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Speaker 1: Hey, Daniel, you used to live in Chicago, right, Yeah,

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Speaker 1: I did when I was working at the accelerator at Fermulab.

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Speaker 1: Does that mean you're like Chicago style pizza? Oh my god,

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Speaker 1: that is not pizza. That's like a castle roll, that's

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Speaker 1: like a mara neara swimming pool. I mean it's delicious,

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Speaker 1: of course, but it's not actually pizza is our tough

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Speaker 1: words for a Chicago style pizza. Does that mean you

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Speaker 1: prefer it in pizza like New York style pizza? Oh? Yeah, absolutely,

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Speaker 1: like the thinner the better, really like health it. I

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Speaker 1: don't know if it was possible. I guess I need

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Speaker 1: a two dimensional slice of pizza. Well that's convenient. Then

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Speaker 1: you can eat all the pizza you like and in

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Speaker 1: the end you have eaten nothing. What about the toppings?

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Speaker 1: Do you like to the toppings too? Maybe that's why

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Speaker 1: people in New York or so thin. They have no death,

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Speaker 1: they're so shallow. Hi am or handmade cartoonist and the

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Speaker 1: creator of PhD comics. Hi. I'm Daniel. I'm a particle physicist,

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Speaker 1: and I really do have strong opinions about pizza. Really yes,

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Speaker 1: strong penis about particles, about physics and about pizza and

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Speaker 1: dessert and big goods. You have a lot of strong opinions, Daniel,

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Speaker 1: I am particular about pizza, and yes, big goods the

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Speaker 1: things I enjoy. I know what I like, and I

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Speaker 1: do love thin New York or Italian style pizza, but

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Speaker 1: also a nice big slab of Chicago style whatever you

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Speaker 1: call it is also delicious whatever. And you don't even

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Speaker 1: want to call it a pizza. I don't know. It's

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Speaker 1: just a totally different kind of food. I mean, the

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Speaker 1: only thing they have in common are carbs, cheese, and

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Speaker 1: tomato sauce. Yeah, that's a pizza. Does that mean that

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Speaker 1: you know? Pasta with tomato sauce and parmesan on top

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Speaker 1: is also a pizza and a calzone is just a

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Speaker 1: close pizza. That's a pizza taca. But welcome to our podcast.

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Speaker 1: Daniel and Joorhead apparently talk about pizza and explain the

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Speaker 1: universe in production of I Heart Radio, a podcast which

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Speaker 1: we record just before lunch if you can't tell, and

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Speaker 1: we usually talk about all the crazy things out there

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Speaker 1: in the universe, the amazing ways that matter conform, the

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Speaker 1: weird things that they can do, from really really big

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Speaker 1: stuff like entire galaxies and clusters of galaxies down to

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Speaker 1: really strange little objects, what those tiny little dancing particles

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Speaker 1: can make when they set their minds to it. That's right, because,

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Speaker 1: let's face it, we're all hungry, hungry for knowledge in

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Speaker 1: this world. You all want to know what everything is

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Speaker 1: made out of, how it all works, and how it's

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Speaker 1: all put together, and how it all makes sense if

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Speaker 1: it does. That's right. I would like to order two

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Speaker 1: slices of truth for lunch. Please you have a Nobel

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Speaker 1: price there on top. Please just shaved Nobel prize on top.

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Speaker 1: That sounds pretty good. Yeah, you know, like gold shavings,

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Speaker 1: something that's edible. Right, you can also do that with

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Speaker 1: a Nobel price. You know, just adds a little bit

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Speaker 1: of intellectual richness to the smartest pizza ever. Yeah. We

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Speaker 1: like to talk about all the amazing things in the universe,

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Speaker 1: all of the crazy stars and galaxies and black holes

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Speaker 1: and neutron stars out there, and also all of the

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Speaker 1: little tiny parkles that make us up who we are

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Speaker 1: and that pizza that you had for lunch. And we

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Speaker 1: also like to think about the way the world is

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Speaker 1: and why isn't it another way? Something I like to

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Speaker 1: think about a lot when I was younger, and even

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Speaker 1: still today. Are the number of dimensions of space, you know,

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Speaker 1: the way that we can move three D? And what

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Speaker 1: it would be like to be a four dimensional being

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Speaker 1: or to be a two dimensional being in a three

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Speaker 1: dimensional world. These kind of mental exercises were fun for

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Speaker 1: me and made me wonder like, why do we live

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Speaker 1: in a three dimensional world? What would it be like

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Speaker 1: to live in a universe with a different number of dimensions? Wow,

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Speaker 1: that's what you wondered about as a kid. I was

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Speaker 1: wondering like how does Superman fly? And how strong is

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Speaker 1: Spider Man's web? You know, you're wondering about the dimensions

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Speaker 1: of the universe. I was. I mean that this is

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Speaker 1: not six year old Daniel, this is probably fourteen year

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Speaker 1: old Daniel, But yeah, I was thinking about that stuff.

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Speaker 1: What if Superman was two dimensions? How many dimensions are

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Speaker 1: there too Spider Man's web? After all? So yeah, I

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Speaker 1: think these questions are super fun and they go to

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Speaker 1: the heart of a really basic question, which is why

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Speaker 1: is our universe the way that it is? So that's

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Speaker 1: why it's fun to explore these different kinds of objects

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Speaker 1: and different kinds of geometries. And I remember thinking, what

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Speaker 1: if there are other parts of the universe in which

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Speaker 1: there are four or five dimensions of space? What if

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Speaker 1: we are like trapped in a three dimensional subset of

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Speaker 1: the universe. Yeah, oh, man, I think fourteen year old

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Speaker 1: Jorge was definitely not wondering about physics. He's probably wondering

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Speaker 1: about things we can't mention in this podcast. But yeah,

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Speaker 1: this idea of dimensions is pretty mind blowing. I mean,

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Speaker 1: it's not something we think about every day, right. We're

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Speaker 1: also used to living in this world with three dimensions,

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Speaker 1: you know, up, down, left, right, front and back, and

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Speaker 1: it's kind of hard to wrap your head around or

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Speaker 1: even imagine more dimensions or even less dimensions. Yeah, it

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Speaker 1: really is hard to because we are so used to this.

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Speaker 1: But this is something we're doing in physics all the time,

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Speaker 1: is wondering if the way we think about the world

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Speaker 1: is just based in our experience and maybe therefore not universal,

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Speaker 1: not representative. Right. We don't want to imagine the whole

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Speaker 1: universe is just the way that we have experienced it.

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Speaker 1: We want to break out of those intellectual chains. We

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Speaker 1: want to be surprised, We want to discover that the

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Speaker 1: universe is totally different. And that's why science is such

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Speaker 1: an amazing tool, because it lets us put aside our

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Speaker 1: biases and chip away at the truth. Yeah, we want

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Speaker 1: to free our minds. That we do. We want to

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Speaker 1: blow all of our minds. Yeah. Is it kind of

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Speaker 1: like fish? You know, they live in the water their

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Speaker 1: whole lives. They probably think the whole universe is made

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Speaker 1: out of water, and you know there's nothing but water. Yeah, precisely,

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Speaker 1: because they've never experienced anything else, and so how could

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Speaker 1: they possibly extrapolate? And it's only when they see weird

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Speaker 1: things like the water seems to have an edge, I

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Speaker 1: wonder what's beyond it? When they start asking those questions

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Speaker 1: about other parts of the universe, do they expand their

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Speaker 1: minds and understand like the true nature of the universe.

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Speaker 1: And we've done this lots of times as humans, discovering

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Speaker 1: the univers pretty different from the one that our ancestors

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Speaker 1: thought it was, which means there are probably crazy discoveries

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Speaker 1: ahead where in two hundred years people will look back

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Speaker 1: and think, I can't believe they used to think X,

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Speaker 1: Y Z, whatever it is we're thinking now. Yeah, I

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Speaker 1: wonder if fish go fishing for ideas Also, I wonder

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Speaker 1: if they play Go Fish or if they have another

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Speaker 1: game called Go Human or something. And when are the

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Speaker 1: New York style pizza. Now that's a mind blowing multidimensional

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Speaker 1: question right there. Well, you can't eat Chicago pizza without

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Speaker 1: a knife and fork, and they don't have hands, So

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Speaker 1: I think that's answered. You can put on shovies, and

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Speaker 1: then that brings it all around to the fish idea.

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Speaker 1: But getting back to our dimensional question, it is weird

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Speaker 1: to think about the world universe having more than three dimensions,

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Speaker 1: and so this is something that physicists actually consider, and

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Speaker 1: some of them even think there are not just four

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Speaker 1: or five dimensions. There's a whole bunch of dimensions out there.

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Speaker 1: That's right. Even physicists that don't like anchovies think about

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Speaker 1: the world is having eleven or twenties six dimensions. Some

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Speaker 1: of these theories that unify gravity and wanted mechanics, things

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Speaker 1: like string theory, which might be candidate for a theory

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Speaker 1: of everything. These work best if there are more dimensions

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Speaker 1: of space and time for the forces and these strings

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Speaker 1: to sort of wiggle in. The mathematics prefers eleven or

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Speaker 1: twenty six dimensions, which is pretty hard to get your

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Speaker 1: mind around, like where are those dimensions? How do you

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Speaker 1: move in those dimensions? Why do we only experience three

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Speaker 1: if there are eleven or twenty six? Yeah, and equally

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Speaker 1: as mind blowing is to think it's sort of in

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Speaker 1: the other direction, right to think about what if the

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Speaker 1: world had less dimensions in three or what if there

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Speaker 1: are things out there that are a less than three

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Speaker 1: dimensionals in their being. That's a super fun idea. And

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Speaker 1: there's this whole class of theories that suggests that maybe

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Speaker 1: the entire three D universe is actually just a hologram

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Speaker 1: of a two dimensional universe, meaning that we are actually

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Speaker 1: two dimensional beings. We're gonna do a whole podcast episode

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Speaker 1: about the holographic universe later on. But that's a really

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Speaker 1: powerful idea actually in string theory, that lets people do

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Speaker 1: calculations that otherwise would be impossible. I feel like this

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Speaker 1: podcast is kind of two dimensional, Daniel, because you know,

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Speaker 1: we don't go very deep here, No, we have to

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Speaker 1: pick one topic to go deep on, but we're always

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Speaker 1: touching on other things, and I'm always like, oh, remember

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Speaker 1: that time we talked about this, Or that's an idea

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Speaker 1: for another episode, or this is fascinating but the digression

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Speaker 1: would take another forty five minutes, so let's save it

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Speaker 1: for a whole other episode. I see what you're saying.

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Speaker 1: Every other podcast is one dimensional. We are two dimensional.

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Speaker 1: We're like the world's first two D podcast. I don't know,

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Speaker 1: maybe we're zero dimensional. I can't even tell. What does

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Speaker 1: it mean to have a dimensionality and audio? I guess

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Speaker 1: we're in stereos that's two D maybe. But anyway, so

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Speaker 1: today we're gonna explore this question. On the other side

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Speaker 1: is wondering what could there be and are there things

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Speaker 1: that are less than three dimensions? Yeah, because it's fun

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Speaker 1: to think about what it would be like to be

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Speaker 1: in a four dimensional world. If you were a three

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Speaker 1: D person in a four dimensional world, we talked about

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Speaker 1: that on a podcast recently, you could disappear from inside

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Speaker 1: of prison and appear on the outside of it by

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Speaker 1: moving in the direction of that fourth dimension. So it's

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Speaker 1: also fun to think about, like, well, do we have

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Speaker 1: objects in our world which are two dimensional which don't

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Speaker 1: see this third dimension where we could do these crazy

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Speaker 1: tricks on them. Yeah, So today on the podcast, we'll

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Speaker 1: be asking the question can an object be two dimensional? Now, Daniel,

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Speaker 1: is that too like the number two, or like, are

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Speaker 1: you asking if something can have too many dimensions? Yeah?

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Speaker 1: My wife says that to me all the time. Man,

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Speaker 1: you are too dimensional. Stop being so dimensional. Yeah. I

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Speaker 1: think he's starting to tell you you need to go

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Speaker 1: in a diet. Maybe she's like, you have too many dimensions.

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Speaker 1: You need to stop eating so much at New York

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Speaker 1: style pizza. Yeah, I suppose. I suppose I need you

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Speaker 1: to have some fractional dimensions. So this is a kind

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Speaker 1: of a crazy question. Question is can an object the

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Speaker 1: two dimensional, like the object itself only exists in two dimensions,

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Speaker 1: or you know, maybe it exists in a subset of

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Speaker 1: our dimensions, or does it mean that it's just like

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Speaker 1: super thin. Yeah, I think the answer is yes to

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Speaker 1: all of those. We exist in three dimensions, and so

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Speaker 1: every object you look at exists in three dimensions. Every

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Speaker 1: piece of food you've eaten, everything you've tripped over, everything

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Speaker 1: you've looked at exists in three dimensions because it's in

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Speaker 1: this three D space. And it's hard to imagine an

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Speaker 1: object having four dimensions in our three D space. But

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Speaker 1: why can't it? Objects have two dimensions be essentially only

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Speaker 1: X and y and have no height right to be

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Speaker 1: a super thin slice. Is that possible to have a

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Speaker 1: lower dimensional object in our universe? Yeah, so this is

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Speaker 1: a kind of a mind blowing question. And so as

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Speaker 1: usual we were wondering how many people out there had

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Speaker 1: thought about this question and whether or not they have

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Speaker 1: an answer to this strange and um multidimensional or a

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Speaker 1: dual dimensional quarry. So, as usual Daniel went out there

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Speaker 1: into the wilds of the internet to ask people can

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Speaker 1: an object be two dimensional? Thanks again to our willing volunteers.

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Speaker 1: And if you would like to answer some questions about

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Speaker 1: tricky topics and here your speculation on the podcast, please

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Speaker 1: write to me two questions at Daniel and Jorge dot com.

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Speaker 1: It's what people had to say. I don't really think

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Speaker 1: that an object can be two dimensionals in a three

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Speaker 1: dimensional space that we live in. But if I think

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Speaker 1: about it, what is a volume of an object? It

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Speaker 1: is the space between the particles and not the particles themselves.

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Speaker 1: So if the particles somehow could form a perfectly flat

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Speaker 1: sheet so that they only extent in the extent y

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Speaker 1: axis but they don't go into the Z direction, that

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Speaker 1: theoretically maybe we could call an object like this to

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Speaker 1: be a two dimensional object. I suppose an object technically

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Speaker 1: can't be two dimensional because as songs have volume and

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Speaker 1: or there for three dimensional. But I think there are

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Speaker 1: um situations where, for instance, if you have one layer

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Speaker 1: of graphine it is so thin that it is treated

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Speaker 1: as if it's two dimensional. Then I am not sure

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Speaker 1: about this, but I think um with the modesty in

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Speaker 1: a conjecture, because with the conform of fuel theory, you

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Speaker 1: treat a three dimensional object, for instance a black hole

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Speaker 1: by looking only at its UM like surface or surface

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Speaker 1: area UM by translating it from the strength theories of

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Speaker 1: the cf G, you almost treated as if it's two dimensional.

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Speaker 1: I think, um, that might be an example. Alright, some

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Speaker 1: skepticism here, and none of these two said, yes, something

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Speaker 1: can be too D. We got rejected exactly, and you

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Speaker 1: had a third answer also, but no one didn't make

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Speaker 1: the cut. Is that a two D three D joke

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Speaker 1: joke out of this flat topic that I'm impressed by

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Speaker 1: the depth of your sense of humor? All right, So

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Speaker 1: none of the answers seem to think you can have

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Speaker 1: it to the object. One of them said that because

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Speaker 1: adams have volume, and the other one said because we

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Speaker 1: live in a three D space. So let's get into

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Speaker 1: these strange conundrums. So Daniel, first of all, what would

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Speaker 1: you say, is it to D object? How would you define?

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Speaker 1: As usual? The definition is going to be critical is

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Speaker 1: to exactly what we mean by two D object. But

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Speaker 1: let's start like, really theoretically, in an idealized sense, I

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Speaker 1: think the world is having three dimensions, in the sense

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Speaker 1: that there's three extensions, right, three coordinates. You need to

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Speaker 1: define your location in space, and so you can think

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Speaker 1: of an object having like one dimension is aligned two dimensions,

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Speaker 1: would be a square and any height on that square

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Speaker 1: would make it a cube. I would make it three dimensions.

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Speaker 1: So a two D object would be something that had

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Speaker 1: no measurement in the third dimension, that it's location in

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Speaker 1: the third dimension had only one edge, not two edges,

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Speaker 1: doesn't have like a start and an end. It's start

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Speaker 1: and end are exactly the same location. So it's you know,

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Speaker 1: it would be essentially infinitely flat sheet of paper for example.

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Speaker 1: You see, So it's an object, it has to be

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Speaker 1: like a physical thing in our world that really only exists,

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Speaker 1: like it only takes up space in one direction. Like

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Speaker 1: you said, it's invisible if you look at it kind

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Speaker 1: of on the side. Yeah, because it can't exist in

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Speaker 1: the third dimension. That means that if you measured its height,

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Speaker 1: the top of it and the bottom of it would

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Speaker 1: be exactly the same number. Right, there's no height to

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Speaker 1: it at all, because anything more than zero would mean

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Speaker 1: there's an extent in that third dimension, and then it's

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Speaker 1: just pretty thin, not exactly fin that. We're looking for

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Speaker 1: something which really has zero height in that third dimension,

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Speaker 1: but it needs to exist in our space so we

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Speaker 1: can interact with it. You can see it from the side,

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Speaker 1: for example. That's the question, can an object like that exist?

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Speaker 1: An object on which you were a person and you

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Speaker 1: were walking around, you wouldn't even notice that there was

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Speaker 1: a third dimension because you would only exist on that

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Speaker 1: too D space, you know, basically flat land. Yeah, and

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Speaker 1: my cartoonists and so, you know, making things two days.

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Speaker 1: It's kind of my jam. But I think it's also

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Speaker 1: pretty cool to think about, like what happens if you

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Speaker 1: have multiple of these infinitely flat objects, Like if you

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Speaker 1: stuck in a whole bunch of them together, they would

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Speaker 1: still be flat, they would still have zero height. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: because any number of times zero is zero. So you

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Speaker 1: can eat an infinite number of slices of two D

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Speaker 1: pizza and you've eaten zero volume of pizza. You won't

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Speaker 1: even grow in one dimension like your belt size dimension

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Speaker 1: no is zero volume right, So that means essentially you

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Speaker 1: can't have a two D slice of pizza. Can you

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Speaker 1: taste it? Though? Maybe you can taste it like if

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Speaker 1: it hits your tongue? You know, is that possible? Thin?

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Speaker 1: Have we invented the perfect two D diet? Two D

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Speaker 1: Quantum Diet by Daniel? Download the app mat we will

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Speaker 1: sputter a layer of pizza two D pizza onto your tongue. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: because you can't pick it up right? Well, I guess

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Speaker 1: the question is is it possible at all to have

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Speaker 1: an object that is like that, that is infinitely thin?

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Speaker 1: Are there loss of physics that would prevent it? Or

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Speaker 1: is it theoretically possible? So I still have three answers

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Speaker 1: to that, you know, yes, a no, and then maybe

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Speaker 1: so starting with a yes. You know that everything in

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Speaker 1: our world is built out of particles and particles in

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Speaker 1: our model, how many dimensions do they have? Well, we

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Speaker 1: think of them as points. There are point particles. We

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Speaker 1: don't know if the electron has any substructure in it,

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Speaker 1: so we treat it as if it doesn't. We consider

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Speaker 1: it to be a dot, essentially an infinitely small dot.

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Speaker 1: That means it's zero dimensional so in our theory, and

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Speaker 1: electron takes up no volume. So if you can have

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Speaker 1: a zero D particle, you can make a one D

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Speaker 1: object by having two of them, and then the line

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Speaker 1: between them is a one D object, and four of

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Speaker 1: them are actually just three of them make a plane

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Speaker 1: that in principle is a two dimensional object. So that's

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Speaker 1: sort of the yes answer on the theoretical idea. Like

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Speaker 1: if I took one atom or like one quirk right,

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Speaker 1: and I lined it up with like a hundred other

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Speaker 1: quarts in the same line, that would technically be an

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Speaker 1: object by our regular definition, but it would have only

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Speaker 1: one dimension technically exactly if you believe that particles are

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Speaker 1: zero dimensional, and you know, I don't really know if

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Speaker 1: that really flies, because particles are an excitation in a

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Speaker 1: quantum field and they're localized, so probably not exactly zero dimensional.

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Speaker 1: But if you start from a zero dimensional particle, then yes,

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Speaker 1: a line of them is a one dimensional object. I

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Speaker 1: guess the problem is that you know particles are point objects,

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Speaker 1: but they have kind of a three D presence. Yes,

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Speaker 1: they do have a three D presence, because how would

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Speaker 1: you build that one D line of quarks. The way

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Speaker 1: that you connect things is through their forces, right. The

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Speaker 1: reason that an atom is an atom is because of

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Speaker 1: the forces that bind the electron to the proton, and

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Speaker 1: those forces, as you say, have a three D presence.

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Speaker 1: And if you have a pile of hydrogen, for example,

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Speaker 1: the reason it's not just all in one spot is

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Speaker 1: that those atoms repel each other, and so there are

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Speaker 1: forces between them that give an object volume, and that

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Speaker 1: volume is then three dimensional because the forces are three dimensional, right,

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Speaker 1: But I guess even those forces could fall on that line.

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Speaker 1: Like let's say you empty out the universe. The universe

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Speaker 1: is empty and you only have two quarks. That's technically

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Speaker 1: to the object, that's a two D object, But it

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Speaker 1: fails the other test, like could you stack another one

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Speaker 1: on top of it exactly and get zero height? If

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Speaker 1: you bring another one next to it, it would not

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Speaker 1: want to be exactly on top of it, And so

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Speaker 1: really it's a three D object. It's just sort of

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Speaker 1: like a very thin tube. All right, That was your

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Speaker 1: yes answer? What's your maybe answer? So The yes answer

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Speaker 1: was start from zer D particles, you can The no

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Speaker 1: answer was zer y particles really have three D forces,

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Speaker 1: So no, The maybe answer is remember that our world

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Speaker 1: is quantum mechanical, and so in some sense you don't

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Speaker 1: have to have infinite thinness to be minimal thinness. Right,

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Speaker 1: our universe has a minimal length. So now imagine an

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Speaker 1: object which is normal in one dimension and in the

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Speaker 1: second dimension, but in the third dimension it has the

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Speaker 1: minimal length like the just one space pixel essentially wide,

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Speaker 1: that you might consider to be a two dimensional object. Oh,

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Speaker 1: I see, by like the definition of space in the universe,

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Speaker 1: if something is thinner than the quantum minimum distance, then

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Speaker 1: you you kind of have to say it's flat, perfectly flat, right,

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Speaker 1: because you can't resolve that it's any thinner. You couldn't

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Speaker 1: have a thinner object except for in your mind as

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Speaker 1: a geometer imagining perfect to D objects. But in our

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Speaker 1: universe things you could build, you couldn't have a thinner object.

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Speaker 1: So you should crown that to be either the thinnest

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Speaker 1: three dimensional object possible or a two D object. And

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Speaker 1: we'll talk about it a little bit later, but there

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Speaker 1: are some objects like that in our universe that follow

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Speaker 1: the math for two D objects. Interesting, it gets complicated.

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Speaker 1: We'll have to go deep. We'll have to have tried

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Speaker 1: to avoid being shallow. All right, well, let's get it

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Speaker 1: into whether or not there are theoretically to the objects

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Speaker 1: out there and whether or not they exist in the

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Speaker 1: real world. At first, let's take a quick break. Alright,

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Speaker 1: we're talking about to the objects, Daniel, And now this

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Speaker 1: is a podcast. Does that mean that listeners have to

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Speaker 1: put on like two d your phone, like a red

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Speaker 1: and a blue one. Would that help? Well, they're hearing

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Speaker 1: the answers in two d right, one from me and

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Speaker 1: one from you. I guess, yeah, dude, two dudes, just

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Speaker 1: two dads or dudes. So technically it is a to

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Speaker 1: D podcast, that's right. And sometimes we agree with each

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Speaker 1: other and sometimes we don't. Sometimes I'm negative, sometimes we

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Speaker 1: cancel out. It's all a math problem. Hopefully there's constructive

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Speaker 1: interference in the explanation to mention. All right, you just

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Speaker 1: went too deep there. I guess one question you can

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Speaker 1: ask is whether or not you can theoretically have to

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Speaker 1: the objects. And as I understand that the physics does

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Speaker 1: allow for theoretical to the objects, yea theoretical to D

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Speaker 1: objects are not a problem. But we talked before about

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Speaker 1: this idea of the universe as a hologram. Is there

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00:20:53,520 --> 00:20:57,080
Speaker 1: a really powerful idea, and it shows that all the

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Speaker 1: information in a three dimensional space can actually be encoded

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Speaker 1: on the surface of that space. You know, take like

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Speaker 1: a sphere and imagine all the stuff inside of it,

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Speaker 1: all the physics that's going on inside that sphere might

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Speaker 1: actually just be encoded on the surface of that sphere.

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Speaker 1: And that's a really powerful idea because it helps people

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Speaker 1: do some calculations, like there's two totally different kinds of

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Speaker 1: theories that have different dimensions, and this links them together.

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Speaker 1: It's really important results for string theory. But also it's

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Speaker 1: really cool for thinking about black holes, like what's inside

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Speaker 1: a black hole? And is it possible that all the

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Speaker 1: information inside a black hole is actually just embedded on

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Speaker 1: the surface of the event horizon. Yeah, we had a

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Speaker 1: whole podcast about whether or not the universe is a

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Speaker 1: hologram imprinted on the surface of a black hole. And

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Speaker 1: you know, as a cartoonist, I'm a big believer in

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Speaker 1: that you can capture whole worlds in a sheet of paper.

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Speaker 1: You know, it's my whole philosophy of life. But I

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Speaker 1: guess the question is, you know, it's cool that you

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Speaker 1: can maybe project the whole three D world into a

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Speaker 1: two D surface, like for example of a black hole,

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Speaker 1: But don't you lose information like in a cartoon, I

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Speaker 1: don't know what's standing behind my cartoon characters, Like, wouldn't

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Speaker 1: that information get lost? Yeah? So there's three spatial dimensions

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Speaker 1: in the universe and then two spatial dimensions on the surface,

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Speaker 1: But there are quantum fields on that two dimensional surface,

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Speaker 1: and those fields can encode all sorts of information. Like

431
00:22:20,560 --> 00:22:23,760
Speaker 1: a field can have multiple dimensions. It can be a

432
00:22:23,840 --> 00:22:27,119
Speaker 1: vector field. For example, at every point in space, a

433
00:22:27,200 --> 00:22:29,399
Speaker 1: field can have more than one number. You can have

434
00:22:29,440 --> 00:22:32,159
Speaker 1: an entire vector, which is three numbers, or five numbers

435
00:22:32,240 --> 00:22:34,440
Speaker 1: or ten numbers. So you could have lots of information

436
00:22:34,480 --> 00:22:37,200
Speaker 1: sort of packed into every unit of space. So even

437
00:22:37,200 --> 00:22:41,119
Speaker 1: though the space has fewer dimensions, the fields in that

438
00:22:41,200 --> 00:22:44,840
Speaker 1: space could have more information sort of per unit of space,

439
00:22:44,960 --> 00:22:46,800
Speaker 1: so you end up with the same amount of information.

440
00:22:47,840 --> 00:22:52,040
Speaker 1: You mean, you're cheat. It comes down to the definitions.

441
00:22:53,119 --> 00:22:54,920
Speaker 1: I mean, it's it's kind of like you just stacking

442
00:22:54,920 --> 00:22:57,239
Speaker 1: pixels on top of each other, kind of right. It's

443
00:22:57,320 --> 00:22:59,679
Speaker 1: kind of like in a three D movie that you

444
00:22:59,720 --> 00:23:01,159
Speaker 1: when you go to the theater, it's like it's the

445
00:23:01,200 --> 00:23:03,520
Speaker 1: same screen, but it's giving you twice the amount of

446
00:23:03,560 --> 00:23:06,520
Speaker 1: information in the same image. Yeah, and it's just another

447
00:23:06,640 --> 00:23:10,280
Speaker 1: way to mathematically express things. And this concept invented by

448
00:23:10,280 --> 00:23:12,879
Speaker 1: one Maldasena is called a D S c F T

449
00:23:13,040 --> 00:23:15,520
Speaker 1: because it shows us how one set of theories a

450
00:23:15,640 --> 00:23:18,399
Speaker 1: d S which means anti disit or space, which is

451
00:23:18,440 --> 00:23:22,280
Speaker 1: what gravity works in, is really equivalent to these conformal

452
00:23:22,320 --> 00:23:25,040
Speaker 1: field theories which operate in two dimensional space. And so

453
00:23:25,119 --> 00:23:27,520
Speaker 1: you're right, it's a trick, but it's also it's a

454
00:23:27,520 --> 00:23:30,320
Speaker 1: cool trick because it shows us that two totally different

455
00:23:30,359 --> 00:23:32,800
Speaker 1: fields are actually have been doing the same thing the

456
00:23:32,840 --> 00:23:36,640
Speaker 1: whole time. That three D movies are really just movies, right,

457
00:23:36,760 --> 00:23:39,600
Speaker 1: And so the days and maybe our entire universe that

458
00:23:39,720 --> 00:23:43,119
Speaker 1: we think is three D is actually only two D.

459
00:23:43,600 --> 00:23:45,840
Speaker 1: Like maybe we're all living on the surface of a

460
00:23:45,840 --> 00:23:48,840
Speaker 1: black hole or something. Yeah, maybe our universe actually is

461
00:23:48,920 --> 00:23:51,359
Speaker 1: only two dimensions, and we have this experience of a

462
00:23:51,440 --> 00:23:54,639
Speaker 1: third dimension because of the richness of the quantum fields

463
00:23:54,680 --> 00:23:58,040
Speaker 1: gives the illusion of a third dimension. That's the hologram. Right,

464
00:23:58,160 --> 00:24:00,560
Speaker 1: So that's a fun idea, and it helps think about

465
00:24:00,560 --> 00:24:03,600
Speaker 1: how to solve black holes and construct string theories, and

466
00:24:03,840 --> 00:24:06,239
Speaker 1: goes to fund philosophical arguments about like, well, what does

467
00:24:06,280 --> 00:24:08,520
Speaker 1: it really mean to have three dimensions or two plus

468
00:24:08,560 --> 00:24:11,480
Speaker 1: one illusory dimensions? But you know, if that's the case,

469
00:24:11,560 --> 00:24:14,639
Speaker 1: that would mean that fundamentally the whole universe really is

470
00:24:14,720 --> 00:24:17,760
Speaker 1: two D. Yeah, we're all inside a comic book, right,

471
00:24:17,760 --> 00:24:20,240
Speaker 1: It's like everything in the universe is a two D

472
00:24:20,320 --> 00:24:23,320
Speaker 1: object in that case, right, Yeah, And the comic book

473
00:24:23,359 --> 00:24:25,840
Speaker 1: is really an excellent example because what do you do

474
00:24:25,840 --> 00:24:27,800
Speaker 1: when you look at the comic book is you don't

475
00:24:27,840 --> 00:24:30,359
Speaker 1: just examine the two D surface of the paper. You

476
00:24:30,359 --> 00:24:32,399
Speaker 1: imagine a whole rich world in your mind. You know,

477
00:24:32,600 --> 00:24:35,639
Speaker 1: a well drawn comic creates into the mind of the

478
00:24:35,720 --> 00:24:39,199
Speaker 1: reader this whole three dimensional model. And that's exactly what

479
00:24:39,240 --> 00:24:41,560
Speaker 1: we're talking about here, is having enough information on a

480
00:24:41,600 --> 00:24:45,119
Speaker 1: two D surface to project out into a fully realized

481
00:24:45,160 --> 00:24:48,280
Speaker 1: three D world. Well, I called DIBs and being Superman

482
00:24:48,359 --> 00:24:51,159
Speaker 1: in this comic book, all right, I called DIBs on

483
00:24:51,200 --> 00:24:53,840
Speaker 1: all those super thin slices of pizza in your comic book.

484
00:24:53,920 --> 00:24:56,320
Speaker 1: Have at it. I'd rather fly than although if you're

485
00:24:56,359 --> 00:24:59,000
Speaker 1: flying a comic book, you're you're really not going anywhere.

486
00:24:59,240 --> 00:25:01,600
Speaker 1: Does that count as exercise? When Superman flies? Does he

487
00:25:01,640 --> 00:25:04,520
Speaker 1: burning calories? Does his fit bit counter? Well? I think

488
00:25:04,560 --> 00:25:07,040
Speaker 1: he can't fly if he doesn't get enough sun, So

489
00:25:07,119 --> 00:25:09,840
Speaker 1: technically I guess he is expending energy. Is that right?

490
00:25:09,880 --> 00:25:11,480
Speaker 1: He can't fly but it doesn't get enough sun. Does

491
00:25:11,480 --> 00:25:14,840
Speaker 1: he photosynthesize? Yeah? Don't you know anything about Superman, Daniel,

492
00:25:14,880 --> 00:25:18,640
Speaker 1: about the physics of Superman? Apparently I don't. He gets

493
00:25:18,640 --> 00:25:21,280
Speaker 1: his power from the yellow sun. Where so he's basically

494
00:25:21,280 --> 00:25:26,120
Speaker 1: a plan basically a super solar cell. Yeah, solar battery.

495
00:25:26,560 --> 00:25:29,400
Speaker 1: All right, Well, so that's one kind of two dimensional object.

496
00:25:29,560 --> 00:25:32,320
Speaker 1: Is this idea that the whole world is universe is

497
00:25:32,359 --> 00:25:34,560
Speaker 1: two dimensional? But there are all some ways in which

498
00:25:34,600 --> 00:25:36,880
Speaker 1: the theory says that you can't have kind of two

499
00:25:36,880 --> 00:25:39,959
Speaker 1: dimensional things in our three D world, right, Yeah, And

500
00:25:40,080 --> 00:25:43,680
Speaker 1: earlier we were talking about building things which are the

501
00:25:43,720 --> 00:25:47,399
Speaker 1: thinnest they could possibly be in a quantum universe. Idea

502
00:25:47,440 --> 00:25:50,639
Speaker 1: there is that the universe we don't think is infinitely dividable.

503
00:25:50,760 --> 00:25:52,560
Speaker 1: We don't think you can take a mile and cut

504
00:25:52,640 --> 00:25:54,679
Speaker 1: in half and then cut it half again, and cutn't

505
00:25:54,680 --> 00:25:57,440
Speaker 1: half again, and keep doing that forever. We think that

506
00:25:57,600 --> 00:26:01,560
Speaker 1: probably there's a smallest unit of distance, below which it

507
00:26:01,600 --> 00:26:04,600
Speaker 1: doesn't make any sense to talk about distance, because there's

508
00:26:04,640 --> 00:26:07,639
Speaker 1: no measure that's smaller than that. It's like pixels on

509
00:26:07,680 --> 00:26:10,760
Speaker 1: the screen. And so the idea is, if the universe

510
00:26:10,880 --> 00:26:14,240
Speaker 1: is quantized, if there's a minimum distance, then like a

511
00:26:14,440 --> 00:26:18,040
Speaker 1: sheet of something, which is the thinnest possible sheet, might

512
00:26:18,040 --> 00:26:21,680
Speaker 1: effectively be a two D material. The problem is that

513
00:26:21,720 --> 00:26:24,760
Speaker 1: we think that distance, if it exists, is probably really

514
00:26:24,800 --> 00:26:28,760
Speaker 1: really small, like ten to the minus thirty five, and

515
00:26:28,840 --> 00:26:32,199
Speaker 1: we're certainly not capable of making anything or observing anything

516
00:26:32,240 --> 00:26:36,280
Speaker 1: that thin today. But quantum mechanics has other implications. You know,

517
00:26:36,320 --> 00:26:40,080
Speaker 1: quantum mechanics limits how particles can move. Another idea, which

518
00:26:40,119 --> 00:26:42,520
Speaker 1: has been around for several decades, is to make something

519
00:26:42,560 --> 00:26:45,600
Speaker 1: that's so thin that it's thinner than the wavelength of

520
00:26:45,640 --> 00:26:49,119
Speaker 1: the electrons, so that the electrons in that object are

521
00:26:49,200 --> 00:26:52,600
Speaker 1: essentially trapped to only move in two dimensions because the

522
00:26:52,680 --> 00:26:55,400
Speaker 1: thing they're stuck in doesn't allow them to get excited

523
00:26:55,520 --> 00:26:57,720
Speaker 1: or move in that third dimension. I see, I feel

524
00:26:57,720 --> 00:26:59,960
Speaker 1: like there's two ideas here. One is making things small

525
00:27:00,000 --> 00:27:04,000
Speaker 1: holler than the smallest resolution of the universe, and the

526
00:27:04,040 --> 00:27:07,960
Speaker 1: other one is making things smaller than the electron wave length.

527
00:27:08,600 --> 00:27:10,720
Speaker 1: So which one are Are they the same or which

528
00:27:10,760 --> 00:27:12,720
Speaker 1: one are you talking about here? They're not the same.

529
00:27:13,040 --> 00:27:15,919
Speaker 1: One is very fundamental like to the nature of space

530
00:27:15,920 --> 00:27:17,760
Speaker 1: and time, and just sort of to get you thinking

531
00:27:17,760 --> 00:27:21,000
Speaker 1: about how the universe really is quantized. How there's like

532
00:27:21,400 --> 00:27:25,119
Speaker 1: units of thinness, and the thinnest unit for space is

533
00:27:25,160 --> 00:27:28,000
Speaker 1: really really really thin, but the thinnest unifer an electron,

534
00:27:28,160 --> 00:27:30,439
Speaker 1: is much much larger, and something that's really kind of

535
00:27:30,440 --> 00:27:34,359
Speaker 1: achievable because an electron has an extent in space which

536
00:27:34,440 --> 00:27:37,439
Speaker 1: is much more significant. So you know, can you build

537
00:27:37,480 --> 00:27:40,480
Speaker 1: something which makes it so that electrons can only move

538
00:27:40,600 --> 00:27:43,159
Speaker 1: in two dimensions? That could be much much bigger than

539
00:27:43,200 --> 00:27:46,160
Speaker 1: the fundamental unit of space. I mean imagine, for example,

540
00:27:46,320 --> 00:27:49,480
Speaker 1: taking two sheets of glass and putting ping pong balls

541
00:27:49,520 --> 00:27:51,760
Speaker 1: between them, and the ping pong balls can move between

542
00:27:51,760 --> 00:27:54,000
Speaker 1: the sheets of glass, but they can't move up and

543
00:27:54,080 --> 00:27:56,520
Speaker 1: down at all. If you could build a material like

544
00:27:56,560 --> 00:27:59,560
Speaker 1: that where the electrons only move in two dimensions, then

545
00:27:59,560 --> 00:28:02,120
Speaker 1: you might cansider that to be a two dimensional material.

546
00:28:02,440 --> 00:28:05,439
Speaker 1: I guess the hard question is what is the object? Like,

547
00:28:05,480 --> 00:28:08,919
Speaker 1: are the electrons the object or the thin sheet is

548
00:28:08,960 --> 00:28:12,320
Speaker 1: the object? Because the sheet itself isn't made out of

549
00:28:12,560 --> 00:28:15,200
Speaker 1: multiple layers of atoms. Are you talking about making something

550
00:28:15,240 --> 00:28:17,920
Speaker 1: that's just one layer of atoms? So the basic idea

551
00:28:17,960 --> 00:28:20,440
Speaker 1: is to make something which is a single layer of atoms.

552
00:28:20,560 --> 00:28:22,200
Speaker 1: It's a lot like what we were talking about earlier.

553
00:28:22,240 --> 00:28:24,399
Speaker 1: We take a single cork and you line it up

554
00:28:24,400 --> 00:28:26,800
Speaker 1: and you make a sheet of corks. If you could

555
00:28:26,800 --> 00:28:29,439
Speaker 1: get these things which bind together and to make a

556
00:28:29,520 --> 00:28:32,320
Speaker 1: single layer of atoms, like a material that's just one

557
00:28:32,520 --> 00:28:37,080
Speaker 1: atomic layer thick, then the electrons in that material would

558
00:28:37,119 --> 00:28:39,800
Speaker 1: move as if they were in a two dimensional world.

559
00:28:40,040 --> 00:28:42,040
Speaker 1: I see. So then you're saying like kind of like

560
00:28:42,160 --> 00:28:45,720
Speaker 1: that collection of electrons is then sort of a two

561
00:28:45,800 --> 00:28:49,440
Speaker 1: D object because it can't really, you know, move in

562
00:28:49,600 --> 00:28:52,520
Speaker 1: any other dimension except the one on the surface. Yeah,

563
00:28:52,680 --> 00:28:54,560
Speaker 1: because there's no room for them to move, like ping

564
00:28:54,640 --> 00:28:57,959
Speaker 1: pong balls trapped between two sheets of glass. Electrons are

565
00:28:58,000 --> 00:29:01,239
Speaker 1: bound to the atoms, and if there's no layer up

566
00:29:01,320 --> 00:29:03,800
Speaker 1: or layer down for them to go, then they're sort

567
00:29:03,800 --> 00:29:06,400
Speaker 1: of trapped on that sheet. So that's pretty cool. Is

568
00:29:06,440 --> 00:29:08,480
Speaker 1: it hard to make something like that, like to make

569
00:29:08,680 --> 00:29:11,440
Speaker 1: a sheet that's only one atom thick. It turns out

570
00:29:11,440 --> 00:29:14,480
Speaker 1: it's surprisingly easy and you probably make them all the

571
00:29:14,520 --> 00:29:17,880
Speaker 1: time when you draw cartoons. Really, are you saying my

572
00:29:17,920 --> 00:29:23,000
Speaker 1: ideas have no no? It turns out that you make them.

573
00:29:23,040 --> 00:29:25,960
Speaker 1: Every time you sharpen a pencil. You make a two

574
00:29:25,960 --> 00:29:30,000
Speaker 1: dimensional material. Because carbon is a really amazing object, and

575
00:29:30,040 --> 00:29:32,480
Speaker 1: you can form all sorts of really crazy stuff. And

576
00:29:32,480 --> 00:29:35,560
Speaker 1: it is possible to make sheets of carbon that are

577
00:29:35,640 --> 00:29:38,240
Speaker 1: just one atom thick. And one way to do it

578
00:29:38,280 --> 00:29:41,560
Speaker 1: is to break off pieces of basically graphite, which is

579
00:29:41,640 --> 00:29:44,840
Speaker 1: pencil lead. And graphite is so brittle that basically every

580
00:29:44,840 --> 00:29:46,880
Speaker 1: time you write on a surface of paper or you

581
00:29:46,920 --> 00:29:50,560
Speaker 1: sharpen your pencil, you are generating these sheets of graphine

582
00:29:50,760 --> 00:29:53,400
Speaker 1: just things. So like carbon kind of likes to do that, right,

583
00:29:53,400 --> 00:29:56,440
Speaker 1: like it, It kind of likes to arrange itself in

584
00:29:56,800 --> 00:29:59,640
Speaker 1: little sheets and not like cubes or clusters. It likes

585
00:29:59,640 --> 00:30:01,160
Speaker 1: to do all sorts of things, and so you have

586
00:30:01,280 --> 00:30:03,960
Speaker 1: to get it to do this. But graphite exactly is

587
00:30:04,040 --> 00:30:06,200
Speaker 1: very brittle, and so it's not that hard to like

588
00:30:06,360 --> 00:30:09,960
Speaker 1: peel off layers of it to make these two dimensional

589
00:30:10,160 --> 00:30:13,240
Speaker 1: sheets of carbon. And so I thought this was super interesting,

590
00:30:13,400 --> 00:30:15,840
Speaker 1: and I went to ask a friend of mine, who's

591
00:30:15,840 --> 00:30:18,560
Speaker 1: actually a professor here at u C Irvine, is this

592
00:30:18,600 --> 00:30:21,240
Speaker 1: is possible, what it really means, and what she thinks

593
00:30:21,320 --> 00:30:24,720
Speaker 1: about two dimensional materials? Nice? Who did you talk to? So?

594
00:30:24,760 --> 00:30:27,760
Speaker 1: I talked to a young assistant professor named Judy Rohani.

595
00:30:28,040 --> 00:30:30,480
Speaker 1: She's very friendly. She's from Hungary and she just came

596
00:30:30,480 --> 00:30:32,400
Speaker 1: to u C I about a year and a half ago,

597
00:30:32,480 --> 00:30:35,240
Speaker 1: and she arrived during the pandemic, which means she's never

598
00:30:35,280 --> 00:30:38,680
Speaker 1: really gone to experience the campus life here. Wow. And

599
00:30:38,760 --> 00:30:41,080
Speaker 1: so she works on these two de materials, right. She

600
00:30:41,160 --> 00:30:44,040
Speaker 1: makes these flat sheets of carbon and then she puts

601
00:30:44,040 --> 00:30:46,520
Speaker 1: electrons in them, and then the electrons sort of move

602
00:30:46,600 --> 00:30:50,080
Speaker 1: around in this one dimensional world. Yeah. She's actually a theorist,

603
00:30:50,080 --> 00:30:52,480
Speaker 1: so she mostly like writes papers about them and thinks

604
00:30:52,520 --> 00:30:55,280
Speaker 1: about them rather than actually building these things. But yeah,

605
00:30:55,360 --> 00:30:57,840
Speaker 1: she's a pretty deep understanding of how they work. All right.

606
00:30:57,920 --> 00:30:59,760
Speaker 1: So you asked her to talk to us about some

607
00:30:59,800 --> 00:31:02,680
Speaker 1: of the materials. Yeah. I asked her if she thought

608
00:31:02,680 --> 00:31:05,600
Speaker 1: two dimensional materials were possible and what it meant for

609
00:31:05,640 --> 00:31:08,040
Speaker 1: an object to be two dimensional? All right? Here is

610
00:31:08,040 --> 00:31:10,920
Speaker 1: what Professor Roney had to say, So, you know what,

611
00:31:11,000 --> 00:31:14,680
Speaker 1: like for theories, anything is possible, right because I just

612
00:31:15,080 --> 00:31:17,320
Speaker 1: take a TI to come on and then say like, well,

613
00:31:17,360 --> 00:31:21,200
Speaker 1: I just considered something that has two spatial demensions dimensions

614
00:31:21,240 --> 00:31:24,080
Speaker 1: instead of three, and that will give me some kind

615
00:31:24,080 --> 00:31:27,800
Speaker 1: of confinement. So you know, my mobile particles for examples,

616
00:31:28,000 --> 00:31:31,600
Speaker 1: like electrons, they can only move in two dimensions, but

617
00:31:31,680 --> 00:31:34,760
Speaker 1: not in the third dimension. And then then it comes

618
00:31:34,800 --> 00:31:36,400
Speaker 1: like real life, you know, like I have a real

619
00:31:36,480 --> 00:31:41,360
Speaker 1: chunk of material that definitely has extensions in all three dimensions, right,

620
00:31:41,400 --> 00:31:44,000
Speaker 1: So that's very different. It's like I guess if you

621
00:31:44,080 --> 00:31:48,120
Speaker 1: ask this question like fifteen years ago, I was just like, yeah,

622
00:31:48,160 --> 00:31:52,200
Speaker 1: today is very theoretical. There is no such thing as

623
00:31:52,200 --> 00:31:54,640
Speaker 1: a two de material, right because why would it not

624
00:31:55,160 --> 00:31:59,160
Speaker 1: like fold up like that, you know, why wouldn't stay

625
00:31:59,160 --> 00:32:01,720
Speaker 1: like straight as a sheet of paper or something, or

626
00:32:01,960 --> 00:32:04,360
Speaker 1: how could it exist, like what would stabilize anything like that?

627
00:32:04,400 --> 00:32:06,720
Speaker 1: And now it turns out that that there are actually

628
00:32:06,720 --> 00:32:10,000
Speaker 1: two dimensional materials, and then what those are kind of

629
00:32:10,720 --> 00:32:13,040
Speaker 1: like if you imagine that you have a material that

630
00:32:13,200 --> 00:32:17,520
Speaker 1: is say like one automn thick or maybe maybe still

631
00:32:17,880 --> 00:32:20,440
Speaker 1: it's a better way to say, or maybe just a

632
00:32:20,480 --> 00:32:23,160
Speaker 1: few atoms in, like maybe two or three atoms in,

633
00:32:23,440 --> 00:32:26,280
Speaker 1: and that's that's actually possible to create these materials. So

634
00:32:26,360 --> 00:32:30,120
Speaker 1: actually kind of bail them off from their three dimensional

635
00:32:30,600 --> 00:32:35,160
Speaker 1: let's say modern material or different types of materials. They

636
00:32:35,160 --> 00:32:38,600
Speaker 1: really exist and people are doing different kinds of experiments

637
00:32:38,640 --> 00:32:41,920
Speaker 1: and so it's not just you know, theoretical dream anymore.

638
00:32:42,040 --> 00:32:45,800
Speaker 1: It's actually an existing thing, which is very exciting because

639
00:32:45,840 --> 00:32:49,480
Speaker 1: they do have a lot of dissimilarities to see the

640
00:32:49,560 --> 00:32:53,560
Speaker 1: action three D models or materials. All right, I like it,

641
00:32:53,600 --> 00:32:57,480
Speaker 1: As she said, for a theorist, anything is possible. I

642
00:32:57,480 --> 00:33:00,080
Speaker 1: think I really tells you something about this field. This

643
00:33:00,160 --> 00:33:03,200
Speaker 1: is an idea which came about like in the forties

644
00:33:03,240 --> 00:33:06,040
Speaker 1: and fifties. People were wondering is this really possible? They

645
00:33:06,040 --> 00:33:09,240
Speaker 1: were thinking about it and theorizing about it, and only recently,

646
00:33:09,240 --> 00:33:12,840
Speaker 1: only like twenty years ago, did this actually become realizable.

647
00:33:13,080 --> 00:33:14,960
Speaker 1: So this is something it's sort of like the black

648
00:33:15,000 --> 00:33:18,880
Speaker 1: holes for condensed matter physics. They're wondering, mathematically, we figured

649
00:33:18,880 --> 00:33:21,640
Speaker 1: this out, but could anybody actually make this thing in

650
00:33:21,680 --> 00:33:24,200
Speaker 1: real life? So I think we're sort of living in

651
00:33:24,240 --> 00:33:26,440
Speaker 1: the science fiction future for a lot of these condensed

652
00:33:26,520 --> 00:33:29,600
Speaker 1: matter physicists. That's pretty cool. And she says that, you know,

653
00:33:29,720 --> 00:33:33,320
Speaker 1: if you do confine electrons into one of these thin materials,

654
00:33:33,320 --> 00:33:35,520
Speaker 1: they do sort of actually kind of move like in

655
00:33:35,520 --> 00:33:37,520
Speaker 1: a two D world. Yeah, and it makes the thing

656
00:33:37,680 --> 00:33:40,360
Speaker 1: really really different. And that's what's really interesting. If that

657
00:33:40,400 --> 00:33:41,720
Speaker 1: if you take a whole loaf of bread and you

658
00:33:41,760 --> 00:33:44,080
Speaker 1: cut in half, you have half a loaf of bread. Right,

659
00:33:44,160 --> 00:33:47,120
Speaker 1: But at some point if you take really really thin slices,

660
00:33:47,440 --> 00:33:51,240
Speaker 1: it stops being bread and it starts turning into something else. Right,

661
00:33:51,280 --> 00:33:55,800
Speaker 1: it turns into toast that's totally different bread or biscotti.

662
00:33:55,840 --> 00:33:57,880
Speaker 1: It turns into biscotty. You know, you have to pay

663
00:33:57,920 --> 00:34:01,400
Speaker 1: like a few bucks more starbucks, get put tomato, sauce

664
00:34:01,440 --> 00:34:03,560
Speaker 1: and cheese on, and poor he will call it a pizza.

665
00:34:03,880 --> 00:34:06,560
Speaker 1: But I think it's really cool that you take something

666
00:34:06,600 --> 00:34:08,720
Speaker 1: and you make a thin enough slice that it basically

667
00:34:08,760 --> 00:34:11,320
Speaker 1: turns into something else. Like imagine taking a loaf of

668
00:34:11,360 --> 00:34:13,680
Speaker 1: bread and making it such a thin slice that you

669
00:34:13,719 --> 00:34:15,719
Speaker 1: get a slice of ham, you know, or it turns

670
00:34:15,760 --> 00:34:18,759
Speaker 1: into cheese or something. That's basically what's happening here. You

671
00:34:18,840 --> 00:34:21,520
Speaker 1: take graphite, which is you know, this like thing inside

672
00:34:21,560 --> 00:34:24,279
Speaker 1: pencil lead and you take such a thin slice off

673
00:34:24,280 --> 00:34:27,520
Speaker 1: of it that it comes off with completely different properties,

674
00:34:27,760 --> 00:34:31,400
Speaker 1: totally different sort of mechanical strength and electrical properties and

675
00:34:31,400 --> 00:34:34,560
Speaker 1: all that stuff. Wow, that sounds like delicious magic right there.

676
00:34:35,120 --> 00:34:38,239
Speaker 1: All right, so those are theoretical to the objects, and

677
00:34:38,320 --> 00:34:41,799
Speaker 1: so now let's get into real to the objects. Are

678
00:34:42,040 --> 00:34:46,120
Speaker 1: any of these actually realizable in our world? And maybe

679
00:34:46,120 --> 00:34:48,160
Speaker 1: they're all around this, So let's get into that. But

680
00:34:48,200 --> 00:35:03,480
Speaker 1: first let's take another quick break. All right, Daniel, we're

681
00:35:03,480 --> 00:35:07,399
Speaker 1: talking about real life to the objects. Now we talked

682
00:35:07,400 --> 00:35:09,480
Speaker 1: about in theory. It could be that we're all in

683
00:35:09,520 --> 00:35:12,600
Speaker 1: the to the world, or maybe you can make electrons

684
00:35:12,680 --> 00:35:15,160
Speaker 1: behave like they're in two dimensionals. But in the real

685
00:35:15,200 --> 00:35:17,359
Speaker 1: world that we live in, at least that the one

686
00:35:17,400 --> 00:35:20,239
Speaker 1: that seems like it's three dimensions, can you have to

687
00:35:20,440 --> 00:35:22,680
Speaker 1: the objects? So you sort of can, I mean it's

688
00:35:22,680 --> 00:35:26,160
Speaker 1: a little bit cheating. They're not technically two dimensions because

689
00:35:26,160 --> 00:35:29,480
Speaker 1: the materials themselves do have a height. But the mathematics

690
00:35:29,520 --> 00:35:32,160
Speaker 1: on these materials is the same as if they were

691
00:35:32,200 --> 00:35:36,080
Speaker 1: two dimensions. Like if the world was two dimensional, mathematics

692
00:35:36,080 --> 00:35:39,200
Speaker 1: and physics especially would be different. For example, we know

693
00:35:39,239 --> 00:35:41,600
Speaker 1: that if you shine a light, then the strength of

694
00:35:41,600 --> 00:35:45,480
Speaker 1: that light decreases like one over the distance squared. That's

695
00:35:45,520 --> 00:35:48,200
Speaker 1: one of the distance squared. Because our universe is in

696
00:35:48,400 --> 00:35:51,839
Speaker 1: three dimensions. The same amount of light spread over the

697
00:35:51,880 --> 00:35:54,320
Speaker 1: surface of a sphere, and the surface of a sphere

698
00:35:54,360 --> 00:35:58,160
Speaker 1: goes like the radius squared. So there's things like that

699
00:35:58,200 --> 00:36:02,200
Speaker 1: where mathematical relationships tell you about the dimensionality of the

700
00:36:02,239 --> 00:36:04,840
Speaker 1: world you're living in. And when we study the behavior

701
00:36:04,920 --> 00:36:07,240
Speaker 1: on some of these physical materials we're gonna be talking about,

702
00:36:07,520 --> 00:36:10,399
Speaker 1: we see the mathematical relationships you expect from a two

703
00:36:10,400 --> 00:36:13,799
Speaker 1: dimensional world, not a three dimensional world. I see. So

704
00:36:13,840 --> 00:36:16,719
Speaker 1: there are like three D objects that behave or you know,

705
00:36:16,920 --> 00:36:20,120
Speaker 1: follow the rules of a two dimensional universe, Yes, exactly.

706
00:36:20,120 --> 00:36:21,920
Speaker 1: And so in the sense if you're following the math

707
00:36:21,960 --> 00:36:24,279
Speaker 1: of a two dimensional world, are you really a two

708
00:36:24,360 --> 00:36:28,160
Speaker 1: D object? Interesting like if you do live in a cartoon?

709
00:36:28,520 --> 00:36:32,200
Speaker 1: Are you really real? If you cosplay enough a cartoon,

710
00:36:32,320 --> 00:36:35,160
Speaker 1: are you really in that cartoon? No judging, no judging.

711
00:36:36,760 --> 00:36:38,479
Speaker 1: So to step us through, what are some of these

712
00:36:38,560 --> 00:36:41,040
Speaker 1: real life to the objects or three the objects that

713
00:36:41,120 --> 00:36:43,160
Speaker 1: behave like to the objects, So one of them is

714
00:36:43,239 --> 00:36:46,959
Speaker 1: looking at the surface of liquid helium, liquid Helium, of course,

715
00:36:47,040 --> 00:36:49,160
Speaker 1: is helium that's super duper duper cold so that it

716
00:36:49,280 --> 00:36:52,840
Speaker 1: turns into a liquid, and if you drop electrons onto

717
00:36:52,920 --> 00:36:55,600
Speaker 1: liquid helium, then they like to stick to the surface.

718
00:36:56,000 --> 00:36:58,759
Speaker 1: Like liquid helium is this really weird surface tension, and

719
00:36:58,840 --> 00:37:01,120
Speaker 1: electrons like to stick to the surface, but they're free

720
00:37:01,160 --> 00:37:04,160
Speaker 1: to slide along it because liquid helium is super fluid,

721
00:37:04,239 --> 00:37:06,959
Speaker 1: so electrons can slide along it really easily, but they're

722
00:37:06,960 --> 00:37:09,440
Speaker 1: stuck on the surface. And of course the surface of

723
00:37:09,440 --> 00:37:12,799
Speaker 1: an object is two dimensional, and so these electrons are

724
00:37:12,840 --> 00:37:15,560
Speaker 1: confined to the surface, but they can slide around. So

725
00:37:15,600 --> 00:37:18,160
Speaker 1: it's really a lot like those ping pong balls stuck

726
00:37:18,200 --> 00:37:21,279
Speaker 1: between two glass planes. And so this is something people

727
00:37:21,320 --> 00:37:24,120
Speaker 1: can actually build. And they call this a two dimensional

728
00:37:24,160 --> 00:37:27,440
Speaker 1: electron gas, not a gas, because it's like something you

729
00:37:27,440 --> 00:37:29,680
Speaker 1: can breathe. But these are just sort of like idealized

730
00:37:29,719 --> 00:37:34,080
Speaker 1: particles bouncing around and moving, and it follows the laws

731
00:37:34,120 --> 00:37:37,520
Speaker 1: of thermodynamics in two dimensions. It's almost like just having

732
00:37:37,600 --> 00:37:39,759
Speaker 1: things on balls on the table, right like it they're

733
00:37:39,760 --> 00:37:41,920
Speaker 1: just sitting on the surface of the ping pong table

734
00:37:42,320 --> 00:37:45,120
Speaker 1: and they sort of roll around, but they can't just

735
00:37:45,200 --> 00:37:47,799
Speaker 1: jump off, right, But if they bounced into each other,

736
00:37:48,080 --> 00:37:50,799
Speaker 1: then they would sometimes leave the surface. You can get

737
00:37:50,800 --> 00:37:53,480
Speaker 1: that sort of excitation in the third dimension. But if

738
00:37:53,520 --> 00:37:55,520
Speaker 1: they're trapped, if there really are confined you have like

739
00:37:55,560 --> 00:37:58,239
Speaker 1: a layer of glass over your ping pong table, then

740
00:37:58,280 --> 00:38:00,000
Speaker 1: they really are trapped in there, and the only way

741
00:38:00,120 --> 00:38:01,839
Speaker 1: they can move is in two dimensions. And I see,

742
00:38:01,880 --> 00:38:04,520
Speaker 1: so the electrons are sort of stuck to the surface

743
00:38:04,560 --> 00:38:06,880
Speaker 1: of the liquid helium. Yeah, it's some weird chemistry thing

744
00:38:07,400 --> 00:38:09,680
Speaker 1: where they are stuck to the service of the liquid helium.

745
00:38:09,760 --> 00:38:11,799
Speaker 1: And like how you say it's some weird chemistry thing

746
00:38:12,120 --> 00:38:14,520
Speaker 1: and you don't have a good answer. That means I

747
00:38:14,560 --> 00:38:17,240
Speaker 1: don't understand it. I'm not a chemist. All the chemistry

748
00:38:17,280 --> 00:38:20,480
Speaker 1: is some weird chemistry thing to be all right. So

749
00:38:20,560 --> 00:38:23,120
Speaker 1: that's one kind of two D pseudo object. What are

750
00:38:23,160 --> 00:38:25,520
Speaker 1: some other kinds? The most interesting, and I think the

751
00:38:25,560 --> 00:38:29,680
Speaker 1: most exciting is this thing called graph being graphing is

752
00:38:29,719 --> 00:38:33,560
Speaker 1: a two D sheet of carbon atoms that assemble themselves

753
00:38:33,560 --> 00:38:36,200
Speaker 1: into an object. You know that carbon can make lots

754
00:38:36,200 --> 00:38:38,840
Speaker 1: of different things. It can make diamond, you can make graphite,

755
00:38:38,880 --> 00:38:41,319
Speaker 1: which is basically coal, but it can also make all

756
00:38:41,360 --> 00:38:43,920
Speaker 1: sorts of other things. And I love carbon and all

757
00:38:43,960 --> 00:38:46,200
Speaker 1: of its forms, because it really makes a point which

758
00:38:46,239 --> 00:38:48,759
Speaker 1: I think is really deeply true about the universe, which

759
00:38:48,800 --> 00:38:50,920
Speaker 1: is that the nature of an object is not about

760
00:38:50,920 --> 00:38:53,040
Speaker 1: what it's made out of, but about how those things

761
00:38:53,080 --> 00:38:55,480
Speaker 1: are put together. So you can put the same carbon

762
00:38:55,520 --> 00:38:57,840
Speaker 1: atoms together to make a diamond or a lump of coal,

763
00:38:58,040 --> 00:38:59,759
Speaker 1: and that really tells you that it's really just some

764
00:39:00,000 --> 00:39:02,320
Speaker 1: out how you build the thing, and there's a really

765
00:39:02,360 --> 00:39:04,880
Speaker 1: weird and unique way that you can build it to

766
00:39:04,960 --> 00:39:08,399
Speaker 1: make this single atomic layer of carbon atoms, and they

767
00:39:08,400 --> 00:39:11,440
Speaker 1: call that graphene. Yeah, and that was the Nobel Prize

768
00:39:11,520 --> 00:39:13,799
Speaker 1: maybe like ten or fifteen years ago, right where they

769
00:39:13,840 --> 00:39:18,800
Speaker 1: discovered it by using scotch tape on a pencil lead shavings. Yeah,

770
00:39:18,840 --> 00:39:21,240
Speaker 1: in two thousand and ten. They won the Nobel Prize

771
00:39:21,280 --> 00:39:24,440
Speaker 1: for an experiment they published in two thousand four. And

772
00:39:24,480 --> 00:39:27,200
Speaker 1: these are two folks in the UK that, as you say,

773
00:39:27,400 --> 00:39:30,640
Speaker 1: you scotch tape, they took like pieces of graphite and

774
00:39:30,640 --> 00:39:32,840
Speaker 1: they realized that if you get scotch tape on the

775
00:39:32,840 --> 00:39:35,600
Speaker 1: graphite and you pull it away, you get thinner pieces

776
00:39:35,600 --> 00:39:38,799
Speaker 1: of graphite, sometimes very very thin. And then they would

777
00:39:38,920 --> 00:39:41,560
Speaker 1: pride these pieces of scotch tape open, and they would

778
00:39:41,560 --> 00:39:44,120
Speaker 1: do it again and again and again until they got

779
00:39:44,520 --> 00:39:48,560
Speaker 1: mono layers of graphite, which they called graphine. Right, it's

780
00:39:48,600 --> 00:39:52,799
Speaker 1: like you create like a sheet of single carbon atoms. Yeah,

781
00:39:52,880 --> 00:39:55,439
Speaker 1: a sheet of single carbon atoms. Now in your mind

782
00:39:55,440 --> 00:39:57,799
Speaker 1: you might be imagining like that they're rolling out some

783
00:39:57,960 --> 00:40:00,800
Speaker 1: huge roll of this stuff that's like ten by ten meters.

784
00:40:00,920 --> 00:40:02,680
Speaker 1: What they were able to do in their first paper

785
00:40:02,920 --> 00:40:06,640
Speaker 1: were pieces of graphing that were ten microns in size.

786
00:40:06,880 --> 00:40:09,000
Speaker 1: That's still pretty big. I mean it's like, you know,

787
00:40:09,080 --> 00:40:12,759
Speaker 1: maybe a couple of hundred adams in each side. Absolutely,

788
00:40:13,000 --> 00:40:15,680
Speaker 1: so it's pretty impressive. And they had some bigger pieces

789
00:40:15,680 --> 00:40:17,560
Speaker 1: that you could see by I they weren't actually down

790
00:40:17,600 --> 00:40:20,680
Speaker 1: to one atomic layer. There were like several atomic layers.

791
00:40:20,920 --> 00:40:23,840
Speaker 1: This is not a very precise method. You know, scotch

792
00:40:23,920 --> 00:40:26,400
Speaker 1: tape on pencil shavings essentially, I mean, it's not like

793
00:40:26,480 --> 00:40:28,560
Speaker 1: duct tape. If you used duct tape, then then you're

794
00:40:28,560 --> 00:40:31,239
Speaker 1: really doing real physics. I would guess that every Experimental

795
00:40:31,239 --> 00:40:34,279
Speaker 1: physics Nobel Prize since duct tape was invented has had

796
00:40:34,360 --> 00:40:37,399
Speaker 1: duct tapes somewhere in their experience. That Mr Duck should

797
00:40:37,560 --> 00:40:41,080
Speaker 1: get his own prize in engineering somewhere. But it also

798
00:40:41,160 --> 00:40:44,760
Speaker 1: means that we've probably all been generating sheets of graphing

799
00:40:44,960 --> 00:40:47,880
Speaker 1: every time we've used pencils, because this stuff really is

800
00:40:47,920 --> 00:40:50,520
Speaker 1: so riddle. You get these little sheets of graphing, these

801
00:40:50,520 --> 00:40:54,120
Speaker 1: two dimensional materials falling off of your pencils. Yeah, and

802
00:40:54,160 --> 00:40:57,440
Speaker 1: graphing is interesting because it's not just like flat, almost

803
00:40:57,480 --> 00:41:00,960
Speaker 1: two dimensional, but it has some pretty using properties. Right.

804
00:41:01,160 --> 00:41:05,040
Speaker 1: It's really an incredibly different kind of stuff than graphite.

805
00:41:05,280 --> 00:41:08,000
Speaker 1: You know, graphite, this stuff in your pencil not very strong, right,

806
00:41:08,000 --> 00:41:09,920
Speaker 1: You wouldn't want to build like a sheet of armor

807
00:41:10,239 --> 00:41:13,960
Speaker 1: out of this stuff. But graphene is two hundred times

808
00:41:13,960 --> 00:41:17,600
Speaker 1: stronger than steel by weight, and it's like a sheet

809
00:41:17,600 --> 00:41:20,080
Speaker 1: of it is a thousand times lighter than a sheet

810
00:41:20,120 --> 00:41:21,840
Speaker 1: of paper. What does that mean? Stronger? Like, if you

811
00:41:21,920 --> 00:41:23,719
Speaker 1: pull in it or try to poke through it, it

812
00:41:23,719 --> 00:41:26,560
Speaker 1: will be stronger than if you made it out of steel.

813
00:41:27,200 --> 00:41:29,360
Speaker 1: You can support the weight, so you can hang something

814
00:41:29,400 --> 00:41:31,840
Speaker 1: from it, for example, or build things out of it.

815
00:41:31,840 --> 00:41:34,799
Speaker 1: It's stronger than steel. You could, for example, make a

816
00:41:34,960 --> 00:41:38,200
Speaker 1: hammock that's so thin it would be invisible, and the

817
00:41:38,320 --> 00:41:40,800
Speaker 1: cat could sit on the hammock and be like floating

818
00:41:40,840 --> 00:41:44,120
Speaker 1: in air cool and it also has interesting electrical properties. Right,

819
00:41:44,160 --> 00:41:46,720
Speaker 1: It's really an incredible material because it has the most

820
00:41:46,880 --> 00:41:50,680
Speaker 1: electrical and thermal conductivity of any material we know about

821
00:41:50,960 --> 00:41:55,319
Speaker 1: at room temperature. So it's like the strongest, lightest, most

822
00:41:55,360 --> 00:42:00,120
Speaker 1: electrically conductive, most thermally conductive material basically we've ever discovered it.

823
00:42:00,320 --> 00:42:02,319
Speaker 1: Now is the idea then to make like computer chips

824
00:42:02,320 --> 00:42:06,480
Speaker 1: out of it, Like instead of using silicon and you know,

825
00:42:06,560 --> 00:42:09,279
Speaker 1: doping in and printing it, you could maybe draw it

826
00:42:09,440 --> 00:42:12,799
Speaker 1: using graphing. That was the original idea because we know

827
00:42:12,920 --> 00:42:15,480
Speaker 1: that chips need to get smaller and smaller for computers

828
00:42:15,480 --> 00:42:17,920
Speaker 1: to get faster and faster. But we're sort of approaching

829
00:42:17,960 --> 00:42:21,879
Speaker 1: the limit of what semiconductors can do, and it's really

830
00:42:21,880 --> 00:42:25,240
Speaker 1: hard to imagine making things that are smaller out of metal.

831
00:42:25,520 --> 00:42:29,360
Speaker 1: So these guys achieved creating a material which is electrically

832
00:42:29,360 --> 00:42:32,640
Speaker 1: conductive and so can be used to form these chips

833
00:42:32,719 --> 00:42:35,680
Speaker 1: and is super duper narrow. So that's exactly what people

834
00:42:35,680 --> 00:42:38,920
Speaker 1: are working on applications of graphing to do electronics and

835
00:42:38,920 --> 00:42:42,239
Speaker 1: computer chips, but also construction, you know, making things out

836
00:42:42,239 --> 00:42:44,239
Speaker 1: of this new kind of material, Right, like you can

837
00:42:44,239 --> 00:42:48,080
Speaker 1: maybe stack these sheets and make super strong body armor

838
00:42:48,160 --> 00:42:51,160
Speaker 1: basically or anything, right the house. Yeah, and you get

839
00:42:51,200 --> 00:42:53,640
Speaker 1: really weird properties, like you can make sheets of graphing,

840
00:42:53,680 --> 00:42:56,319
Speaker 1: but there are also other kinds of materials you can

841
00:42:56,360 --> 00:42:59,240
Speaker 1: now make model layers of and you take one sheet

842
00:42:59,239 --> 00:43:01,480
Speaker 1: of graphing as sheet of something else, and you can

843
00:43:01,520 --> 00:43:04,520
Speaker 1: make these weird structures they're called hetero structures that now

844
00:43:04,640 --> 00:43:08,160
Speaker 1: have other really strange properties. And so because these are

845
00:43:08,200 --> 00:43:10,520
Speaker 1: weird two D materials, you can stack them together to

846
00:43:10,600 --> 00:43:14,200
Speaker 1: make three D sort of like designer materials. You can

847
00:43:14,239 --> 00:43:17,200
Speaker 1: make materials that are totally different from anything we've been

848
00:43:17,200 --> 00:43:19,319
Speaker 1: able to make before. So it's opened up this whole

849
00:43:19,360 --> 00:43:23,480
Speaker 1: new field of like engineering new kinds of materials. So

850
00:43:23,520 --> 00:43:24,840
Speaker 1: you can build a house and then you can let

851
00:43:24,880 --> 00:43:26,680
Speaker 1: your kids draw in it with a pencil and it'd

852
00:43:26,719 --> 00:43:31,640
Speaker 1: be totally acceptable. Right, You're like, I have nothing, I

853
00:43:31,680 --> 00:43:35,239
Speaker 1: have nothing for that. All right, that's a cartoonist dream house,

854
00:43:35,280 --> 00:43:37,000
Speaker 1: it sounds like to me. All right. So then you

855
00:43:37,000 --> 00:43:41,440
Speaker 1: can also make these two D materials using quasi particles,

856
00:43:41,480 --> 00:43:43,759
Speaker 1: which I know we talked about before, but maybe we

857
00:43:43,800 --> 00:43:47,720
Speaker 1: didn't talk about the two dimensionality of them. Yeah, quasi particles. Remember,

858
00:43:47,920 --> 00:43:49,920
Speaker 1: our things are not particles in the way that we

859
00:43:49,960 --> 00:43:53,360
Speaker 1: think about them, but mathematically they follow the same rules

860
00:43:53,400 --> 00:43:55,799
Speaker 1: as particles. And so the way I think about it

861
00:43:55,840 --> 00:43:58,720
Speaker 1: is like, well, a particle is a little excited blob

862
00:43:58,760 --> 00:44:01,440
Speaker 1: of energy and a quantum field. You can also have

863
00:44:01,480 --> 00:44:04,399
Speaker 1: excited blobs of energy and other stuff that stays sort

864
00:44:04,400 --> 00:44:07,640
Speaker 1: of localized and moves around, and so sort of follows

865
00:44:07,640 --> 00:44:10,960
Speaker 1: the same math that we use to consider particles. And

866
00:44:11,000 --> 00:44:13,359
Speaker 1: the kind of thing you can deposit energy into is

867
00:44:13,400 --> 00:44:16,360
Speaker 1: like a sheet of plasma. You know. Plasma is this

868
00:44:16,520 --> 00:44:19,600
Speaker 1: fourth state of matter where you heat up stuff hot

869
00:44:19,719 --> 00:44:22,040
Speaker 1: enough that the electrons go free, and you have this

870
00:44:22,160 --> 00:44:25,839
Speaker 1: basically gas of charged particles. Like what's in the sun

871
00:44:26,239 --> 00:44:29,800
Speaker 1: is plasma or what's in your fluorescent light tumbe is plasma.

872
00:44:29,880 --> 00:44:32,839
Speaker 1: Plasma because it's charged and has lots of really strong

873
00:44:32,880 --> 00:44:36,520
Speaker 1: electromagnetic forces, and so sometimes it forms these sheets, you know,

874
00:44:36,520 --> 00:44:38,759
Speaker 1: it's like separates into sheets, a positive sheet in a

875
00:44:38,800 --> 00:44:43,040
Speaker 1: negative sheet, and those sheets can have excited states. Sometimes

876
00:44:43,080 --> 00:44:46,440
Speaker 1: like ripples go through those sheets and they act like particles.

877
00:44:46,680 --> 00:44:50,000
Speaker 1: So that's a quasi particle that's called an en eon. Yeah,

878
00:44:50,040 --> 00:44:52,480
Speaker 1: and I know what's kind of exciting about these materials

879
00:44:52,600 --> 00:44:56,080
Speaker 1: is their application in things like quantum computers, right, and

880
00:44:56,200 --> 00:44:59,000
Speaker 1: encryption and making things that are sort of full proof

881
00:44:59,040 --> 00:45:03,799
Speaker 1: against quantum decoherence. There are certainly applications in quantum computers

882
00:45:03,840 --> 00:45:06,520
Speaker 1: for some quasi particles. I think that for me, the

883
00:45:06,560 --> 00:45:09,640
Speaker 1: exciting thing about them is that they follow rules of

884
00:45:09,680 --> 00:45:12,840
Speaker 1: a different universe. They follow the rules of a two

885
00:45:12,880 --> 00:45:16,520
Speaker 1: dimensional universe, like the mathematical rules the things we're talking

886
00:45:16,560 --> 00:45:18,400
Speaker 1: about very early in the top of the program, like

887
00:45:18,600 --> 00:45:20,759
Speaker 1: why is our universe three D and not four D?

888
00:45:20,840 --> 00:45:22,640
Speaker 1: And what would it be like? We can sort of

889
00:45:22,680 --> 00:45:25,200
Speaker 1: see what a two D universe really would be like,

890
00:45:25,520 --> 00:45:27,359
Speaker 1: and we have the math to describe it. But now

891
00:45:27,360 --> 00:45:29,520
Speaker 1: we actually get to see the physics of it, and

892
00:45:29,560 --> 00:45:31,320
Speaker 1: you might wonder, like, well, what would it do D

893
00:45:31,480 --> 00:45:34,000
Speaker 1: universe be? Like? How could that be different? You know,

894
00:45:34,040 --> 00:45:37,880
Speaker 1: in a two dimensional universe there's a different relationship, for example, right,

895
00:45:37,920 --> 00:45:41,279
Speaker 1: between energy and velocity. Like in our universe energy is

896
00:45:41,320 --> 00:45:44,560
Speaker 1: one half MV squared, right, there's a V squared there,

897
00:45:44,960 --> 00:45:47,400
Speaker 1: But in a two dimensional universe it's not V squared.

898
00:45:47,480 --> 00:45:50,879
Speaker 1: There's a linear relationship between energy and velocity. So that's

899
00:45:50,880 --> 00:45:53,560
Speaker 1: the kind of mathematical difference. You get like different kind

900
00:45:53,600 --> 00:45:56,840
Speaker 1: of physics in these two d universes, and so you

901
00:45:56,840 --> 00:46:00,440
Speaker 1: can see that happening in these examples. And it's especially

902
00:46:00,520 --> 00:46:04,719
Speaker 1: weird for an eons is that they follow different spin statistics.

903
00:46:05,280 --> 00:46:08,160
Speaker 1: Like we have particles in our universe that are either

904
00:46:08,239 --> 00:46:12,360
Speaker 1: fermions or bosons, and fermions don't like to exist in

905
00:46:12,440 --> 00:46:15,399
Speaker 1: the same quantum state, whereas bosons are happy to hang

906
00:46:15,440 --> 00:46:18,840
Speaker 1: out in the same quantum state. Well, anyons can be

907
00:46:19,080 --> 00:46:23,480
Speaker 1: somewhere between fermions and bosons. They're not like fermions exactly,

908
00:46:23,520 --> 00:46:26,320
Speaker 1: They're not like boson's exactly. They're like has sort of

909
00:46:26,360 --> 00:46:29,839
Speaker 1: like fractional in between states. Cool, you'd have to start

910
00:46:29,840 --> 00:46:33,520
Speaker 1: a whole new field called cartoon physics basically, right, Like

911
00:46:33,560 --> 00:46:35,839
Speaker 1: it's a whole new and different, whole new ball game,

912
00:46:36,000 --> 00:46:38,080
Speaker 1: whole new comic book. It's a whole new ball game

913
00:46:38,120 --> 00:46:40,280
Speaker 1: and a whole new way to like explore the universe

914
00:46:40,440 --> 00:46:43,319
Speaker 1: and see weird stuff and to get surprised. Well, it

915
00:46:43,360 --> 00:46:46,520
Speaker 1: sounds pretty cool. It sounds like to the objects are

916
00:46:46,560 --> 00:46:49,759
Speaker 1: not just as possible and theoretical, but they're also right

917
00:46:49,800 --> 00:46:52,000
Speaker 1: here in our universe. You can make them. You can

918
00:46:52,239 --> 00:46:54,680
Speaker 1: create them, you can sandwich them, you can make pizzas

919
00:46:54,719 --> 00:46:57,960
Speaker 1: out of them, put entovies on them, and so that

920
00:46:58,080 --> 00:47:00,879
Speaker 1: opens things up to a lot of interesting new math

921
00:47:01,000 --> 00:47:03,719
Speaker 1: and maybe a whole bunch of new materials. And so

922
00:47:03,840 --> 00:47:07,200
Speaker 1: to have the last word, we'll bring back Professor Rohani

923
00:47:07,480 --> 00:47:09,279
Speaker 1: to tell us a little bit about the future of

924
00:47:09,320 --> 00:47:12,840
Speaker 1: these new and exciting materials. Oh. I think there is

925
00:47:12,880 --> 00:47:15,680
Speaker 1: a lot of research already in experiment even as you

926
00:47:15,800 --> 00:47:19,040
Speaker 1: see I I and a lot of researching different two

927
00:47:19,040 --> 00:47:22,560
Speaker 1: dimensional materials. Graphin is not the only one. There are

928
00:47:22,880 --> 00:47:28,000
Speaker 1: materials so cood, wonderbos materials, and these are layer materials

929
00:47:28,000 --> 00:47:31,400
Speaker 1: that you can imagine as very similar to the graphite

930
00:47:31,719 --> 00:47:33,799
Speaker 1: of which you can peel off the grappin, so you

931
00:47:33,840 --> 00:47:37,239
Speaker 1: have very weakly connected layers and that you can just

932
00:47:37,360 --> 00:47:41,120
Speaker 1: build the layers of these materials. And what people can

933
00:47:41,120 --> 00:47:44,160
Speaker 1: do with them is kind of engineer the band structure

934
00:47:44,239 --> 00:47:48,120
Speaker 1: and therefore together with that engineer physical properties of material

935
00:47:48,440 --> 00:47:51,800
Speaker 1: and create new type of material with completely new physical

936
00:47:51,800 --> 00:47:54,799
Speaker 1: properties just by putting these layers on top of each other,

937
00:47:55,280 --> 00:47:59,399
Speaker 1: like making making a sandwich or something of them. They're

938
00:47:59,400 --> 00:48:03,680
Speaker 1: doing ex ments are using orso graphine and hexagonal born

939
00:48:03,760 --> 00:48:07,759
Speaker 1: n trade and other condropost materials. And I think the

940
00:48:07,920 --> 00:48:11,400
Speaker 1: transition method that could janites I can pronounce that the

941
00:48:11,560 --> 00:48:15,960
Speaker 1: perfectly yes, that you can use to build these different

942
00:48:16,040 --> 00:48:18,799
Speaker 1: kind of so called hetero structures when you just leave

943
00:48:18,800 --> 00:48:22,239
Speaker 1: your you know, these different two dimensional materials on top

944
00:48:22,280 --> 00:48:25,520
Speaker 1: of each other and then create new types of materials

945
00:48:25,600 --> 00:48:30,080
Speaker 1: and you know, examine, how do I change the physical properties?

946
00:48:30,120 --> 00:48:33,560
Speaker 1: Can I make a superconductor or can I make out

947
00:48:33,560 --> 00:48:35,800
Speaker 1: of you know, like I have graphine, which is insanely

948
00:48:35,800 --> 00:48:38,400
Speaker 1: good conductor, but if I leave you and maybe the

949
00:48:38,520 --> 00:48:42,239
Speaker 1: becompany insulator and so on. So you know, all of

950
00:48:42,280 --> 00:48:44,520
Speaker 1: discussions and I think it's very nice because it's kind

951
00:48:44,520 --> 00:48:49,000
Speaker 1: of playground and you can build so many things with

952
00:48:49,120 --> 00:48:51,719
Speaker 1: this and not just you know, I kind of try

953
00:48:51,760 --> 00:48:55,960
Speaker 1: to engineer and make functional materials that you can then

954
00:48:56,160 --> 00:48:59,200
Speaker 1: use in applications for you know, the semi conductor business,

955
00:48:59,239 --> 00:49:01,440
Speaker 1: which is huge, right, so you can just make you know,

956
00:49:01,600 --> 00:49:05,200
Speaker 1: faster for more efficient chips and stuff like that, but

957
00:49:05,320 --> 00:49:09,279
Speaker 1: also completely new technologies. And I think a lot of

958
00:49:09,320 --> 00:49:11,560
Speaker 1: research has already put in the in the past I

959
00:49:11,560 --> 00:49:15,280
Speaker 1: think ten fifteen years. So you can take bread slices

960
00:49:15,320 --> 00:49:18,480
Speaker 1: and slices and then rebuild it in different slices to

961
00:49:18,560 --> 00:49:21,560
Speaker 1: make whatever you like, to make all sorts of new stuff. Yeah,

962
00:49:22,239 --> 00:49:25,880
Speaker 1: synthetic materials. Yeah. Like think you take a slice of

963
00:49:25,880 --> 00:49:28,360
Speaker 1: bread which is not a bread anymore. It is completely different,

964
00:49:28,440 --> 00:49:30,000
Speaker 1: and then you put some ham on it, and it's

965
00:49:30,040 --> 00:49:32,799
Speaker 1: not a sandwich. Is just something entirely different. You know,

966
00:49:32,840 --> 00:49:35,200
Speaker 1: it's likely So it's insane. All right. That was a

967
00:49:35,239 --> 00:49:39,160
Speaker 1: deep dive into some to the ideas. Sounds like the

968
00:49:39,200 --> 00:49:42,000
Speaker 1: future is bright for these two D objects. Yeah, and

969
00:49:42,000 --> 00:49:46,040
Speaker 1: people are just now thinking about even crazier ideas, like mathematically,

970
00:49:46,280 --> 00:49:48,880
Speaker 1: can you have a one D object? Can you construct

971
00:49:48,880 --> 00:49:51,480
Speaker 1: an object that's just a string of atoms that are

972
00:49:51,520 --> 00:49:54,480
Speaker 1: somehow bound together? What would be the properties of that

973
00:49:54,560 --> 00:49:56,520
Speaker 1: kind of thing? How could you make it? Could you

974
00:49:56,600 --> 00:49:59,680
Speaker 1: like take graphine and somehow like slice it off using

975
00:49:59,719 --> 00:50:02,719
Speaker 1: two the Scotch tape to make one D strings? Is

976
00:50:02,760 --> 00:50:05,799
Speaker 1: that the next Nobel Prize? Oh? Man, I feel like

977
00:50:05,800 --> 00:50:07,560
Speaker 1: you should take it easy and just maybe go one

978
00:50:07,600 --> 00:50:10,439
Speaker 1: and a half D first, you know what I mean?

979
00:50:10,520 --> 00:50:14,120
Speaker 1: Like that's crazy. Hey, Well, my wife says I'm too dimensional,

980
00:50:14,200 --> 00:50:17,040
Speaker 1: so I gotta mechanic go on a diet exactly. But

981
00:50:17,120 --> 00:50:19,279
Speaker 1: until then we can have fun thinking about these things,

982
00:50:19,600 --> 00:50:22,360
Speaker 1: wondering what the math is like in a one dimensional universe,

983
00:50:22,520 --> 00:50:24,799
Speaker 1: and maybe one day somebody will build a one D

984
00:50:25,000 --> 00:50:28,120
Speaker 1: object and we can actually see how electrons move along

985
00:50:28,160 --> 00:50:30,399
Speaker 1: it in one dimension. You just you have to look

986
00:50:30,400 --> 00:50:31,640
Speaker 1: at it from the side. You can't look at it

987
00:50:31,719 --> 00:50:33,560
Speaker 1: hit on. All right, Well, we hope you enjoyed that.

988
00:50:34,239 --> 00:50:45,240
Speaker 1: Thanks for joining us, see you next time. Thanks for listening,

989
00:50:45,239 --> 00:50:48,000
Speaker 1: and remember that Daniel and Jorge explained. The Universe is

990
00:50:48,040 --> 00:50:51,520
Speaker 1: a production of I Heart Radio or more podcast from

991
00:50:51,520 --> 00:50:55,279
Speaker 1: my heart Radio. Visit the I Heart Radio Apple Apple Podcasts,

992
00:50:55,400 --> 00:51:02,040
Speaker 1: or wherever you listen to your favorite shows.