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Speaker 4: Hey, Daniel, Have physicists gotten any better at naming their experiments?

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Speaker 1: Well, let's check in. Here's a paper by the ascap

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Speaker 1: Rotation Measure and Polarization Investigation Team also known as ARMPIT.

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Speaker 4: I don't know what The best part of that is

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Speaker 4: is the as cap or the armpit.

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Speaker 1: There's also the background imaging of cosmic extragalactric polarization or BICEP.

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Speaker 4: All right, a muscly acronym.

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Speaker 1: Well, if you're not into the aggressive ones, then you

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Speaker 1: won't like the balloon born Large Aperture submillimeter telescope or BLAST.

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Speaker 4: Oh nice, although technically that one should be BLAST right,

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Speaker 4: balloon born gus need more? You know, positive, upbeat science names.

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Speaker 1: Well, then what do you think of the project called

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Speaker 1: Super Huge Interferometric Telescope or Shiit.

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Speaker 4: Sounds like a crappy title. What does it study? Dark matter?

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Speaker 4: I am Poor Hamm, a cartoonist and the creator of

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Speaker 4: PhD comics.

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Speaker 1: Hi, I'm Daniel. I'm a particle physicist and a professor

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Speaker 1: at UC Irvine, and I'm definitely not an astronomer.

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Speaker 4: Why not, Daniel not a fan of the stars.

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Speaker 1: I love the stars and I love the mysteries of

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Speaker 1: the universe. And I am a professor in the Physics

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Speaker 1: and Astronomy department, so I sometimes get emails that address

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Speaker 1: me as an astronomer, and I wonder what the real

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Speaker 1: astronomers in my department would think about that.

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Speaker 4: Oh well, it's an interesting distinction, right, It's called physics

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Speaker 4: and astronomy. Is astronomy not part of physics.

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Speaker 1: You have hit on an existential question for astronomers that

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Speaker 1: I see them struggling with every single day.

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Speaker 4: Really they don't Wow, they don't consider themselves physicists.

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Speaker 1: I hesitate to speak for the astronomers out there, but

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Speaker 1: I definitely know that they feel like a different community.

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Speaker 1: You know. It's a different set of skills, a different

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Speaker 1: set of questions, a different set of ideas, and also

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Speaker 1: like a different set of classes that astronomy students and

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Speaker 1: physics students take.

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Speaker 4: Interesting, but fundamentally you're both trying to study how things

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Speaker 4: work out there in the universe.

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Speaker 1: Right, Yeah, But I guess all scientists are right from

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Speaker 1: that point of view. Chemists are physicists, biologists are.

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Speaker 4: Physicists, but our physicists chemists only physical chemists. Welcome to

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Speaker 4: our podcast Daniel and Jorge Explain the Universe, a production

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Speaker 4: of iHeartRadio in which.

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Speaker 1: We believe everybody's a physicist, even the chemists and the

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Speaker 1: biologists and maybe even the sociologists, because we all want

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Speaker 1: to understand how the universe works. We want to apply

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Speaker 1: our tools, the eyeballs that are in our head and

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Speaker 1: the eyeballs that we can build to answer the deepest

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Speaker 1: questions about the nature of the universe. What is out

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Speaker 1: there on those other planets, surrounding those other weird stars,

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Speaker 1: in those other swirling galaxies, and what can it tell

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Speaker 1: us about the nature of the universe we live in,

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Speaker 1: where it came from, and how it will all end.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, it is a swirly universe full of amazing facts

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Speaker 4: and incredible objects out there doing incredible things that we

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Speaker 4: just want to know more about.

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Speaker 1: Every time we look out into the universe, we discover

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Speaker 1: something new and weird, because the universe is stranger than fiction.

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Speaker 1: When you think you've understood something and you point your

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Speaker 1: telescope at it, just a sort of double check, you

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Speaker 1: find something bizarre, like the Fermi bubbles or astrophysical jets,

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Speaker 1: or neutron stars or pulsars or any other sort of

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Speaker 1: weird surprise that nature has in store for us. Yeah.

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Speaker 4: Does all sound like basketball teams? Dan, Is there like

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Speaker 4: an intramural physics department league?

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Speaker 1: That's right. You've got to be able to dunk to

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Speaker 1: get on the astrophysical Jets team.

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Speaker 4: Yeah.

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Speaker 1: No, there's not a whole lot of dunking going on

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Speaker 1: in the physics league.

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Speaker 4: I gotta be honest, Only donuts and coffee.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, more sort of like Twitter dunking than actual physics dunking.

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Speaker 4: But that's right. We all want to know. We're all

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Speaker 4: scientists in a way. Everyone has curiosity and questions about

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Speaker 4: the universe, and just asking the questions sort of kind

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Speaker 4: of qualifies you as a scientists, doesn't it.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, everybody out there is doing science. If you're asking

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Speaker 1: questions about the universe. Remember that science is not some

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Speaker 1: weird institution in a tall building somewhere. It's just a

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Speaker 1: bunch of people asking questions about how the universe works

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Speaker 1: and deciding to dedicate their lives to answering one particular

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Speaker 1: question about the universe. So if you have a question

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Speaker 1: that's burning deep inside you about the way the universe works,

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Speaker 1: then maybe you can help push forward the envelope of

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Speaker 1: human knowledge.

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Speaker 4: Yeah maybe, Like maybe your department should just be called

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Speaker 4: the science department, right, or I guess you're all, you know,

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Speaker 4: a science part of being humans, so maybe you should

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Speaker 4: just be the human department.

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Speaker 1: The department That sounds like a John Grisham novel about

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Speaker 1: science department gone.

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Speaker 4: Bad, Daniel, you could be the John Grisham of physics.

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Speaker 4: You could write thriller novels about science conspiracies.

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Speaker 1: We don't tenure anyone, We just take ten years to

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Speaker 1: chew them up.

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Speaker 4: There you go, that's the tagline for the for your

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Speaker 4: debut novel.

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Speaker 1: That's right, flicks right to me please We joke. But

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Speaker 1: that's a little bit the history of science, right. It

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Speaker 1: all started out as philosophy, and then when a question

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Speaker 1: becomes sort of well enough formed for people to do experiments,

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Speaker 1: it buds off into its own area of science, and

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Speaker 1: then it splits further and further in two sub areas.

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Speaker 1: I joke with my wife a lot because while the

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Speaker 1: physics department is the biggest department on our campus and

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Speaker 1: on many campuses, that's only because there are like nine

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Speaker 1: different biology departments. So in all this like ten times

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Speaker 1: as many biologists as physicists on campus.

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Speaker 4: If only they needed, you could put this all the

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Speaker 4: names in one department title, you know, like physics and astronomy, Yeah, exactly.

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Speaker 4: Or I guess you know, we're all part of the universe,

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Speaker 4: so really it should just be the Universe department or maybe,

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Speaker 4: like the university. Is that where that name comes from?

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Speaker 1: I have no idea actually where the word university comes from.

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Speaker 1: What does it stand for? It stands for a university

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Speaker 1: title internally versus I ran out of steam halfway through.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, its strain is resources, research, science and engineering.

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Speaker 1: Damn, we almost got there. We almost got there.

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Speaker 4: But it is a pretty wonderful universe, full of things

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Speaker 4: to think about and to wonder about, including all of

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Speaker 4: the amazing light and information that's out there for us

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Speaker 4: to see.

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Speaker 1: Exactly, while so much of the universe is incredible and

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Speaker 1: beautiful just in the visible light that our eyes can see,

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Speaker 1: we also know that the universe looks quite different in

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Speaker 1: other kinds of light, in light where the wavelengths are

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Speaker 1: too long for our eyes to see, radio and infrared,

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Speaker 1: and also in very high energy photons that are above

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Speaker 1: our visible spectrum, in the ultraviolet and deep into the

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Speaker 1: X ray.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, because humans have sort of a very limited view

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Speaker 4: of what we can see out there with light, and

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Speaker 4: it's almost like the universe isn't just there for us,

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Speaker 4: It's doing all kinds of things in other parts of

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Speaker 4: the light spectrum.

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Speaker 1: Just the same way your doctor can see very different

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Speaker 1: things about your body using X rays which pass through

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Speaker 1: all the soft tissue and reveal the location of the

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Speaker 1: bones that they can use in visible light just by

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Speaker 1: looking on the outside. Astronomers can also X ray the

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Speaker 1: universe by looking at the X ray photons that arrive

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Speaker 1: here on Earth.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, do they have special X ray glasses the kind

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Speaker 4: you can order from the back of comic books.

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Speaker 1: You want to see through the close of astronomers? Is

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Speaker 1: that what's going on?

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Speaker 5: Yeah?

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Speaker 1: You won't like what you see, probably not for all

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Speaker 1: those donuts.

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Speaker 4: Not a lot of biceps.

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Speaker 1: But we do have very special X ray eyeballs that

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Speaker 1: we have built. Since our eyeballs can't see X ray light,

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Speaker 1: we've had to develop special technology to focus, to shape,

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Speaker 1: to detect these X ray photons, and to use them

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Speaker 1: to answer deep questions about what's out there in the universe.

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Speaker 4: Wow, you make it sound like astronomers has like special

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Speaker 4: implants in their eyeballs that give them X ray vision.

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Speaker 1: That's the future, man, Right to Step one is build

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Speaker 1: a big device that weighs like a ton and sits

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Speaker 1: outside body, and eventually you miniatize it and implant it

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Speaker 1: right in the brain.

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Speaker 4: Well, step wants to get your own department, then you

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Speaker 4: can order that kind of stuff.

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Speaker 1: That's the goal. I just want the department of Daniel.

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Speaker 4: There you go, and your subject matter is.

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Speaker 1: Just yourself whatever I want. Maybe actually the rest of

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Speaker 1: the department wants me to have my own department. I'm

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Speaker 1: gonna get kicked out.

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Speaker 4: You could be the chair of your own department. You

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Speaker 4: could have just a chair and be the chair.

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Speaker 1: There should be some adage like he who has himself

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Speaker 1: his department chair has a fool for a faculty member.

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Speaker 4: But anyways, there is a lot of incredible stuff happening

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Speaker 4: out there in the universe in the X ray spectrum.

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Speaker 4: It's not just good for looking at your bones or

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Speaker 4: your teeth. There are also incredible things happening in stars

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Speaker 4: and neutron stars and pulsars out there, and even black

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Speaker 4: holes that we could learn if we can see better

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Speaker 4: in this part of the spectrum.

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Speaker 1: Because remember that different parts of the universe are at

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Speaker 1: different temperatures, and that something's temperature determined the light it emits.

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Speaker 1: Our Sun emits light in the visible spectrum because its

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Speaker 1: surface is around five thousand kelvin, and the Earth emits

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Speaker 1: light in the infrared because it is much much cooler,

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Speaker 1: and you emit light in the infrared because you are

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Speaker 1: also cooler than the Sun but hotter than the Earth,

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Speaker 1: and things out there that are super duper hot, like

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Speaker 1: the surface of neutron stars or jets near black holes,

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Speaker 1: they only emit in the X ray. So if you

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Speaker 1: look at some corner of the universe, it might seem

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Speaker 1: dark until you turn on your X ray eyeballs and

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Speaker 1: then all of a sudden, it's glowing very brightly.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, but I think what's also cool is that, you know,

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Speaker 4: like our sun emits both light and the visible spectrum,

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Speaker 4: but also it emits X rays right Like you can

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Speaker 4: look up pictures of X ray what the Sun looks

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Speaker 4: like with X ray glasses.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, the Sun emits all kinds of radiation that our

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Speaker 1: eye can't see, from infrared light all the way up

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Speaker 1: to X rays and even in particles. We talk recently

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Speaker 1: about how you could see the Sun in neutrinos if

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Speaker 1: you had neutrino glasses. So while it's true that the

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Speaker 1: Sun peaks in the visible spectrum that's where a lot

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Speaker 1: of its light is emitted, it's not exclusive to the

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Speaker 1: visible spectrum. It also does produce some X rays, and

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Speaker 1: it tells a different story. If you look at a

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Speaker 1: picture of the Sun in infrared or visible or X ray,

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Speaker 1: you see sort of different parts of the Sun, different

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Speaker 1: things are going on.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, And so if the more we can see in

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Speaker 4: other parts of the light spectrum, the more we can

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Speaker 4: learn about the universe. And so humans have been building

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Speaker 4: better and better X ray telescopes.

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Speaker 1: And as part of our mission to be nicer to astronomers,

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Speaker 1: we let them give them really silly names like the

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Speaker 1: nicer telescope and iceer.

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Speaker 4: Yeah. So to the on the program, we'll be tackling

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Speaker 4: the question what does the nicer telescope study? Now, Daniel,

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Speaker 4: isn't the answer obvious? Doesn't it study things that the

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Speaker 4: less nice telescopes can study.

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Speaker 1: There's a huge rivalry in astronomy between the nicer telescope

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Speaker 1: and the meaner telescope to see which is better for

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Speaker 1: learning about the universe.

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Speaker 4: But then there's the third rivalry there with the naughty astronomers.

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Speaker 4: Are you nice, naughty or nasty or mean? You said mean, right,

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Speaker 4: the meaner telescope?

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Speaker 1: Exactly. We know who's getting the Christmas presence from Santa,

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Speaker 1: but who's getting the goods about the universe. Ooh no,

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Speaker 1: there's nothing nice or mean about the Nicer Telescope. It's

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Speaker 1: just a ridiculous acronym. It stands for Neutron Star Interior

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Speaker 1: Composition explore Er.

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Speaker 4: Hmm. They pull that R at the from the end

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Speaker 4: of Explorer to make it nicer. Why not just call

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Speaker 4: it the nice Telescope. Why did they have to pull

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Speaker 4: up the R from me from the end?

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Speaker 1: I have no idea. The nice Telescope sounds pretty good, right,

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Speaker 1: but I guess they wanted to. If you need to

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Speaker 1: win a grand proposal these days, you know, not just

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Speaker 1: nice nicer Oh.

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Speaker 4: I see, it's like two point oh, it's like nice

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Speaker 4: two point oh, next generation of nice Telescope.

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Speaker 1: I also like how they skipped the star. They're just like, well,

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Speaker 1: let's just not include star in our acronym. I mean,

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Speaker 1: it really should be like neciser. Now I see why

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Speaker 1: they skipped the star.

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Speaker 4: Well, I guess they want to leave room so that

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Speaker 4: the next one could be the nicest Telescope.

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Speaker 1: And where do they go from there? You know, double nice,

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Speaker 1: double nicest uber niced.

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Speaker 4: We go for the mother Teresa Telescope.

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Speaker 1: I guess they haven't named themselves on corner the way

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Speaker 1: the ground based telescopes have. You know, they've gotten extremely large,

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Speaker 1: ultra large, absurdly large telescope.

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Speaker 4: Is that for real? Is there an absurdly large telescope

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Speaker 4: official name?

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Speaker 1: No, I'm joking. The actual title of it is called

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Speaker 1: the overwhelmingly Large Telescope, and that's a real title of a.

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Speaker 4: Regular The real title, No, that is overwhelmingly crazy.

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Speaker 1: The biggest telescope that's actually gonna be built is called

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Speaker 1: extremely large. Overwhelmingly large was a little overwhelmingly large, and

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Speaker 1: so it wasn't actually funded.

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Speaker 4: It was overwhelmingly rejected.

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Speaker 1: I was overwhelmingly excited about it. But we could learn

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Speaker 1: a huge amount about the universe. But anyway, they were underwhelmed.

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Speaker 1: It's certainly underfunded.

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Speaker 4: But this is a new telescope, sort of relatively new

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Speaker 4: in the last couple of years that's out. They're studying

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Speaker 4: the X rays that are coming to us from other

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Speaker 4: parts of the universe, so we can study amazing things.

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Speaker 4: And we were wondering how many people had heard of

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Speaker 4: this telescope and what it's studying. So Daniel went out

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Speaker 4: there into the wilds of the Internet to ask people

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Speaker 4: the question, what do you think the nicer telescope studies.

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Speaker 1: And I'm continuously indebted to those of you who are

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Speaker 1: willing to volunteer to answer these questions and give us

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Speaker 1: a sense for what people know and what they are

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Speaker 1: curious about. If you'd like to participate, please write to

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Speaker 1: us two questions at Danielandhorge dot com. Everybody's welcome.

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Speaker 4: Here's what people had to say.

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Speaker 6: My guess on what nicer telescope study stands for or

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Speaker 6: the acronym nicer is nebula interstellar clinical for research where

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Speaker 6: I think we study the actual beauty of nebulas through

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Speaker 6: a telescope and it's effect on psychedelic trips, clothing patterns,

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Speaker 6: and obsession among humans.

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Speaker 7: Well, this is my favorite subject. No tru stars, so

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Speaker 7: nicer will study netronstars. This is what I have until now,

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Speaker 7: not know how it will work and when it will

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Speaker 7: be on, but can wait to find out more.

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Speaker 8: I have no idea the nicer telescope studies how nice

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Speaker 8: things are or does it study ice like? The end

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Speaker 8: stands for something I don't know and then ice like.

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Speaker 8: Is it some telescope that is going to find more

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Speaker 8: water on Mars or other moons of the Solar System?

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Speaker 8: Or exoplanets or I don't know. Yeah, I'll go with that.

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Speaker 8: The Nicer Telescope studies ice on other celestial bodies.

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Speaker 4: Nicer, Well, that's got to be some acronym that's good

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Speaker 4: for funding. So how about nearly impossibly cool electromagnetic radiation.

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Speaker 1: I have no idea. I'm going to make up some

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Speaker 1: guests the acronym Nope, never heard of it.

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Speaker 4: All right, I'm surprised nobody said nice things.

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Speaker 1: I like the person who said it studies how nice

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Speaker 1: things are, Like you can measure the niceness of astrophysical objects, like, oh,

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Speaker 1: that black hole looks so nice?

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Speaker 4: Can you measure that? Are there physical units for that?

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Speaker 4: For nicety it measured in awez aw. But it is

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Speaker 4: a sort of an interesting telescope to talk about, and

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Speaker 4: lots of fascinating exploration that it's doing. And so Daniel,

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Speaker 4: maybe step us through this again. What does nicer stand for?

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Speaker 1: So nicer stands for again Neutron Star Interior Composition Explorer,

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Speaker 1: which tells you already a little bit about its mission.

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Speaker 1: It's designed to understand the interior of Neutron Star. We

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Speaker 1: call this thing a telescope. But if you saw a

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Speaker 1: picture of this thing. You wouldn't think that's a telescope, right.

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Speaker 4: I have a picture here in front of me, and

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Speaker 4: it looks like a refrigerator, basically like a box like

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Speaker 4: a refrigerator. Bugs.

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Speaker 1: It looks more like a particle physics detect because it

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Speaker 1: kind of is. It sits right on the boundary between

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Speaker 1: the kind of devices that astronomers built, like classical telescopes,

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Speaker 1: and those devices that particle physicists build, which it basically

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Speaker 1: always look like the Bord ship.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, and this one is kind of It looks like

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Speaker 4: a cube, and it has a frame, and it's got

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Speaker 4: some like a grid on one side, so it does

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Speaker 4: sort of look like an air conditioning unit that you

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Speaker 4: would see sticking out of a window.

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Speaker 1: It does look like an air conditioning unit. And it's

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Speaker 1: basically just a box with a bunch of tubes in it.

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Speaker 1: And the reason it's so different from the kind of

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Speaker 1: telescope you imagine when you think about Hubble or when

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Speaker 1: you go to your astronomy night at your nearby university

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Speaker 1: is because X rays are very very different from visible

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Speaker 1: light in how they interact with matter. So you need

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Speaker 1: a very different kind of system to gather the light

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Speaker 1: and to bend it and to focus it. Because X

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Speaker 1: rays mostly just go through stuff, like X rays would

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Speaker 1: go right through hubble.

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Speaker 4: I see. So even if you had a lens, the

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Speaker 4: X rays, which just goes through the glass, that they

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Speaker 4: wouldn't bend necessarily.

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Speaker 1: That's right. X rays when it hit an object sort

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Speaker 1: of head on that way, the way you might hit

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Speaker 1: a lens, they would just penetrate through because they have

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Speaker 1: very high frequency. And remember that while air and glass

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Speaker 1: seem transparent to us in the visible light, different things

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Speaker 1: are transparent or opaque to X rays. And so while

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Speaker 1: your body is mostly transparent to X rays, which is

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Speaker 1: why you can use it to take a picture of

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Speaker 1: your insides, the air is mostly opaque to X rays.

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Speaker 1: Like our atmosphere blocks almost all X rays, which is

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Speaker 1: why all the X ray telescopes have to be like

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Speaker 1: on balloons or on or in space. That's why this

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Speaker 1: one is attached to the International Space Station, and so

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Speaker 1: you can't use typical optics to gather and focus X

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Speaker 1: rays for that reason.

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Speaker 4: Interesting, but can it focus at all?

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Speaker 3: Or is it?

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Speaker 4: Are there any moving parts to it or is it

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Speaker 4: just a box with little sensors in it?

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Speaker 1: It's mostly a box with collimating sensors. So you have

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Speaker 1: these tubes and the X ray hits one of the tubes,

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Speaker 1: and at the end of the tube is a little

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Speaker 1: detector that tells you I got an X ray. And

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Speaker 1: the idea is that these are collimators, and so you

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Speaker 1: can sort of point this thing in one direction and

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Speaker 1: that limits the focus, so you're not just getting X

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Speaker 1: rays from the whole universe onto the backplane, which is

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Speaker 1: where your detectors are. You have, like you know, a

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Speaker 1: bunch of tubes, so you can only look sort of

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Speaker 1: in one direction. So that's one aspect of these tubes.

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Speaker 1: They're collimators. They restrict your field of view, so you

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Speaker 1: know what you're looking at.

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Speaker 4: They're literally sort of like looking through a tube kind of,

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Speaker 4: you know, like a cardboard tube. If you look through it,

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Speaker 4: it limits you to only look at one thing in

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Speaker 4: front of you.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, and that's the way your eye works also, right,

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Speaker 1: The reason that our eyes are in set inside our

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Speaker 1: heads and behind a little hole is so you can

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Speaker 1: tell sort of where the light came from based on

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Speaker 1: where it hits the back of your eye, rather than

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Speaker 1: just having light sensitive cells on the surface where you

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Speaker 1: could just tell that there is light or there isn't light,

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Speaker 1: And so by having these tubes in front of your

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Speaker 1: X ray detectors, you can tell when the X ray

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Speaker 1: hits detector at the back of the tube where it

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Speaker 1: came from. And it's a little bit better than that

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Speaker 1: because the tubes also do a very small amount of focusing.

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Speaker 4: Oh yeah, what do you mean.

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Speaker 1: Well, it's hard to focus X rays when they hit

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Speaker 1: straight on, but you can do like grazing focusing. If

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Speaker 1: an X ray comes in at a very high angle

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Speaker 1: to some surfaces, to some kinds of materials, they will

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Speaker 1: bounce off at a slightly different angle. So they have

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Speaker 1: these really weird kind of they call them lenses, but

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Speaker 1: they're nothing like what you would recognize that. These very

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Speaker 1: special shapes are called paraboloids and hyperboloids, and they're design

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Speaker 1: So the X ray comes in at a very high

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Speaker 1: angle and then gets bent very slightly towards your detector,

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Speaker 1: so it's sort of like the tube is larger on

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Speaker 1: one side and smaller on the other, and it just

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Speaker 1: sort of like tapers a little bit to gather the

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Speaker 1: X rays down to the bottom.

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Speaker 4: So it does have like a focusing lens, it's just

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Speaker 4: not made out of glass.

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Speaker 1: It's not made out of glass. This thing is made

441
00:21:39,520 --> 00:21:43,600
Speaker 1: out of twenty four concentric shells of aluminum that are

442
00:21:43,640 --> 00:21:46,720
Speaker 1: coated in gold, and the gold has the right properties

443
00:21:46,720 --> 00:21:49,000
Speaker 1: to sort of change the angle of the X rays

444
00:21:49,080 --> 00:21:51,280
Speaker 1: just a little bit. Remember, these are very very high

445
00:21:51,440 --> 00:21:54,040
Speaker 1: energy photons, so it's very hard to bend them at all.

446
00:21:54,240 --> 00:21:55,920
Speaker 4: Oh sounds expensive.

447
00:21:55,560 --> 00:21:58,440
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. And they have fifty six of these tubes.

448
00:21:58,800 --> 00:22:02,119
Speaker 1: And on the backplane they have silicon detectors that can

449
00:22:02,160 --> 00:22:04,879
Speaker 1: detect these X rays. When X ray smashes into it,

450
00:22:04,880 --> 00:22:08,080
Speaker 1: it releases an electron that's in the silicon wafer, and

451
00:22:08,080 --> 00:22:10,159
Speaker 1: then that can get picked up by a circuitry. So

452
00:22:10,200 --> 00:22:13,120
Speaker 1: it's basically just like a digital camera on the backplane

453
00:22:13,359 --> 00:22:16,240
Speaker 1: that's sensitive to X rays that are focused onto it

454
00:22:16,280 --> 00:22:18,680
Speaker 1: by these very gradually tapering tubes.

455
00:22:18,920 --> 00:22:21,000
Speaker 4: And so these tubes are kind of in a box.

456
00:22:21,040 --> 00:22:24,000
Speaker 4: And this box is sort of like attached to the

457
00:22:24,040 --> 00:22:25,720
Speaker 4: outside of the International Space Station.

458
00:22:25,840 --> 00:22:27,720
Speaker 1: Yeah, it's got like a little arm and it's stuck

459
00:22:27,760 --> 00:22:29,800
Speaker 1: to the space station and they can turn it so

460
00:22:29,840 --> 00:22:31,919
Speaker 1: they can point it different things, like a look at

461
00:22:31,920 --> 00:22:34,359
Speaker 1: this star, look at that star. And it's maintained by

462
00:22:34,359 --> 00:22:35,840
Speaker 1: the astronauts.

463
00:22:35,200 --> 00:22:37,840
Speaker 4: And it was this done recently. It's sort of in

464
00:22:37,840 --> 00:22:39,000
Speaker 4: the last few years, right.

465
00:22:38,920 --> 00:22:41,760
Speaker 1: Yeah, it was installed in twenty seventeen. So the space

466
00:22:41,760 --> 00:22:44,360
Speaker 1: station's been up there for decades, right, but they keep

467
00:22:44,400 --> 00:22:46,520
Speaker 1: adding to the science mission. It's pretty cool to have

468
00:22:46,560 --> 00:22:49,280
Speaker 1: a facility in space where you can install new stuff

469
00:22:49,359 --> 00:22:51,600
Speaker 1: and you can have people maintain it and control it.

470
00:22:51,640 --> 00:22:53,040
Speaker 1: And so this has been up there for the last

471
00:22:53,080 --> 00:22:56,040
Speaker 1: five years and it's done a lot of really interesting

472
00:22:56,080 --> 00:22:56,920
Speaker 1: science already.

473
00:22:56,960 --> 00:22:58,920
Speaker 4: Yeah, and it's sort of name with the word neutron

474
00:22:58,960 --> 00:23:02,520
Speaker 4: star in its but it actually sort of studies a

475
00:23:02,600 --> 00:23:05,320
Speaker 4: wider range of X rays, right, what are called soft

476
00:23:05,440 --> 00:23:05,840
Speaker 4: X rays.

477
00:23:05,920 --> 00:23:08,240
Speaker 1: Yeah, we have a variety of X ray telescopes. You

478
00:23:08,280 --> 00:23:11,040
Speaker 1: might have heard of Chandra and other space based telescopes

479
00:23:11,040 --> 00:23:14,040
Speaker 1: that are capable of seeing the sky in X rays.

480
00:23:14,359 --> 00:23:16,640
Speaker 1: But to study neutron stars, we're interested in a very

481
00:23:16,640 --> 00:23:19,320
Speaker 1: particular kind of X ray, sort of on the less

482
00:23:19,480 --> 00:23:22,679
Speaker 1: energetic side of the typical X ray spectrum, from around

483
00:23:22,720 --> 00:23:26,480
Speaker 1: two hundred electron bolts up to about twelve thousand electron bolts.

484
00:23:26,480 --> 00:23:28,879
Speaker 1: And this is what we call soft X rays. Soft

485
00:23:28,960 --> 00:23:31,399
Speaker 1: just meaning a little bit lower energy than like hard

486
00:23:31,600 --> 00:23:32,240
Speaker 1: X rays.

487
00:23:33,280 --> 00:23:35,919
Speaker 4: I see, because the hard X rays have not been.

488
00:23:35,760 --> 00:23:38,840
Speaker 1: Approved, but definitely not for the nicer telescope.

489
00:23:38,960 --> 00:23:40,520
Speaker 4: That's for the naughty telescope.

490
00:23:40,600 --> 00:23:42,399
Speaker 1: That's the NC seventeen telescope.

491
00:23:42,760 --> 00:23:45,840
Speaker 4: Still, I mean that's where the R comes from. I mean,

492
00:23:45,880 --> 00:23:47,560
Speaker 4: that's where they kept the R at the end.

493
00:23:48,000 --> 00:23:50,760
Speaker 1: But it does show us some very dramatic and incredible

494
00:23:50,760 --> 00:23:52,440
Speaker 1: things going on in the universe.

495
00:23:52,760 --> 00:23:55,320
Speaker 4: Yeah, and it's not just neutron stars. There's all kinds

496
00:23:55,320 --> 00:23:57,679
Speaker 4: of stuff out there that gives off the X rays

497
00:23:57,760 --> 00:24:00,680
Speaker 4: that reveal amazing things about the universe. So let's get

498
00:24:00,680 --> 00:24:03,520
Speaker 4: into the things that Nicer is studying. But first let's

499
00:24:03,560 --> 00:24:04,480
Speaker 4: take a quick break.

500
00:24:10,440 --> 00:24:13,440
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Speaker 1: of Greek yogurt. You're probably not thinking about the environmental

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554
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556
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562
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564
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565
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566
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567
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568
00:27:46,200 --> 00:27:49,320
Speaker 4: All right, we're talking about the nicer telescope, the neutron

569
00:27:49,400 --> 00:27:54,520
Speaker 4: star Interior composition explore er, which stands for nice er

570
00:27:55,040 --> 00:27:55,320
Speaker 4: sort of.

571
00:27:55,520 --> 00:27:57,159
Speaker 1: You gotta say the er at the end of it.

572
00:27:57,200 --> 00:28:01,240
Speaker 1: You can't just say explorer, you gotta say explore er an.

573
00:28:02,160 --> 00:28:05,239
Speaker 4: I guess there are no laws or rules about acronyms, right,

574
00:28:05,280 --> 00:28:07,240
Speaker 4: You can pretty much do whatever you want. You can

575
00:28:07,280 --> 00:28:09,240
Speaker 4: grab letters, ignore letters, right, why not.

576
00:28:09,280 --> 00:28:11,960
Speaker 1: If there are any rules and astronomy is busy breaking them.

577
00:28:12,080 --> 00:28:14,680
Speaker 1: There are some really ridiculous acronyms out there.

578
00:28:14,960 --> 00:28:18,119
Speaker 4: The rebels in the astronomy community. That's why they need

579
00:28:18,160 --> 00:28:18,840
Speaker 4: their own department.

580
00:28:19,040 --> 00:28:20,840
Speaker 1: I feel like there's this trend in science. Every time

581
00:28:20,880 --> 00:28:22,399
Speaker 1: you come up with a new idea, it needs a

582
00:28:22,480 --> 00:28:24,760
Speaker 1: name and an acronym, so you can like brand it

583
00:28:24,960 --> 00:28:26,160
Speaker 1: your cool new idea.

584
00:28:27,359 --> 00:28:29,680
Speaker 4: What happened to name it after yourself? I maybe you're

585
00:28:29,720 --> 00:28:32,560
Speaker 4: encouraged to do both, like make an act like CHAM

586
00:28:32,720 --> 00:28:38,400
Speaker 4: could be a pretty cool energenic, amazing monitor.

587
00:28:38,160 --> 00:28:40,960
Speaker 1: Convolutional high altitude mechanic.

588
00:28:41,560 --> 00:28:44,280
Speaker 4: There you go. I am a mechanical engineer. Yeah, all right,

589
00:28:44,320 --> 00:28:47,000
Speaker 4: So this is a telescope out there up there attached

590
00:28:47,040 --> 00:28:49,240
Speaker 4: to the International Space Station, and it's made out of

591
00:28:49,440 --> 00:28:53,880
Speaker 4: little tubes that can collect X rays from specific points

592
00:28:53,880 --> 00:28:56,760
Speaker 4: in space, and it's been studying all kinds of things,

593
00:28:56,800 --> 00:28:59,800
Speaker 4: including neutron stars. So, Daniel, what is a neutron star.

594
00:29:00,000 --> 00:29:03,480
Speaker 1: The neutron star is a super fascinating object. It's basically

595
00:29:03,520 --> 00:29:07,280
Speaker 1: the remnant of a massive, super giant star that collapsed.

596
00:29:07,760 --> 00:29:10,400
Speaker 1: Remember that stars burn for a long time because they

597
00:29:10,400 --> 00:29:13,600
Speaker 1: have very hot interiors and they have the fuel needed

598
00:29:13,640 --> 00:29:17,560
Speaker 1: to perform fusion, like to squeeze hydrogen together into helium

599
00:29:17,560 --> 00:29:20,240
Speaker 1: and then squeeze that helium into something else, then squeeze

600
00:29:20,280 --> 00:29:22,160
Speaker 1: that into something else, and they get heavier and heavier

601
00:29:22,160 --> 00:29:25,640
Speaker 1: and heavier, where the byproducts of fusion produce the byproducts

602
00:29:25,680 --> 00:29:28,160
Speaker 1: of the next round of fusion until they no longer

603
00:29:28,240 --> 00:29:31,600
Speaker 1: can until they're making iron, which cools the star down

604
00:29:31,880 --> 00:29:35,000
Speaker 1: and causes it to collapse, or eventually gravity wins its

605
00:29:35,040 --> 00:29:38,200
Speaker 1: battle against fusion and collapses the star. And depending on

606
00:29:38,240 --> 00:29:40,880
Speaker 1: the mass of the original lump of stuff you started with,

607
00:29:41,200 --> 00:29:43,320
Speaker 1: you can get a black hole if you have enough stuff,

608
00:29:43,600 --> 00:29:45,840
Speaker 1: or you can get a neutron star, which is just

609
00:29:45,880 --> 00:29:49,720
Speaker 1: this really hot, very dense clump of matter left over

610
00:29:49,760 --> 00:29:52,080
Speaker 1: at the core of a star after it has collapsed.

611
00:29:52,240 --> 00:29:54,480
Speaker 4: Yeah, it's sort of like one half step up from

612
00:29:54,560 --> 00:29:56,760
Speaker 4: a black hole. Right. Like, we had a whole episode

613
00:29:56,760 --> 00:29:59,520
Speaker 4: about neutron stars, and they're just kind of like what

614
00:29:59,560 --> 00:30:02,760
Speaker 4: happens when light is just almost compressed enough to make

615
00:30:02,800 --> 00:30:03,360
Speaker 4: a black hole.

616
00:30:03,880 --> 00:30:06,560
Speaker 1: There are various ways that you can resist the pull

617
00:30:06,600 --> 00:30:09,520
Speaker 1: of gravity, right A burning star resists it by producing

618
00:30:09,560 --> 00:30:11,920
Speaker 1: all this energy that puffs out its outer layers and

619
00:30:11,920 --> 00:30:14,960
Speaker 1: prevents it from collapsing further. Once gravity's overcome that, there's

620
00:30:15,000 --> 00:30:18,440
Speaker 1: like another threshold, which is this electron degeneracy threshold. The

621
00:30:18,440 --> 00:30:21,920
Speaker 1: electrons don't want to get squeezed together as closely as

622
00:30:21,960 --> 00:30:24,320
Speaker 1: gravity wants to squeeze them, and they resist. But if

623
00:30:24,320 --> 00:30:26,600
Speaker 1: you add more mass to it, it can overcome even

624
00:30:26,640 --> 00:30:28,960
Speaker 1: that and then produce a black hole. It's like the

625
00:30:29,040 --> 00:30:31,720
Speaker 1: last holdout. It's like matter's last line of defense.

626
00:30:32,120 --> 00:30:35,240
Speaker 4: Yeah, but do they inevitably become black holes or can

627
00:30:35,280 --> 00:30:38,080
Speaker 4: they resist becoming a black hole forever?

628
00:30:38,320 --> 00:30:41,320
Speaker 1: Neutron stars, we think are stable. They can resist becoming

629
00:30:41,320 --> 00:30:44,040
Speaker 1: a black hole unless they gather more mass. There's a

630
00:30:44,120 --> 00:30:47,560
Speaker 1: maximum mass to the neutron stars, we think, but that's

631
00:30:47,600 --> 00:30:50,320
Speaker 1: not something we understand very well. We have pretty basic

632
00:30:50,400 --> 00:30:53,320
Speaker 1: questions about neutron stars, like how much mass is in

633
00:30:53,360 --> 00:30:56,000
Speaker 1: a neutron star, how big can they get, or how

634
00:30:56,080 --> 00:30:58,960
Speaker 1: wide are they? We know that neutron stars are super

635
00:30:59,080 --> 00:31:02,160
Speaker 1: duper dense, have like one and a half times the

636
00:31:02,160 --> 00:31:05,000
Speaker 1: mass of our Sun squeezed into an object with a

637
00:31:05,080 --> 00:31:08,479
Speaker 1: radius of like fifteen kilometers, but we don't really know

638
00:31:08,520 --> 00:31:10,560
Speaker 1: what the boundaries are, like can you get a two

639
00:31:10,600 --> 00:31:13,800
Speaker 1: solar mass neutron star or does it collapse into a

640
00:31:13,800 --> 00:31:14,360
Speaker 1: black hole?

641
00:31:15,160 --> 00:31:17,520
Speaker 4: Interesting? I guess maybe a question is if they are

642
00:31:17,560 --> 00:31:21,200
Speaker 4: sort of close to black hole and they're not affusing anymore,

643
00:31:21,480 --> 00:31:24,959
Speaker 4: meaning exploding and giving of light, how do we know

644
00:31:25,000 --> 00:31:27,080
Speaker 4: where they are, how do we find them? And have

645
00:31:27,120 --> 00:31:28,080
Speaker 4: we actually seen one?

646
00:31:28,160 --> 00:31:30,320
Speaker 1: We have seen neutron stars, but you're right, they are

647
00:31:30,320 --> 00:31:32,640
Speaker 1: hard to see because they don't glow in the visible

648
00:31:32,760 --> 00:31:36,960
Speaker 1: But the incredible gravity means incredible temperatures and incredible pressures,

649
00:31:37,200 --> 00:31:40,200
Speaker 1: and under those conditions they tend to produce X rays.

650
00:31:40,280 --> 00:31:42,680
Speaker 1: So the surface of a neutron star has this crust

651
00:31:42,840 --> 00:31:46,400
Speaker 1: that's really incredibly intense environment, and as that crust like

652
00:31:46,520 --> 00:31:50,520
Speaker 1: rubs and bumps and has star quakes, it produces flashes

653
00:31:50,560 --> 00:31:53,040
Speaker 1: of light X rays that we can see with our

654
00:31:53,120 --> 00:31:55,480
Speaker 1: fancy eyeballs on the International Space Station.

655
00:31:55,720 --> 00:31:58,080
Speaker 4: Interesting, it has like a shiny coat to it, you know,

656
00:31:58,160 --> 00:32:01,080
Speaker 4: like most stars in mid light from the insides, but

657
00:32:01,120 --> 00:32:04,560
Speaker 4: this one, you're saying, neutron stars in mid light and

658
00:32:04,920 --> 00:32:06,360
Speaker 4: X rays on the surface.

659
00:32:06,480 --> 00:32:09,720
Speaker 1: Yeah, that's the prevailing model. Although we don't really understand

660
00:32:10,000 --> 00:32:12,720
Speaker 1: what's going on with neutron stars. One of the core

661
00:32:12,880 --> 00:32:15,520
Speaker 1: questions is like what is the state of matter and

662
00:32:15,560 --> 00:32:19,000
Speaker 1: the inside of neutron stars. It's a situation that's so

663
00:32:19,200 --> 00:32:23,120
Speaker 1: hot and so dense that all four forces come into play.

664
00:32:23,360 --> 00:32:25,920
Speaker 1: I mean usually gravity, which is the weakest force, can

665
00:32:25,960 --> 00:32:29,680
Speaker 1: be mostly ignored when you're talking about like forces between quarks.

666
00:32:29,720 --> 00:32:32,960
Speaker 1: But inside a neutron star, there's so much mass that

667
00:32:33,040 --> 00:32:36,240
Speaker 1: gravity is as powerful as the strong force, and you

668
00:32:36,320 --> 00:32:38,719
Speaker 1: need to take into account all the different forces. If

669
00:32:38,760 --> 00:32:41,360
Speaker 1: you can understand the nature of what's going on in there.

670
00:32:41,800 --> 00:32:44,200
Speaker 1: You know, we think about like the neutron has three

671
00:32:44,280 --> 00:32:46,840
Speaker 1: quarks and they're hanging out. They've got gluons bound together.

672
00:32:46,840 --> 00:32:48,640
Speaker 1: It's a happy little thing. It can last for a

673
00:32:48,680 --> 00:32:51,520
Speaker 1: long time. Or protons are very similar. But now take

674
00:32:51,560 --> 00:32:53,840
Speaker 1: a bunch of those and squeeze them all together. It's

675
00:32:53,840 --> 00:32:56,600
Speaker 1: like you got this ocean of quarks that are floating around,

676
00:32:56,680 --> 00:32:59,440
Speaker 1: creating this weird new kind of thing you could almost

677
00:32:59,480 --> 00:33:02,560
Speaker 1: even think of is like one enormous particle.

678
00:33:02,320 --> 00:33:04,880
Speaker 4: Right, because you're saying it's like there's squeeze so much

679
00:33:05,000 --> 00:33:07,880
Speaker 4: that all of their usual bonds don't work anymore, right,

680
00:33:08,160 --> 00:33:12,120
Speaker 4: Like the bonds that keep electrons and protons and quarts together.

681
00:33:12,440 --> 00:33:14,560
Speaker 4: All of that kind of turns into a giant soup

682
00:33:14,640 --> 00:33:15,520
Speaker 4: of stuff.

683
00:33:15,640 --> 00:33:18,040
Speaker 1: Yeah, the same forces are at play, right, you still

684
00:33:18,040 --> 00:33:20,200
Speaker 1: have the strong force and the weak force, but they're

685
00:33:20,240 --> 00:33:23,640
Speaker 1: typical patterns the way that quarks form into a proton

686
00:33:23,720 --> 00:33:26,400
Speaker 1: and make a stable little package. Those patterns are no

687
00:33:26,440 --> 00:33:29,080
Speaker 1: longer relevant because you have all these other forces on

688
00:33:29,120 --> 00:33:31,640
Speaker 1: the outside pulling them apart, and so we don't have

689
00:33:31,680 --> 00:33:34,280
Speaker 1: an understanding of what's going on inside that. That's why

690
00:33:34,360 --> 00:33:37,760
Speaker 1: Nyser has the word interior composition in it, because we

691
00:33:37,800 --> 00:33:41,080
Speaker 1: want to really understand what's going on on the inside

692
00:33:41,120 --> 00:33:44,239
Speaker 1: of the neutron star. It's a very strange environment and

693
00:33:44,280 --> 00:33:46,600
Speaker 1: not something that we typically see, and so we don't

694
00:33:46,600 --> 00:33:48,160
Speaker 1: have a lot of ways to probe it. We can't

695
00:33:48,200 --> 00:33:50,880
Speaker 1: create those conditions here on Earth.

696
00:33:50,840 --> 00:33:52,800
Speaker 4: Right, and they sort of maybe even start to get

697
00:33:52,840 --> 00:33:56,640
Speaker 4: into the up to the boundary of our knowledge about physics, right, Like,

698
00:33:57,000 --> 00:33:59,760
Speaker 4: that's when you start to question things like how much

699
00:33:59,840 --> 00:34:03,360
Speaker 4: is are things quantum and how much are they special relativity?

700
00:34:03,440 --> 00:34:05,520
Speaker 1: Yeah, describing it as on the boundary of what we

701
00:34:05,600 --> 00:34:09,080
Speaker 1: understand is probably generous to our understanding. This is well

702
00:34:09,120 --> 00:34:11,480
Speaker 1: beyond something that we can model. We're trying to use

703
00:34:11,600 --> 00:34:14,479
Speaker 1: the equations of general relativity to describe what's going on

704
00:34:14,480 --> 00:34:16,120
Speaker 1: on the inside of the star. But you're right, we

705
00:34:16,160 --> 00:34:18,600
Speaker 1: know there are probably quantum effects there, and so that's

706
00:34:18,640 --> 00:34:20,920
Speaker 1: why it's a great way to test these things to say, like,

707
00:34:21,280 --> 00:34:24,360
Speaker 1: is it possible to understand the impact of quantum gravity

708
00:34:24,440 --> 00:34:28,400
Speaker 1: and the gravitational interactions between particles. Are those necessary to

709
00:34:28,480 --> 00:34:30,880
Speaker 1: understand what's going on inside there? Or do you just

710
00:34:30,960 --> 00:34:33,920
Speaker 1: need a really really big computer. And so we're trying

711
00:34:33,960 --> 00:34:35,719
Speaker 1: all sorts of different kinds of things to like build

712
00:34:35,760 --> 00:34:37,680
Speaker 1: up models of what might be going on in the

713
00:34:37,719 --> 00:34:40,799
Speaker 1: inside of the neutron star. Unfortunately, we can't see the

714
00:34:40,840 --> 00:34:42,799
Speaker 1: inside of the neutron star. We can only see the

715
00:34:42,880 --> 00:34:45,440
Speaker 1: outside of it. But those X rays that are produced

716
00:34:45,440 --> 00:34:48,279
Speaker 1: by the outside give us clues about what might be

717
00:34:48,320 --> 00:34:50,040
Speaker 1: going on on the inside.

718
00:34:49,640 --> 00:34:51,320
Speaker 4: Right, Really, you just want to know if it's nice

719
00:34:51,440 --> 00:34:53,879
Speaker 4: on inside as well as the outside.

720
00:34:55,000 --> 00:34:57,320
Speaker 1: Is it a candy coating around like a sour center,

721
00:34:57,680 --> 00:34:59,560
Speaker 1: or is there like chocolate inside on.

722
00:34:59,560 --> 00:35:01,040
Speaker 4: The knotty the nice list.

723
00:35:01,200 --> 00:35:03,520
Speaker 1: One thing we really want to understand about the inside

724
00:35:03,520 --> 00:35:06,319
Speaker 1: of neutron stars is like what is the pressure, what

725
00:35:06,560 --> 00:35:09,360
Speaker 1: is the density? What is the speed of sound on

726
00:35:09,440 --> 00:35:11,960
Speaker 1: the inside of a neutron star? Because in very very

727
00:35:11,960 --> 00:35:14,120
Speaker 1: dense environments, the speed of sound can be up to

728
00:35:14,200 --> 00:35:17,080
Speaker 1: like the speed of light. Remember early on in our

729
00:35:17,280 --> 00:35:19,520
Speaker 1: universe when things were very, very dense, we think the

730
00:35:19,520 --> 00:35:22,439
Speaker 1: speed of sound was about half of the speed of light.

731
00:35:22,880 --> 00:35:25,439
Speaker 1: Imagine that. And so in these environments we just don't

732
00:35:25,440 --> 00:35:27,880
Speaker 1: know very basic things about that, Like how does a

733
00:35:27,920 --> 00:35:31,760
Speaker 1: neutron star ring after there's a starquake on its surface?

734
00:35:31,840 --> 00:35:34,280
Speaker 1: You know, how do those sound waves penetrate and bounce

735
00:35:34,320 --> 00:35:35,520
Speaker 1: around on the inside?

736
00:35:35,560 --> 00:35:37,960
Speaker 4: Wow? Like what happens if you like ring a neutron star?

737
00:35:38,040 --> 00:35:40,000
Speaker 1: Kind of hermin And a lot of these questions about

738
00:35:40,040 --> 00:35:44,160
Speaker 1: the pressures and the densities determine what masses and radii

739
00:35:44,400 --> 00:35:46,920
Speaker 1: are allowed for a neutron star, Like if you have

740
00:35:46,960 --> 00:35:49,440
Speaker 1: one model of the pressure and the density and how

741
00:35:49,440 --> 00:35:52,120
Speaker 1: all these things are interacting, then you have a relationship

742
00:35:52,160 --> 00:35:54,680
Speaker 1: between the mass and the radius. Imagine a graph of

743
00:35:54,719 --> 00:35:57,759
Speaker 1: like mass versus radius of neutron stars. You can't have

744
00:35:57,840 --> 00:36:00,360
Speaker 1: neutron stars just like anywhere in that graph, there's like

745
00:36:00,400 --> 00:36:03,840
Speaker 1: a line through that plane where neutron stars are allowed.

746
00:36:04,040 --> 00:36:07,440
Speaker 1: They always fall along some line. That line is determined

747
00:36:07,520 --> 00:36:10,279
Speaker 1: by the relationship between the pressure and the density and

748
00:36:10,280 --> 00:36:12,719
Speaker 1: all that stuff going on inside the neutron star. So

749
00:36:12,719 --> 00:36:15,040
Speaker 1: if we just knew, like what are the masses of

750
00:36:15,040 --> 00:36:17,839
Speaker 1: these neutron stars, what are their radii, we could know

751
00:36:17,880 --> 00:36:20,600
Speaker 1: a lot about what was going on on the inside.

752
00:36:20,160 --> 00:36:21,840
Speaker 4: Right Because I guess what you're saying is that you know,

753
00:36:21,920 --> 00:36:24,480
Speaker 4: when you look out into the night sky with just

754
00:36:24,520 --> 00:36:27,360
Speaker 4: your eyes, you see stars shining with your eyeball. But

755
00:36:27,520 --> 00:36:30,000
Speaker 4: if you had X ray glasses, you would also see

756
00:36:30,200 --> 00:36:32,759
Speaker 4: some of these sources of X rays that you know

757
00:36:32,920 --> 00:36:34,839
Speaker 4: or you think are neutron stars.

758
00:36:34,520 --> 00:36:36,719
Speaker 1: That we're pretty sure are neutron stars. Yeah, we could

759
00:36:36,719 --> 00:36:39,040
Speaker 1: see the stuff around them that suggest there used to

760
00:36:39,120 --> 00:36:41,319
Speaker 1: be a super giant star there. And then you can

761
00:36:41,360 --> 00:36:43,760
Speaker 1: look for X rays at the core, and that suggests

762
00:36:43,760 --> 00:36:45,000
Speaker 1: that a neutron star is there.

763
00:36:45,040 --> 00:36:47,200
Speaker 4: And I guess the physics that are going on inside

764
00:36:47,200 --> 00:36:50,040
Speaker 4: of them are so extreme that we don't know a

765
00:36:50,080 --> 00:36:51,600
Speaker 4: lot about them, And so that's why you want to

766
00:36:51,640 --> 00:36:53,279
Speaker 4: look at them with a telescope like this one.

767
00:36:53,360 --> 00:36:55,600
Speaker 1: Yeah, and if we could measure what are the masses

768
00:36:55,600 --> 00:36:57,440
Speaker 1: of all these neutron stars, what are the radii of

769
00:36:57,480 --> 00:36:59,920
Speaker 1: all the neutron stars, then we would have an idea

770
00:37:00,080 --> 00:37:02,160
Speaker 1: of what might be going on inside them. Because those

771
00:37:02,160 --> 00:37:04,080
Speaker 1: two are very closely connected. You want to take like

772
00:37:04,080 --> 00:37:06,960
Speaker 1: a survey, like a survey like if you're wondering how

773
00:37:07,000 --> 00:37:09,360
Speaker 1: do the bones work inside an elephant? Like how do

774
00:37:09,400 --> 00:37:11,080
Speaker 1: you even hold that thing up? If you had a

775
00:37:11,120 --> 00:37:13,359
Speaker 1: sense for like how big can elephants get, it will

776
00:37:13,400 --> 00:37:15,080
Speaker 1: give you a clues to like, well, how do that

777
00:37:15,120 --> 00:37:17,400
Speaker 1: bone system work? And so we want to know like

778
00:37:17,480 --> 00:37:20,560
Speaker 1: how big neutron stars get. What neutron masses are allowed

779
00:37:20,560 --> 00:37:22,680
Speaker 1: and not allowed? Now give us an idea of like

780
00:37:22,800 --> 00:37:25,479
Speaker 1: the composition the various layers of the neutron star.

781
00:37:25,640 --> 00:37:29,479
Speaker 4: Yeah, well, now you just rope zoology into physics as well.

782
00:37:29,600 --> 00:37:32,880
Speaker 1: They're all physicists in the end. Right, the physics of elephants.

783
00:37:33,160 --> 00:37:35,879
Speaker 1: Next they'll be building an elephant collider. That'd be fun.

784
00:37:36,040 --> 00:37:39,160
Speaker 4: Oh boy, you'll get in trouble with the animal rights activists.

785
00:37:39,200 --> 00:37:43,000
Speaker 1: I'll just call it the nicer collider and it'll be fine.

786
00:37:43,800 --> 00:37:46,520
Speaker 4: You call it the animal cruelty collider. Maybe I don't

787
00:37:46,520 --> 00:37:49,160
Speaker 4: think they'll put you in the nice list with Santa Daniel.

788
00:37:49,000 --> 00:37:52,840
Speaker 1: Non intentional collisions of elephants research. There you go, Nicer.

789
00:37:53,080 --> 00:37:55,279
Speaker 4: Well, a neutron stars are just one thing that the

790
00:37:55,360 --> 00:37:59,080
Speaker 4: nicer telescope can study. You can also study other incredible

791
00:37:59,440 --> 00:38:00,080
Speaker 4: stars out there.

792
00:38:00,160 --> 00:38:02,440
Speaker 1: In the universe. Right, that's right, And that's because neutron

793
00:38:02,520 --> 00:38:05,120
Speaker 1: stars are so weird. They have like various categories of

794
00:38:05,160 --> 00:38:08,040
Speaker 1: neutron stars that do even weirder things than just like

795
00:38:08,239 --> 00:38:11,720
Speaker 1: exist as crazy high temperature and pressure, these weird blobs

796
00:38:11,719 --> 00:38:14,840
Speaker 1: of matter. We have stars like pulsars, which are a

797
00:38:14,840 --> 00:38:17,240
Speaker 1: special kind of spinning neutron star.

798
00:38:17,360 --> 00:38:20,400
Speaker 4: M interesting like a neutron star can do, can have

799
00:38:20,560 --> 00:38:23,120
Speaker 4: different flavors to it, like they can do different things.

800
00:38:23,160 --> 00:38:25,840
Speaker 1: We talked about on the podcast once the really weirdest

801
00:38:25,960 --> 00:38:27,960
Speaker 1: stars in the universe, and some of the stars in

802
00:38:28,000 --> 00:38:32,600
Speaker 1: that category are things like magnetars and pulsars. So magnetars

803
00:38:32,680 --> 00:38:37,319
Speaker 1: are neutron stars with incredibly intense magnetic fields. You know,

804
00:38:37,520 --> 00:38:39,520
Speaker 1: we have a magnetic field on Earth because of the

805
00:38:39,560 --> 00:38:42,759
Speaker 1: swirling currents inside the Earth that we think generate that

806
00:38:42,800 --> 00:38:45,520
Speaker 1: magnetic field, and our star has a magnetic field, but

807
00:38:45,560 --> 00:38:48,799
Speaker 1: those are nothing compared to the magnetic fields generated by

808
00:38:48,800 --> 00:38:51,480
Speaker 1: these magnetars, which are really incredible.

809
00:38:52,360 --> 00:38:54,799
Speaker 4: It's because kind of like a neutron star is spinning, right,

810
00:38:54,840 --> 00:38:56,160
Speaker 4: and sort of sort of like when you have a

811
00:38:56,200 --> 00:38:59,400
Speaker 4: magnet spinning, it generates crazy magnetic fields.

812
00:38:59,560 --> 00:39:03,319
Speaker 1: Yeah, that's exactly right. And magnetars we think that the

813
00:39:03,360 --> 00:39:06,719
Speaker 1: magnetic field comes from the spinning and that it powers

814
00:39:06,760 --> 00:39:10,400
Speaker 1: this incredible electromagnetic radiation the X rays and the gamma

815
00:39:10,480 --> 00:39:14,320
Speaker 1: rays that come from this magnetic field coupled with the spinning,

816
00:39:14,760 --> 00:39:18,080
Speaker 1: and these magnetic fields are just really incredibly intense. There

817
00:39:18,080 --> 00:39:21,640
Speaker 1: can be like one hundred million times stronger than any

818
00:39:21,719 --> 00:39:25,640
Speaker 1: men made magnet like a trillion times more powerful than

819
00:39:25,680 --> 00:39:27,320
Speaker 1: our magnetic field here on Earth.

820
00:39:27,480 --> 00:39:29,719
Speaker 4: And so you're hoping that maybe with a telescope like

821
00:39:29,719 --> 00:39:32,440
Speaker 4: this you could study those magnetic fields. Would you be

822
00:39:32,440 --> 00:39:35,480
Speaker 4: able to see like images of the magnetic field or

823
00:39:35,600 --> 00:39:37,440
Speaker 4: get a sense of what they're doing.

824
00:39:37,600 --> 00:39:39,319
Speaker 1: What we want to do with Nicer is try to

825
00:39:39,400 --> 00:39:42,080
Speaker 1: understand the source of these magnetic fields and how it

826
00:39:42,120 --> 00:39:45,720
Speaker 1: affects the crust on the magnetic field. Recently, Nicser saw

827
00:39:45,760 --> 00:39:49,840
Speaker 1: a magnetar and was able to watch a starquake in action.

828
00:39:50,040 --> 00:39:52,560
Speaker 1: There are these hot spots on the surface of the

829
00:39:52,600 --> 00:39:55,720
Speaker 1: magnetar as like the bits of crust are rubbing against

830
00:39:55,760 --> 00:39:59,120
Speaker 1: each other or breaking and falling inside down into the

831
00:39:59,200 --> 00:40:02,600
Speaker 1: like crazy neutron star lava and the internal parts. Each

832
00:40:02,600 --> 00:40:06,239
Speaker 1: of those hotspots emits X rays, but this thing is spinning, right,

833
00:40:06,280 --> 00:40:09,080
Speaker 1: so sometimes those hotspots go around the back of the

834
00:40:09,120 --> 00:40:11,360
Speaker 1: star and so you can no longer see the X rays.

835
00:40:11,480 --> 00:40:14,000
Speaker 1: So the X rays are sort of periodic, and they're

836
00:40:14,040 --> 00:40:16,799
Speaker 1: periodic because the star is spinning, and so as they

837
00:40:16,800 --> 00:40:19,000
Speaker 1: come into view, you see a spike from X rays.

838
00:40:19,040 --> 00:40:22,080
Speaker 1: They watch this starquake in action. They saw this neutron

839
00:40:22,120 --> 00:40:24,800
Speaker 1: star with like three huge spikes and then two of

840
00:40:24,840 --> 00:40:27,680
Speaker 1: the spikes sort of merge together into one bigger spike.

841
00:40:28,040 --> 00:40:29,520
Speaker 1: So you could get a sense for like what was

842
00:40:29,560 --> 00:40:32,800
Speaker 1: going on on the surface of this incredible object super

843
00:40:32,840 --> 00:40:33,360
Speaker 1: far away.

844
00:40:33,680 --> 00:40:37,000
Speaker 4: Whoa well, first of all, I just like the word starquake.

845
00:40:37,480 --> 00:40:41,399
Speaker 4: Pretty good, cool idea. And second, I guess we can

846
00:40:41,400 --> 00:40:44,560
Speaker 4: get images of these stars with our telescope, Like can

847
00:40:44,600 --> 00:40:47,200
Speaker 4: we actually see these magnetic field or are we just

848
00:40:47,239 --> 00:40:50,560
Speaker 4: getting like one train of X ray photons and then

849
00:40:50,760 --> 00:40:52,400
Speaker 4: inferring kind of what's happening from that.

850
00:40:52,600 --> 00:40:55,360
Speaker 1: Yeah, we do not have great spatial resolution. Remember the

851
00:40:55,360 --> 00:40:58,840
Speaker 1: structure this telescope is not like a great optical telescope

852
00:40:58,840 --> 00:41:01,160
Speaker 1: the way Hubble is. It just got like fifty six

853
00:41:01,200 --> 00:41:04,080
Speaker 1: different channels, and so what we're getting is like is

854
00:41:04,120 --> 00:41:05,600
Speaker 1: just as you said, it's like a train of X

855
00:41:05,719 --> 00:41:08,280
Speaker 1: rays and we see the energies go up and down.

856
00:41:08,480 --> 00:41:10,279
Speaker 1: We can measure the energy of the X rays as

857
00:41:10,280 --> 00:41:12,600
Speaker 1: they come in, so at any given time slize, you

858
00:41:12,640 --> 00:41:15,440
Speaker 1: have like a spectrum in the range that nicer can see,

859
00:41:15,680 --> 00:41:18,480
Speaker 1: and you can see peaks at various wavelengths, and then

860
00:41:18,520 --> 00:41:20,880
Speaker 1: those peaks go up and down in time as the

861
00:41:20,920 --> 00:41:23,960
Speaker 1: magnetar spins. And so really we just have like a

862
00:41:24,000 --> 00:41:26,359
Speaker 1: single train of X rays from each star. We don't

863
00:41:26,360 --> 00:41:28,160
Speaker 1: have great spatial resolution, right.

864
00:41:28,200 --> 00:41:30,800
Speaker 4: I guess with fifty six tubes, it's like a seven

865
00:41:30,800 --> 00:41:33,600
Speaker 4: by eight pixel image kind of Yeah, it's eight bit

866
00:41:34,080 --> 00:41:34,680
Speaker 4: it's retro.

867
00:41:35,239 --> 00:41:37,760
Speaker 1: Yeah, they usually use a game Boy to visualize these.

868
00:41:38,680 --> 00:41:42,800
Speaker 4: You could, right, we'll be cutting it in the eighties.

869
00:41:43,080 --> 00:41:45,440
Speaker 1: Yeah, so there's a little bit of imagination required. We

870
00:41:45,440 --> 00:41:47,680
Speaker 1: can't see these surfaces, but we can tell that there

871
00:41:47,680 --> 00:41:50,200
Speaker 1: are hotspots there, and so we can infer like the

872
00:41:50,200 --> 00:41:52,839
Speaker 1: physics of what might be going on in this star wreak.

873
00:41:52,880 --> 00:41:55,279
Speaker 4: All right, Well, Nicer is also studying other kinds of

874
00:41:55,320 --> 00:41:58,719
Speaker 4: neutron stars and other kinds of stars and incredible things

875
00:41:58,719 --> 00:42:01,399
Speaker 4: happening out there in space. So let's get into them.

876
00:42:01,640 --> 00:42:03,560
Speaker 4: But first, let's take another quick break.

877
00:42:07,760 --> 00:42:09,560
Speaker 1: When you pop a piece of cheese into your mouth

878
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Speaker 4: All right, we're talking about Nicer the telescope. It's I

924
00:44:32,960 --> 00:44:35,200
Speaker 4: think it's the nicest telescope out there. Is there any

925
00:44:35,239 --> 00:44:36,600
Speaker 4: reason not to call it the nicest?

926
00:44:36,719 --> 00:44:39,320
Speaker 1: Well, the folks I know that work on the nicer telescope,

927
00:44:39,440 --> 00:44:40,759
Speaker 1: there's some of the nicer people, like.

928
00:44:41,600 --> 00:44:43,440
Speaker 4: Some of the nicer, but the not the nicest.

929
00:44:44,920 --> 00:44:47,280
Speaker 1: I mean that's for the next project, right, We'll remove

930
00:44:47,320 --> 00:44:48,960
Speaker 1: some of the meaner people in the collaboration and then

931
00:44:48,960 --> 00:44:50,960
Speaker 1: we'll upgrade to the nicest collaboration.

932
00:44:51,320 --> 00:44:57,080
Speaker 4: You'll purify the nicest, we'll purge. Oh my goodness, boy,

933
00:44:57,239 --> 00:44:58,759
Speaker 4: you're not getting on the nice list.

934
00:45:00,120 --> 00:45:03,520
Speaker 1: No, it's a wonderful community people who work on X rays,

935
00:45:03,640 --> 00:45:05,000
Speaker 1: and they've been very nice to me.

936
00:45:05,400 --> 00:45:08,520
Speaker 4: Well, we talked about how this telescope is gonna study

937
00:45:08,600 --> 00:45:12,200
Speaker 4: neutron stars and magnetars, but it's also going to study pulsars,

938
00:45:12,239 --> 00:45:13,280
Speaker 4: which are pretty amazing.

939
00:45:13,600 --> 00:45:17,400
Speaker 1: Yeah. Pulsars are another variety of neutron stars. They're ones

940
00:45:17,560 --> 00:45:21,480
Speaker 1: with this magnetic field accelerates charged particles and basically creates

941
00:45:21,480 --> 00:45:23,960
Speaker 1: a beam that goes up the top and the bottom

942
00:45:24,280 --> 00:45:27,239
Speaker 1: of this star. So imagine like a huge just like

943
00:45:27,400 --> 00:45:29,799
Speaker 1: flashlight being shown out from the top of the star

944
00:45:29,920 --> 00:45:32,360
Speaker 1: and the bottom of the star out into the universe.

945
00:45:32,760 --> 00:45:34,759
Speaker 1: It comes because this thing is spinning and it's got

946
00:45:34,760 --> 00:45:37,759
Speaker 1: this magnetic field, and particles that are released from the

947
00:45:37,800 --> 00:45:40,839
Speaker 1: surface get like swept up in this magnetic field and

948
00:45:40,920 --> 00:45:44,080
Speaker 1: shot out, sort of like the inverse of the Northern lights.

949
00:45:44,320 --> 00:45:46,680
Speaker 1: You know how particles from the Sun come to the

950
00:45:46,719 --> 00:45:48,839
Speaker 1: Earth and get funneled up to the north and the

951
00:45:48,840 --> 00:45:52,680
Speaker 1: south poles by our magnetic field we were emitting radiation

952
00:45:52,760 --> 00:45:54,799
Speaker 1: from the surface, it would also get funneled up to

953
00:45:54,840 --> 00:45:57,520
Speaker 1: the north and South poles and shot out in terms

954
00:45:57,520 --> 00:45:58,280
Speaker 1: of two beams.

955
00:45:58,480 --> 00:46:00,960
Speaker 4: Yeah, it sort of looks like like a lighthouse, right,

956
00:46:01,040 --> 00:46:04,319
Speaker 4: Like when you think of a traditional lighthouse that it's

957
00:46:04,360 --> 00:46:06,239
Speaker 4: like a you know, something at the top of a

958
00:46:06,320 --> 00:46:10,160
Speaker 4: tower that shines basically two spots lights in opposite directions.

959
00:46:10,160 --> 00:46:11,400
Speaker 4: That's kind of what a pulsar is.

960
00:46:12,400 --> 00:46:16,160
Speaker 1: And if those spotlights don't actually align with the spinning

961
00:46:16,200 --> 00:46:19,280
Speaker 1: of the star itself, right, there's slightly out of alignment,

962
00:46:19,680 --> 00:46:23,759
Speaker 1: then where the spotlight points changes as the star spins. Right,

963
00:46:23,760 --> 00:46:26,960
Speaker 1: if you've shown a flashlight straight up, I mean you spun,

964
00:46:27,200 --> 00:46:29,680
Speaker 1: you wouldn't change what you're shining your flashlight at. But

965
00:46:29,719 --> 00:46:32,840
Speaker 1: if your flashlight is pointed a little bit down or sideways,

966
00:46:32,880 --> 00:46:34,799
Speaker 1: then as you spin, you're going to be hitting a

967
00:46:34,800 --> 00:46:38,120
Speaker 1: different spot in the sky. That's why a pulsar pulses,

968
00:46:38,480 --> 00:46:42,120
Speaker 1: because it's sweeping across the universe, and only when its

969
00:46:42,200 --> 00:46:44,880
Speaker 1: beam hits the Earth do we see it. So when

970
00:46:44,880 --> 00:46:46,960
Speaker 1: we look up at the sky, we see these pulsars

971
00:46:47,000 --> 00:46:50,279
Speaker 1: blinking very regularly as they whip around, and that beam

972
00:46:50,320 --> 00:46:51,520
Speaker 1: passes the Earth.

973
00:46:51,320 --> 00:46:53,879
Speaker 4: Right kind of like a lighthouse. Right Like, if you're

974
00:46:53,880 --> 00:46:55,800
Speaker 4: far away from a lighthouse, it looks like it's blinking,

975
00:46:56,000 --> 00:46:57,600
Speaker 4: but once you get up close you can see that's

976
00:46:57,600 --> 00:47:00,800
Speaker 4: actually like a flashlight that's spinning route.

977
00:47:00,880 --> 00:47:03,600
Speaker 1: Yeah, and these are some of the most powerful accelerators

978
00:47:03,640 --> 00:47:06,359
Speaker 1: in the universe. The particles that come from these things

979
00:47:06,400 --> 00:47:09,600
Speaker 1: are just really crazy high energies. It's amazing.

980
00:47:09,719 --> 00:47:11,200
Speaker 4: So what do we know about how they work.

981
00:47:11,280 --> 00:47:12,719
Speaker 1: We don't know a lot about them because we don't

982
00:47:12,719 --> 00:47:14,560
Speaker 1: know a lot about neutron stars and these are like

983
00:47:14,840 --> 00:47:18,680
Speaker 1: weird intense neutron stars that we understand even less. But

984
00:47:18,719 --> 00:47:21,200
Speaker 1: we can try to use nicers to study them. Because

985
00:47:21,480 --> 00:47:24,040
Speaker 1: sometimes these beam of particles doesn't make it all the

986
00:47:24,040 --> 00:47:26,319
Speaker 1: way to Earth. Sometimes it gets bent by like a

987
00:47:26,320 --> 00:47:29,120
Speaker 1: wiggle in the magnetic field and comes back to the

988
00:47:29,160 --> 00:47:32,520
Speaker 1: star itself and can create hotspots. So it like sort

989
00:47:32,520 --> 00:47:35,040
Speaker 1: of shoots the beam and it gets bent back around

990
00:47:35,120 --> 00:47:36,440
Speaker 1: and like zaps itself.

991
00:47:36,680 --> 00:47:38,759
Speaker 4: Wait, what what do you mean, Like it bends the

992
00:47:38,840 --> 00:47:41,319
Speaker 4: light or it bends like a stream of particles.

993
00:47:41,440 --> 00:47:43,840
Speaker 1: It bends like this stream of particles, I mean, pulsars

994
00:47:43,840 --> 00:47:47,279
Speaker 1: emit in lots of different frequencies, can also shoot electrons

995
00:47:47,280 --> 00:47:49,399
Speaker 1: and all sorts of other particles and lots of things

996
00:47:49,440 --> 00:47:51,200
Speaker 1: are swept up in these magnetic fields.

997
00:47:51,800 --> 00:47:54,719
Speaker 4: But ultimately it creates like when it looked you're saying,

998
00:47:54,719 --> 00:47:58,120
Speaker 4: like this beam of particles shoots up, comes around, hits

999
00:47:58,239 --> 00:48:00,839
Speaker 4: the star again, and then admits a bunch of X rays.

1000
00:48:00,880 --> 00:48:02,799
Speaker 1: Yeah, that's what we can see. We see those X

1001
00:48:02,880 --> 00:48:06,040
Speaker 1: rays from hot spots on the surface of these pulsars

1002
00:48:06,280 --> 00:48:09,240
Speaker 1: that are created by this beam like bending back around

1003
00:48:09,280 --> 00:48:12,680
Speaker 1: and hitting the surface, creating those hot spots. And so

1004
00:48:12,719 --> 00:48:14,719
Speaker 1: we can try to map those hot spots and try

1005
00:48:14,760 --> 00:48:17,320
Speaker 1: to understand what's going on on this crazy pulsar.

1006
00:48:17,480 --> 00:48:19,200
Speaker 4: Right, Well, I guess what's interesting is that, I mean,

1007
00:48:19,360 --> 00:48:21,080
Speaker 4: this is what you think is going on, right, Like,

1008
00:48:21,120 --> 00:48:23,279
Speaker 4: we never we don't actually have a picture of one

1009
00:48:23,320 --> 00:48:26,240
Speaker 4: of these pulsars of close to see these this bending

1010
00:48:26,719 --> 00:48:28,719
Speaker 4: and stuff. There's all just kind of a little bit

1011
00:48:28,760 --> 00:48:30,839
Speaker 4: from our models of what we think is going on.

1012
00:48:31,000 --> 00:48:33,160
Speaker 1: There's a lot of inferring from models. Yeah, we have

1013
00:48:33,200 --> 00:48:35,600
Speaker 1: a computer model for what we think is going on

1014
00:48:35,960 --> 00:48:38,239
Speaker 1: and that predicts a certain distribution of X rays. And

1015
00:48:38,239 --> 00:48:39,879
Speaker 1: then we go up there and we say, what this

1016
00:48:39,880 --> 00:48:42,840
Speaker 1: thing is emitting something very different from any of our models.

1017
00:48:43,120 --> 00:48:45,560
Speaker 1: Can we come up with a model that explains it,

1018
00:48:45,600 --> 00:48:47,520
Speaker 1: and then can we try to apply that model to

1019
00:48:47,719 --> 00:48:50,239
Speaker 1: other neutron stars and how well does it work? So

1020
00:48:50,400 --> 00:48:52,160
Speaker 1: you know, we're really at the very beginning of an

1021
00:48:52,160 --> 00:48:55,319
Speaker 1: era of neutron star astronomy, trying to understand what's going

1022
00:48:55,320 --> 00:48:58,040
Speaker 1: on inside these things. Like the fact that these pulsars

1023
00:48:58,120 --> 00:49:00,480
Speaker 1: sometimes shoot up particles that make it to Earth and

1024
00:49:00,520 --> 00:49:03,480
Speaker 1: sometimes they bend back around to hit the pulsar itself

1025
00:49:03,719 --> 00:49:06,320
Speaker 1: means that the magnetic field is probably much more complicated

1026
00:49:06,400 --> 00:49:09,719
Speaker 1: than just like having two poles. It's like knotted, entangled

1027
00:49:09,880 --> 00:49:12,200
Speaker 1: in some weird way, sort of like the way that

1028
00:49:12,280 --> 00:49:15,760
Speaker 1: the surface of our Sun emits these coronal mass ejections,

1029
00:49:15,800 --> 00:49:18,359
Speaker 1: which then sometimes bend back around and hit the Sun.

1030
00:49:18,400 --> 00:49:20,760
Speaker 1: You get these loops of plasma.

1031
00:49:20,200 --> 00:49:22,080
Speaker 4: Right right, But those we can see kind of with

1032
00:49:22,120 --> 00:49:25,480
Speaker 4: the naked eye or telescopes. But for the neutron stars,

1033
00:49:25,480 --> 00:49:27,759
Speaker 4: we're just kind of imagining it for now until we

1034
00:49:27,800 --> 00:49:31,279
Speaker 4: get the nicest telescope.

1035
00:49:31,160 --> 00:49:33,439
Speaker 1: Until we send a fleet of cartoonists over there to

1036
00:49:33,600 --> 00:49:36,120
Speaker 1: draw what's going on on the surface of these stars.

1037
00:49:36,200 --> 00:49:39,760
Speaker 4: That's a lot cheaper than a couple of billion dollar telescope.

1038
00:49:40,480 --> 00:49:43,160
Speaker 1: But Nicer would actually help you on a mission into

1039
00:49:43,200 --> 00:49:47,440
Speaker 1: deep space because Nicer can see X rays from these pulsars.

1040
00:49:47,640 --> 00:49:51,080
Speaker 1: And remember once we talked about how to navigate deep space,

1041
00:49:51,560 --> 00:49:55,040
Speaker 1: and as you move away from like NASA's Deep Space network,

1042
00:49:55,280 --> 00:49:57,080
Speaker 1: you have to figure out another way to figure out

1043
00:49:57,160 --> 00:49:59,279
Speaker 1: like which star you're near and where you are in

1044
00:49:59,320 --> 00:50:02,759
Speaker 1: the galaxy. And because pulsars are so regular and each

1045
00:50:02,760 --> 00:50:05,640
Speaker 1: one has its own like fingerprint, that by measuring the

1046
00:50:05,680 --> 00:50:08,960
Speaker 1: pulses from pulsars, you can use X rays as a

1047
00:50:09,320 --> 00:50:12,400
Speaker 1: way to infer where you are in the galaxy. And

1048
00:50:12,520 --> 00:50:14,880
Speaker 1: Nicer can actually do that. They have a system on

1049
00:50:14,920 --> 00:50:18,359
Speaker 1: it called Sextant, which is another crazy acronym, which can

1050
00:50:18,400 --> 00:50:20,920
Speaker 1: do this sort of X ray navigation. They like actually

1051
00:50:20,960 --> 00:50:23,840
Speaker 1: tried it. They can use pulsars to figure out where

1052
00:50:23,840 --> 00:50:25,080
Speaker 1: we are in the galaxy.

1053
00:50:25,400 --> 00:50:27,360
Speaker 4: Well, it's like you're using the blinking lights of the

1054
00:50:27,480 --> 00:50:29,360
Speaker 4: universe to guide you through space.

1055
00:50:29,520 --> 00:50:33,120
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. Astrophysical lighthouse is for real. It's not just

1056
00:50:33,160 --> 00:50:33,760
Speaker 1: a metaphor.

1057
00:50:33,920 --> 00:50:36,400
Speaker 4: I'll make sure to bring one on my next space

1058
00:50:36,440 --> 00:50:39,440
Speaker 4: void it. But it's interesting you're saying almost like so

1059
00:50:39,520 --> 00:50:42,480
Speaker 4: in field, right, or like you know, you're an astronom

1060
00:50:42,480 --> 00:50:44,160
Speaker 4: where you're studying neutron stars.

1061
00:50:44,320 --> 00:50:46,720
Speaker 1: I'm not saying they're ready to have their own department yet,

1062
00:50:47,040 --> 00:50:50,239
Speaker 1: but absolutely there's a whole field of neutron star astronomy

1063
00:50:50,280 --> 00:50:53,239
Speaker 1: people who just study neutron stars all the way from

1064
00:50:53,239 --> 00:50:56,200
Speaker 1: people writing computer codes to model what's going on inside them,

1065
00:50:56,400 --> 00:50:59,040
Speaker 1: to people designing telescopes to look at them, to people

1066
00:50:59,080 --> 00:51:02,839
Speaker 1: analyzing the data, people writing machine learning codes to try

1067
00:51:02,880 --> 00:51:05,400
Speaker 1: to understand what we can learn about the inside of

1068
00:51:05,440 --> 00:51:08,279
Speaker 1: neutron stars based on the patterns of X rays. It's

1069
00:51:08,320 --> 00:51:09,040
Speaker 1: a huge field.

1070
00:51:09,160 --> 00:51:11,520
Speaker 4: And I guess astromin stars. So would they technically be

1071
00:51:11,600 --> 00:51:16,320
Speaker 4: called neutron astronomers or astronomers.

1072
00:51:15,840 --> 00:51:22,200
Speaker 1: New astronomers or astronomers? Nice astronomers?

1073
00:51:22,239 --> 00:51:27,239
Speaker 4: Maybe nice? There you go, nice, they're the nicest. Well,

1074
00:51:27,280 --> 00:51:30,640
Speaker 4: but also, this telescope doesn't just study neutron stars. It

1075
00:51:30,640 --> 00:51:33,160
Speaker 4: could also study the kind of the opposite of a star,

1076
00:51:33,280 --> 00:51:34,160
Speaker 4: which is a black hole.

1077
00:51:34,320 --> 00:51:37,560
Speaker 1: Remember that functionally it's an X ray telescope. We built

1078
00:51:37,600 --> 00:51:39,920
Speaker 1: it to see X rays that come from neutron stars

1079
00:51:39,920 --> 00:51:42,160
Speaker 1: in this particular region, but it's not limited to just

1080
00:51:42,200 --> 00:51:45,279
Speaker 1: studying neutron stars. It can also see anything else in

1081
00:51:45,320 --> 00:51:48,800
Speaker 1: the universe that generates X rays in this frequency range.

1082
00:51:49,200 --> 00:51:52,040
Speaker 1: And one of those things are black holes. Remember that

1083
00:51:52,080 --> 00:51:54,640
Speaker 1: black holes. While they're black and there are these incredible

1084
00:51:54,680 --> 00:51:58,920
Speaker 1: pinpoints of space where light cannot escape. The region around

1085
00:51:58,960 --> 00:52:01,799
Speaker 1: the black hole is if very intense environment with a

1086
00:52:01,840 --> 00:52:05,480
Speaker 1: huge amount of gravity and very high temperatures, and before

1087
00:52:05,600 --> 00:52:08,840
Speaker 1: things fall into the event horizon, they get super duper

1088
00:52:08,960 --> 00:52:12,720
Speaker 1: hot and can emit crazy amounts of light, including X rays.

1089
00:52:12,880 --> 00:52:14,279
Speaker 4: Yeah. That's kind of the only thing we can see

1090
00:52:14,320 --> 00:52:16,560
Speaker 4: about black holes, right, is this stuff falling into it.

1091
00:52:16,760 --> 00:52:19,279
Speaker 1: Yeah, and that stuff, these pockets of gas and dust

1092
00:52:19,320 --> 00:52:21,799
Speaker 1: that are swirling around before they fall in, they can

1093
00:52:21,840 --> 00:52:25,680
Speaker 1: get crazy hot. We're talking about like a billion celsius.

1094
00:52:25,719 --> 00:52:29,440
Speaker 1: It's like one point eight billion degrees fahrenheit. It's just

1095
00:52:29,480 --> 00:52:32,680
Speaker 1: really incredible the velocity of these particles. So when they're

1096
00:52:32,719 --> 00:52:35,080
Speaker 1: at these temperatures, they tend to emit in the very

1097
00:52:35,160 --> 00:52:38,760
Speaker 1: high frequency range, meaning X rays, And we're very curious

1098
00:52:38,800 --> 00:52:41,400
Speaker 1: about the nature of these particles, what's going on just

1099
00:52:41,440 --> 00:52:44,200
Speaker 1: before they fall into the black holes? Because remember, not

1100
00:52:44,360 --> 00:52:47,000
Speaker 1: all the particles in the accretion disk actually make it

1101
00:52:47,040 --> 00:52:50,200
Speaker 1: into the black holes. Black Holes sometimes have very powerful

1102
00:52:50,239 --> 00:52:53,600
Speaker 1: magnetic fields, just like magnetars. Sometimes these particles don't end

1103
00:52:53,680 --> 00:52:56,080
Speaker 1: up in the black hole. They get swept up by

1104
00:52:56,160 --> 00:52:59,040
Speaker 1: the magnetic field and shot out the top or the bottom,

1105
00:52:59,239 --> 00:53:02,640
Speaker 1: creating these huge, huge astrophysical jets, things that are much

1106
00:53:02,719 --> 00:53:04,840
Speaker 1: much bigger than the black hole itself.

1107
00:53:06,000 --> 00:53:08,799
Speaker 4: And you need something like nice sir to study the

1108
00:53:08,920 --> 00:53:11,360
Speaker 4: X rays because there could be things happening around a

1109
00:53:11,360 --> 00:53:13,440
Speaker 4: black hole that you can see with the sort of

1110
00:53:13,520 --> 00:53:15,560
Speaker 4: visible light right with the naked eye.

1111
00:53:15,640 --> 00:53:17,560
Speaker 1: Yeah, because these things are so hot they don't really

1112
00:53:17,560 --> 00:53:19,680
Speaker 1: emit in the visible light. The X ray is the

1113
00:53:19,760 --> 00:53:23,000
Speaker 1: right spectrum to see them in because of their incredible temperature.

1114
00:53:23,560 --> 00:53:26,040
Speaker 1: So this lets us do things like look right at

1115
00:53:26,080 --> 00:53:29,040
Speaker 1: the edge of a black hole's event horizon and image

1116
00:53:29,040 --> 00:53:31,400
Speaker 1: the particles that are just about to fall in or

1117
00:53:31,760 --> 00:53:33,799
Speaker 1: just about to get shot out the top or the

1118
00:53:33,840 --> 00:53:37,000
Speaker 1: bottom into those jets. So they've done this recently. They've

1119
00:53:37,000 --> 00:53:40,640
Speaker 1: looked at like the black hole corona, this environment just

1120
00:53:40,840 --> 00:53:43,720
Speaker 1: past the edge of the event horizon where the particles

1121
00:53:43,760 --> 00:53:46,120
Speaker 1: are about to fall in or about to get shot

1122
00:53:46,160 --> 00:53:48,640
Speaker 1: out into the jets. And they've done this before for

1123
00:53:48,760 --> 00:53:51,920
Speaker 1: like super massive black holes at the hearts of galaxies,

1124
00:53:51,960 --> 00:53:54,239
Speaker 1: but they had never done one for a stellar mass

1125
00:53:54,320 --> 00:53:56,800
Speaker 1: black hole, like a black hole that's just the collapse

1126
00:53:56,840 --> 00:53:57,680
Speaker 1: of a normal star.

1127
00:53:58,080 --> 00:54:00,719
Speaker 4: Interesting, but I guess, don't things near the surface of

1128
00:54:00,760 --> 00:54:02,920
Speaker 4: a black hole kind of get stretched out, right, Like,

1129
00:54:03,000 --> 00:54:05,759
Speaker 4: don't things kind of get red shifted? And wouldn't that

1130
00:54:05,880 --> 00:54:08,320
Speaker 4: make it hard to see with an X ray telescope?

1131
00:54:08,480 --> 00:54:10,920
Speaker 1: Good point, In the vicinity of a black hole, there

1132
00:54:11,040 --> 00:54:14,400
Speaker 1: is gravitational red shifting, so things do get moved down

1133
00:54:14,480 --> 00:54:17,440
Speaker 1: to lower and lower frequencies. So that means that if

1134
00:54:17,440 --> 00:54:20,400
Speaker 1: these things are still X rays after they got red shifted,

1135
00:54:20,440 --> 00:54:23,640
Speaker 1: they must have been ridiculously high frequency. But that's also

1136
00:54:23,680 --> 00:54:26,640
Speaker 1: why we have a big spectrum of observing devices like

1137
00:54:26,640 --> 00:54:29,319
Speaker 1: the James Webb telescope that just went up. It's going

1138
00:54:29,360 --> 00:54:32,239
Speaker 1: to be looking in the infrared to look specifically at

1139
00:54:32,280 --> 00:54:35,720
Speaker 1: things that have been massively red shifted because they're old,

1140
00:54:36,160 --> 00:54:38,920
Speaker 1: or because they're moving really really fast, or because they

1141
00:54:38,960 --> 00:54:41,759
Speaker 1: went through some gravitational redshift, like the vicinity of a

1142
00:54:41,760 --> 00:54:42,279
Speaker 1: black hole.

1143
00:54:42,480 --> 00:54:45,239
Speaker 4: Right, It's almost like you need like several different glasses

1144
00:54:45,280 --> 00:54:48,520
Speaker 4: to study what's happening in these extreme environments, right, Like

1145
00:54:48,560 --> 00:54:51,680
Speaker 4: you need a regular magnifying glass, you need an X

1146
00:54:51,800 --> 00:54:54,120
Speaker 4: ray glass, you need an infrared pair of glasses.

1147
00:54:54,320 --> 00:54:56,759
Speaker 1: Yeah, just the same way we use various senses to

1148
00:54:56,800 --> 00:54:58,880
Speaker 1: understand the nature of the world around you. If you

1149
00:54:59,040 --> 00:55:01,560
Speaker 1: only had vision, or if you only had hearing, you

1150
00:55:01,640 --> 00:55:04,120
Speaker 1: might have a very different sense of the world that

1151
00:55:04,160 --> 00:55:06,959
Speaker 1: you are embedded in. And so we want as many

1152
00:55:06,960 --> 00:55:09,879
Speaker 1: different senses as possible to understand the universe and all

1153
00:55:09,920 --> 00:55:11,520
Speaker 1: of its different colors and sounds.

1154
00:55:11,680 --> 00:55:11,799
Speaker 8: Right.

1155
00:55:11,880 --> 00:55:13,719
Speaker 4: It's sort of like three D glasses, right, Like you

1156
00:55:13,760 --> 00:55:16,319
Speaker 4: want one eyeball to see one thing, you want the

1157
00:55:16,360 --> 00:55:18,439
Speaker 4: other eyeball to see something else, and then that gives

1158
00:55:18,480 --> 00:55:20,480
Speaker 4: you a more complete picture of what's going on.

1159
00:55:20,719 --> 00:55:22,680
Speaker 1: Because we're trapped here on Earth, we can't go and

1160
00:55:23,000 --> 00:55:25,920
Speaker 1: visit those stars very effectively, and so we want to

1161
00:55:25,920 --> 00:55:28,880
Speaker 1: take advantage of as much information as we can that

1162
00:55:29,000 --> 00:55:30,799
Speaker 1: makes its way here to Earth. And it would be

1163
00:55:30,840 --> 00:55:34,000
Speaker 1: crazy to ignore a whole channel of information in the

1164
00:55:34,160 --> 00:55:36,880
Speaker 1: X ray that's telling us so many things about a

1165
00:55:36,920 --> 00:55:38,320
Speaker 1: hidden part of the universe.

1166
00:55:38,560 --> 00:55:41,759
Speaker 4: Yeah, And I guess it's thanks to telescopes like these

1167
00:55:41,840 --> 00:55:44,080
Speaker 4: that we can that we even know there's stuff going

1168
00:55:44,080 --> 00:55:46,480
Speaker 4: on in those other frequencies.

1169
00:55:46,640 --> 00:55:49,000
Speaker 1: Yeah, And we have a whole generation of new devices

1170
00:55:49,040 --> 00:55:51,840
Speaker 1: going up along a broad set of these wavelengths, and

1171
00:55:51,920 --> 00:55:53,800
Speaker 1: each one is going to tell us a different story

1172
00:55:53,840 --> 00:55:56,000
Speaker 1: about what's going on out there, and then we try

1173
00:55:56,040 --> 00:55:59,160
Speaker 1: to piece that together into a whole model of the universe.

1174
00:55:59,200 --> 00:56:01,000
Speaker 1: And that's in the end where what physics is right.

1175
00:56:01,040 --> 00:56:03,320
Speaker 1: We take what we see out there in the universe

1176
00:56:03,360 --> 00:56:06,320
Speaker 1: and try to stitch it together into one grand story

1177
00:56:06,360 --> 00:56:10,120
Speaker 1: that explains everything that describes the heart of neutron stars

1178
00:56:10,360 --> 00:56:13,480
Speaker 1: and the flapping of butterfly wings and the collisions of elephants.

1179
00:56:15,200 --> 00:56:18,520
Speaker 4: You just lost me there. You had me at the

1180
00:56:18,520 --> 00:56:20,279
Speaker 4: collision of stars with the butterflies.

1181
00:56:21,520 --> 00:56:24,160
Speaker 1: Yeah, you know, the vortices created by butterfly wings are

1182
00:56:24,200 --> 00:56:26,480
Speaker 1: not something we understand very well. The whole group of

1183
00:56:26,480 --> 00:56:29,920
Speaker 1: people studying like how do insects fly? It's really pretty

1184
00:56:29,920 --> 00:56:31,080
Speaker 1: complicated fluid.

1185
00:56:30,840 --> 00:56:33,319
Speaker 4: Dynamics, I see, and you need X rays for that.

1186
00:56:33,480 --> 00:56:34,920
Speaker 1: You don't need X rays for that. But it's just

1187
00:56:34,920 --> 00:56:37,080
Speaker 1: an example of the kind of picture we're trying to

1188
00:56:37,080 --> 00:56:39,640
Speaker 1: build up about the universe. Physics is not just about

1189
00:56:39,640 --> 00:56:42,799
Speaker 1: neutron stars. It's about understanding how the universe works and

1190
00:56:42,840 --> 00:56:46,960
Speaker 1: stitching together everything we see into one holistic picture of

1191
00:56:47,040 --> 00:56:48,680
Speaker 1: the fundamental nature of the universe.

1192
00:56:49,120 --> 00:56:51,359
Speaker 4: Oh, I see, got it. You're trying to co opt

1193
00:56:51,360 --> 00:56:52,040
Speaker 4: the other device.

1194
00:56:52,360 --> 00:56:54,200
Speaker 1: It's all physics, and.

1195
00:56:53,719 --> 00:56:58,000
Speaker 4: That's where I'm going. You want all the funding until

1196
00:56:58,040 --> 00:56:59,839
Speaker 4: you get sucked up by the math department, and then

1197
00:57:00,040 --> 00:57:00,440
Speaker 4: in trouble.

1198
00:57:00,440 --> 00:57:02,880
Speaker 1: They're not even relevant to reality. Man, they exist in

1199
00:57:02,920 --> 00:57:04,319
Speaker 1: the realms of what might be.

1200
00:57:06,280 --> 00:57:09,200
Speaker 4: They're not so nice. They're not as nice as my astronomers.

1201
00:57:09,280 --> 00:57:11,080
Speaker 1: I don't know if math has good acronyms or not.

1202
00:57:11,160 --> 00:57:12,040
Speaker 1: I haven't dug into that.

1203
00:57:12,719 --> 00:57:15,480
Speaker 4: I think, well, the only deal with the letters, So

1204
00:57:15,719 --> 00:57:17,760
Speaker 4: I guess any equation can be an acronym.

1205
00:57:17,800 --> 00:57:19,880
Speaker 1: Yeah, maybe their acronyms are like all Greek and Hebrew

1206
00:57:19,920 --> 00:57:21,320
Speaker 1: letters mathchronyms.

1207
00:57:21,440 --> 00:57:26,000
Speaker 4: Yeah, they don't even care about words. All right. Well, again,

1208
00:57:26,080 --> 00:57:28,120
Speaker 4: it's all pretty cool to think about all the things

1209
00:57:28,120 --> 00:57:31,600
Speaker 4: that humans are doing to look at the universe around us.

1210
00:57:31,640 --> 00:57:34,240
Speaker 4: You know, it's sort of screaming at us, shining us,

1211
00:57:34,640 --> 00:57:37,600
Speaker 4: rating upon us with information about what's going on and

1212
00:57:37,600 --> 00:57:41,120
Speaker 4: how it works at the molecular at the quantum level,

1213
00:57:41,360 --> 00:57:44,280
Speaker 4: and all we need are like the right pair of glasses,

1214
00:57:44,400 --> 00:57:47,760
Speaker 4: the right tools to kind of see and get this information.

1215
00:57:47,840 --> 00:57:50,520
Speaker 1: And we need folks who are so passionate, it's so interested,

1216
00:57:50,520 --> 00:57:53,360
Speaker 1: it's so curious about one question about the universe that

1217
00:57:53,400 --> 00:57:56,560
Speaker 1: they spend their career designing things like crazy X ray

1218
00:57:56,600 --> 00:58:00,040
Speaker 1: telescopes that can help us understand the nature of the

1219
00:58:00,040 --> 00:58:01,440
Speaker 1: heart of neutron stars.

1220
00:58:01,520 --> 00:58:03,520
Speaker 4: And they also need help with their acronyms. So if

1221
00:58:03,560 --> 00:58:06,640
Speaker 4: you're good at that, also join the team. Just make

1222
00:58:06,640 --> 00:58:10,680
Speaker 4: sure you're nice about it, all right, Well, we hope

1223
00:58:10,720 --> 00:58:13,280
Speaker 4: you enjoyed that. Thanks for joining us, See you next time.

1224
00:58:21,120 --> 00:58:23,920
Speaker 1: Thanks for listening, and remember that Daniel and Jorge Explain

1225
00:58:24,000 --> 00:58:28,000
Speaker 1: the Universe is a production of iHeartRadio. For more podcasts

1226
00:58:28,000 --> 00:58:32,640
Speaker 1: from iHeartRadio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever

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Speaker 4: Slash together