around the Sun wouldn't change your
Speaker 2: experience at all.
Speaker 1: No seasons, totally boring, just like living in California. You
Speaker 1: knew where that was going halfway through the sentence.
Speaker 2: Exactly, we'd all be happy all year long, right, it'd
Speaker 2: be amazing, so dull. And there are other tiny factors
Speaker 2: that also affect the weather and the seasons, things like
Speaker 2: the elliptical orbit, or the Earth doesn't orbit in a
Speaker 2: perfect circle around the Sun. It's an ellipse, which means
Speaker 2: sometimes it is closer to the Sun and sometimes it's
Speaker 2: further from the Sun. But this is a smaller factor
Speaker 2: than the tilt, which really dramatically changes how many hours
Speaker 2: of sunlight you get every day. The Earth is closest
Speaker 2: to the Sun in January and furthest from the Sun
Speaker 2: in July, so actually that counters the effect. It makes
Speaker 2: the summer slightly less severe and the winter's slightly less severe.
Speaker 1: Is that why the year starts in January? Or did
Speaker 1: that have nothing to do with the calend No.
Speaker 2: That's totally random. Yeah, Oka's totally right. And also the
Speaker 2: Earth tilt processes a little bit. It's not always in
Speaker 2: the same direction. It itself rotates a little bit, like
Speaker 2: a wobbly top. These are small factors, and that's affected
Speaker 2: by like the Jupiter and all sorts of other stuff.
Speaker 2: So mostly the Earth has seasons because it's tilted, So
Speaker 2: the northern hemisphere is getting more light and the southern
Speaker 2: hemisphere is getting less light during the northern hemisphere summer.
Speaker 2: All right, but that's a simple system, single planet going
Speaker 2: around a single star. So what about a binary star
Speaker 2: system in Ada's mind?
Speaker 1: Can I back you up for a second? Are most
Speaker 1: planets tilted so like the Moon has a very little
Speaker 1: bit of a tilt. Is Earth weird having a twenty
Speaker 1: three point four degree tilt?
Speaker 2: It's not weird to have a tilt like Urinus is
Speaker 2: tilted much more dramatically ninety seven degrees, basically totally on
Speaker 2: its side. Other planets are tilted more or less. The
Speaker 2: tilt we think comes from being hit. Like everything in
Speaker 2: the Solar System formed together from a big swirl. That's
Speaker 2: why everything is rotating in the same plane, and most
Speaker 2: of the planets are spinning in the same direction they
Speaker 2: move around the Sun, which is the same direction that
Speaker 2: the Sun is spinning itself. The whole Solar system is
Speaker 2: one big swirl, which then coalesces into a star and
Speaker 2: planets which all have the same swirl. But then you
Speaker 2: can get hit by something from outside the Solar system
Speaker 2: and it can knock you off axis a little bit.
Speaker 2: So we think that's probably the source of the Earth's tilt,
Speaker 2: and other planets tilt as well.
Speaker 1: With all the stuff that's colliding, Would it be reasonable
Speaker 1: to expect that having no tilt would be rare because
Speaker 1: there's so many collisions that probably knock you off angle.
Speaker 2: Yeah, As the Solar system forms, it's a little chaotic
Speaker 2: and things hit each other, so the average tilt is
Speaker 2: going to be zero, but it's unlikely for everything to
Speaker 2: have exactly zero tilt. Got it just the same with it,
Speaker 2: Like all the solar systems in the galaxy on average
Speaker 2: have zero tilt relative to the plane of the galaxy,
Speaker 2: but most of them are tilted relative to the plane
Speaker 2: of the galaxy. They're not all aligned with the actual
Speaker 2: rotation of the galaxy.
Speaker 1: All right, So let's move on to systems with two sons.
Speaker 2: All right. So system with two sons sound exotic, right,
Speaker 2: You're like, ooh wow, two sons, how cool, But the
Speaker 2: truth is that they're not actually that rare. Binary star
Speaker 2: systems are all over the galaxy. It's a significant fraction
Speaker 2: of the stars in our galaxy have a partner star.
Speaker 2: And the reason is that that big cloud of gas
Speaker 2: that collapses to give you a star usually it's part
Speaker 2: of a much bigger cloud. So stars are born together.
Speaker 2: Often you have two, three, four, five stars all born together,
Speaker 2: which begin a complicated swirl as they're forming. So you
Speaker 2: have these nurseries. We have a lot of star forming
Speaker 2: happening at the same time, and so stars are born
Speaker 2: with partners. And the reason we have a lot of
Speaker 2: binary star systems is that it's basically the most number
Speaker 2: of stars you can have in a system and have
Speaker 2: it be stable. Like you can have two things orbiting
Speaker 2: each other and have that be stable, like the Earth
Speaker 2: and the Sun or a star and another star. But
Speaker 2: you add a third object and it becomes chaotic, it
Speaker 2: becomes really complicated and unstable. So if you have three stars,
Speaker 2: for example, what's very likely to happen is one of
Speaker 2: them is going to get ejected and you're going to
Speaker 2: end up with a single star and then a pair
Speaker 2: of stars. So you have a lot of binary star
Speaker 2: systems out there, not very many trinary systems or quaternary systems,
Speaker 2: or not even know the descriptions for five or more stars.
Speaker 1: So why is it more likely to get ejected than
Speaker 1: to get pulled into one of the other two stars
Speaker 1: and then just make like, I don't know, a big star,
Speaker 1: a big explosion.
Speaker 2: Yeah, well that could happen also, but you know, stars
Speaker 2: are small compared to the distances between them, and so
Speaker 2: actual collisions are pretty unlikely, but they can spiral in
Speaker 2: and combine. That certainly does happen as well, But there's
Speaker 2: just many more outcomes where they get ejected, and just
Speaker 2: like in our Solar system, there's been chaos. We think
Speaker 2: probably there was another giant planet which got ejected from
Speaker 2: the Solar System because of the interaction between all the planets.
Speaker 2: So you have a lot of binary star systems out there,
Speaker 2: and then you have to think about the planets around
Speaker 2: those binary stars, and it becomes tricky already because now
Speaker 2: the planet is sort of like that third object. So
Speaker 2: you might wonder like, hey, isn't the planet just going
Speaker 2: to get ejected the way like a third star would
Speaker 2: get ejected, And the answer is yes, it's not easy
Speaker 2: to have planets around binary stars in a stable way.
Speaker 2: There's two ways to do it, and both of them
Speaker 2: basically make it look more like a binary star system.
Speaker 2: So one solution is you have the two stars near
Speaker 2: each other and the planet is far away, so it's
Speaker 2: sort of like, yeah, there are three objects there, but
Speaker 2: really it's sort of a nested set of binary systems.
Speaker 2: You have like the stars on one side and the
Speaker 2: planet that are orbiting each other, and then inside the
Speaker 2: sort of star system, you have two stars moving near
Speaker 2: each other. That's one situation, basically, like replace the Sun
Speaker 2: with two stars close to each other or closer to
Speaker 2: each other than to the planet. The other possible configuration
Speaker 2: is you have a star and a planet like the
Speaker 2: Earth and the Sun, and then you have another star
Speaker 2: that's much further away, so like put a star near
Speaker 2: Pluto or something much further from the Earth than the
Speaker 2: Sun and then it's far enough away that it's not unstable.
Speaker 2: Then you have like again a nested set of binary systems.
Speaker 2: You have three objects, but really it's like two objects
Speaker 2: acting as one and then in a binary system with
Speaker 2: the third object.
Speaker 1: Okay, so then let's talk about seasons. In the first
Speaker 1: scen area, where you have two stars that are right
Speaker 1: next to each other, do they act like one just
Speaker 1: megastar when you sort of aggregate their effects.
Speaker 2: Yeah, they act like one megastar. It's going to be
Speaker 2: very similar to as if you had one bigger star.
Speaker 2: It's going to be different and more dramatic in terms
Speaker 2: of like sunrise and sunset. Sunrise will be longer and
Speaker 2: sunset will be longer, and there'll be times when you
Speaker 2: have like one star above the horizon and one below,
Speaker 2: so you could have effects like you could have a
Speaker 2: sunrise where there's already a star in the sky, and
Speaker 2: then you have basically two sunsets, one more dramatic than
Speaker 2: the next. So that would be really cool, but it
Speaker 2: wouldn't really affect the seasons very much, right because the
Speaker 2: planet's relationship to the star is basically the same. If
Speaker 2: you have a tilt and you have an orbit that's
Speaker 2: going to determine your seasons. So in that situation where
Speaker 2: you have a planet around a binary star system where
Speaker 2: the stars are close to each other and further from
Speaker 2: the planet, the seasons are going to be very much
Speaker 2: like here on Earth.
Speaker 1: I feel like it would be amazing to wake up
Speaker 1: to a sunrise with two stars in the horizon. That
Speaker 1: sounds really cool. But all right, So then our second scenario,
Speaker 1: you say, there's one sun that's kind of close to
Speaker 1: the planet and another sun that's super far out. Is
Speaker 1: it far enough out that it doesn't really impact climates
Speaker 1: and seasons anymore?
Speaker 2: Unfortunately? Yeah, So the boring answer is for there to
Speaker 2: be a planet in this situation, that star has to
Speaker 2: be kind of far away. The closer you get it,
Speaker 2: the more dramatic and the impact on seasons and day
Speaker 2: night stuff, etc. But also the more unstable it is. Like,
Speaker 2: if you have the planet be the same distance from
Speaker 2: both stars, so it's like very dramatic, then that system
Speaker 2: is totally unstable and it's not gonna last for very long.
Speaker 2: So you got to push that second star kind of
Speaker 2: far away, which means really it's gonna be in the
Speaker 2: sky more like a bright star. Than a real sun
Speaker 2: and not really gonna affect your seasons. You're gonna have
Speaker 2: one totally dominant star and then a second star that's
Speaker 2: gonna sometimes make the night a little brighter or even
Speaker 2: the day a little brighter, but it's not gonna have
Speaker 2: that much effect. But you know, in a science fiction
Speaker 2: sort of inspiration, we can move that second star in
Speaker 2: as as much as possible and pretend that it does
Speaker 2: have some impact because there's some crazy dynamics that happen
Speaker 2: in that scenario.
Speaker 1: Okay, let's go for it. What is that like super winter?
Speaker 2: Yeah, exactly. If you think about the periods when you
Speaker 2: have sunlight, that really is what determines the seasons. Right
Speaker 2: in a single star, single planet system, it's the number
Speaker 2: of hours per day of sunlight you get that determine
Speaker 2: the seasons. And in the summer you're getting more sun.
Speaker 2: In the winter, you're getting less sun. Now put that
Speaker 2: second star around, say we have the second star, you know,
Speaker 2: in Mars orbit or something crazy, then you're going to
Speaker 2: be getting sunlight all sorts of weird configurations, like there
Speaker 2: can be parts of the year where each star is
Speaker 2: illuminating a different side of the planet. Put the planet
Speaker 2: between the two stars. Right, they're all in a line.
Speaker 2: You have star, planet Star, then every part of the
Speaker 2: surface is seeing a star. Right, It's like the whole
Speaker 2: world has noon at the same time, right, which would
Speaker 2: be crazy. So you have periods where the whole planet
Speaker 2: is seeing star, and then other scenarios where like in
Speaker 2: a line it goes star star planet where half of
Speaker 2: the planet is seeing both stars at the same time,
Speaker 2: and if they're both pretty close, that's gonna be superday.
Speaker 2: That's like super noon, right, and that's gonna be very intense,
Speaker 2: super duper hot. And also you'll get a weird effect
Speaker 2: there where potentially the stars eclipse each other. So like
Speaker 2: you know, we have solar eclipses and lunar eclipses, this
Speaker 2: would be like a stellar eclipse where one sun is
Speaker 2: behind the other sun briefly. That would be awesome.
Speaker 1: Don't look at either.
Speaker 2: But I actually looked up a simulator to try to
Speaker 2: figure out exactly what would happen through the year, and
Speaker 2: it depends crucially on the orbit of that second star.
Speaker 2: If that second star has a period of about a year,
Speaker 2: like the same as the planet's orbit, then you're gonna
Speaker 2: have a regular cycle. But you're gonna have times in
Speaker 2: the year where even at the equator you have no darkness,
Speaker 2: like you see one sun and the planet spins and
Speaker 2: you see the other sun. And so that's going to
Speaker 2: be very summary, right, because it's all about the hours
Speaker 2: of sunlight you get and other parts of the year
Speaker 2: where you're seeing both suns at the same time, so
Speaker 2: you're getting fewer hours of daylight, but they're more intense,
Speaker 2: they're brighter. So you're gonna have these really weird periods.
Speaker 2: I don't know how the plants would respond to that,
Speaker 2: or how you would evolve in that kind of.
Speaker 1: Configuration circadian rhythms, mm hmm.
Speaker 2: It's gonna be a total mess, but it would be regular,
Speaker 2: you know. And if, for example, the second star has
Speaker 2: a longer period, it takes longer to go around that
Speaker 2: first star and the planet, then its affects can slide
Speaker 2: through the year, right, It's not like every June we
Speaker 2: have double sun, every January we have one sun. It
Speaker 2: can slowly offset and that must really affect like the
Speaker 2: development of a civilization, you know, because we use the
Speaker 2: regular seasons, and the regular day night cycle really is
Speaker 2: a way to tell time. So either you have to
Speaker 2: have much more complex mathematics before you can even begin
Speaker 2: to use a calendar and develop it. Or maybe you
Speaker 2: get some art or quicker because the calendar is more
Speaker 2: complicated and it inspires more interesting mathematics. But the short
Speaker 2: answer is that the seasons are going to be intense
Speaker 2: and complicated, and it depends on a lot of the details,
Speaker 2: exactly how fast that second star goes around the first star.
Speaker 1: I wonder if it would hinder the establishment of civilizations,
Speaker 1: because like being able to plan things like when you
Speaker 1: plant your crops seems really important. I wonder if we'd
Speaker 1: all be like wanderers because planning just isn't worth even trying,
Speaker 1: but really fun to think about it. You know, there's
Speaker 1: got to be a couple of sci fi novels in.
Speaker 2: There, Yeah, exactly. And you know there's the famous book
Speaker 2: The three Body Problem, where they have essentially this question,
Speaker 2: except it's actually the four body problem because they have
Speaker 2: three stars and a planet. I don't know why they
Speaker 2: like couldn't figure out how to count to three. It's
Speaker 2: already complicated enough with two stars. You don't need a
Speaker 2: third star.
Speaker 1: Yeah. Well, when Ada's done with her math homework, will
Speaker 1: have her listen to this explanation and hear what she
Speaker 1: had to say.
Speaker 2: Maybe we should have her on in real time for
Speaker 2: a follow up. Let's do it, hi Ada, thanks very
Speaker 2: much for your question. I was curious what you thought
Speaker 2: about our answer and if you have any follow up questions.
Speaker 5: I understood like what I heard when I listened to
Speaker 5: the podcast, m H. And I do have one follow
Speaker 5: up question.
Speaker 2: Oh goodie, what is it?
Speaker 6: So?
Speaker 5: Was our sun in this our source system like part
Speaker 5: of a different source system and then was it ejected
Speaker 5: out or was it just not like that?
Speaker 2: Yeah, that's a great question. Unfortunately we don't know the answer.
Speaker 2: Most stars are born with other stars nearby. There's like
Speaker 2: sibling stars sometimes two, three, five, seven, as part of
Speaker 2: a big nursery, and then they're separated, as you know,
Speaker 2: gravity lings them around. But we don't know the history
Speaker 2: of our star that far back, so probably it was
Speaker 2: born with other stars, but we don't actually know. Maybe
Speaker 2: one day we'll figure out some way to figure it out,
Speaker 2: but for now we don't know the answer. Thank you,
Speaker 2: thanks so much for your question.
Speaker 1: All right, so now for something absolutely totally different, we
Speaker 1: have a fantastic question from listener James Palmer, and it
Speaker 1: is a question about meat bees otherwise known as vulture bees,
Speaker 1: which I had not heard of, but is absolutely right
Speaker 1: up my alley. So let's hear the question.
Speaker 4: Hey, Kelly and Daniel, I have a burning desire to
Speaker 4: know everything about meat wasps. I just heard about them,
Speaker 4: and I feel like there's a lot to discuss here,
Speaker 4: Like apparently they are carnivorous and the eat on like
Speaker 4: flesh and like maybe it's rotting. Then they use that
Speaker 4: to make their honey and stuff like meat honey. Please
Speaker 4: tell me everything.
Speaker 1: Meat honey, Daniel. You're dying to know about meat honey.
Speaker 4: Right.
Speaker 2: Well, you know, we have lots of different kinds of
Speaker 2: honey here in California, and often it's sold to us
Speaker 2: by promoting the kind of flowers that the bees visit,
Speaker 2: like ooh, this is lavender honey or wildflower honey, and
Speaker 2: you're supposed to imagine that you can taste the lavender
Speaker 2: as you're eating the honey. And so I'm wondering, now,
Speaker 2: meat bee honey, is it gonna taste like pepperoni or
Speaker 2: what's going on?
Speaker 1: Oh gosh, you know, to be honest, I would never
Speaker 1: try it. But there's not a lot of honey that
Speaker 1: is meat honey. So there's a lot of bees that
Speaker 1: make something called honey, but there's only three species that
Speaker 1: do this meat honey thing exclusively. So I think maybe
Speaker 1: we should start with how honey is made. Yea, because
Speaker 1: I actually didn't understand this very well.
Speaker 2: I have this naive understanding that like bee eat pollen
Speaker 2: and then do something internally and then vomit up honey.
Speaker 2: How wrong is that?
Speaker 1: Yeah? I thought that too, Okay, totally, like almost one
Speaker 1: hundred percent. Okay, so that was my thought too. Okay,
Speaker 1: So let's start with the European honey bees as an example. Okay,
Speaker 1: So this is APIs Melfera, and what they do is
Speaker 1: they go out and they go to flowers, and the
Speaker 1: flowers produce both nectar, which is like sugar water, and pollen,
Speaker 1: which has a lot of protein. And so these fill
Speaker 1: two very different rolls for the bees. So they get
Speaker 1: their carbohydrates from the nectar, okay, and that's gonna become honey,
Speaker 1: and then the pollen is their protein source. And sometimes
Speaker 1: the pollen like gets in the honey. It almost sounds
Speaker 1: like it's accidental, but mostly the honey is from the nectar.
Speaker 1: Not from the pollen, but.
Speaker 2: The bees also eat the pollen. I thought the pollen
Speaker 2: was incidental and going along for a ride, and it
Speaker 2: was part of the plants deal with the bees, Like
Speaker 2: you can eat the nectar, but then I'm gonna get
Speaker 2: the pollen all over you and you're gonna drop it
Speaker 2: on another flower and help us reproduce.
Speaker 1: No, they eat it too. Oh no, they eat it
Speaker 1: and they feed it to like the baby bees, and
Speaker 1: so it's like a very important protein source. I didn't
Speaker 1: know that either. And actually there's four different kinds of bees.
Speaker 1: There's the honey bees, the orchid bees, the bumblebees, and
Speaker 1: the stingless bees. And they're all categorized by having what
Speaker 1: are called corbicula and these are like chunky thighs with
Speaker 1: like a way to like stick the pollen on there.
Speaker 1: And so like I saw a bee on one of
Speaker 1: our flowers the other day and I was like, what
Speaker 1: is this orange? Like it's like they've got bling on
Speaker 1: their hips. I know, as an ecologist, I should have
Speaker 1: been like mortified that I didn't know what this was already.
Speaker 1: But anyway, those are like four carrying pollen around so
Speaker 1: they can bring it back to the.
Speaker 2: Hive, I see, And so do the plants get anything
Speaker 2: out of it? I thought bees were pollinators.
Speaker 1: Yeah, I think some of it still like falls off
Speaker 1: and lands in the right place, so the pollination still happens.
Speaker 1: But the bees aren't moving the pollen around as a favor.
Speaker 1: It's more like incidental. So that's how nature. No one
Speaker 1: helps anyone out in nature unless they have to, all right.
Speaker 2: So bees drink pollen and then they use that to
Speaker 2: make the honey. How do they actually make the honeyes
Speaker 2: that inside the bee? Or is that in one of
Speaker 2: their little hexagonal cooking vats.
Speaker 1: Bees drink nectar. They don't drink the pollen.
Speaker 2: Oh sorry, right, yes, okay.
Speaker 1: That's okay. Or they sometimes drink a honeydew, which is
Speaker 1: this like sweet fluid produced by insects as like a
Speaker 1: way to attract organisms that like protect them from natural enemies.
Speaker 1: They collect it in this special organ where they collect
Speaker 1: all of this sugary water, and you know, they can
Speaker 1: use it a little bit for like their flight to
Speaker 1: get from place to place, but they're you know, trying
Speaker 1: to bring it back to the hive. So they fill
Speaker 1: up this organ and I think that something like half
Speaker 1: of their body weight can end up being this sugary water.
Speaker 1: But the sugary water is nowhere near concentrated enough to
Speaker 1: be honey. So what they do is they bring it
Speaker 1: back to the hive and they regurgitate it to bees
Speaker 1: whose job it is to try to get some of
Speaker 1: the water out and concentrate the sugars more. And so
Speaker 1: those bees they like start kind of partially regurgitating it
Speaker 1: and blowing these like bubbles that increase the surface area,
Speaker 1: so some of the water evaporates off it.
Speaker 2: Didn't know that the physics of honey look at that, Yes, right, And.
Speaker 1: I hadn't imagined that so much of honey involved vomit.
Speaker 1: But there you go, so much fun hanging out with biologists.
Speaker 2: When I'm vomiting, I'm not busy also trying to concentrate
Speaker 2: it and evaporate it. So I have like gooey or vomit.
Speaker 2: I guess that's what a bee does.
Speaker 1: I mean, you're not so great at multitasking. Too bad.
Speaker 2: I'll work on that. I'll work on that. You know,
Speaker 2: good to have goals. Yeah, all right, So bees vomit
Speaker 2: up the nectar, and then other specialized bees help evaporate
Speaker 2: and concentrate it into honey. So that mean that honey
Speaker 2: is just nectar that's been concentrated down or is there
Speaker 2: some fermentation that also happens.
Speaker 1: That's just one of the stages of evaporation that gets
Speaker 1: a little bit of the water out, and then when
Speaker 1: they store it in the combs, like the you know,
Speaker 1: honey combs, I'm under the impression that some more evaporation
Speaker 1: happens there. So bees produce a little bit of heat
Speaker 1: by like, you know, shaking their wings really fast. That
Speaker 1: also produces some airflow over the honeycombs, and that combination
Speaker 1: of heat and then air moving throughout the colony and
Speaker 1: then sort of back out of the hive, that finishes
Speaker 1: evaporating off the water until you get to a point
Speaker 1: where you've got enough concentrated sugar that you've got honey.
Speaker 2: Wow. Fascinating.
Speaker 1: Yeah, I didn't know any of that. That was awesome.
Speaker 2: So then it makes sense that if I'm eating the
Speaker 2: honey from bees that visited lavender, it shit tastes like
Speaker 2: lavender because it really is like concentrated lavender nectar.
Speaker 1: If lavender nectar smells like lavender, I don't know that
Speaker 1: it does. And I'm one of those people who has
Speaker 1: had honey from different places and been like, it's all
Speaker 1: honey to me. I don't have a delicate paletate.
Speaker 2: Okay, So now tell us about meat wasps. Where do
Speaker 2: they get their supplies to make honey?
Speaker 1: Okay?
Speaker 2: So I'm terrified of this answer, by the way.
Speaker 1: Yeah, all right. So the best honeymakers are the European
Speaker 1: honey bees, the best in terms of like producing honey
Speaker 1: that humans like, but a bunch of other kinds of
Speaker 1: bees they make similar honey, but often their honey is
Speaker 1: nowhere near as like concentrated with sugars. It's more watery.
Speaker 1: And there's a group of bees called the stingless bees,
Speaker 1: and now we're getting closer to the vulture bees. So
Speaker 1: the stingless bees they make honey, but their honey tends
Speaker 1: to be more watery, and instead of storing it in
Speaker 1: those combs, they make these little waxy pots, and it's
Speaker 1: harder to get it out of those waxy pots, and
Speaker 1: it's like more watered down when you do. So people
Speaker 1: did still keep these bees for sugary fluids, but as
Speaker 1: soon as honey bees came along, a lot of the
Speaker 1: stingless bees that do this more watered down, harder to
Speaker 1: get honey, they became less popular to culture. But so
Speaker 1: these stingless bees, they also get their nectar from flowers,
Speaker 1: but there's a group in the genus Trigona where they
Speaker 1: seem like they're less interested in flowers. So instead of
Speaker 1: going to flowers for nectar, they get their sugars from
Speaker 1: things like rotting fruits. They'll like take the sugars from that.
Speaker 1: And instead of getting pollen, they get their protein from
Speaker 1: dead animals, dead vertebrates in particular.
Speaker 2: I see. So that's why they're called vulture bees, because
Speaker 2: vultures are scavengers. They don't kill anything. They eat already
Speaker 2: dead stuff. So these vulture bees will get their protein
Speaker 2: not from pollen, but from dead animals.
Speaker 1: You're saying, that's right. And they'll get their sugar, which
Speaker 1: they used, you know, like make their honey stuff. They
Speaker 1: get that from things like writing fruit are free they find, Okay,
Speaker 1: So then the question is do they make meat honey?
Speaker 1: This is important and the answer I think is maybe.
Speaker 6: Oh.
Speaker 2: Really.
Speaker 1: So there's only three species of these vulture bees, and
Speaker 1: they're all in the same genus, they're all closely related.
Speaker 1: It does turn out that there's a fair number of
Speaker 1: stingless bees that where like, if meat is left out,
Speaker 1: they'll go ahead and get some protein from it, but
Speaker 1: they're not required to get protein from it, so they're
Speaker 1: called facultatively necrophagic, which means they'll like eat dead stuff
Speaker 1: when they've got the chance, but they don't have to.
Speaker 1: But these vulture bees are obligately necrophagic, so they have
Speaker 1: to eat dead stuff. And currently they're really good at it,
Speaker 1: Like they've got ways to sort of attract other members
Speaker 1: to come so that they can like very quickly with
Speaker 1: these specialized mouth parts scrape a bunch of like rotting flesh.
Speaker 1: Oh my god, yeah, your face is like priceless.
Speaker 2: It should be called nightmare bees. Yikes.
Speaker 1: Yes, it's intense pretty metals. So then it's a little
Speaker 1: bit unclear what happens. So I found a nineteen eighty
Speaker 1: two paper that described what they were doing, and it
Speaker 1: said the bees masticate and consume flesh at the feeding site.
Speaker 1: They do not carry pieces of flesh to the nest,
Speaker 1: but appear to hydrolyze it with a secretion produced by
Speaker 1: either mandibular or salivary glands, which gives the feeding site
Speaker 1: a wet appearance. Side note iw.
Speaker 2: That means they're slabbering right their slabberry and they have
Speaker 2: meat slabber.
Speaker 1: They've got meat slabber, and their saliva is starting the
Speaker 1: process of breaking down the meat. That's what that means.
Speaker 1: And that says individual bees captured well feeding, then forced
Speaker 1: to expel the contents of their crop. So essentially they
Speaker 1: made these meat bees. Through up, we're carrying a slurry
Speaker 1: of flesh measuring between thirty seven and sixty five percent
Speaker 1: dissolved solids by volume.
Speaker 2: So a slurry of flesh. Isn't that like a nine
Speaker 2: Inch Nails album title or something.
Speaker 1: I feel like we have to get in touch with
Speaker 1: prent Resnor now and find some way to convey this
Speaker 1: to him.
Speaker 2: Oh boy wow.
Speaker 1: And so then the question is how do they store
Speaker 1: it when they get back. So I've read this paper
Speaker 1: from twenty twenty one and they were laying out some
Speaker 1: different hypotheses for what happens. It looks like that meat
Speaker 1: slurry gets stored in pots. Maybe it gets mixed with
Speaker 1: some of the sugary stuff they collect. I think at
Speaker 1: the end of the day, it's not really clear what
Speaker 1: they do how it's stored how long it's stored, but
Speaker 1: you probably could say they make something called meat honey,
Speaker 1: like they're taking that flesh slurry, they're storing it in
Speaker 1: these pots. It looks like it quote unquote matures for
Speaker 1: about two weeks into a paste that is also a
Speaker 1: little bit sugary. So they do appear to be making
Speaker 1: something like meat honey. Let's go for it. Looks like
Speaker 1: part of this process and if your wife we're here,
Speaker 1: maybe she'd be excited about this part. Part of it
Speaker 1: appears to involve the microbiome. So these vulture bees have
Speaker 1: microbiomes that include acidophilic bacteria, so bacteria that do really
Speaker 1: well in acidic environments. And you find similar categories of bacteria,
Speaker 1: they're not the exact same species, similar categories of bacteria
Speaker 1: in the guts of like vultures. So it seems like
Speaker 1: there's some kinds of bacteria that team up with organisms
Speaker 1: that eat dead flesh to sort of help process it
Speaker 1: and maybe also help make it safer, because bacteria that
Speaker 1: get to the flesh first start producing like toxins maybe
Speaker 1: to ward off these competitors, and these acid loving bacteria
Speaker 1: sort of help make it all happen, and your face
Speaker 1: is just priceless.
Speaker 2: Right now, I'm so glad I don't eat breakfast because
Speaker 2: I'd be throwing it up into breakfast slurry right now,
Speaker 2: and some bees could come along and make breakfast.
Speaker 1: Honey, meat honey, and so James, I have to thank you.
Speaker 1: I had never heard of these before. And let's go
Speaker 1: ahead and hear if you learned everything you wanted to
Speaker 1: know about meat honey, and.
Speaker 2: If you're ever gonna eat honey again.
Speaker 6: I think it's safe to say that you taught me
Speaker 6: everything I asked for and a lot more. So thanks
Speaker 6: ver so much for that, guys. I appreciate it.
Speaker 2: All right. Our last question comes from Hans in the
Speaker 2: Netherlands who has a nephew in Perth, and they've been
Speaker 2: disagreeing about which direction the Earth is accelerating and how
Speaker 2: gravity actually works. Let's hear the question from Hans.
Speaker 3: I have a question concerning freefall, as I understand it,
Speaker 3: when you're in freefall, you don't move it all. Instead,
Speaker 3: the Earth is ration to watch you. Now my question
Speaker 3: is this. I live in Howder, which is in the
Speaker 3: rest of the Netherlands. I have a nephew in Perth, Australia,
Speaker 3: which is roughly the opposite side of the earth. Well,
Speaker 3: we decided to jump out of an airplane on the
Speaker 3: same time, which way is the earth moving? Thank you
Speaker 3: very much for your answer.
Speaker 1: All right, so you know, maybe first we should start
Speaker 1: with the disclaimer that you shouldn't do this unless you're
Speaker 1: a professional. Have you ever done sky jumping or have
Speaker 1: you ever jumped from a plane?
Speaker 2: I one time did skydiving. Yes, I jumped from an
Speaker 2: airplane exactly one time. And I did it one time
Speaker 2: because I did my homework and I looked up how
Speaker 2: often people die skydiving, and it turns out it's very
Speaker 2: very rare to die the first time you jump, and
Speaker 2: it's very very rare to die after like ten jumps.
Speaker 2: But there's a danger zone between like two and nine jumps.
Speaker 2: And my understanding is that the first time you jump,
Speaker 2: you're very careful, you're freaked out, you check all the straps,
Speaker 2: you're like following all the safety videos, and when you
Speaker 2: survive that first time, you're like, oh, maybe it's not
Speaker 2: so dangerous. And then you get sloppy. And when you
Speaker 2: get sloppy and you're like feeling confident, that's the danger zone.
Speaker 2: Then and if you survive like nine or ten jumps,
Speaker 2: you become really good at it, and then you're back
Speaker 2: in the safe zone. So I did it once. I survived,
Speaker 2: and I'm never doing it again.
Speaker 1: Wait, you controlled your own parachute and everything when you jumped.
Speaker 2: I got to pull my parachute, but it was a
Speaker 2: tandem jump of strapped to another dude who was there
Speaker 2: to like make sure I did it right.
Speaker 1: But yeah, when I did it, there was a dude
Speaker 1: on my back. Okay, I mean, did you ask the
Speaker 1: guy on your back is this your second to ninth jump?
Speaker 1: That's the guy you need to ask. I think that's right.
Speaker 2: It might be his second and ninth jump that day.
Speaker 2: I think these guys go up all the time.
Speaker 1: Yeah, yeah, I think so too.
Speaker 2: But it was sort of terrifying because they told us, hey,
Speaker 2: you can change your mind at any moment. And the
Speaker 2: friend I went with, she was standing at the edge
Speaker 2: of the door ready to jump out, and she was like, yeah, no,
Speaker 2: I can't do it, and they're like, no, you're doing it.
Speaker 2: And she's like, you said I could change my mind,
Speaker 2: and they're like, we were lying. Nobody changes their mind,
Speaker 2: and then they pushed her out the door.
Speaker 1: I had brought a boyfriend who you know didn't end
Speaker 1: up marrying, maybe not surprisingly after you hear this story
Speaker 1: for his birthday. Oh and he got to the door
Speaker 1: and he said, I don't want to do it. And
Speaker 1: the guy strapped to his back looked at me, and
Speaker 1: I said, and I pointed out, and the guy jumped.
Speaker 1: And you know, my boyfriend was happy afterwards that he
Speaker 1: did it, but he had also tried to back out
Speaker 1: at the last second.
Speaker 2: So folks, when they tell you you can back out,
Speaker 2: don't believe them if you don't want to jump, and
Speaker 2: don't go up in the plane. Yeah, all right, but
Speaker 2: today we are not giving advice about ways to risk
Speaker 2: your life and get adrilline thrills. We're talking about understanding
Speaker 2: the fundamental nature of gravity, how does it work? And Hans,
Speaker 2: I think is responding to a conversation we had about
Speaker 2: gravity and freefall and who's really accelerating, in which an
Speaker 2: explanation I gave is that the Earth is accelerating up
Speaker 2: and out towards you. You're not falling towards the Earth.
Speaker 2: And so I think it's worthwhile to revisit that explanation
Speaker 2: a little bit and then unpack it in the context
Speaker 2: of Hans's question, All.
Speaker 1: Right, let's go for it. So if you jump out
Speaker 1: of a plane, what does Newton say is happening?
Speaker 2: Yeah, So, from a Newton point of view, if you're
Speaker 2: on the surface and you see somebody jump out of
Speaker 2: an airplane, you say, is a force of gravity and
Speaker 2: forces create acceleration. So gravity is accelerating you down towards
Speaker 2: the surface. And that's Newton's explanation. And from the point
Speaker 2: of view of the person on the surface, that makes
Speaker 2: perfect sense because you see somebody's velocity and they're accelerating
Speaker 2: because their velocity is changing, and so it looks perfectly
Speaker 2: like there's a force there and the person is accelerating.
Speaker 2: From the point of view of the jumper, right, they
Speaker 2: jump out of the airplane, they see the surface of
Speaker 2: the Earth rushing towards them. Right, they see Earth accelerating
Speaker 2: towards them. Now, velocity is perfectly relative, right, And so
Speaker 2: you might wonder, like, well, who's right, who is actually accelerating?
Speaker 2: And this is where Einstein comes in, because Einstein tells
Speaker 2: us that, like, velocity is relative, but acceleration is not.
Speaker 2: So let's unpack what that means for a moment like
Speaker 2: we say that distance is relative, like Kelly and I
Speaker 2: are three thousand miles from each other right now. And
Speaker 2: when we say distance is relative, we mean that you
Speaker 2: have to measure it relative to somewhere else. Like I
Speaker 2: can say I'm three thousand miles from Kelly. I can't
Speaker 2: just say I am three thousand miles. That doesn't have
Speaker 2: any meaning, right, I have to say what I'm three
Speaker 2: thousand miles away from. Velocity is also relative. I can
Speaker 2: say I have zero velocity right now relative to Kelly,
Speaker 2: but I don't have zero velocity relative to the Sun.
Speaker 2: And I don't have zero velocity relative to some particle
Speaker 2: that's speeding towards the Earth at almost the speed of light.
Speaker 2: In fact, I'm traveling at nearly the speed of light
Speaker 2: relative to that particle, right And so velocity is only
Speaker 2: defined relative to other stuff. And that's confusing because when
Speaker 2: somebody jumps out an airplane, you wonder, like, well, are
Speaker 2: they moving towards the Earth? Is the Earth moving towards them?
Speaker 2: Both of those are perfectly valid. Because velocity is relative,
Speaker 2: you can't say which one's actually moving. But now you
Speaker 2: get to acceleration. Acceleration is different. Acceleration is not relative.
Speaker 2: Velocity is relative. It's a property of a pair of objects,
Speaker 2: me and Kelly, and me and the Earth, me and
Speaker 2: the Sun. But acceleration is a property of an object.
Speaker 2: I can tell if I'm accelerating. You can tell if
Speaker 2: you're accelerating. How can you do that? Well, say, for example,
Speaker 2: you're in a truck and you have a bowling ball
Speaker 2: in the back of the truck. You can tell when
Speaker 2: somebody hits the brake on the truck. You can tell
Speaker 2: when somebody accelerates because the bowling ball in the back
Speaker 2: of the truck will respond. What happens if you hit
Speaker 2: the brakes, the bowling ball keeps going and will bang
Speaker 2: into the front of the truck bed. And if you accelerate,
Speaker 2: the bowling ball rolls backwards towards the back of the
Speaker 2: truck bed. So you can measure your acceleration yourself. You
Speaker 2: don't need to measure relative to the Sun or the
Speaker 2: Earth or your podcast co host or anything like that.
Speaker 2: So that means you can do something interesting. You can
Speaker 2: ask like, well, is the guy who jumped out of
Speaker 2: an airplane is he accelerating? Or is the guy on
Speaker 2: the ground on the Earth are they accelerating because both
Speaker 2: of them think the other one is accelerating. But Einstein says, no,
Speaker 2: you can actually just measure it and you can tell
Speaker 2: the answer.
Speaker 1: And the answer is that the person who jumped is accelerating.
Speaker 2: No, the answer is the person on the earth is accelerating. No, yes, absolutely.
Speaker 2: Imagine you jump out an airplane and you're holding a
Speaker 2: box with like a billiard ball in it. Right, what's
Speaker 2: going to happen to that ball? You feel like you're
Speaker 2: accelerating towards the surface of the Earth. But you look
Speaker 2: at the ball. The ball is not moving inside the box.
Speaker 2: The ball is going with you. It has exactly the
Speaker 2: same experience you do. Now somebody on the surface of
Speaker 2: the Earth, they have a ball in the box. That
Speaker 2: ball is pulled towards the surface of the Earth. That's
Speaker 2: measuring acceleration. Another way to do this is to have
Speaker 2: a scale. So you jump out of an airplane with
Speaker 2: a scale, and now you stand on the scale. Are
Speaker 2: you going to measure anything? No, because there's nothing pushing
Speaker 2: you onto the scale. Whereas if you put the scale
Speaker 2: in the surface of the Earth and you stand on it,
Speaker 2: you're going to measure your weight. Right, that weight is
Speaker 2: actually measuring your acceleration. Einstein says, what's happening there is
Speaker 2: the surface of the Earth and that scale are accelerating
Speaker 2: up and out right. So a scale is like an accelerometer.
Speaker 2: And so when you jump out of an airplane, you
Speaker 2: can measure that you're not accelerating. You're in free fall.
Speaker 2: There is no gravitational force on you, because there is
Speaker 2: no gravitational force on the surface of the Earth. What
Speaker 2: you're measuring is not the force of gravity. The weight
Speaker 2: doesn't measure the force of gravity. It measures the acceleration
Speaker 2: of the surface of the Earth up and out away
Speaker 2: from the center of the Earth.
Speaker 1: That's counterintuitive, yeah, exactly, but it actually makes much more sense.
Speaker 2: The way to think about forces and acceleration and gravity
Speaker 2: is to remember that there can be apparent forces like say,
Speaker 2: for example, you have a merry go round and somebody
Speaker 2: spins the merry go round. You feel this force pushing
Speaker 2: you off the merry go round, right, But there's no
Speaker 2: force there. There's nobody pushing on you. It feels like
Speaker 2: there's a force. There's an apparent force what we call
Speaker 2: in physics a pseudo force, because you're accelerating, because you're
Speaker 2: rotating creates this pseudo force. So some things in the
Speaker 2: universe can create these pseudo forces that make it seem
Speaker 2: like there's a force when there isn't really one. And
Speaker 2: that's what space does. That's what gravity is. Gravity isn't
Speaker 2: a force. It's just that space is bent in certain ways,
Speaker 2: and objects like to follow the curvature of that space. So,
Speaker 2: for example, near a huge mass, space is bent and
Speaker 2: objects like to follow the curvature of space, which brings
Speaker 2: them towards the center of that mass. You jump out
Speaker 2: of an airplane, space is curved there. Because you're near
Speaker 2: the Earth and your natural motion is towards the surface
Speaker 2: of the Earth, and you need acceleration. You need a
Speaker 2: force to prevent you from moving in free fall, to
Speaker 2: work against the motion of space and time. So I
Speaker 2: understand Hans's question. Hans is like, hold on, you're saying
Speaker 2: the Earth is accelerating. How can it be accelerating up
Speaker 2: in the Netherlands and up from Perth? Right, it seems
Speaker 2: like it's going in two directions. And that's because you're
Speaker 2: thinking about the Earth as a single sphere moving in
Speaker 2: one direction or moving in the other direction. Instead, imagine
Speaker 2: it as a sphere with variable radius. Gravity is trying
Speaker 2: to shrink the Earth down into a dot, and the
Speaker 2: structure of the Earth is pushing back up and out
Speaker 2: in every direction. So the answer is that it's accelera
Speaker 2: up and out in the Netherlands and up and out
Speaker 2: in Perth. Both are out away from the center. If
Speaker 2: there wasn't that acceleration, if the whole Earth was just
Speaker 2: a bunch of particles following the curvature of space time,
Speaker 2: it would collapse into a black hole. That's what gravity
Speaker 2: wants to do. It gathers stuff together because it bends space,
Speaker 2: and then the motion of those particles follows that bend
Speaker 2: space and things fall together. So Earth has to push
Speaker 2: up and out just to maintain the same distance from
Speaker 2: the center. So it's counterintuitive because now I'm saying you
Speaker 2: have to accelerate just to maintain a constant distance from
Speaker 2: the center of the Earth. That's very counterintuitive, but it's
Speaker 2: true because their natural motion is to fall in towards
Speaker 2: the center, and you have to accelerate, which means counter
Speaker 2: your motion relative to gravity, to avoid doing that. So, yeah, Hans,
Speaker 2: the Earth is accelerating up under you and up under
Speaker 2: your nephew in Perth.
Speaker 1: Who does that make right? That's the important question.
Speaker 2: Let's just all sit down over a night, play the
Speaker 2: meat honey and work it out.
Speaker 1: Oh no, let's never do that. Let's never ever do that,
Speaker 1: or at least let's not be told that we're eating
Speaker 1: meat honey if that's what we're having.
Speaker 2: All right. Well, I hope that cleared it up for Hans.
Speaker 2: Let's send him o answer and see if he's got
Speaker 2: some follow up questions.
Speaker 3: Hi, Daniel and Katie, thank you very much for your answer.
Speaker 3: It was very enlightening. It still seemed somewhat counterintuitive to me,
Speaker 3: but I believe I can now understand what you mean,
Speaker 3: in particular the idea that you shouldn't see the Earth
Speaker 3: as a solid object, but as a constant moving against
Speaker 3: gravity to maintain the shape instantly. This reminds me of
Speaker 3: Alison Wonderland. You have to run to stay in place.
Speaker 3: I hope this makes any sense to you. Thank you
Speaker 3: very much again, Hans.
Speaker 1: Well, thanks to everybody who submitted a question. Please, we
Speaker 1: want more people to submit more questions, and if you've
Speaker 1: got a question you want to share, you can send
Speaker 1: it to us through our discord and you can find
Speaker 1: the link to that on our website, or you can
Speaker 1: send us an email at Questions at Daniel and Kelly
Speaker 1: dot org.
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