1 00:00:01,120 --> 00:00:04,080 Speaker 1: Welcome to Stuff you missed in History Class from how 2 00:00:04,120 --> 00:00:14,520 Speaker 1: Stuff Works dot com. Hello, and welcome to the podcast. 3 00:00:14,680 --> 00:00:17,920 Speaker 1: I'm Tracy P. Wilson and I'm Polly Fry. Now, some 4 00:00:18,000 --> 00:00:20,639 Speaker 1: people just do so much stuff that they cannot be 5 00:00:20,720 --> 00:00:25,720 Speaker 1: contained in one podcast episode. It's happening today. Yeah, this 6 00:00:25,800 --> 00:00:29,440 Speaker 1: is a fertile ground of information. I know. It's so. 7 00:00:29,640 --> 00:00:32,960 Speaker 1: I feel like sometimes we talk about scientists whose achievements 8 00:00:32,960 --> 00:00:36,800 Speaker 1: are particular to one field, maybe not like the exact 9 00:00:36,960 --> 00:00:39,320 Speaker 1: same narrow field of study, but at least in the 10 00:00:39,360 --> 00:00:43,720 Speaker 1: same basic neighborhood of science. The person that we're going 11 00:00:43,760 --> 00:00:46,360 Speaker 1: to talk about today and in our next episode is 12 00:00:46,440 --> 00:00:50,840 Speaker 1: Luis W. Alvarez. And he was a physicist who's broad 13 00:00:50,920 --> 00:00:53,400 Speaker 1: interests wound up connecting him to some of the twentieth 14 00:00:53,479 --> 00:00:58,640 Speaker 1: centuries most history making moments, including the bombing of Hiroshima 15 00:00:58,760 --> 00:01:02,360 Speaker 1: and the assassination and of John F. Kennedy. His work 16 00:01:02,480 --> 00:01:06,320 Speaker 1: was just so diverse and groundbreaking that he was nicknamed 17 00:01:06,680 --> 00:01:10,960 Speaker 1: the wild idea Man of physics, and rightly so. Uh 18 00:01:11,000 --> 00:01:13,680 Speaker 1: As if that all wasn't enough, he and his son 19 00:01:13,800 --> 00:01:17,080 Speaker 1: also did groundbreaking work into the history of the world. 20 00:01:17,440 --> 00:01:20,440 Speaker 1: They came up with what's now accepted as the most 21 00:01:20,520 --> 00:01:24,080 Speaker 1: sort of popular theory on what happened to the dinosaurs. 22 00:01:24,880 --> 00:01:27,200 Speaker 1: So we're already all over the map. We're really all 23 00:01:27,200 --> 00:01:30,679 Speaker 1: over the map. Yeah, because of the breadth of his accomplishments. 24 00:01:30,680 --> 00:01:32,960 Speaker 1: We're going to talk about him in two episodes, and 25 00:01:33,040 --> 00:01:35,200 Speaker 1: so in this one we're going to talk about his 26 00:01:35,240 --> 00:01:38,840 Speaker 1: early life and his education, which scattered as it was, 27 00:01:38,959 --> 00:01:42,440 Speaker 1: became really formative in how he wound up approaching the 28 00:01:42,480 --> 00:01:44,640 Speaker 1: world of science. We're also going to talk about some 29 00:01:44,720 --> 00:01:47,840 Speaker 1: of his more theoretical work in physics, so that would 30 00:01:47,880 --> 00:01:51,960 Speaker 1: be a really dense place to end the episode, so 31 00:01:51,960 --> 00:01:54,800 Speaker 1: so that we don't leave on that note of here 32 00:01:54,880 --> 00:01:58,560 Speaker 1: is some physics that many people will have trouble understanding. 33 00:01:58,760 --> 00:02:01,000 Speaker 1: We're also going to talk about some of his groundbreaking 34 00:02:01,040 --> 00:02:04,200 Speaker 1: work on radar during World War Two, which is much 35 00:02:04,280 --> 00:02:07,760 Speaker 1: easier to talk about in a practical way. In the 36 00:02:07,840 --> 00:02:10,839 Speaker 1: second part of the episode, we will continue to talk 37 00:02:10,840 --> 00:02:13,200 Speaker 1: about the World War two story with his work in 38 00:02:13,240 --> 00:02:17,200 Speaker 1: the nuclear weapons program before we get into this unexpected 39 00:02:17,320 --> 00:02:19,800 Speaker 1: role that he grew into. It is sort of a 40 00:02:20,080 --> 00:02:24,560 Speaker 1: scientific mystery solver. Again, all over the map. I It's 41 00:02:24,600 --> 00:02:27,600 Speaker 1: like if it's one of those biographies that if you 42 00:02:27,800 --> 00:02:30,639 Speaker 1: just read it out of context, without knowing who this 43 00:02:30,720 --> 00:02:34,320 Speaker 1: person was or even the particular world events, you would 44 00:02:34,320 --> 00:02:36,440 Speaker 1: be like, this is the wildest fiction ever? Does this 45 00:02:36,520 --> 00:02:39,920 Speaker 1: author have no direction? Well, and we are in the 46 00:02:40,040 --> 00:02:42,799 Speaker 1: very lucky position that he wrote an autobiography which you 47 00:02:42,840 --> 00:02:45,840 Speaker 1: can get in read and he was a character. So 48 00:02:47,400 --> 00:02:50,200 Speaker 1: I recommend that if you find these two episodes interesting, 49 00:02:50,240 --> 00:02:52,880 Speaker 1: there is so so, so much more because even with 50 00:02:52,960 --> 00:02:56,560 Speaker 1: two episodes, there are various side trips and other ancillary 51 00:02:56,600 --> 00:02:58,800 Speaker 1: things that we're going to just skip completely over because 52 00:02:58,800 --> 00:03:02,960 Speaker 1: there is too much. So let's start at the beginning. Yeah. 53 00:03:03,000 --> 00:03:06,880 Speaker 1: He was born in San Francisco on June thirteenth, nineteen eleven. 54 00:03:07,200 --> 00:03:12,200 Speaker 1: His parents were Walter C. And Harriet Smythe Alvarez. Most 55 00:03:12,280 --> 00:03:15,360 Speaker 1: people during his life called him by the nickname Louis, 56 00:03:15,600 --> 00:03:18,800 Speaker 1: and that just feels a little film of familiar to 57 00:03:18,919 --> 00:03:21,880 Speaker 1: me when you see him, when you when you see 58 00:03:21,880 --> 00:03:25,160 Speaker 1: his name in in academic writing, he's he's called Louise, 59 00:03:25,520 --> 00:03:28,519 Speaker 1: but his friends called him Louis, And just because that 60 00:03:28,720 --> 00:03:31,080 Speaker 1: nickname feels a little familiar, we're going to stick with 61 00:03:31,160 --> 00:03:35,480 Speaker 1: Louise today. Uh. And his grandfather on his father's side 62 00:03:35,520 --> 00:03:38,080 Speaker 1: was born in Spain. I mean he lost his parents 63 00:03:38,120 --> 00:03:39,880 Speaker 1: at quite a young age, and he moved to Cuba 64 00:03:39,920 --> 00:03:42,360 Speaker 1: as a teenager, and from there he moved to the 65 00:03:42,480 --> 00:03:45,920 Speaker 1: US and became a doctor. And his mother's family was 66 00:03:45,960 --> 00:03:49,680 Speaker 1: actually from Ireland, which is kind of a fun combination. Yeah, 67 00:03:49,760 --> 00:03:54,880 Speaker 1: so he had a Spanish and Irish heritage. Louise's father 68 00:03:55,120 --> 00:03:58,480 Speaker 1: was Walter Alvarez, who was a noted physician who did 69 00:03:58,520 --> 00:04:01,280 Speaker 1: medical research in the morning and worked in family practice 70 00:04:01,320 --> 00:04:05,760 Speaker 1: in the afternoons. Walter became a research physiologist at the 71 00:04:05,800 --> 00:04:08,480 Speaker 1: Mayo Clinic and worked as a clinician there after the 72 00:04:08,520 --> 00:04:12,520 Speaker 1: Great Depression, and after he retired, he wrote a syndicated 73 00:04:12,560 --> 00:04:16,520 Speaker 1: newspaper column and became known as America's family doctor. And 74 00:04:16,600 --> 00:04:18,800 Speaker 1: one piece of advice that Walter gave to his son, 75 00:04:18,920 --> 00:04:22,400 Speaker 1: in Louise's own words, were, my father advised me to 76 00:04:22,440 --> 00:04:24,800 Speaker 1: sit every few months in my reading chair for an 77 00:04:24,960 --> 00:04:27,640 Speaker 1: entire evening, closed my eyes and try to think of 78 00:04:27,680 --> 00:04:31,080 Speaker 1: new problems to solve. I took his advice very seriously 79 00:04:31,160 --> 00:04:34,440 Speaker 1: and have been glad ever since that I did. This 80 00:04:34,520 --> 00:04:38,680 Speaker 1: was definitely great advice. It is when Louise was very 81 00:04:38,760 --> 00:04:41,159 Speaker 1: young and living in California, he had to stay in 82 00:04:41,240 --> 00:04:44,400 Speaker 1: bed for about a year because of a suspected heart condition. 83 00:04:45,000 --> 00:04:47,680 Speaker 1: During this time, his mother taught him at home, and 84 00:04:47,680 --> 00:04:49,920 Speaker 1: that went on until he got to about second grade. 85 00:04:50,720 --> 00:04:54,000 Speaker 1: Luise was interested in science and electronics from a very 86 00:04:54,000 --> 00:04:56,560 Speaker 1: early age. He would go to the lab with his 87 00:04:56,640 --> 00:04:58,640 Speaker 1: father and he liked to use the tools in his 88 00:04:58,720 --> 00:05:01,960 Speaker 1: father's shop to make sir katry. When he was eleven, 89 00:05:02,200 --> 00:05:04,560 Speaker 1: he and his father made a radio together from a kid, 90 00:05:04,960 --> 00:05:07,480 Speaker 1: which doesn't sound like a big deal today, but radio's 91 00:05:07,560 --> 00:05:11,000 Speaker 1: were not uh everywhere the way they are now. They 92 00:05:11,000 --> 00:05:14,480 Speaker 1: weren't zy to assemble. This is a couple of years 93 00:05:14,560 --> 00:05:18,719 Speaker 1: ahead of radio is becoming ubiquitous, so they were still 94 00:05:19,680 --> 00:05:22,880 Speaker 1: kind of a new technology in the household at that point. 95 00:05:23,400 --> 00:05:26,479 Speaker 1: When he got to high school, Luise went to Polytechnic 96 00:05:26,560 --> 00:05:29,040 Speaker 1: High School rather than going into a college prep program, 97 00:05:29,120 --> 00:05:31,200 Speaker 1: even though his plan was to go to college, and 98 00:05:31,200 --> 00:05:34,440 Speaker 1: this was because of his love of electronics and mechanics. 99 00:05:34,960 --> 00:05:37,000 Speaker 1: He could focus a lot of his study at this 100 00:05:37,120 --> 00:05:41,320 Speaker 1: high school on those more practical skills, and he was 101 00:05:41,360 --> 00:05:44,320 Speaker 1: one of the few students enrolled there who was pursuing 102 00:05:44,320 --> 00:05:47,360 Speaker 1: a more academic program rather than a straight up technical one. 103 00:05:47,920 --> 00:05:50,400 Speaker 1: Luise was actually still in high school when his father 104 00:05:50,520 --> 00:05:52,719 Speaker 1: got the job offer at the Mayo Clinic and the 105 00:05:52,760 --> 00:05:56,400 Speaker 1: family moved to Rochester, Minnesota, from California, where they had 106 00:05:56,440 --> 00:06:02,520 Speaker 1: been living in February. The big change in their lifestyle. Yes, 107 00:06:02,640 --> 00:06:05,640 Speaker 1: so a winter moved from h warm and delightful to 108 00:06:06,720 --> 00:06:09,240 Speaker 1: the more northern parts of the States which get very, 109 00:06:09,320 --> 00:06:12,280 Speaker 1: very cold, is a pretty huge gearship. It went from 110 00:06:12,320 --> 00:06:16,719 Speaker 1: sonny and beautiful to cold and snowy very immediately, and 111 00:06:16,800 --> 00:06:19,480 Speaker 1: he enrolled in Rochester High School, which did not have 112 00:06:19,560 --> 00:06:23,560 Speaker 1: the same technical focus as Polytechnic High had. So Luis 113 00:06:23,640 --> 00:06:26,920 Speaker 1: got an apprenticeship in the Mayo Clinics instrument shop, and 114 00:06:27,000 --> 00:06:29,640 Speaker 1: his father, who noticed his love of what he was doing, 115 00:06:29,800 --> 00:06:32,159 Speaker 1: got one of the Mayo clinics and machinists to tutor 116 00:06:32,240 --> 00:06:34,640 Speaker 1: him on the weekends as well. So he was really 117 00:06:34,680 --> 00:06:37,840 Speaker 1: able to maintain his mechanical interests and keep up with 118 00:06:37,839 --> 00:06:40,839 Speaker 1: that study even though his school wasn't focused on mechanics. 119 00:06:41,600 --> 00:06:43,520 Speaker 1: Here's a story from his high school days which I 120 00:06:43,560 --> 00:06:46,839 Speaker 1: think really sums up his character and his attitude of 121 00:06:46,880 --> 00:06:49,200 Speaker 1: what scientists are all about. And this is in his 122 00:06:49,240 --> 00:06:52,320 Speaker 1: own words. In Rochester, a friend and I used to 123 00:06:52,320 --> 00:06:55,719 Speaker 1: climb the buildings under construction, usually by sneaking past the 124 00:06:55,760 --> 00:06:58,560 Speaker 1: guards in the middle of the night. We climbed the 125 00:06:58,600 --> 00:07:01,360 Speaker 1: three foot clinic tower when it is only a skeleton 126 00:07:01,400 --> 00:07:05,039 Speaker 1: of steel beams. We explored the powerhouse and scaled the 127 00:07:05,080 --> 00:07:08,760 Speaker 1: inside of its two ft rick smokestack. I mentioned these 128 00:07:08,920 --> 00:07:12,160 Speaker 1: escapades not to brag about being a scoff law, but 129 00:07:12,320 --> 00:07:16,680 Speaker 1: only because I'm convinced that a controlled disrespect for society 130 00:07:16,880 --> 00:07:21,000 Speaker 1: is essential to a scientist. All the good experimental physicists 131 00:07:21,040 --> 00:07:23,880 Speaker 1: I have known have had an intense curiosity that no 132 00:07:24,080 --> 00:07:29,000 Speaker 1: keep out signed could mute. I know he's a troublemaker. Yeah, 133 00:07:29,240 --> 00:07:32,320 Speaker 1: it's a little charming. You know, everybody loves a little 134 00:07:32,320 --> 00:07:36,720 Speaker 1: bit of a like smart rogue. But of course, don't time. 135 00:07:36,800 --> 00:07:39,680 Speaker 1: You had to follow the rules. Oh. When Louise started 136 00:07:39,720 --> 00:07:42,640 Speaker 1: college at the University of Chicago, he had planned a 137 00:07:42,640 --> 00:07:45,080 Speaker 1: major in chemistry, which is what he studied until his 138 00:07:45,160 --> 00:07:48,240 Speaker 1: junior year, but it turned out he didn't really like chemistry. 139 00:07:48,520 --> 00:07:51,000 Speaker 1: He liked the lectures, but he described the labs as 140 00:07:51,080 --> 00:07:54,560 Speaker 1: quote repulsive. In his junior year, he took a class 141 00:07:54,600 --> 00:07:59,320 Speaker 1: called Advanced Experimental Physics Light, which he described later as 142 00:07:59,400 --> 00:08:02,120 Speaker 1: love at first site. He had made bees in all 143 00:08:02,160 --> 00:08:04,240 Speaker 1: of his chemistry classes, and he came to hate the 144 00:08:04,280 --> 00:08:07,200 Speaker 1: idea of being a b chemist when he felt like 145 00:08:07,240 --> 00:08:10,400 Speaker 1: he could be a great a physicist. So he changed 146 00:08:10,440 --> 00:08:12,480 Speaker 1: his major to physics and made up for the lost 147 00:08:12,520 --> 00:08:16,520 Speaker 1: time by taking twelve physics classes in five quarters which 148 00:08:16,560 --> 00:08:19,320 Speaker 1: makes my head spin a little bit to think about, uh, 149 00:08:19,360 --> 00:08:21,920 Speaker 1: and pouring over textbooks to make up for the physics 150 00:08:21,960 --> 00:08:24,360 Speaker 1: lectures that he wasn't able to attend in his earlier 151 00:08:24,440 --> 00:08:28,000 Speaker 1: years because he was in chemistry. That's a lot of 152 00:08:28,280 --> 00:08:31,040 Speaker 1: hard science crammed into a very short period of time, 153 00:08:31,520 --> 00:08:35,920 Speaker 1: it is, and I like changing your major because it 154 00:08:36,000 --> 00:08:38,960 Speaker 1: was during his junior year. It was not prior to 155 00:08:39,120 --> 00:08:42,760 Speaker 1: his junior years. During his junior year that he actually 156 00:08:43,480 --> 00:08:46,000 Speaker 1: completely changed tracks. Had to make up for a lot 157 00:08:46,000 --> 00:08:49,520 Speaker 1: of lost time. He graduated from the University of Chicago 158 00:08:49,559 --> 00:08:52,040 Speaker 1: in nineteen thirty two, and he went on to get 159 00:08:52,080 --> 00:08:54,640 Speaker 1: his Masters and PhD from there as well, and he 160 00:08:54,679 --> 00:08:58,440 Speaker 1: got the PhD in nineteen thirty six. He wrote pretty 161 00:08:58,480 --> 00:09:02,040 Speaker 1: candidly about how this edge cation didn't on paper prime 162 00:09:02,160 --> 00:09:03,920 Speaker 1: him for what was to come. When you look at 163 00:09:03,960 --> 00:09:06,480 Speaker 1: all of his achievements that go on for pages and 164 00:09:06,520 --> 00:09:09,160 Speaker 1: pages and pages. It seems like he must have had 165 00:09:09,200 --> 00:09:13,040 Speaker 1: just an exceptional education. The word he used for it 166 00:09:13,160 --> 00:09:20,520 Speaker 1: was atrocious. He had very little, very little theoretical physics 167 00:09:20,559 --> 00:09:24,200 Speaker 1: work compared to the other physicists who were educated at 168 00:09:24,240 --> 00:09:28,440 Speaker 1: the same time. And his PhD thesis, for example, was 169 00:09:28,559 --> 00:09:31,679 Speaker 1: on the diffraction of light, and this was not particularly 170 00:09:31,760 --> 00:09:35,240 Speaker 1: groundbreaking or notable um and it also just came from 171 00:09:35,240 --> 00:09:38,280 Speaker 1: an experiment he had actually been working on earlier in 172 00:09:38,400 --> 00:09:42,120 Speaker 1: his graduate work. Then it was not a clear indicator 173 00:09:42,160 --> 00:09:44,559 Speaker 1: of the greatness that was on the horizon. Well, and 174 00:09:44,640 --> 00:09:46,920 Speaker 1: it's interesting because it seems like he worked so hard 175 00:09:46,960 --> 00:09:51,440 Speaker 1: to cram so much of the physics study track in, 176 00:09:51,880 --> 00:09:54,560 Speaker 1: but yeah, he felt it was fundamentally pretty worthless. Yeah. Well, 177 00:09:54,600 --> 00:09:57,280 Speaker 1: and because that continued on through his his graduate program. 178 00:09:57,320 --> 00:09:59,760 Speaker 1: He also talks about how his graduate advisor was the 179 00:09:59,800 --> 00:10:02,079 Speaker 1: per ficked advisor for them because he just never checked 180 00:10:02,080 --> 00:10:04,440 Speaker 1: on him and had no idea what he was ever 181 00:10:04,480 --> 00:10:09,120 Speaker 1: working on. He just sort of made his own educational path, 182 00:10:09,280 --> 00:10:12,400 Speaker 1: doing whatever he wanted as long as it was hardcore 183 00:10:12,440 --> 00:10:15,960 Speaker 1: study of physics. Love it. Uh. He did get married. 184 00:10:16,040 --> 00:10:18,880 Speaker 1: He married Geraldine Smithwick just after he took his oral 185 00:10:18,920 --> 00:10:21,640 Speaker 1: exams for his pH d, and the plan had been 186 00:10:21,679 --> 00:10:23,480 Speaker 1: for the two of them to go abroad for a 187 00:10:23,559 --> 00:10:27,439 Speaker 1: year for Louise to continue his study. His Spanish grandfather 188 00:10:27,559 --> 00:10:30,160 Speaker 1: was going to pay their way, but just as their 189 00:10:30,160 --> 00:10:33,240 Speaker 1: wedding date was approaching, his grandfather wrote again saying that 190 00:10:33,280 --> 00:10:35,760 Speaker 1: in fact he should not come. At this point, it 191 00:10:35,800 --> 00:10:39,240 Speaker 1: was ninety six and the Spanish Civil War had started, 192 00:10:39,320 --> 00:10:42,120 Speaker 1: so for them to travel there was really not the 193 00:10:42,160 --> 00:10:46,679 Speaker 1: smartest place, right It seemed like no longer a wise plan. Fortunately, 194 00:10:46,920 --> 00:10:50,520 Speaker 1: physicist Ernest Lawrence offered Louise the opportunity to come to 195 00:10:50,600 --> 00:10:53,040 Speaker 1: Berkeley to work with the cyclotron, which is a type 196 00:10:53,040 --> 00:10:56,760 Speaker 1: of particle accelerator in the radiation lab at the University 197 00:10:56,760 --> 00:10:59,680 Speaker 1: of California at Berkeley. So the wedding went on his 198 00:10:59,720 --> 00:11:02,959 Speaker 1: plan end, and Louise and Geraldine later had two children. 199 00:11:03,120 --> 00:11:05,320 Speaker 1: They were Walter, who will talk about later in this 200 00:11:05,400 --> 00:11:09,439 Speaker 1: episode in jean Um. They also sadly had another daughter 201 00:11:09,480 --> 00:11:12,360 Speaker 1: who died at birth. Louis spent almost all of his 202 00:11:12,480 --> 00:11:14,920 Speaker 1: career from that point in California, so the move to 203 00:11:14,960 --> 00:11:18,960 Speaker 1: Berkeley kind of really settled him in one place, although 204 00:11:18,960 --> 00:11:21,839 Speaker 1: there were was sometime during the forties, when World War 205 00:11:21,880 --> 00:11:26,160 Speaker 1: Two brought him to radiation Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute 206 00:11:26,160 --> 00:11:29,880 Speaker 1: of Technology, and then the Metallurgical Laboratory of the University 207 00:11:29,920 --> 00:11:33,560 Speaker 1: of Chicago and then the Los Alamos Laboratory of the 208 00:11:33,559 --> 00:11:37,480 Speaker 1: Manhattan District. He's kind of touring all of the labs 209 00:11:37,520 --> 00:11:41,360 Speaker 1: of high science. Yeah, during World War two, for sure. UM. 210 00:11:41,400 --> 00:11:43,800 Speaker 1: A lot of his earlier career had to do with 211 00:11:43,920 --> 00:11:49,480 Speaker 1: areas of physics that are interesting to other physicists. They 212 00:11:49,520 --> 00:11:52,560 Speaker 1: are kind of hard to apply to everyday life in 213 00:11:52,760 --> 00:11:56,440 Speaker 1: real world terms that non physicists they're likely to understand. 214 00:11:56,559 --> 00:11:58,720 Speaker 1: And please understand. I say this as a person who 215 00:11:58,720 --> 00:12:02,720 Speaker 1: loves science. I'm not ragging on the world of theoretical 216 00:12:02,760 --> 00:12:05,600 Speaker 1: physics at all. But we are not going to go 217 00:12:05,640 --> 00:12:09,880 Speaker 1: into giant detail about these achievements, uh, because they are 218 00:12:09,960 --> 00:12:13,080 Speaker 1: really dense in terms of their their physics knowledge. Um. 219 00:12:13,280 --> 00:12:16,439 Speaker 1: I I felt very self conscious about that fact, and 220 00:12:16,679 --> 00:12:20,920 Speaker 1: then I mentioned them to the boyfriend, who in fact 221 00:12:20,960 --> 00:12:23,559 Speaker 1: has a master's degree in engineering, and he was like, no, 222 00:12:23,679 --> 00:12:26,480 Speaker 1: that is hard. Well. It also reminds me of Stephen 223 00:12:26,480 --> 00:12:29,240 Speaker 1: Hawking's famous quote about when he was writing A Brief 224 00:12:29,280 --> 00:12:31,640 Speaker 1: History of Time and how people told him for every 225 00:12:31,679 --> 00:12:35,560 Speaker 1: formula you include in your book, half of your audience disappears. Yeah. 226 00:12:35,640 --> 00:12:39,040 Speaker 1: I think there's just Uh, physics is a little bit 227 00:12:39,320 --> 00:12:43,440 Speaker 1: it's challenging to grasp and it's it's exciting work, but 228 00:12:43,520 --> 00:12:45,960 Speaker 1: it's not always easy to um to suss out if 229 00:12:45,960 --> 00:12:48,560 Speaker 1: you're not really educated in that realm. Yeah. He gave 230 00:12:48,600 --> 00:12:51,640 Speaker 1: this address to Berkeley students in nine that has a 231 00:12:51,679 --> 00:12:53,839 Speaker 1: quote in it that I think applies to what we're 232 00:12:53,880 --> 00:12:56,840 Speaker 1: about to talk about, and he said, people often say 233 00:12:56,880 --> 00:12:59,720 Speaker 1: to me, I don't see how you can work in physics. 234 00:12:59,720 --> 00:13:03,360 Speaker 1: It's so complicated and difficult. But actually physics is the 235 00:13:03,400 --> 00:13:06,720 Speaker 1: simplest of all the sciences. It only seems difficult because 236 00:13:06,760 --> 00:13:09,360 Speaker 1: physicists talk to each other in a language that most 237 00:13:09,360 --> 00:13:13,000 Speaker 1: people don't understand the language of mathematics. So for the 238 00:13:13,040 --> 00:13:15,240 Speaker 1: next few points, we are going to be talking in 239 00:13:15,240 --> 00:13:20,120 Speaker 1: a language that only physicists understand. Uh, and as simplest 240 00:13:20,200 --> 00:13:22,600 Speaker 1: terms as possible. Because it really like these were notable 241 00:13:22,640 --> 00:13:26,000 Speaker 1: achievements and we would be leaving important stuff out if 242 00:13:26,040 --> 00:13:29,160 Speaker 1: we did not mention them. Yeah. One of the things 243 00:13:29,320 --> 00:13:31,840 Speaker 1: that we're going to touch on, Louise Co discovered the 244 00:13:31,880 --> 00:13:35,280 Speaker 1: East West effect in cosmic rays, and that's the fact 245 00:13:35,360 --> 00:13:38,720 Speaker 1: that different numbers of cosmic rays reached the Earth's atmosphere 246 00:13:38,800 --> 00:13:42,880 Speaker 1: depending on which direction they're coming from, so to sort 247 00:13:42,880 --> 00:13:45,839 Speaker 1: of submate it into a long story, short scenario. This 248 00:13:45,880 --> 00:13:50,600 Speaker 1: provided evidence that cosmic rays include positively charged particles. There 249 00:13:50,679 --> 00:13:53,280 Speaker 1: was very little known about cosmic rays at the time, 250 00:13:53,400 --> 00:13:58,040 Speaker 1: and most scientists had actually theorized the opposite. Yeah, he 251 00:13:58,160 --> 00:14:01,960 Speaker 1: proved lots of people wrong. In NY seven, he gave 252 00:14:02,000 --> 00:14:05,280 Speaker 1: the first practical demonstration of K capture, which is a 253 00:14:05,280 --> 00:14:10,120 Speaker 1: phenomenon in which adams decay by absorbing an electron from 254 00:14:10,160 --> 00:14:13,120 Speaker 1: the lowest electron layer, which is called the K layer. 255 00:14:13,559 --> 00:14:16,560 Speaker 1: They absorbed that electron into the nucleus. This was a 256 00:14:16,559 --> 00:14:19,920 Speaker 1: phenomenon that had been theorized before but not proven, and 257 00:14:19,960 --> 00:14:24,880 Speaker 1: he published a report showing everything about In along with 258 00:14:24,960 --> 00:14:28,600 Speaker 1: Felix Block, he created a method for producing beams of 259 00:14:28,680 --> 00:14:32,560 Speaker 1: slow neutrons, which allowed them to measure how powerfully magnetic 260 00:14:32,600 --> 00:14:37,720 Speaker 1: neutrons were, which is very cool. Along with his student 261 00:14:37,840 --> 00:14:41,640 Speaker 1: Jake Wines, he developed a mercury vapor lamp that used 262 00:14:41,640 --> 00:14:46,560 Speaker 1: the artificial mercury isotope mercury. The U S Bureau of 263 00:14:46,600 --> 00:14:50,160 Speaker 1: Standards adopted the wavelength of life that comes from this 264 00:14:50,280 --> 00:14:53,080 Speaker 1: lamp as an official standard of length and as a 265 00:14:53,120 --> 00:14:56,520 Speaker 1: side note which may explain some things about him. He 266 00:14:56,600 --> 00:15:00,120 Speaker 1: also used mercury lamps while working on his doctoral thesis, 267 00:15:00,160 --> 00:15:04,200 Speaker 1: and his lamps would just sort of blow mercury everywhere 268 00:15:04,280 --> 00:15:07,800 Speaker 1: on a regular basis. Um. He joked this ought to 269 00:15:07,880 --> 00:15:11,840 Speaker 1: have made him mad as a hatter, and also that 270 00:15:11,920 --> 00:15:15,880 Speaker 1: perhaps it explained some things may about him in fact 271 00:15:16,480 --> 00:15:18,960 Speaker 1: that as a hatter. So yeah, those are the highlights 272 00:15:18,960 --> 00:15:23,280 Speaker 1: of some of the more esoteric physics work that he 273 00:15:23,360 --> 00:15:26,800 Speaker 1: has worked on. Thanks to World War Two, Louise left 274 00:15:26,800 --> 00:15:30,440 Speaker 1: California for Cambridge on November eleventh of nineteen forty to 275 00:15:30,520 --> 00:15:33,880 Speaker 1: work on the development of radar technology at the Massachusetts 276 00:15:33,880 --> 00:15:36,840 Speaker 1: Institute of Technology, and there he played a role in 277 00:15:36,880 --> 00:15:40,800 Speaker 1: the development of a microwave early Warning system or m EW, 278 00:15:41,760 --> 00:15:44,200 Speaker 1: which allowed the detection of aircraft when it was too 279 00:15:44,200 --> 00:15:47,960 Speaker 1: overcast to see them, and the Eagle high altitude bombing system, 280 00:15:48,240 --> 00:15:50,720 Speaker 1: which allowed bombs to be dropped on targets the crew 281 00:15:50,760 --> 00:15:53,600 Speaker 1: on the plane couldn't see. But he left m I 282 00:15:53,680 --> 00:15:57,280 Speaker 1: T where those projects were being developed before either of 283 00:15:57,320 --> 00:15:59,880 Speaker 1: them had come to fruition, they weren't completely finished when 284 00:15:59,880 --> 00:16:03,880 Speaker 1: he exited. He did make some major contributions to radar 285 00:16:03,920 --> 00:16:06,840 Speaker 1: technology while at m I T, which had a meaningful 286 00:16:06,880 --> 00:16:10,080 Speaker 1: impact on the Allies during the war. One was the 287 00:16:10,160 --> 00:16:13,040 Speaker 1: Vixen radar system, which was named because it let American 288 00:16:13,080 --> 00:16:17,280 Speaker 1: pilots out fox the German U boats. So for a while, 289 00:16:17,480 --> 00:16:20,480 Speaker 1: Allied airplanes had been able to use their radar to 290 00:16:20,640 --> 00:16:23,640 Speaker 1: detect German U boats um so that then they could 291 00:16:23,680 --> 00:16:26,280 Speaker 1: attack the U boats while they were surfaced. Because unlike 292 00:16:26,320 --> 00:16:29,240 Speaker 1: today's nuclear submarines that can stay underwater for a really 293 00:16:29,280 --> 00:16:31,680 Speaker 1: long time, submarines at the time had to come to 294 00:16:31,720 --> 00:16:35,280 Speaker 1: the surface on a really periodic basis. It didn't take 295 00:16:35,400 --> 00:16:37,480 Speaker 1: long for the Germans to figure out what was up 296 00:16:37,520 --> 00:16:41,000 Speaker 1: and put radar detectors into the submarines, which would warn 297 00:16:41,080 --> 00:16:43,960 Speaker 1: them of the incoming plane a long time before the 298 00:16:44,000 --> 00:16:46,880 Speaker 1: plane could actually detect the submarines. They were getting serious 299 00:16:46,960 --> 00:16:51,880 Speaker 1: advanced warning of the incoming threat, and aboard the U boats, 300 00:16:51,920 --> 00:16:54,760 Speaker 1: the crew would decide whether to dive or stay where 301 00:16:54,800 --> 00:16:56,480 Speaker 1: they were based on the way the strength of the 302 00:16:56,560 --> 00:16:59,440 Speaker 1: radar signal changed. But if the plane had a Vixen 303 00:16:59,560 --> 00:17:02,400 Speaker 1: system installed, the signal red as though the plane was 304 00:17:02,400 --> 00:17:05,879 Speaker 1: flying away rather than getting closer. And this innovation, of 305 00:17:05,920 --> 00:17:08,399 Speaker 1: course made it possible for Allied planes to destroy U 306 00:17:08,440 --> 00:17:10,960 Speaker 1: boats from the air. Again, it made the sneaky in 307 00:17:10,960 --> 00:17:13,960 Speaker 1: a whole new way. This had to do with with math. 308 00:17:14,320 --> 00:17:19,879 Speaker 1: That uh, I like their reverence and slight fear with 309 00:17:19,920 --> 00:17:21,960 Speaker 1: which you say the word math. Math was never my 310 00:17:22,000 --> 00:17:25,480 Speaker 1: strong subject in school. I tried really hard to come 311 00:17:25,560 --> 00:17:27,760 Speaker 1: up with a great analogy to explain exactly what this 312 00:17:27,800 --> 00:17:30,720 Speaker 1: math was um And if you have one, you may 313 00:17:30,720 --> 00:17:33,959 Speaker 1: write to it and and help us out with that. 314 00:17:34,040 --> 00:17:37,160 Speaker 1: Because that I had a hard time quantfine that with 315 00:17:37,359 --> 00:17:40,639 Speaker 1: something that made sense. So we're just gonna say magic. 316 00:17:40,920 --> 00:17:43,040 Speaker 1: We're not really gonna say magic. It was in fact 317 00:17:43,080 --> 00:17:47,520 Speaker 1: science and math. His other big contribution to wartime radar 318 00:17:47,760 --> 00:17:50,520 Speaker 1: was not nearly as easy to fix as the Vixen 319 00:17:50,560 --> 00:17:55,399 Speaker 1: system was. During World War Two, returning aircraft, especially in 320 00:17:55,440 --> 00:18:00,720 Speaker 1: the UK, really frequently faced horribly treacherous landing auditions because 321 00:18:00,720 --> 00:18:03,560 Speaker 1: of the weather, and a lot of times the situation 322 00:18:03,640 --> 00:18:06,560 Speaker 1: was worse because the airplane was damaged or had injured 323 00:18:06,600 --> 00:18:10,240 Speaker 1: crew on board. So unlike in the civilian world where 324 00:18:10,280 --> 00:18:13,000 Speaker 1: flights get canceled because of the weather. You can't really 325 00:18:13,040 --> 00:18:15,639 Speaker 1: do that during a war, and there often was not 326 00:18:15,760 --> 00:18:18,760 Speaker 1: a different place to land that had any better weather 327 00:18:18,840 --> 00:18:21,960 Speaker 1: conditions going on, So they really needed to find a 328 00:18:22,000 --> 00:18:27,120 Speaker 1: way to to help plans land safely. Radar was being 329 00:18:27,240 --> 00:18:30,800 Speaker 1: used to track enemy planes, uh Luis thought it should 330 00:18:30,840 --> 00:18:33,280 Speaker 1: be easy enough to use that same technology to track 331 00:18:33,359 --> 00:18:36,359 Speaker 1: friendly planes and therefore be able to guide them in 332 00:18:36,480 --> 00:18:39,160 Speaker 1: safely for landing. So instead of using it to track 333 00:18:39,200 --> 00:18:42,000 Speaker 1: and evaid, they were going to track and guide. Yeah, 334 00:18:42,040 --> 00:18:44,000 Speaker 1: and this is something that happens all the time now, 335 00:18:44,600 --> 00:18:47,080 Speaker 1: Like that is not a thing that we even blink at. 336 00:18:47,119 --> 00:18:50,000 Speaker 1: But this did not exist at that point, and it 337 00:18:50,040 --> 00:18:52,680 Speaker 1: turned out to be a way more complex project, acquiring 338 00:18:52,760 --> 00:18:55,560 Speaker 1: a lot more trial and error than the Vixen system 339 00:18:55,600 --> 00:18:59,960 Speaker 1: had been. They started out just by talking a blindfolded pilot. 340 00:19:00,040 --> 00:19:03,280 Speaker 1: It through walking around on the floor of the hangar 341 00:19:03,920 --> 00:19:06,159 Speaker 1: to to sort of get a feel for how this 342 00:19:06,320 --> 00:19:10,960 Speaker 1: interaction would go between giving somebody instructions verbally and having 343 00:19:10,960 --> 00:19:13,320 Speaker 1: them change what they were doing. And I think we've 344 00:19:13,359 --> 00:19:15,480 Speaker 1: all done that as part of like a game or 345 00:19:15,600 --> 00:19:18,560 Speaker 1: like a party activity, and we're doing that in middle school. Yeah, 346 00:19:18,600 --> 00:19:21,399 Speaker 1: we had to write directions. So tricky, Yeah, it is tricky. 347 00:19:21,400 --> 00:19:22,680 Speaker 1: We had to write directions of how to get to 348 00:19:22,680 --> 00:19:25,920 Speaker 1: the cafeteria from the classroom to give to a blindfolded person, 349 00:19:26,400 --> 00:19:30,480 Speaker 1: and then we all got horribly lost in school. So um. 350 00:19:30,600 --> 00:19:33,760 Speaker 1: They went from that to using tests with a small 351 00:19:33,880 --> 00:19:36,880 Speaker 1: radar device and a set of optical devices that would 352 00:19:36,920 --> 00:19:39,040 Speaker 1: let the people on the ground figure out the angle 353 00:19:39,080 --> 00:19:41,720 Speaker 1: of the airplane's approach and use that to give direction. 354 00:19:42,359 --> 00:19:46,080 Speaker 1: A test pilot named Bruce Griffin practice getting closer and 355 00:19:46,119 --> 00:19:49,560 Speaker 1: closer to the ground without using any visual cues, while 356 00:19:49,600 --> 00:19:52,120 Speaker 1: his radio man, who was in the plane with him, 357 00:19:52,359 --> 00:19:56,040 Speaker 1: acted as a backup just in case. When he finally 358 00:19:56,440 --> 00:19:59,479 Speaker 1: got all the way to touch down with no visual input, 359 00:19:59,520 --> 00:20:02,919 Speaker 1: acting only by instructions from the ground, everyone celebrated and 360 00:20:02,920 --> 00:20:04,320 Speaker 1: they're like, all right, we're ready to be for the 361 00:20:04,359 --> 00:20:08,360 Speaker 1: next big thing. But that not go so well. When 362 00:20:08,400 --> 00:20:12,159 Speaker 1: they tried that same experiment using an actual anti aircraft radar, 363 00:20:12,359 --> 00:20:15,920 Speaker 1: it failed completely. The radar system kept locking onto the 364 00:20:15,960 --> 00:20:20,080 Speaker 1: actual airplane and the airplane's mirror image under the runway surface. 365 00:20:21,280 --> 00:20:26,720 Speaker 1: Not a good plan for that. Everyone was really enormously 366 00:20:26,800 --> 00:20:31,960 Speaker 1: disappointed by this failure. UM scientist and investor Alfred Loomis 367 00:20:32,000 --> 00:20:34,800 Speaker 1: invited Louise to dinner at the Ritz Carlton and Boston 368 00:20:34,840 --> 00:20:37,040 Speaker 1: and basically gave him this ultimatum that he could not 369 00:20:37,119 --> 00:20:40,600 Speaker 1: go home until they figured out how to fix this problem. Together, 370 00:20:40,800 --> 00:20:43,520 Speaker 1: they worked out a narrow beam radar that was too 371 00:20:43,560 --> 00:20:46,880 Speaker 1: small to have the mirror image problem, and they combined 372 00:20:46,920 --> 00:20:49,800 Speaker 1: that with with an antenna configuration that they thought would 373 00:20:49,800 --> 00:20:53,000 Speaker 1: actually work, and along with an engineering team at m 374 00:20:53,040 --> 00:20:56,280 Speaker 1: I T. Louise made a prototype of the ground controlled 375 00:20:56,280 --> 00:20:59,320 Speaker 1: approach system. He called this work one of the happiest 376 00:20:59,359 --> 00:21:01,719 Speaker 1: times of his life life and the result was so 377 00:21:01,800 --> 00:21:04,320 Speaker 1: promising that the Royal Air Force actually asked for more 378 00:21:04,359 --> 00:21:07,240 Speaker 1: of them, since the same tools could be useful for 379 00:21:07,359 --> 00:21:09,879 Speaker 1: US forces. Of course, the U. S. Air Force and 380 00:21:10,000 --> 00:21:12,920 Speaker 1: Navy got development under way as well. Yeah, this new 381 00:21:13,600 --> 00:21:16,119 Speaker 1: UH system worked a whole lot better, and once it 382 00:21:16,160 --> 00:21:19,920 Speaker 1: was ready for use in the whole thing was so 383 00:21:20,040 --> 00:21:24,439 Speaker 1: highly classified and valuable enough to the war effort that 384 00:21:24,560 --> 00:21:28,160 Speaker 1: the Royal Navy transported it across the Atlantic Ocean during 385 00:21:28,160 --> 00:21:31,440 Speaker 1: this very meandering route that took three weeks to do, 386 00:21:32,400 --> 00:21:34,879 Speaker 1: with d Day actually happening while they were in the 387 00:21:34,880 --> 00:21:38,600 Speaker 1: middle of the voyage. They were trying to evade enemy 388 00:21:38,680 --> 00:21:42,080 Speaker 1: submarines through this long and circuitous route just to get 389 00:21:42,160 --> 00:21:45,359 Speaker 1: the technology to the other side of the ocean. And 390 00:21:45,440 --> 00:21:47,959 Speaker 1: after that first unit was in place and the technicians 391 00:21:47,960 --> 00:21:50,800 Speaker 1: were being trained on how to use it, factories scaled 392 00:21:50,880 --> 00:21:52,800 Speaker 1: up production so they could be able to make more 393 00:21:52,840 --> 00:21:54,720 Speaker 1: of them and get them installed at all the air 394 00:21:54,760 --> 00:21:58,359 Speaker 1: fields that needed them. Louise also spent about six weeks 395 00:21:58,359 --> 00:22:01,879 Speaker 1: in England helping to get the gc A going. Although 396 00:22:01,920 --> 00:22:04,720 Speaker 1: the war was in its later years by the time 397 00:22:04,960 --> 00:22:07,600 Speaker 1: the ground controlled approach was really in full swing. It 398 00:22:07,640 --> 00:22:10,520 Speaker 1: went on to have further military applications after the war 399 00:22:10,680 --> 00:22:13,439 Speaker 1: was over, and it's credited with saving the lives of 400 00:22:13,520 --> 00:22:16,800 Speaker 1: many many pilots and crew who needed to land during 401 00:22:16,880 --> 00:22:21,080 Speaker 1: bad weather or for some other reason involving load of visibility. 402 00:22:21,640 --> 00:22:24,840 Speaker 1: Louise found up receiving multiple awards and honors for this 403 00:22:24,920 --> 00:22:29,280 Speaker 1: particular accomplishment. And as a side note, one of the 404 00:22:29,359 --> 00:22:31,639 Speaker 1: radar specialists who also worked on the g c A 405 00:22:31,880 --> 00:22:35,400 Speaker 1: was Arthur C. Clark, whose book Glide Path actually drew 406 00:22:35,400 --> 00:22:38,200 Speaker 1: from the experience and included a character that was modeled 407 00:22:38,200 --> 00:22:43,440 Speaker 1: after Louis Alvarez. On another side, note Louise also had 408 00:22:43,440 --> 00:22:46,680 Speaker 1: a love of aviation himself. He owned assessm A three 409 00:22:46,680 --> 00:22:49,199 Speaker 1: ten and he logged more than a thousand hours as 410 00:22:49,240 --> 00:22:53,359 Speaker 1: a pilot between the thirties and the eighties. And that's 411 00:22:53,400 --> 00:22:59,200 Speaker 1: sort of the pause point for part one of Louis Alvarez. Uh, 412 00:22:59,240 --> 00:23:01,240 Speaker 1: there is a gree feel more to go, so much 413 00:23:01,320 --> 00:23:06,200 Speaker 1: more so. I think you have a touch of listener 414 00:23:06,240 --> 00:23:10,040 Speaker 1: mail I do. This is from Amanda. Amanda says, Hi, 415 00:23:10,119 --> 00:23:12,560 Speaker 1: Tracy and Holly. I just listened to the ice Cream 416 00:23:12,600 --> 00:23:16,240 Speaker 1: episode and heard the discussion about George Washington. He was 417 00:23:16,280 --> 00:23:19,440 Speaker 1: absolutely my favorite president and I just had the opportunity 418 00:23:19,480 --> 00:23:21,960 Speaker 1: to visit Mount Vernon. I wanted to bring a slight 419 00:23:22,040 --> 00:23:25,879 Speaker 1: correction to what you said. George Washington's dentures were not wooden. 420 00:23:26,320 --> 00:23:29,639 Speaker 1: They're actually made of metal and teeth of humans, animals 421 00:23:29,680 --> 00:23:33,000 Speaker 1: and ivory. They weren't all that attractive and probably still 422 00:23:33,080 --> 00:23:36,240 Speaker 1: hurt a lot, but definitely not wouldn't. We saw the 423 00:23:36,280 --> 00:23:38,720 Speaker 1: actual dentures, and I can attest that they aren't pretty 424 00:23:38,800 --> 00:23:41,520 Speaker 1: like today's teeth or dentures are, but I guess they 425 00:23:41,520 --> 00:23:44,440 Speaker 1: served a purpose. I can still understand why he might 426 00:23:44,440 --> 00:23:47,040 Speaker 1: have eaten a hundred thousand dollars worth of ice cream 427 00:23:47,119 --> 00:23:49,879 Speaker 1: to soothe his sore mouth, though it looked like they 428 00:23:49,880 --> 00:23:53,199 Speaker 1: would hurt. Thanks for the podcast. I've thoroughly enjoyed listening 429 00:23:53,200 --> 00:23:58,320 Speaker 1: to it. Thank you, Amanda. Yeah, I'm picturing those dentures 430 00:23:58,840 --> 00:24:01,119 Speaker 1: in my head. It's a little live Parker. It sounds 431 00:24:01,160 --> 00:24:03,920 Speaker 1: kind of motric conception to me. Yeah, we've gotten a 432 00:24:03,960 --> 00:24:06,600 Speaker 1: couple of letters about George Washington and his teeth, and 433 00:24:07,040 --> 00:24:09,600 Speaker 1: I think in the episode we say that it's wooden 434 00:24:09,640 --> 00:24:13,000 Speaker 1: teeth mythology, but then we went on to talk about 435 00:24:13,000 --> 00:24:16,199 Speaker 1: how his teeth really bad without actually saying what his 436 00:24:16,280 --> 00:24:19,479 Speaker 1: teeth were made of. So so, yeah, we know they 437 00:24:19,480 --> 00:24:22,320 Speaker 1: weren't woulden, but we didn't really know exactly what they 438 00:24:22,359 --> 00:24:24,880 Speaker 1: were and soil this letter, I did not know animal 439 00:24:24,920 --> 00:24:28,480 Speaker 1: teeth or in the mix. No, uh are a lot 440 00:24:28,520 --> 00:24:31,920 Speaker 1: of metal. Yeah that sounds fun at all. I think 441 00:24:31,960 --> 00:24:34,760 Speaker 1: I had heard before that there was metal involved, and 442 00:24:34,800 --> 00:24:36,560 Speaker 1: I knew that there were human teeth, but I had 443 00:24:36,600 --> 00:24:39,480 Speaker 1: not ever heard about the animal teeth. Yeah, like I said, 444 00:24:39,520 --> 00:24:42,120 Speaker 1: in my head, it becomes a little clipbooker, right, So 445 00:24:42,200 --> 00:24:45,520 Speaker 1: thank you very much, Amanda or writing that to us 446 00:24:45,520 --> 00:24:50,160 Speaker 1: and telling us more about George Washington's fake Teeth. Yeah. 447 00:24:50,160 --> 00:24:52,920 Speaker 1: If you would like to write to us about this 448 00:24:53,000 --> 00:24:55,760 Speaker 1: episode or anything else we've discussed, you can we write 449 00:24:55,800 --> 00:24:59,200 Speaker 1: History podcast at Discovery dot com. We're also on Facebook 450 00:24:59,200 --> 00:25:01,800 Speaker 1: at Facebook dot com slash history class stuff and on 451 00:25:01,840 --> 00:25:05,240 Speaker 1: Twitter at missed in History. Are tumbler is at mist 452 00:25:05,240 --> 00:25:07,240 Speaker 1: in history dot tumbler dot com, and we are pinning 453 00:25:07,240 --> 00:25:09,920 Speaker 1: things away on Pinterest. If you'd like to learn a 454 00:25:09,960 --> 00:25:13,280 Speaker 1: little bit more about what Louis Alvarez spent some of 455 00:25:13,359 --> 00:25:16,240 Speaker 1: his career researching, you can come to our website and 456 00:25:16,280 --> 00:25:19,360 Speaker 1: type the word radar in search bar. You will find 457 00:25:19,359 --> 00:25:22,760 Speaker 1: an article how Radar Works. You can do that and 458 00:25:22,800 --> 00:25:25,040 Speaker 1: a whole lot more at our website, which is how 459 00:25:25,080 --> 00:25:31,320 Speaker 1: stuff Works dot com for more on this and thousands 460 00:25:31,359 --> 00:25:44,200 Speaker 1: of other topics. Because it has stuff works dot com. 461 00:25:44,240 --> 00:25:47,440 Speaker 1: Netflix streams TV shows and movies directly to your home, 462 00:25:47,560 --> 00:25:51,280 Speaker 1: saving you time, money, and hassle. As a Netflix member, 463 00:25:51,320 --> 00:25:54,760 Speaker 1: you can instantly watch TV episodes and movies streaming directly 464 00:25:54,800 --> 00:25:57,920 Speaker 1: to your PC, Mac, or right to your TV with 465 00:25:57,920 --> 00:26:00,920 Speaker 1: your Xbox three sixty, P S three E or Nintendo 466 00:26:01,000 --> 00:26:04,679 Speaker 1: Wee console, plus Apple devices, Kindle and Nook. Get a 467 00:26:04,720 --> 00:26:08,440 Speaker 1: free thirty day trial membership. 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