1 00:00:04,200 --> 00:00:07,520 Speaker 1: Get in touch with technology with tech Stuff from stuff 2 00:00:07,520 --> 00:00:14,920 Speaker 1: works dot com. Hey there, everyone, and welcome to tech Stuff. 3 00:00:14,920 --> 00:00:19,480 Speaker 1: I'm Jonathan Strickland and I'm Lauren and we have a cool, 4 00:00:20,120 --> 00:00:23,640 Speaker 1: super cool episode, but it has to be super cool 5 00:00:23,720 --> 00:00:28,760 Speaker 1: for most applications. We're talking about superconductors today. Now, in 6 00:00:28,840 --> 00:00:31,639 Speaker 1: order to talk about superconductors, really we thought it was 7 00:00:31,720 --> 00:00:37,639 Speaker 1: necessary to kind of backtrack and talk about electronics and electricity. Yeah, 8 00:00:37,760 --> 00:00:41,800 Speaker 1: because to understand why superconductors are so amazing, you first 9 00:00:41,840 --> 00:00:45,880 Speaker 1: have to have that that basic information about electronics in general. 10 00:00:46,600 --> 00:00:51,440 Speaker 1: So here's a fundamental problem with electronics, with with any 11 00:00:51,520 --> 00:00:54,240 Speaker 1: sort of circuitry, with any kind of system. Really, it's 12 00:00:54,240 --> 00:00:57,560 Speaker 1: not just electronics. That's that's one way we can look 13 00:00:57,560 --> 00:01:00,360 Speaker 1: at it. But there's this problem where you pour energy 14 00:01:00,360 --> 00:01:04,000 Speaker 1: into a system and because of things like entropy, the 15 00:01:04,040 --> 00:01:06,959 Speaker 1: output you get is less than the energy you put in. Now, 16 00:01:07,000 --> 00:01:11,640 Speaker 1: of course we know we cannot create or destroy energy, correct, Yeah, 17 00:01:11,680 --> 00:01:14,160 Speaker 1: it's one of those laws of thermodynamics, and if you 18 00:01:14,160 --> 00:01:17,000 Speaker 1: try and break them, then the thermodynamics police show up. 19 00:01:17,360 --> 00:01:20,319 Speaker 1: So actually it just means that you cannot break that law. 20 00:01:21,160 --> 00:01:22,759 Speaker 1: So if you can't break that law, if you pour 21 00:01:22,880 --> 00:01:25,559 Speaker 1: energy into a system and you're not getting as much 22 00:01:25,680 --> 00:01:28,720 Speaker 1: output as you're getting input. It's because you're losing energy 23 00:01:28,800 --> 00:01:34,480 Speaker 1: through some other action. Normally in almost every system that 24 00:01:34,520 --> 00:01:38,479 Speaker 1: we're really familiar with, that's heat. Right. Heat becomes a byproduct. 25 00:01:38,640 --> 00:01:41,600 Speaker 1: Energy goes to produce heat, which means that whatever you 26 00:01:41,680 --> 00:01:44,800 Speaker 1: were trying to do is slightly less effective than what 27 00:01:44,880 --> 00:01:47,520 Speaker 1: you had intended. So we see this with things like 28 00:01:47,840 --> 00:01:51,000 Speaker 1: car engines are a great example. You pour in fuel, 29 00:01:51,440 --> 00:01:54,760 Speaker 1: the engine burns up the fuel and converts that into power, 30 00:01:55,160 --> 00:01:56,960 Speaker 1: but you don't get as much power out as you're 31 00:01:56,960 --> 00:01:59,880 Speaker 1: getting energy in from the source of that fuel. So 32 00:02:00,280 --> 00:02:02,080 Speaker 1: the same sort of thing is true with electronics. And 33 00:02:02,120 --> 00:02:04,760 Speaker 1: in this case, the thing we talk about when we're 34 00:02:04,760 --> 00:02:09,160 Speaker 1: talking about losing energy is called resistance. That's the resistance 35 00:02:09,200 --> 00:02:13,200 Speaker 1: of any particular material to the flow of electricity through 36 00:02:13,280 --> 00:02:17,800 Speaker 1: that material. So with that basic information there, now we're 37 00:02:17,800 --> 00:02:22,560 Speaker 1: gonna really dive into the very very basic building blocks 38 00:02:22,560 --> 00:02:25,560 Speaker 1: of electronics. Yes, because the thing is that superconductors lose 39 00:02:25,720 --> 00:02:30,120 Speaker 1: no energy to resistance, right, They have no resistance exactly. However, 40 00:02:30,120 --> 00:02:33,560 Speaker 1: they require extraordinarily cold temperatures like on the magnitude of 41 00:02:33,600 --> 00:02:37,520 Speaker 1: thirty nine kelvin's which is that's cold. Yeah, when you remember, 42 00:02:38,000 --> 00:02:42,760 Speaker 1: zero kelvin is zero molecular movement. That's absolute zero. That's 43 00:02:42,800 --> 00:02:44,480 Speaker 1: that's like if you were to go into the deepest 44 00:02:44,520 --> 00:02:48,080 Speaker 1: reaches of space and there are no molecules moving around, 45 00:02:48,120 --> 00:02:52,560 Speaker 1: everything is perfectly still. That's zero. Kelvin is equivalent to 46 00:02:52,680 --> 00:02:57,239 Speaker 1: negative two and thirty four degrees celsius or negative eighty 47 00:02:57,280 --> 00:03:00,400 Speaker 1: nine degrees fahrenheit. Right, So that's that's that's pretty cold. 48 00:03:00,480 --> 00:03:04,000 Speaker 1: But to understand again about resistance, let's let's take this 49 00:03:04,000 --> 00:03:08,200 Speaker 1: this this tour through the building blocks of electronics. So, now, 50 00:03:08,800 --> 00:03:14,160 Speaker 1: the early early understanding we had about electricity, uh gave 51 00:03:14,280 --> 00:03:17,440 Speaker 1: us some ideas that we kind of have to work 52 00:03:17,560 --> 00:03:22,080 Speaker 1: around these days. Like specifically, the idea of current. Current 53 00:03:22,160 --> 00:03:25,120 Speaker 1: is a confusing thing for someone who has doesn't understand 54 00:03:25,160 --> 00:03:29,240 Speaker 1: electricity because it run the direction of current runs counter 55 00:03:29,360 --> 00:03:31,919 Speaker 1: to the actual flow of electrons. Right when all of 56 00:03:31,960 --> 00:03:34,359 Speaker 1: these terms were being created, we didn't know as much 57 00:03:34,360 --> 00:03:37,880 Speaker 1: about sub atomic particles a k a. Much at all 58 00:03:38,480 --> 00:03:42,360 Speaker 1: anything so so do today. So before we understood anything 59 00:03:42,440 --> 00:03:46,960 Speaker 1: about electricity, we began to learn things about about charge 60 00:03:47,120 --> 00:03:50,520 Speaker 1: and the idea of opposite charges attracting one another and 61 00:03:50,640 --> 00:03:54,880 Speaker 1: like charges repelling one another. Now we could have called 62 00:03:54,920 --> 00:03:58,440 Speaker 1: electrons positive charge. We could have done that. There's no 63 00:03:58,520 --> 00:04:01,160 Speaker 1: reason why we would have said all tron's are negatively charged. 64 00:04:01,160 --> 00:04:04,680 Speaker 1: It's just a word, right, But that was what was 65 00:04:04,680 --> 00:04:07,240 Speaker 1: considered a negative charge, and then you would have the 66 00:04:07,320 --> 00:04:09,960 Speaker 1: opposite would obviously be a positive charge. You know, we 67 00:04:10,000 --> 00:04:12,160 Speaker 1: could have called these left and right, or are up 68 00:04:12,160 --> 00:04:16,960 Speaker 1: and down or anything really, but banana and oboes. Everyone 69 00:04:17,000 --> 00:04:20,600 Speaker 1: knows the obo is nature's opposite to the banana. So 70 00:04:21,000 --> 00:04:24,160 Speaker 1: the the these opposite charges, the negative and the positive, 71 00:04:24,360 --> 00:04:28,360 Speaker 1: attract one another. Now, if you were to have a 72 00:04:28,480 --> 00:04:33,120 Speaker 1: negatively charged material and a positively charged material, uh, you know, 73 00:04:34,120 --> 00:04:37,040 Speaker 1: within the same general area of each other, the potential 74 00:04:37,160 --> 00:04:42,240 Speaker 1: that separated those opposite electric charges would be called voltage, 75 00:04:42,839 --> 00:04:45,120 Speaker 1: all right. So that's when someone's talking about voltage, they're 76 00:04:45,120 --> 00:04:48,760 Speaker 1: talking about this potential that's separating the opposite electric charges, 77 00:04:49,080 --> 00:04:51,279 Speaker 1: and it's it's the capacity that they would have for 78 00:04:51,360 --> 00:04:56,320 Speaker 1: doing work if those opposite charges were connected together somehow. 79 00:04:56,800 --> 00:04:58,920 Speaker 1: So you would have to have something that would allow 80 00:04:59,320 --> 00:05:03,320 Speaker 1: these charge jes to mix together. So back in the 81 00:05:03,360 --> 00:05:06,880 Speaker 1: early days of electricity, before we really understood the mechanics 82 00:05:06,920 --> 00:05:08,960 Speaker 1: of it, you would think that all right, well, all 83 00:05:09,000 --> 00:05:13,200 Speaker 1: the positively charged particles would leap over to the negative 84 00:05:13,240 --> 00:05:15,120 Speaker 1: side and the negative charge particles would lead to the 85 00:05:15,160 --> 00:05:19,000 Speaker 1: positive side until the charges had equalized. Right, And even 86 00:05:19,040 --> 00:05:22,640 Speaker 1: if you had one material that was more negatively charged 87 00:05:22,680 --> 00:05:26,080 Speaker 1: than the other material was positively charged, the actual negative 88 00:05:26,160 --> 00:05:29,720 Speaker 1: charge would also even out eventually, like omosis, it would 89 00:05:29,920 --> 00:05:31,599 Speaker 1: kind of work itself out, so you would you would 90 00:05:31,680 --> 00:05:34,320 Speaker 1: end up with a larger amount of material that had 91 00:05:34,440 --> 00:05:37,000 Speaker 1: a negative charge. It would just be a lower negative 92 00:05:37,080 --> 00:05:40,680 Speaker 1: charge than the original material you started with. Right. So 93 00:05:41,839 --> 00:05:44,640 Speaker 1: here we were still thinking about this as these little 94 00:05:44,720 --> 00:05:47,679 Speaker 1: charged bodies, these charged particles, both of positive and negative 95 00:05:48,080 --> 00:05:52,400 Speaker 1: zipping across um and you can you can measure voltage 96 00:05:52,440 --> 00:05:56,440 Speaker 1: by measuring the the two different points. So for example, 97 00:05:57,200 --> 00:06:00,440 Speaker 1: if you have one on the positive ode and one 98 00:06:00,440 --> 00:06:03,359 Speaker 1: of the electric node are a negative node rather, you 99 00:06:03,440 --> 00:06:05,640 Speaker 1: then look at those two contact points. That's where you 100 00:06:05,680 --> 00:06:08,200 Speaker 1: get your voltage. If you're using the same point of 101 00:06:08,240 --> 00:06:12,359 Speaker 1: contact and you're checking different other electrodes, uh that same 102 00:06:12,400 --> 00:06:14,760 Speaker 1: contact though contact you're using for all of them, we 103 00:06:14,839 --> 00:06:19,920 Speaker 1: usually call the ground right, that's the ground contact. Now, 104 00:06:21,279 --> 00:06:24,719 Speaker 1: a material that does conduct electricity is called a conductor 105 00:06:24,800 --> 00:06:28,320 Speaker 1: for that very reason, right convenient and there, and there 106 00:06:28,320 --> 00:06:30,440 Speaker 1: are some materials that are very good conductors. A lot 107 00:06:30,480 --> 00:06:33,120 Speaker 1: of the metals, for example, are great conductors. How how 108 00:06:33,160 --> 00:06:36,880 Speaker 1: conductive material is depends on how easily it's component atoms 109 00:06:36,960 --> 00:06:40,920 Speaker 1: donate electrons, right right. You need to have these free electrons. 110 00:06:41,200 --> 00:06:45,160 Speaker 1: Free electrons are this when you have an atom. Obviously 111 00:06:45,160 --> 00:06:47,640 Speaker 1: you have an electron shell or several shells, depending on 112 00:06:47,720 --> 00:06:52,080 Speaker 1: how how large the atomist and uh, and if you 113 00:06:52,160 --> 00:06:55,000 Speaker 1: have free electrons that aren't tied down to anything on 114 00:06:55,080 --> 00:06:58,960 Speaker 1: the outer shells, then that allows electricity to pass more 115 00:06:59,240 --> 00:07:01,840 Speaker 1: freely because what happens is a new electron comes in. 116 00:07:02,240 --> 00:07:04,800 Speaker 1: This is oversimplifying, but a new electron comes in and 117 00:07:04,880 --> 00:07:07,680 Speaker 1: essentially bunks out one of the other electrons in that 118 00:07:07,800 --> 00:07:11,240 Speaker 1: outer shell, which then will bonk out one further down 119 00:07:11,240 --> 00:07:14,440 Speaker 1: the line. So if you've got a lot of free electrons, 120 00:07:14,480 --> 00:07:17,880 Speaker 1: then that allows this this passage to happen fairly easily. 121 00:07:18,240 --> 00:07:21,840 Speaker 1: And UH, that's what allows you to connect these these 122 00:07:22,240 --> 00:07:27,080 Speaker 1: differently charged UH materials to equal that out. We call 123 00:07:27,400 --> 00:07:30,680 Speaker 1: this current. But again, the current is the idea of 124 00:07:30,800 --> 00:07:35,040 Speaker 1: positively charged particles passing from one material to the other. 125 00:07:35,400 --> 00:07:38,640 Speaker 1: As we learned later, it's actually electrons that are passing through, 126 00:07:38,720 --> 00:07:43,400 Speaker 1: not positive charges. But we we consider stuck with that 127 00:07:43,640 --> 00:07:47,080 Speaker 1: the terminology which means which means that when you say current, 128 00:07:47,160 --> 00:07:50,280 Speaker 1: you're actually talking about the opposite direction as what the 129 00:07:50,320 --> 00:07:53,680 Speaker 1: electrons are really going through. So if you're talking about 130 00:07:53,680 --> 00:07:57,240 Speaker 1: a circuit's current, you are looking at it going positive 131 00:07:57,240 --> 00:08:00,560 Speaker 1: to negative, when in reality the electrons are going negative positive, 132 00:08:00,640 --> 00:08:03,720 Speaker 1: basically proving that Benjamin Franklin was not a time traveler, 133 00:08:03,880 --> 00:08:06,400 Speaker 1: right right, Yeah, there are a lot of jokes on 134 00:08:06,440 --> 00:08:09,080 Speaker 1: the Internet saying that we have Benjamin Franklin to blame 135 00:08:09,120 --> 00:08:12,920 Speaker 1: for this misunderstanding. That again is oversimplifying it. Franklin was 136 00:08:13,240 --> 00:08:19,360 Speaker 1: one of but not the only. Yeah kind of point. Yeah, 137 00:08:19,360 --> 00:08:22,320 Speaker 1: he was like the mascot for electricity before we knew 138 00:08:22,320 --> 00:08:25,120 Speaker 1: what we could do with it. Now, current we measure 139 00:08:25,200 --> 00:08:28,320 Speaker 1: in ampiers or amps and an emperor is the rate 140 00:08:28,400 --> 00:08:32,040 Speaker 1: of flow of one coolmb of charge in one second 141 00:08:32,160 --> 00:08:35,800 Speaker 1: past some given point. And so that raises the question, 142 00:08:35,840 --> 00:08:39,320 Speaker 1: what is a coolmb. It's a whole bunch of charge. Yeah, 143 00:08:39,360 --> 00:08:41,120 Speaker 1: it's a lot of charge. It's actually quite a bit 144 00:08:41,160 --> 00:08:44,360 Speaker 1: of charge. But you know, we won't boil. It's not 145 00:08:44,840 --> 00:08:48,400 Speaker 1: technically important, no, not for not for this discussion, but 146 00:08:48,559 --> 00:08:51,319 Speaker 1: just know that it's a lot of charge. So if 147 00:08:51,320 --> 00:08:53,280 Speaker 1: you hear someone talking about a cool lomb, that's a 148 00:08:53,320 --> 00:08:56,400 Speaker 1: lot of charge. Current of course does have the direction 149 00:08:56,679 --> 00:08:58,480 Speaker 1: as the flow of positive charges. You can think of 150 00:08:58,520 --> 00:09:02,920 Speaker 1: positive charge in a way as vacancies holes, positive holes 151 00:09:02,960 --> 00:09:06,440 Speaker 1: that could accept an electron. Right, because if if you 152 00:09:06,559 --> 00:09:09,040 Speaker 1: have even if you have a build up of negative particles, 153 00:09:09,280 --> 00:09:13,480 Speaker 1: if there's no positively charged part if there's no if aren't, 154 00:09:13,480 --> 00:09:17,839 Speaker 1: if there are no vacancies at another point, then those 155 00:09:18,000 --> 00:09:20,040 Speaker 1: that charge is just gonna keep building up. It doesn't 156 00:09:20,120 --> 00:09:24,400 Speaker 1: the electrons and nowhere to right, So that brings us 157 00:09:24,480 --> 00:09:27,320 Speaker 1: to the concept of an insulator. Now, an insulator is 158 00:09:27,440 --> 00:09:29,240 Speaker 1: sort of the opposite of a conductor. This is a 159 00:09:29,280 --> 00:09:34,120 Speaker 1: material that charge cannot flow through those those component atoms 160 00:09:34,120 --> 00:09:37,240 Speaker 1: at their their electrons just want to stay put. Yeah, yeah, 161 00:09:37,280 --> 00:09:41,719 Speaker 1: they usually the usually you don't have any free electrons 162 00:09:41,720 --> 00:09:45,320 Speaker 1: on the outside. They're all uh, they're all bonded together. 163 00:09:45,960 --> 00:09:49,080 Speaker 1: So that means that an incoming electron has nowhere to go. 164 00:09:49,559 --> 00:09:52,480 Speaker 1: So with nowhere to go, then this stuff just halts 165 00:09:52,520 --> 00:09:55,760 Speaker 1: the flow of electricity, and this includes things like air 166 00:09:56,080 --> 00:09:58,920 Speaker 1: is an insulator. Now, granted, if you were to pour 167 00:09:59,040 --> 00:10:01,400 Speaker 1: enough energy into air, you could ionize it and then 168 00:10:01,440 --> 00:10:04,960 Speaker 1: it becomes a conductor. But you have to pour energy 169 00:10:05,000 --> 00:10:06,920 Speaker 1: into air for that to happen. That's what happens with 170 00:10:07,120 --> 00:10:10,480 Speaker 1: lightning strikes, that kind of thing. Otherwise it's more commonly 171 00:10:10,480 --> 00:10:11,920 Speaker 1: it's it's it's all those things you know, like like 172 00:10:12,080 --> 00:10:18,520 Speaker 1: rubber or glass, exactly exactly. Now we've covered conductors, we've 173 00:10:18,559 --> 00:10:23,679 Speaker 1: covered insulators. That brings us to semi conductors. Now, this 174 00:10:23,760 --> 00:10:26,520 Speaker 1: is a term that a lot of people are familiar 175 00:10:26,559 --> 00:10:29,280 Speaker 1: with because semiconductors we talk about that all the time. 176 00:10:29,360 --> 00:10:33,680 Speaker 1: We talk about electronics like microprocessors, semiconductor plants, or a 177 00:10:33,760 --> 00:10:37,720 Speaker 1: silicon wafer. That's what a silicon chip that has a 178 00:10:37,720 --> 00:10:42,400 Speaker 1: microprocessor on it. So what exactly is a semiconductor, Well, 179 00:10:42,440 --> 00:10:44,520 Speaker 1: if you're looking at the name, it kind of gives 180 00:10:44,559 --> 00:10:46,800 Speaker 1: it away. It's a material that can act like a 181 00:10:47,320 --> 00:10:52,480 Speaker 1: conductor or connect like an insulator. Now, naturally, if you 182 00:10:52,520 --> 00:10:55,360 Speaker 1: were to just make a if you were to make 183 00:10:55,400 --> 00:10:58,760 Speaker 1: like a wafer of silicon, it was pure silicon, it 184 00:10:58,760 --> 00:11:01,240 Speaker 1: would be an insulator. But because those those electrons are 185 00:11:01,240 --> 00:11:04,719 Speaker 1: all tied up, right, so you can't push more electrons 186 00:11:04,760 --> 00:11:08,400 Speaker 1: through it. However, if you were to start introducing impurities 187 00:11:08,440 --> 00:11:11,360 Speaker 1: into the silicon on purpose, this isn't right right right, Yeah, 188 00:11:11,400 --> 00:11:14,280 Speaker 1: Like I like phosphorus or boron are two typical ones exactly. 189 00:11:14,400 --> 00:11:17,439 Speaker 1: Then you are doing a process that's called doping, and 190 00:11:17,600 --> 00:11:21,040 Speaker 1: the semiconductor business that's not a bad thing. You won't 191 00:11:21,040 --> 00:11:23,600 Speaker 1: get thrown out the Hall of Fame of Semiconductors for doping. 192 00:11:23,880 --> 00:11:28,120 Speaker 1: In fact, doping is necessary to make a semiconductor work. Now, 193 00:11:28,240 --> 00:11:32,240 Speaker 1: if you were to dope a semiconductor with uh atoms 194 00:11:32,280 --> 00:11:36,560 Speaker 1: that have extra electrons, extra being free electrons and that 195 00:11:36,559 --> 00:11:39,199 Speaker 1: that outer shell, I don't mean that they're actually carrying 196 00:11:39,240 --> 00:11:44,680 Speaker 1: around more electronic electrons, right, yeah, like phosphorus exactly electrons. 197 00:11:44,679 --> 00:11:47,080 Speaker 1: Phosphorus has a free electrons, then you would get what 198 00:11:47,160 --> 00:11:51,400 Speaker 1: it's called in type semiconductor material because it has more 199 00:11:51,520 --> 00:11:59,040 Speaker 1: negatively charged particles. Now, boron has what we would call 200 00:11:59,200 --> 00:12:02,960 Speaker 1: vacancies or holes that what electrons could flow into. So 201 00:12:03,000 --> 00:12:06,120 Speaker 1: if you put boron, if you introduce boron into silicon, 202 00:12:06,520 --> 00:12:11,600 Speaker 1: it would have availability to accept electrons. A positively charged 203 00:12:11,760 --> 00:12:14,880 Speaker 1: or P type exactly. And if you were to take 204 00:12:15,400 --> 00:12:18,480 Speaker 1: both of these types of doping and apply them to 205 00:12:18,679 --> 00:12:22,000 Speaker 1: one silicon wafer, so that let's just say on the 206 00:12:22,080 --> 00:12:25,480 Speaker 1: left side you have N type silicon and on the 207 00:12:25,559 --> 00:12:29,319 Speaker 1: right side of P type silicon, that would allow electrons 208 00:12:29,360 --> 00:12:33,800 Speaker 1: to flow across in the direction from negative to positive. Correct, correct, 209 00:12:34,200 --> 00:12:37,040 Speaker 1: And it would prevent the flow of electrons to go 210 00:12:37,160 --> 00:12:40,160 Speaker 1: from positive to negative because again those negative electrons in 211 00:12:40,200 --> 00:12:44,800 Speaker 1: the N type silicon will will repel any incoming electrons. 212 00:12:45,600 --> 00:12:49,640 Speaker 1: This is the basis of a very specific type of 213 00:12:49,800 --> 00:12:53,800 Speaker 1: electronic component called the diode. Diodes are important. They're kind 214 00:12:53,800 --> 00:12:58,600 Speaker 1: of a one way street in electronics and uh. And 215 00:12:58,840 --> 00:13:00,720 Speaker 1: one of the reasons this is in orton is when 216 00:13:00,720 --> 00:13:05,400 Speaker 1: you have something like alternating current. Alternating current, it's exactly 217 00:13:05,400 --> 00:13:08,800 Speaker 1: what sounds like. It alternates direction. Remember I was saying before. 218 00:13:08,880 --> 00:13:13,079 Speaker 1: Current is the flow of positive charge in a circuit. 219 00:13:13,120 --> 00:13:15,440 Speaker 1: If you have alternating current running through it, then that 220 00:13:15,520 --> 00:13:17,560 Speaker 1: current is running one way and then the other way, 221 00:13:17,600 --> 00:13:21,319 Speaker 1: and it alternates at thousands of times per second. We 222 00:13:21,640 --> 00:13:24,439 Speaker 1: call it hurts. That those cycles per second, So it's 223 00:13:24,480 --> 00:13:27,520 Speaker 1: usually like twenty hurts, so twenty thousand times a second. 224 00:13:27,520 --> 00:13:30,480 Speaker 1: It's going pooh back and forth. Now I like that 225 00:13:30,559 --> 00:13:34,840 Speaker 1: sound effect. Yeah, that's the sound of electrons just zig zagging. 226 00:13:35,840 --> 00:13:40,679 Speaker 1: But a lot of our electronics don't run on alternating current. 227 00:13:40,760 --> 00:13:44,360 Speaker 1: They need to run on direct current. So diodes are 228 00:13:44,440 --> 00:13:48,199 Speaker 1: a good way of addressing that because they will only 229 00:13:48,280 --> 00:13:52,360 Speaker 1: allow charge to pass through in one direction. So even 230 00:13:52,400 --> 00:13:54,400 Speaker 1: if you have an alternating current, then it's going to 231 00:13:54,520 --> 00:13:57,679 Speaker 1: prevent current from passing through one way and allow it 232 00:13:57,720 --> 00:14:00,480 Speaker 1: to pass through the other way. That's one of the 233 00:14:00,520 --> 00:14:04,800 Speaker 1: ways we use to to transform alternating current into direct current. 234 00:14:05,200 --> 00:14:07,200 Speaker 1: So right, and this problem is why you get those 235 00:14:07,240 --> 00:14:11,080 Speaker 1: little um, those little boxes on your electric plugs to 236 00:14:11,480 --> 00:14:15,160 Speaker 1: transform the alternating current coming in through your through your 237 00:14:15,200 --> 00:14:20,320 Speaker 1: system to be yeah, through through that the pluggy thing, outlets, outlets. 238 00:14:21,200 --> 00:14:23,440 Speaker 1: It's been a long day, it has, it has. I'm 239 00:14:23,520 --> 00:14:29,000 Speaker 1: giggling more than usual. We've been in a meeting for 240 00:14:29,120 --> 00:14:32,240 Speaker 1: a long long time. If you need to know how long. 241 00:14:33,000 --> 00:14:36,040 Speaker 1: Just a quick aside, check out Josh and Chuck's series 242 00:14:36,080 --> 00:14:39,440 Speaker 1: Trapped in a Meeting. It's very good. It's very funny, 243 00:14:39,560 --> 00:14:42,640 Speaker 1: and it's very real. It's it's so real, it's it's 244 00:14:42,720 --> 00:14:45,360 Speaker 1: it's my video debut. So check that out. That's right. 245 00:14:45,360 --> 00:14:49,120 Speaker 1: You can see Lauren blocking me for almost every episode. 246 00:14:49,240 --> 00:14:51,080 Speaker 1: I can just see like either the front of my 247 00:14:51,120 --> 00:14:53,200 Speaker 1: face or the back of my head and almost every shot. 248 00:14:53,760 --> 00:14:57,160 Speaker 1: But uh, that's just me complaining. That's fine. So let's 249 00:14:57,160 --> 00:15:00,480 Speaker 1: move on to we we've we mentioned resistance. Resist is 250 00:15:00,520 --> 00:15:04,720 Speaker 1: this property that resists the flow of a charge, and 251 00:15:04,760 --> 00:15:07,680 Speaker 1: it depends on the material of the conductor, uh and 252 00:15:07,760 --> 00:15:11,280 Speaker 1: the flaws that that conductor might have that create resistance. Uh. 253 00:15:11,360 --> 00:15:14,720 Speaker 1: The gauge of the conductor, So example, the gauge of wire. 254 00:15:15,120 --> 00:15:17,040 Speaker 1: So how how much of it there is? Right, The 255 00:15:17,360 --> 00:15:20,080 Speaker 1: thinner the wire, the greater the resistance in general, So 256 00:15:20,440 --> 00:15:23,160 Speaker 1: if you're talking about copper wire and you're talking about 257 00:15:23,480 --> 00:15:27,440 Speaker 1: smaller gauges which are actually larger wires. I don't know 258 00:15:27,560 --> 00:15:30,479 Speaker 1: why that is. I'm sure someone out there understands why 259 00:15:30,640 --> 00:15:35,120 Speaker 1: the gauge and size are inversely related aperture related things. 260 00:15:35,200 --> 00:15:37,720 Speaker 1: There's something out there, I'm sure, and I bet I 261 00:15:37,720 --> 00:15:39,560 Speaker 1: could have found it out easily if I looked it up. 262 00:15:39,560 --> 00:15:41,360 Speaker 1: I didn't think too, but I'm sure some of our 263 00:15:41,400 --> 00:15:45,600 Speaker 1: electronic attrician friends out there know exactly why. Anyway, the 264 00:15:45,960 --> 00:15:50,440 Speaker 1: larger the diameter of the wire, the lower the resistance. Uh. 265 00:15:50,520 --> 00:15:53,200 Speaker 1: And the other thing is the temperature of the material itself. 266 00:15:53,240 --> 00:15:55,680 Speaker 1: In fact, if you lower the temperature of the material, 267 00:15:56,720 --> 00:16:01,800 Speaker 1: then you can decrease the resistance. That's the varying basis. 268 00:16:04,160 --> 00:16:06,680 Speaker 1: And and that that that temperature comes in because uh, 269 00:16:08,480 --> 00:16:11,320 Speaker 1: you know, he heat makes atoms bang around into each 270 00:16:11,360 --> 00:16:14,560 Speaker 1: other more, which which is part of what causes resistance. 271 00:16:14,680 --> 00:16:19,040 Speaker 1: And and on the flip side, resistance causes heat. Right, 272 00:16:19,080 --> 00:16:22,000 Speaker 1: those atoms are starting to bang around. That actually creates heat. 273 00:16:22,040 --> 00:16:25,720 Speaker 1: It's essentially friction on an atomic level or sub atomic 274 00:16:25,800 --> 00:16:29,480 Speaker 1: level because you're talking about electrons, but it still creates heat. 275 00:16:29,520 --> 00:16:32,120 Speaker 1: And that's where you get this loss of energy in 276 00:16:32,160 --> 00:16:34,800 Speaker 1: your system or loss of output where you're not really 277 00:16:34,800 --> 00:16:37,440 Speaker 1: losing energy in the sense that you know it's still 278 00:16:37,480 --> 00:16:40,240 Speaker 1: going somewhere, it's just no longer contained within the system 279 00:16:40,240 --> 00:16:42,320 Speaker 1: that you have created. Right. So what does Owns law 280 00:16:42,360 --> 00:16:45,680 Speaker 1: have to do? Right? Ohms law is the relationship between 281 00:16:45,760 --> 00:16:49,920 Speaker 1: voltage and resistance. All right, So it is explained as 282 00:16:50,040 --> 00:16:56,320 Speaker 1: voltage equals current times resistance, or because we can switch 283 00:16:56,360 --> 00:17:01,120 Speaker 1: these around, current equals voltage divided by resistance. So you 284 00:17:01,160 --> 00:17:04,760 Speaker 1: look at the voltage across whatever the resistor itself is, 285 00:17:04,920 --> 00:17:08,399 Speaker 1: whether it's a specific component in electronic circuit or the 286 00:17:08,440 --> 00:17:12,480 Speaker 1: overall circuit or just a wire. And uh, that way, 287 00:17:12,520 --> 00:17:14,679 Speaker 1: you can if you know the voltage and the current, 288 00:17:14,720 --> 00:17:17,000 Speaker 1: you can determine what the resistance is. Actually, as long 289 00:17:17,040 --> 00:17:19,280 Speaker 1: as you know any of those two, you can determine 290 00:17:19,280 --> 00:17:21,399 Speaker 1: the third because you know what how they relate to 291 00:17:21,440 --> 00:17:26,080 Speaker 1: one another. UM. Now, on top of all of this, 292 00:17:26,240 --> 00:17:28,840 Speaker 1: we then have the concept of power. This is that 293 00:17:29,000 --> 00:17:32,560 Speaker 1: output that you're getting, and power is we measure that 294 00:17:32,640 --> 00:17:37,240 Speaker 1: in watt's w A T T S and power released 295 00:17:37,280 --> 00:17:41,440 Speaker 1: into a resistor equals the voltage times the current or 296 00:17:41,840 --> 00:17:47,760 Speaker 1: voltage squared divided by resistance or current squared multiplied by resistance. 297 00:17:48,080 --> 00:17:52,560 Speaker 1: The point we're getting to is that these basic concepts 298 00:17:52,600 --> 00:17:56,440 Speaker 1: of electronics are all very very closely related to one another, 299 00:17:56,720 --> 00:17:59,800 Speaker 1: and the more we understand about them, the greater potential 300 00:17:59,800 --> 00:18:03,960 Speaker 1: we have to UH creating new stuff that really takes 301 00:18:03,960 --> 00:18:09,000 Speaker 1: advantage of Right, it was our eventual understanding of these 302 00:18:09,040 --> 00:18:11,879 Speaker 1: basic principles that has allowed us to kind of break 303 00:18:11,960 --> 00:18:16,879 Speaker 1: the physics that that or or twinge the physics them. 304 00:18:17,320 --> 00:18:21,480 Speaker 1: What happened was we understood things how we we understood 305 00:18:21,480 --> 00:18:27,520 Speaker 1: how things worked and kind of our normal, under normal 306 00:18:27,640 --> 00:18:32,520 Speaker 1: room temperature situation. Because because you know, early early people 307 00:18:32,560 --> 00:18:38,480 Speaker 1: working in electronics, early people early electronics work, they were 308 00:18:38,480 --> 00:18:41,680 Speaker 1: trying to plug in their xbox. No. No, the people 309 00:18:41,720 --> 00:18:43,919 Speaker 1: who are working on electricity, very early on, when we 310 00:18:43,960 --> 00:18:47,199 Speaker 1: were just learning about the principles of electricity and and 311 00:18:47,320 --> 00:18:51,280 Speaker 1: what it is, how these different elements relate to one another, 312 00:18:52,080 --> 00:18:57,040 Speaker 1: they didn't necessarily have the capacity to alter things enough 313 00:18:57,119 --> 00:18:59,600 Speaker 1: to really see like, gosh, what would happen if we 314 00:19:00,000 --> 00:19:02,719 Speaker 1: super cool super cool that. Yeah, they didn't have the 315 00:19:02,720 --> 00:19:05,439 Speaker 1: ability to do it early early on, but it wasn't 316 00:19:05,880 --> 00:19:09,879 Speaker 1: too late when they started to to really experiment with it. 317 00:19:09,920 --> 00:19:13,520 Speaker 1: But we'll get into that alright. So that is our 318 00:19:13,720 --> 00:19:18,399 Speaker 1: down and dirty basic electronics coverage there, and now we 319 00:19:18,440 --> 00:19:22,280 Speaker 1: can actually look at super conductors and explain exactly what 320 00:19:22,320 --> 00:19:25,280 Speaker 1: they are, how they work, and why they're so amazing. 321 00:19:25,840 --> 00:19:28,560 Speaker 1: So before we jump into that, let's take a very 322 00:19:28,640 --> 00:19:32,920 Speaker 1: quick break to thank our sponsor a right back to superconductors. 323 00:19:32,960 --> 00:19:38,560 Speaker 1: So we've covered conductors, insulators, we've covered semiconductors, we've heard 324 00:19:38,560 --> 00:19:42,480 Speaker 1: about resistance. What exactly is a superconductor? All right? Technically 325 00:19:42,520 --> 00:19:47,240 Speaker 1: this is some sort of material that will conduct electricity 326 00:19:47,280 --> 00:19:51,840 Speaker 1: without resistance below a certain temperature, and you don't want 327 00:19:51,880 --> 00:19:54,480 Speaker 1: that resistance obviously, because again you have that loss of energy. 328 00:19:54,520 --> 00:19:56,560 Speaker 1: You wanted to be as efficient as possible. So if 329 00:19:56,600 --> 00:20:00,320 Speaker 1: you could find a material that does not convert any 330 00:20:00,359 --> 00:20:04,359 Speaker 1: of that energy into heat and it's all output, then 331 00:20:04,400 --> 00:20:08,080 Speaker 1: you've just dramatically increased the efficiency of your system. It's 332 00:20:08,080 --> 00:20:11,120 Speaker 1: about as close to perpetual motion as we can ever 333 00:20:11,280 --> 00:20:14,000 Speaker 1: expect to get, which is really exciting, you know, for 334 00:20:14,119 --> 00:20:16,360 Speaker 1: cost purposes and all kinds of all kinds of fun 335 00:20:16,440 --> 00:20:18,520 Speaker 1: research bits which will get into in a minute sure. 336 00:20:18,600 --> 00:20:22,120 Speaker 1: And uh. In fact, the according to superconductors dot org, 337 00:20:22,200 --> 00:20:24,960 Speaker 1: which has a lot of really fun information about superconductors. 338 00:20:24,960 --> 00:20:29,439 Speaker 1: By the way, UH, scientists call it a quote macroscopic 339 00:20:29,720 --> 00:20:34,640 Speaker 1: quantum phenomenon in the quote, which is huge literally because 340 00:20:34,640 --> 00:20:37,560 Speaker 1: you're talking about macroscopic But but that's the things that 341 00:20:37,600 --> 00:20:41,400 Speaker 1: quantum phenomena. We normally think of quantum mechanics quantum phenomena 342 00:20:41,440 --> 00:20:45,159 Speaker 1: as happening on a subatomic scale, right, so small that 343 00:20:45,240 --> 00:20:48,320 Speaker 1: even our most powerful light microscope couldn't see it. You'd 344 00:20:48,320 --> 00:20:51,600 Speaker 1: have to use something like an electron telling microscope it's 345 00:20:51,640 --> 00:20:55,040 Speaker 1: highly theoretical and and all very tricky. It's really interesting 346 00:20:55,080 --> 00:20:57,120 Speaker 1: because our laws of physics as we know it start 347 00:20:57,160 --> 00:21:00,280 Speaker 1: breaking down at that point. But right, but it's really 348 00:21:00,280 --> 00:21:02,440 Speaker 1: hard to figure out what's going on there because it's 349 00:21:02,440 --> 00:21:05,399 Speaker 1: so darn tiny. Right, Yeah, it's it's a totally different 350 00:21:05,440 --> 00:21:07,399 Speaker 1: set of rules than what we're used to on the 351 00:21:07,440 --> 00:21:11,080 Speaker 1: classic level. And to have something on the macroscopic level 352 00:21:11,160 --> 00:21:15,280 Speaker 1: that seems to behave under these quantum phenomena is pretty amazing. 353 00:21:15,359 --> 00:21:17,840 Speaker 1: So exactly what's going on, Well, let's go back a 354 00:21:17,840 --> 00:21:21,840 Speaker 1: little bit and look at the history of learning about this. Right, so, 355 00:21:22,040 --> 00:21:26,080 Speaker 1: way back in nineteen eleven, a Dutch physicist whose name 356 00:21:26,160 --> 00:21:28,480 Speaker 1: I am now going to butcher, And I apologize to 357 00:21:28,520 --> 00:21:31,560 Speaker 1: anyone out there who is from the Netherlands who's going 358 00:21:31,600 --> 00:21:37,760 Speaker 1: to WinCE at everything. I say, um, hi k Kummerling 359 00:21:38,119 --> 00:21:40,960 Speaker 1: on this of Leighton University, and I bet it's Laden 360 00:21:41,080 --> 00:21:43,080 Speaker 1: University too, as soon as I say it's Laden because 361 00:21:43,160 --> 00:21:49,679 Speaker 1: Laden jars. But anyway, Uh, this physicist discovered super conductivity, 362 00:21:49,760 --> 00:21:51,600 Speaker 1: or at least observed it for the first time as 363 00:21:51,600 --> 00:21:55,439 Speaker 1: far as we know, looking at solid mercury. They he 364 00:21:55,480 --> 00:21:58,879 Speaker 1: had made a solid mercury wire and cooled it to 365 00:21:58,960 --> 00:22:03,360 Speaker 1: the temperature of a about four kelvin using liquid helium, 366 00:22:03,440 --> 00:22:06,080 Speaker 1: and that is about negative four hundred fifty two degrees 367 00:22:06,119 --> 00:22:09,040 Speaker 1: fahrenheit or negative two hundred sixty nine degrees celsius. And 368 00:22:09,040 --> 00:22:12,720 Speaker 1: he noticed that when he did this, its resistance suddenly disappeared. Right, 369 00:22:12,800 --> 00:22:15,720 Speaker 1: So this was interesting. And this is the sort of 370 00:22:15,760 --> 00:22:19,720 Speaker 1: thing that I thought I always imagined scientists doing there, 371 00:22:20,280 --> 00:22:22,680 Speaker 1: sitting around the lab and just saying, huh, I got 372 00:22:22,680 --> 00:22:25,040 Speaker 1: this stuff. I wonder what happens if I do X 373 00:22:25,119 --> 00:22:28,679 Speaker 1: to it. You know, let's drop the temperature down to 374 00:22:29,040 --> 00:22:32,560 Speaker 1: almost absolute zero and see if that doesn't anything interesting. Uh. 375 00:22:32,720 --> 00:22:34,560 Speaker 1: I know it's way more complicated than that, but I 376 00:22:34,720 --> 00:22:37,320 Speaker 1: like to think that that's what scientists are doing. Yeah, 377 00:22:37,440 --> 00:22:39,399 Speaker 1: And and what's what was really going on there was 378 00:22:39,440 --> 00:22:45,320 Speaker 1: that um, the mercury at that temperature underwent a phase transition. UM. 379 00:22:45,440 --> 00:22:47,520 Speaker 1: But we'll get more into that in a second, right, 380 00:22:47,560 --> 00:22:49,720 Speaker 1: So then we skip ahead a little bit. That was 381 00:22:49,800 --> 00:22:55,040 Speaker 1: nineteen eleven and nineteen thirty three some German researchers Walter Meisner, 382 00:22:55,560 --> 00:22:59,760 Speaker 1: not the famed theater mentor, because I have a lot 383 00:22:59,760 --> 00:23:04,119 Speaker 1: of my Eisner technique different shiffering Guy Nicer and Robert 384 00:23:04,160 --> 00:23:08,800 Speaker 1: Oceanfeld discovered that a super conducting material will repel a 385 00:23:08,880 --> 00:23:13,200 Speaker 1: magnetic field. Now, this is super cool as well. I 386 00:23:13,920 --> 00:23:16,000 Speaker 1: keep using that I didn't mean to, and I should 387 00:23:16,000 --> 00:23:19,240 Speaker 1: have caught myself. It's it's really interesting. It's really interesting. 388 00:23:19,520 --> 00:23:21,959 Speaker 1: If you've ever seen there's lots of videos on YouTube, 389 00:23:22,040 --> 00:23:26,400 Speaker 1: right of people using magnets and super cooled super conductor 390 00:23:26,480 --> 00:23:31,520 Speaker 1: material and they can lock the material in a levitating 391 00:23:31,600 --> 00:23:36,080 Speaker 1: state above the magnet, right. Or sometimes they have a 392 00:23:36,800 --> 00:23:40,280 Speaker 1: super conducting bass that is super cooled and then they 393 00:23:40,280 --> 00:23:42,600 Speaker 1: put a magnet on top of it and it seems 394 00:23:42,640 --> 00:23:45,080 Speaker 1: to just hang in the air. Now, technically, if you 395 00:23:45,160 --> 00:23:47,679 Speaker 1: if you actually listen to the physicists who talked about this, 396 00:23:47,680 --> 00:23:52,000 Speaker 1: there's a great Ted talk where a guy demonstrates this eleven. 397 00:23:52,080 --> 00:23:54,920 Speaker 1: It's will link it on social I mean everyone's seen it, yeah, 398 00:23:54,920 --> 00:23:56,960 Speaker 1: but we'll we'll link it anyway because it's still fun 399 00:23:56,960 --> 00:24:01,680 Speaker 1: to watch. Uh. He explains that technically it's not levitation, 400 00:24:01,800 --> 00:24:05,560 Speaker 1: it's what they call quantum lock. Uh, And so it's 401 00:24:05,560 --> 00:24:07,800 Speaker 1: a little different from that, but we'll we'll get more 402 00:24:07,840 --> 00:24:10,840 Speaker 1: into that in a little bit. And then you skip 403 00:24:10,840 --> 00:24:16,240 Speaker 1: ahead to nineteen seven, when a trio of scientists leon 404 00:24:16,359 --> 00:24:20,840 Speaker 1: In Cooper, John Bardine, and John Robert Schreefer proposed the 405 00:24:20,840 --> 00:24:25,199 Speaker 1: first successful model that explained super conductivity. This might be 406 00:24:25,240 --> 00:24:27,359 Speaker 1: a good time to mention that while we talk about 407 00:24:27,440 --> 00:24:33,200 Speaker 1: models that explain super connectivity, honestly, scientists are still learning 408 00:24:33,280 --> 00:24:36,760 Speaker 1: about the properties of super conductors and how they do 409 00:24:36,800 --> 00:24:40,800 Speaker 1: what they do, and why they operate at certain temperatures 410 00:24:40,840 --> 00:24:44,960 Speaker 1: better than other temperatures. So while we're describing this stuff, 411 00:24:44,960 --> 00:24:48,800 Speaker 1: and while we have superconductors in actual use around the 412 00:24:48,840 --> 00:24:53,120 Speaker 1: world in thousands of different applications, we still don't understand 413 00:24:53,119 --> 00:24:55,760 Speaker 1: everything about precisely how it's right. And when I say we, 414 00:24:55,880 --> 00:24:57,880 Speaker 1: I'm not talking about just me and Lauren. I'm talking 415 00:24:57,880 --> 00:25:02,240 Speaker 1: about super smart people that that's their job. We're still learning. 416 00:25:02,280 --> 00:25:04,000 Speaker 1: This is one of those things that I always find exciting. 417 00:25:04,000 --> 00:25:05,960 Speaker 1: It's just, you know, when you know that you don't 418 00:25:06,080 --> 00:25:09,000 Speaker 1: know everything, that always gives you that kind of tingle 419 00:25:09,080 --> 00:25:13,240 Speaker 1: to like you want to learn more. So their theory 420 00:25:13,280 --> 00:25:16,639 Speaker 1: became known as the B. C. S theory, and it 421 00:25:16,720 --> 00:25:20,680 Speaker 1: earned them the Nobel Prize in Physics in nineteen seventy two. 422 00:25:21,200 --> 00:25:23,680 Speaker 1: Now we kind of need to sort of talk about 423 00:25:23,760 --> 00:25:27,360 Speaker 1: what this theory says. Okay, the atoms in a conductive 424 00:25:27,400 --> 00:25:30,720 Speaker 1: material that have given up electrons are are are then 425 00:25:30,920 --> 00:25:35,879 Speaker 1: positively charged ions, right right, okay, um, and when electrons 426 00:25:35,920 --> 00:25:39,680 Speaker 1: are flowing through them, they're attracted to those negative negatively 427 00:25:39,800 --> 00:25:44,560 Speaker 1: charged electrons. Cool. Right, Cool, that's a really bad word 428 00:25:44,600 --> 00:25:47,399 Speaker 1: to use this podcast. Okay, already having made three or 429 00:25:47,400 --> 00:25:52,080 Speaker 1: four times under under usual circumstances, uh, those ions kind 430 00:25:52,080 --> 00:25:55,400 Speaker 1: of crunching together towards the electrons that are flowing through 431 00:25:55,440 --> 00:25:59,359 Speaker 1: them would cause resistance, but not in superconductors. And what 432 00:25:59,400 --> 00:26:01,360 Speaker 1: we kind of did realized until we started getting into 433 00:26:01,480 --> 00:26:05,359 Speaker 1: quantum mechanics is that that resistance happens because electrons have 434 00:26:05,400 --> 00:26:08,320 Speaker 1: properties of both particles and waves, right this, This is 435 00:26:08,359 --> 00:26:12,439 Speaker 1: that duality thing that always got me confused when I 436 00:26:12,440 --> 00:26:15,199 Speaker 1: got to that point and learning about science was the 437 00:26:15,280 --> 00:26:18,679 Speaker 1: idea that something can behave as both a wave and 438 00:26:18,720 --> 00:26:21,240 Speaker 1: a particle. We see this a lot in quantum mechanics, 439 00:26:21,240 --> 00:26:24,120 Speaker 1: and it's part of the reason why it's such an 440 00:26:24,160 --> 00:26:28,919 Speaker 1: interesting and counterintuitive field. Absolutely. Yeah. I mean honestly, my 441 00:26:28,960 --> 00:26:32,520 Speaker 1: brain kind of just goes, well, well, okay, that's that's fine, 442 00:26:32,720 --> 00:26:34,960 Speaker 1: to be fair. I think a lot of string theorists 443 00:26:35,160 --> 00:26:38,040 Speaker 1: have that same reaction to their work. I mean, I'm 444 00:26:38,080 --> 00:26:40,680 Speaker 1: being honest. I've seen interviews where they say, there comes 445 00:26:40,680 --> 00:26:42,760 Speaker 1: a point where you just have to say, this is 446 00:26:42,800 --> 00:26:45,760 Speaker 1: how it works, because it's how it works. It always 447 00:26:45,760 --> 00:26:47,760 Speaker 1: feels a little bit like double think to me. But yeah, 448 00:26:47,800 --> 00:26:53,320 Speaker 1: So we've got electrons acting like particles and waves, and um, 449 00:26:53,359 --> 00:26:57,080 Speaker 1: those excited ions that are in the conductive material kind 450 00:26:57,080 --> 00:27:02,040 Speaker 1: of create counter ripples in this this flowing lake or 451 00:27:02,160 --> 00:27:07,040 Speaker 1: river of electrons, and and that winds up causing that 452 00:27:07,119 --> 00:27:10,960 Speaker 1: resistance I see. But in superconductors, the electrons assume a 453 00:27:11,000 --> 00:27:14,800 Speaker 1: nearly identical speed and direction, forming a kind of single 454 00:27:15,080 --> 00:27:20,280 Speaker 1: organized wave that resists that disruption from the ions I see. 455 00:27:20,320 --> 00:27:22,439 Speaker 1: So instead of having let's let's let's put this on 456 00:27:22,440 --> 00:27:24,760 Speaker 1: a macro scale. And keep in mind that whenever you 457 00:27:24,840 --> 00:27:27,160 Speaker 1: change anything from the quantum scale to the macro scale 458 00:27:27,160 --> 00:27:30,520 Speaker 1: and you're using an analogy, it's imperfect to say the right. 459 00:27:30,520 --> 00:27:33,760 Speaker 1: And this is also an extreme oversimplification that I'm presenting 460 00:27:33,800 --> 00:27:35,520 Speaker 1: to you. So, but let's imagine that you have a 461 00:27:35,600 --> 00:27:39,119 Speaker 1: room full of people, and you have one doorway leading 462 00:27:39,119 --> 00:27:41,640 Speaker 1: out of the room, and someone walks into the room 463 00:27:41,640 --> 00:27:44,560 Speaker 1: and says free cake and then leaves, and then everyone 464 00:27:44,640 --> 00:27:46,919 Speaker 1: just tries to rush the door. All right, Well, the 465 00:27:46,920 --> 00:27:48,919 Speaker 1: fact that people could only fit through the door a 466 00:27:48,960 --> 00:27:51,040 Speaker 1: few at a time, but everyone's trying to get through there, 467 00:27:51,160 --> 00:27:54,320 Speaker 1: that kind of represents resistance in a way. Now, let's 468 00:27:54,320 --> 00:27:57,960 Speaker 1: say that someone comes in and says, uh, free cake, 469 00:27:58,040 --> 00:28:00,480 Speaker 1: but there's plenty for everyone, so just come in in 470 00:28:00,520 --> 00:28:03,040 Speaker 1: the same order that you, you know, walked into the room, 471 00:28:03,080 --> 00:28:06,600 Speaker 1: and everyone obeys the rules and they all just smoothly exit. 472 00:28:06,920 --> 00:28:09,520 Speaker 1: That's kind of the idea of superconductors. You've created this 473 00:28:09,560 --> 00:28:14,639 Speaker 1: experience where everything's happening in a very uh, very ordered, 474 00:28:14,840 --> 00:28:17,480 Speaker 1: controlled right. Yeah. Yeah, it's sort of like if all 475 00:28:17,520 --> 00:28:19,760 Speaker 1: those people were members of a dance troupe and they 476 00:28:19,840 --> 00:28:22,760 Speaker 1: just kind of fell into line and danced quietly out. 477 00:28:22,920 --> 00:28:26,719 Speaker 1: In fact, that as analogy I've seen several times when 478 00:28:26,800 --> 00:28:30,520 Speaker 1: looking at superconductors. Now, the BCS theory that we had 479 00:28:30,560 --> 00:28:35,640 Speaker 1: mentioned explains that the electrons travel in ever changing Cooper pairs, 480 00:28:36,320 --> 00:28:39,240 Speaker 1: named after leon In Cooper, one of the three of 481 00:28:39,280 --> 00:28:45,200 Speaker 1: that ps, and that, uh so you have that leading electron. 482 00:28:45,360 --> 00:28:47,800 Speaker 1: The pairs have a leading electron in a following electron 483 00:28:47,880 --> 00:28:51,240 Speaker 1: they're both going down this pathway. Keeping in mind, electrons 484 00:28:51,360 --> 00:28:54,760 Speaker 1: do repel one another. Yeah, so which is where that 485 00:28:54,800 --> 00:28:57,280 Speaker 1: where the ever changing comes in. They kind of swap 486 00:28:57,280 --> 00:28:59,720 Speaker 1: around a whole bunch, right. So you've got this pair 487 00:28:59,760 --> 00:29:04,360 Speaker 1: going down, swappings places occasionally. Uh. And the positively charged 488 00:29:04,400 --> 00:29:08,560 Speaker 1: ions start to be attracted to that leading electron, which 489 00:29:08,560 --> 00:29:11,520 Speaker 1: means that you have a growing positive charge, which starts 490 00:29:11,560 --> 00:29:16,520 Speaker 1: pulling that second electron even harder. That creates this increased 491 00:29:16,640 --> 00:29:20,520 Speaker 1: pressure if you will of poll really right, it's pulling 492 00:29:20,560 --> 00:29:23,760 Speaker 1: those electrons even harder than it normally would because the 493 00:29:23,840 --> 00:29:26,760 Speaker 1: positive charges growing and all of this, all of these 494 00:29:26,760 --> 00:29:30,200 Speaker 1: different opposing forces essentially end up canceling each other out 495 00:29:30,240 --> 00:29:32,560 Speaker 1: so that you don't end up with resistance, right, And 496 00:29:32,600 --> 00:29:35,120 Speaker 1: this this is opposite to the way that resistance normally works, 497 00:29:35,400 --> 00:29:40,800 Speaker 1: which is so cool, not cool, so interesting. Now, keep 498 00:29:40,800 --> 00:29:45,160 Speaker 1: in mind this was the first working model of super conductivity, 499 00:29:45,240 --> 00:29:48,680 Speaker 1: and uh, then future study would end up kind of 500 00:29:49,000 --> 00:29:52,840 Speaker 1: tweaking this and changing our understanding a little bit. Uh. 501 00:29:53,040 --> 00:29:56,560 Speaker 1: In fact, in nineteen sixty two, we then had Brian D. 502 00:29:56,960 --> 00:30:01,040 Speaker 1: Josephson who predicted that electrical current would flow between two 503 00:30:01,080 --> 00:30:06,400 Speaker 1: superconducting materials even if they were separated by non superconductors 504 00:30:06,680 --> 00:30:10,200 Speaker 1: or even insulators. Now, that prediction that he made was 505 00:30:10,280 --> 00:30:13,840 Speaker 1: later on confirmed and he earned the Nobel Prize in 506 00:30:13,880 --> 00:30:17,800 Speaker 1: Physics in nineteen seventy three, so one year after the 507 00:30:17,920 --> 00:30:21,800 Speaker 1: BCS team won the Nobel Prize in Physics. So clearly 508 00:30:21,800 --> 00:30:26,520 Speaker 1: superconductor's big important thing in physics from the fifties through 509 00:30:26,560 --> 00:30:29,320 Speaker 1: the seventies and up through to today. Oh sure, sure, 510 00:30:29,560 --> 00:30:31,840 Speaker 1: what more research conducted in the eighties would change the 511 00:30:31,840 --> 00:30:34,120 Speaker 1: field all over again. But we will talk more about 512 00:30:34,160 --> 00:30:36,560 Speaker 1: that in a moment. Yeah, yeah, we have to. We 513 00:30:36,600 --> 00:30:41,520 Speaker 1: have to then discuss the different major types of superconductors, 514 00:30:41,640 --> 00:30:44,520 Speaker 1: and uh, they're different ways you can divide them up, 515 00:30:44,720 --> 00:30:47,720 Speaker 1: but the most common way is to refer to them 516 00:30:47,760 --> 00:30:50,880 Speaker 1: as type one and type two, which not that helpful 517 00:30:50,920 --> 00:30:56,520 Speaker 1: upon the surface to list actually define these Type one superconductors, Uh, 518 00:30:56,800 --> 00:30:59,080 Speaker 1: made out of pure metal, right, So you get this 519 00:30:59,280 --> 00:31:03,000 Speaker 1: pure toll material, whatever the metal is, and then you 520 00:31:03,040 --> 00:31:05,200 Speaker 1: have to cool it to a point where the metal 521 00:31:05,320 --> 00:31:11,600 Speaker 1: exhibits zero electrical resistivity and perfect dia magnetism. Alright, so 522 00:31:12,440 --> 00:31:15,600 Speaker 1: we're talking now about any particular metal. It doesn't matter 523 00:31:15,600 --> 00:31:18,640 Speaker 1: which one it is. The temperature will will vary depending 524 00:31:18,720 --> 00:31:22,760 Speaker 1: upon the actual metal you're using, right, So lead is 525 00:31:22,800 --> 00:31:26,240 Speaker 1: different from copper, that kind of thing. But they all 526 00:31:26,360 --> 00:31:31,000 Speaker 1: have this they have they all have this specific critical temperature, right, 527 00:31:31,040 --> 00:31:33,320 Speaker 1: and most of them are pretty cold, so you have 528 00:31:33,400 --> 00:31:35,800 Speaker 1: to use something really really cold to cool them, like 529 00:31:35,880 --> 00:31:39,600 Speaker 1: liquid helium, which is hard to get. It's it's very 530 00:31:40,240 --> 00:31:43,840 Speaker 1: it's expensive, yes, and there's not that much left of it. 531 00:31:43,920 --> 00:31:46,120 Speaker 1: I mean, in the grand scheme of things, we don't 532 00:31:46,280 --> 00:31:48,600 Speaker 1: we don't have enough helium for all the stuff we 533 00:31:48,640 --> 00:31:51,280 Speaker 1: would like to do with helium. For one thing, they're 534 00:31:51,320 --> 00:31:54,479 Speaker 1: all those children's parties and you think I'm joking, but 535 00:31:54,560 --> 00:31:58,240 Speaker 1: I'm not. Helium is actually being used in those helium 536 00:31:58,240 --> 00:31:59,800 Speaker 1: balloons that you see. But you can go out and 537 00:32:00,000 --> 00:32:03,560 Speaker 1: I there are scientists who say it's a real shame 538 00:32:03,600 --> 00:32:06,320 Speaker 1: that we're using helium to entertain children when we could 539 00:32:06,360 --> 00:32:09,360 Speaker 1: be using it to run m R I machines or 540 00:32:09,400 --> 00:32:14,160 Speaker 1: a super collider or one of a thousand other devices. 541 00:32:14,160 --> 00:32:17,360 Speaker 1: So so that's one of the downsides of the type 542 00:32:17,360 --> 00:32:19,640 Speaker 1: one superconductors is that they do need to be cool 543 00:32:19,720 --> 00:32:23,040 Speaker 1: to these very very low temperatures, and if they go 544 00:32:23,200 --> 00:32:28,400 Speaker 1: above that temperature, the superconductivity is broken. You can get 545 00:32:28,400 --> 00:32:30,800 Speaker 1: it back by cooling it back down again, but the 546 00:32:30,880 --> 00:32:34,840 Speaker 1: actual properties it exhibits as a superconductor go away if 547 00:32:34,840 --> 00:32:39,560 Speaker 1: the temperature goes over whatever it's critical temperature is for 548 00:32:39,680 --> 00:32:42,400 Speaker 1: being a superconductor. Another thing that will cause the breakdown 549 00:32:42,440 --> 00:32:45,480 Speaker 1: of the superconductive state is if you subject it to 550 00:32:45,520 --> 00:32:49,200 Speaker 1: what's called a critical magnetic field. Right, So remember we 551 00:32:49,200 --> 00:32:53,280 Speaker 1: we talked about diet magnetism. This means that magnetic fields 552 00:32:53,320 --> 00:32:58,920 Speaker 1: cannot penetrate this superconductor metal while it's in the superconductor state, 553 00:32:59,360 --> 00:33:03,720 Speaker 1: so you can't make It's what allows a superconductor to 554 00:33:04,120 --> 00:33:09,680 Speaker 1: kind of uh float above a magnet, although with type 555 00:33:09,680 --> 00:33:13,080 Speaker 1: one superconductors that always tends to be wobbly. If you've 556 00:33:13,080 --> 00:33:17,400 Speaker 1: ever seen a demonstration of this, the whatever the materials 557 00:33:18,160 --> 00:33:19,920 Speaker 1: is going to be kind of kind of spinning and 558 00:33:19,960 --> 00:33:22,440 Speaker 1: end and shaking. It doesn't hold it doesn't hold a 559 00:33:22,480 --> 00:33:25,320 Speaker 1: position very well. It does tend to wobble quite a bit. 560 00:33:25,760 --> 00:33:29,000 Speaker 1: But uh, if you were to introduce a magnetic field 561 00:33:29,160 --> 00:33:34,240 Speaker 1: that is stronger than what that superconductor can yeah, yeah, 562 00:33:34,360 --> 00:33:38,320 Speaker 1: the expel really because it's expelling magnetic field. But yeah, 563 00:33:38,320 --> 00:33:41,320 Speaker 1: if it's too strong a magnetic field, it again will 564 00:33:41,400 --> 00:33:45,080 Speaker 1: break down that superconducting state and it will just become 565 00:33:45,200 --> 00:33:48,680 Speaker 1: a regular conductor as opposed to a superconductor. So you 566 00:33:48,720 --> 00:33:51,360 Speaker 1: have to maintain its critical temperature and make sure it 567 00:33:51,480 --> 00:33:55,320 Speaker 1: is not subjected to a magnetic field above that critical limit. 568 00:33:55,800 --> 00:33:58,400 Speaker 1: All right. So that's Type one superconductors, which then raises 569 00:33:58,400 --> 00:34:02,080 Speaker 1: the question, what is a Type too superconductor. Now, these 570 00:34:02,160 --> 00:34:06,000 Speaker 1: are made up of alloys, uh, and they have a 571 00:34:06,240 --> 00:34:10,319 Speaker 1: much more complex diamagnetic feature to them. Right, They're not 572 00:34:10,920 --> 00:34:13,520 Speaker 1: They're not as simple as type one. They actually have 573 00:34:13,600 --> 00:34:17,680 Speaker 1: two thresholds for critical magnetic fields. All right. So if 574 00:34:17,719 --> 00:34:22,120 Speaker 1: it's if the magnetic field is below the primary threshold, 575 00:34:22,800 --> 00:34:26,560 Speaker 1: the type two uh superconductor acts more or less like 576 00:34:26,600 --> 00:34:28,320 Speaker 1: a type one. So in other words, if you super 577 00:34:28,320 --> 00:34:32,879 Speaker 1: cool this down to below that that threshold, it will 578 00:34:32,920 --> 00:34:35,400 Speaker 1: behave just like it would be just as if it 579 00:34:35,400 --> 00:34:39,880 Speaker 1: were a Type one superconductor. Now, um, if if that 580 00:34:39,960 --> 00:34:44,720 Speaker 1: magnetic field goes above that threshold but still is below 581 00:34:44,840 --> 00:34:49,239 Speaker 1: the second threshold, you then have a superconductor entering into 582 00:34:49,320 --> 00:34:53,680 Speaker 1: what is called a vortex state, which to me just 583 00:34:53,760 --> 00:34:56,319 Speaker 1: sounds like it's some sort of science fiction ee like 584 00:34:56,960 --> 00:35:00,080 Speaker 1: pulled through the portal into another dimension. But that's not 585 00:35:00,200 --> 00:35:03,279 Speaker 1: exactly what's happening. It's it's pretty science fiction. It's what's 586 00:35:03,280 --> 00:35:06,080 Speaker 1: what's going on here is that um uh currents or 587 00:35:06,280 --> 00:35:10,760 Speaker 1: or whirlpools of of superconducting material will flow around spots 588 00:35:10,840 --> 00:35:14,280 Speaker 1: of normal material. So you have these islands of conducting 589 00:35:14,320 --> 00:35:19,480 Speaker 1: material and these vortices of super conducting materials. So within 590 00:35:19,560 --> 00:35:23,960 Speaker 1: the same substance, some of it is acting like a superconductor, 591 00:35:24,040 --> 00:35:26,520 Speaker 1: some of it's acting like a conductor. And this creates 592 00:35:26,520 --> 00:35:29,279 Speaker 1: really interesting properties that will that will cover in a 593 00:35:29,280 --> 00:35:32,720 Speaker 1: secure right, So that's what really makes it different. Now, granted, 594 00:35:32,719 --> 00:35:35,680 Speaker 1: if you were to again increase that magnetic field so 595 00:35:35,719 --> 00:35:39,920 Speaker 1: that it goes above that second threshold, the superconductivity properties 596 00:35:39,920 --> 00:35:42,759 Speaker 1: breakdown down, so and and and you do have to 597 00:35:42,920 --> 00:35:46,120 Speaker 1: cool down the type two superconductors. Although there's been some 598 00:35:46,200 --> 00:35:50,239 Speaker 1: amazing work fairly recently, and that that that eighties stuff 599 00:35:50,280 --> 00:35:52,080 Speaker 1: that I was talking about, right, that will that will 600 00:35:52,080 --> 00:35:55,359 Speaker 1: cover in a minute, that really kind of give us 601 00:35:55,400 --> 00:35:59,000 Speaker 1: some hope for future applications. Um But before we get 602 00:35:59,040 --> 00:36:00,839 Speaker 1: into all of that, I think it's important we take 603 00:36:00,840 --> 00:36:03,799 Speaker 1: another quick break and thank our other sponsored. All right, 604 00:36:03,920 --> 00:36:06,920 Speaker 1: so we talked a little bit earlier about this levitating 605 00:36:07,600 --> 00:36:11,240 Speaker 1: effect that you can see with superconductors. It's not really levitating. 606 00:36:11,239 --> 00:36:14,239 Speaker 1: It's called quantum lock or flux pinning, right, And this 607 00:36:14,280 --> 00:36:16,320 Speaker 1: has to do with that vortex state that we mentioned 608 00:36:16,360 --> 00:36:19,359 Speaker 1: a second ago. Right. This is for type two, specifically 609 00:36:19,640 --> 00:36:22,399 Speaker 1: Type one superconductors can do this too, but as we said, 610 00:36:22,400 --> 00:36:25,560 Speaker 1: they're very unsteady. But type two, if you keep it 611 00:36:25,600 --> 00:36:29,799 Speaker 1: within that critical uh boundary between those two thresholds we 612 00:36:29,840 --> 00:36:33,279 Speaker 1: talked about, where it's above the type one threshold but 613 00:36:33,360 --> 00:36:36,560 Speaker 1: below the type two threshold, you can have this quantum 614 00:36:36,640 --> 00:36:42,000 Speaker 1: lock where you can put a magnet above a superconducting 615 00:36:42,040 --> 00:36:45,960 Speaker 1: base or a super super cooled superconductor over a magnet 616 00:36:46,400 --> 00:36:50,560 Speaker 1: and lock it into a position where it's seemingly just floating. 617 00:36:50,760 --> 00:36:55,440 Speaker 1: Really it is floating above the magnet or no, for 618 00:36:55,680 --> 00:36:58,520 Speaker 1: the magnets, floating above the superconductor. However you've had it arranged. 619 00:36:58,560 --> 00:37:00,360 Speaker 1: And that and that that Ted talk that we mentioned 620 00:37:00,560 --> 00:37:03,120 Speaker 1: from from two thousand eleven that probably you've seen a 621 00:37:03,239 --> 00:37:06,000 Speaker 1: call that that was calling it quantum levitation. You know, 622 00:37:06,120 --> 00:37:08,440 Speaker 1: it's it's the dude just just pushed a magnet around 623 00:37:08,440 --> 00:37:10,000 Speaker 1: and it kind of float in a circle when it 624 00:37:10,080 --> 00:37:12,200 Speaker 1: was what he had was he had a I think 625 00:37:12,200 --> 00:37:15,920 Speaker 1: he had a big circular bang. Yeah, it was exactly 626 00:37:16,160 --> 00:37:18,440 Speaker 1: like a doughnut in the sense that had a band 627 00:37:18,480 --> 00:37:21,920 Speaker 1: of magnetic material that runs in a circle. But was 628 00:37:22,320 --> 00:37:25,160 Speaker 1: it was just a band. It wasn't a disk or anything. 629 00:37:25,160 --> 00:37:26,919 Speaker 1: It was a band of this magnetic material. So, yeah, 630 00:37:26,960 --> 00:37:29,360 Speaker 1: like a donut. And then had this super cooled super 631 00:37:29,360 --> 00:37:33,800 Speaker 1: conducting material that he put He put it in place 632 00:37:34,120 --> 00:37:36,719 Speaker 1: above the band, so it's not touching the band at all, 633 00:37:36,760 --> 00:37:39,200 Speaker 1: it's floating above it. And he could actually change the 634 00:37:39,239 --> 00:37:43,319 Speaker 1: orientation of the superconductor so it could be flat, or 635 00:37:43,440 --> 00:37:45,880 Speaker 1: he could tilt it so suddenly it was at a 636 00:37:46,040 --> 00:37:48,759 Speaker 1: forty five degree tilt, and then he could just give 637 00:37:48,760 --> 00:37:51,880 Speaker 1: it a little push and it would float around the 638 00:37:51,920 --> 00:37:54,440 Speaker 1: circle of this magnetic band, just floating as though it 639 00:37:54,400 --> 00:37:57,600 Speaker 1: were on a track and but not touching anything. Right, 640 00:37:57,640 --> 00:38:01,120 Speaker 1: So there's there's no real apart for air resistance. There's 641 00:38:01,160 --> 00:38:05,040 Speaker 1: no real force acting against it. So in other words, 642 00:38:05,160 --> 00:38:08,239 Speaker 1: it's about as close to perpetual motion as you can get. 643 00:38:08,640 --> 00:38:10,800 Speaker 1: It would just keep going around and around and around 644 00:38:10,920 --> 00:38:15,400 Speaker 1: until the air resistance finally would make it stop, and 645 00:38:15,400 --> 00:38:19,839 Speaker 1: he even demonstrates that, uh, it is completely independent of 646 00:38:19,880 --> 00:38:23,000 Speaker 1: gravity as well. If you were to turn the whole 647 00:38:23,080 --> 00:38:28,440 Speaker 1: thing upside down, which which is pretty awesome. Uh, it 648 00:38:28,480 --> 00:38:32,840 Speaker 1: then floats underneath the band. But again, you can change 649 00:38:32,880 --> 00:38:37,640 Speaker 1: the orientation of the superconducting material. And it's it's kind 650 00:38:37,680 --> 00:38:41,239 Speaker 1: of a mind blowing video. It's it's really terrific. Uh. 651 00:38:41,520 --> 00:38:43,960 Speaker 1: And what's what's going on in it is that UM 652 00:38:44,160 --> 00:38:49,880 Speaker 1: so as superconductors UM cool down, they increasingly expel magnetic fields. 653 00:38:50,360 --> 00:38:52,759 Speaker 1: And when you when you get a type two superconductor 654 00:38:52,760 --> 00:38:56,279 Speaker 1: into that vortex state, UM electrons can can form these 655 00:38:56,360 --> 00:39:01,120 Speaker 1: kind of eddy currents that produce a counter field. Yeah, 656 00:39:01,320 --> 00:39:04,359 Speaker 1: it's kind of crazy. And and so you've got this, 657 00:39:04,960 --> 00:39:08,359 Speaker 1: you've got this expelling of fields out from the super 658 00:39:08,360 --> 00:39:11,640 Speaker 1: conducting material. You also have the norm the quote unquote 659 00:39:11,680 --> 00:39:15,600 Speaker 1: normal islands of material in there that are attracted to 660 00:39:16,120 --> 00:39:20,120 Speaker 1: whatever the magnet is UM. And so it's the balance 661 00:39:20,200 --> 00:39:23,880 Speaker 1: of those two that make that type to superconductor stable 662 00:39:23,960 --> 00:39:27,359 Speaker 1: as opposed to the type ones that are all wobbly. UM. 663 00:39:28,160 --> 00:39:31,279 Speaker 1: There's there's also been you might remember background the year 664 00:39:31,360 --> 00:39:34,560 Speaker 1: two thousand, Uh, some some people got a whole lot 665 00:39:34,600 --> 00:39:37,160 Speaker 1: of attention for levitating a frog, and you know, water 666 00:39:37,280 --> 00:39:40,640 Speaker 1: and hazelnuts and all kinds of fun stuff. It was 667 00:39:40,640 --> 00:39:44,120 Speaker 1: along the same principles and and works because although technically, 668 00:39:44,200 --> 00:39:45,880 Speaker 1: you know what we think of things like water in 669 00:39:45,960 --> 00:39:50,600 Speaker 1: organic tissue like frogs is being non magnetic um, they 670 00:39:50,719 --> 00:39:54,120 Speaker 1: will exhibit a very weak repulsive effect when placed in 671 00:39:54,120 --> 00:39:56,600 Speaker 1: a very strong magnetic field. I know that I can 672 00:39:56,640 --> 00:40:00,520 Speaker 1: be repulsed by frogs quite easily. However, if you want 673 00:40:00,520 --> 00:40:03,719 Speaker 1: to have a fun experiment with frogs and magnetism, you 674 00:40:03,760 --> 00:40:05,600 Speaker 1: take a frog and you go up to your little 675 00:40:05,600 --> 00:40:08,359 Speaker 1: sister and you rub it against her hair and then 676 00:40:08,360 --> 00:40:12,719 Speaker 1: you run. It doesn't actually do anything scientific, but it 677 00:40:12,760 --> 00:40:16,239 Speaker 1: can be quite amusing. Now over how stuff works. We 678 00:40:16,280 --> 00:40:18,600 Speaker 1: have articles that cover all sorts of stuff, and we 679 00:40:18,680 --> 00:40:22,560 Speaker 1: even have one on superconductors. And there was one particular 680 00:40:23,320 --> 00:40:26,400 Speaker 1: section of the article I wanted to quote that was 681 00:40:26,480 --> 00:40:28,959 Speaker 1: that was just very effective. Right. This comes straight from 682 00:40:29,080 --> 00:40:33,560 Speaker 1: our article on superconductors. Superconductors boast more than zero resistance. 683 00:40:33,600 --> 00:40:38,960 Speaker 1: They also offer extremely high current carrying density, exceptionally low 684 00:40:39,000 --> 00:40:42,960 Speaker 1: resistance and high frequencies, very low signal dispersion, and high 685 00:40:43,040 --> 00:40:48,720 Speaker 1: magnetic field sensitivity. They exclude externally applied magnetic fields exhibit 686 00:40:48,800 --> 00:40:52,680 Speaker 1: unusual quantum behaviors and are capable of near light speed 687 00:40:52,800 --> 00:40:56,920 Speaker 1: signal transmission. This combination of factors effectively rewrites the rules 688 00:40:57,000 --> 00:41:02,280 Speaker 1: for electromagnetic industries and suggests numerous possible innovations, including improved 689 00:41:02,280 --> 00:41:07,520 Speaker 1: electric power transmission, generation and storage, smaller, more powerful magnets 690 00:41:07,520 --> 00:41:12,160 Speaker 1: for motors, cutting edge medical equipment, improved microwave components for 691 00:41:12,160 --> 00:41:17,280 Speaker 1: communications and military applications, vastly boosted sensors, and using magnetic 692 00:41:17,320 --> 00:41:20,640 Speaker 1: fields to contain charged particles. So that's that's you know, 693 00:41:20,800 --> 00:41:22,600 Speaker 1: we're going to talk a little bit more about some 694 00:41:22,680 --> 00:41:26,120 Speaker 1: of the applications, but the potential is phenomenal. Yeah. And 695 00:41:26,120 --> 00:41:28,799 Speaker 1: and thank you to Nicholas Jervis or Gurbius, depending on 696 00:41:28,840 --> 00:41:31,600 Speaker 1: how you pronounce that, for for writing that excellent little 697 00:41:31,600 --> 00:41:34,759 Speaker 1: bit for that article on superconductivity for us. Yes, yes, 698 00:41:34,800 --> 00:41:37,640 Speaker 1: it's a great read. I do recommend it. Uh. And 699 00:41:38,480 --> 00:41:43,439 Speaker 1: there are lots of different substances that can exhibit superconductivity. Uh. 700 00:41:43,600 --> 00:41:46,040 Speaker 1: Some of them were you know, the pure substances we 701 00:41:46,080 --> 00:41:48,960 Speaker 1: talked about. The metallic elements can do this if you 702 00:41:49,040 --> 00:41:52,520 Speaker 1: cool them to the correct temperature. Uh, some of them, 703 00:41:52,800 --> 00:41:58,799 Speaker 1: some of them that are not metals can exhibit superconductivity Uranium, yeah, 704 00:41:59,040 --> 00:42:01,719 Speaker 1: or selenium or s l con if you if you 705 00:42:01,760 --> 00:42:06,080 Speaker 1: lower the temperature enough you have to pressure. Yeah, that's 706 00:42:06,640 --> 00:42:09,960 Speaker 1: they don't. If it's at just a normal one atmosphere pressure, 707 00:42:10,280 --> 00:42:11,960 Speaker 1: you can't get it cold enough to do that. But 708 00:42:12,000 --> 00:42:15,400 Speaker 1: if you increase the pressures, uh, then that the combination 709 00:42:15,440 --> 00:42:18,080 Speaker 1: of the pressure and the temperature will have them exhibit 710 00:42:18,680 --> 00:42:23,239 Speaker 1: this superconductive property, and then that you have hot superconductors. 711 00:42:23,280 --> 00:42:25,400 Speaker 1: All right, this is that recent, more recent research that 712 00:42:25,520 --> 00:42:28,160 Speaker 1: was begun in the eighties, and so so tell us, 713 00:42:28,200 --> 00:42:31,319 Speaker 1: tell us what hot superconductors do. Okay, So you know, 714 00:42:31,360 --> 00:42:34,399 Speaker 1: we've talked about the idea of cold fusion, the idea 715 00:42:34,440 --> 00:42:38,040 Speaker 1: of having a fusion reactor that could operate at temperatures 716 00:42:38,040 --> 00:42:40,960 Speaker 1: that are much lower than what we would expect a 717 00:42:41,000 --> 00:42:46,080 Speaker 1: fusion reactor to to perform at. Right. A hot superconductor 718 00:42:46,160 --> 00:42:48,440 Speaker 1: is kind of the opposite idea. And while we don't 719 00:42:48,480 --> 00:42:51,520 Speaker 1: know if cold fusion will ever really work, we do 720 00:42:51,600 --> 00:42:55,080 Speaker 1: know that hot superconductors are a thing. But when we 721 00:42:55,160 --> 00:43:00,560 Speaker 1: say hot, we're talking relative terms. It's still very, very 722 00:43:00,880 --> 00:43:04,520 Speaker 1: very cold. It's still cold enough to kill you if 723 00:43:04,600 --> 00:43:07,640 Speaker 1: you were to be exposed to it, but it's not 724 00:43:07,840 --> 00:43:12,080 Speaker 1: so cold as to require liquid helium to cool it. Um. 725 00:43:12,160 --> 00:43:16,600 Speaker 1: So this was something that that lots of different people 726 00:43:16,600 --> 00:43:19,799 Speaker 1: were working on throughout the years. Uh and you know, 727 00:43:19,880 --> 00:43:23,040 Speaker 1: just sort of experimenting with different combinations and materials. Again, 728 00:43:23,120 --> 00:43:25,680 Speaker 1: getting back to that scientist in the lab saying, Huh, 729 00:43:25,880 --> 00:43:29,080 Speaker 1: I wonder what would happen if we did this to this. Uh. 730 00:43:29,200 --> 00:43:32,080 Speaker 1: That that first one was I believe it was discovered 731 00:43:32,120 --> 00:43:37,000 Speaker 1: by IBM researchers. They they presented a a superconductor of 732 00:43:37,440 --> 00:43:43,000 Speaker 1: barium lanthum, lanthanum and copper oxide um and and it 733 00:43:43,040 --> 00:43:47,279 Speaker 1: could achieve zero resistance at thirty five kelvin r what 734 00:43:47,680 --> 00:43:52,120 Speaker 1: minus two hundred and thirty eight celsius and minus three 735 00:43:52,719 --> 00:43:55,879 Speaker 1: and nine seven fahrenheit. Wow, Lauren does some wicked math 736 00:43:55,920 --> 00:44:00,360 Speaker 1: in her head. Yeah. And so instead of using liquid helium, 737 00:44:00,400 --> 00:44:02,759 Speaker 1: that meant that you could use liquid nitrogen, which is 738 00:44:02,840 --> 00:44:05,759 Speaker 1: much more plentiful and inexpensive, right, yes, you can, you know, 739 00:44:05,880 --> 00:44:09,120 Speaker 1: compare to liquid helium. Liquid nitrogen we're lousy with it, 740 00:44:09,200 --> 00:44:10,440 Speaker 1: right yeah. Yeah, and you can pick it up at 741 00:44:10,440 --> 00:44:13,720 Speaker 1: the supermarket if you really. The point being that it 742 00:44:13,760 --> 00:44:17,200 Speaker 1: is much it really lowered the bar for what you 743 00:44:17,239 --> 00:44:20,480 Speaker 1: could make a superconductor out of, which meant that suddenly 744 00:44:20,520 --> 00:44:22,640 Speaker 1: you could use them for a lot more applications. You know, 745 00:44:22,719 --> 00:44:28,160 Speaker 1: before only the most well funded applications could ever afford 746 00:44:28,200 --> 00:44:31,479 Speaker 1: any sort of superconductor material because everything we had needed 747 00:44:31,480 --> 00:44:34,360 Speaker 1: to be cooled down so far that you had to 748 00:44:34,360 --> 00:44:36,879 Speaker 1: have liquid helium to do it. And there are there 749 00:44:36,880 --> 00:44:39,319 Speaker 1: are plenty of places out there that are using that 750 00:44:39,400 --> 00:44:42,760 Speaker 1: kind of material, like the Large Hadron Collider, for example, 751 00:44:43,080 --> 00:44:47,319 Speaker 1: uses superconductors and it's and it's electronics in order for 752 00:44:47,360 --> 00:44:50,879 Speaker 1: it to increase the speed of proton beams so that 753 00:44:50,920 --> 00:44:56,319 Speaker 1: they can collide at massive, massive speeds and create a 754 00:44:56,400 --> 00:45:00,320 Speaker 1: situation that looks like a tiny micro cosmic version of 755 00:45:00,360 --> 00:45:03,520 Speaker 1: the Big Bang or shortly amediate following the Big Bang. 756 00:45:03,560 --> 00:45:06,600 Speaker 1: I guess I should say the world record for the 757 00:45:06,640 --> 00:45:10,600 Speaker 1: hottest quote unquote superconductor was a four, and that it 758 00:45:10,920 --> 00:45:14,800 Speaker 1: was at thirty eight calvin, which is only a mirror 759 00:45:15,080 --> 00:45:20,520 Speaker 1: negative on five celsius and negative two eleven fahrenheit. Right, 760 00:45:20,640 --> 00:45:23,879 Speaker 1: so again still really cold to us, but downright bal 761 00:45:24,000 --> 00:45:27,880 Speaker 1: me because yeah, it's like a it's like a vacation 762 00:45:27,880 --> 00:45:31,760 Speaker 1: in the tropics, really, And they were using thallium doped 763 00:45:32,000 --> 00:45:36,520 Speaker 1: mercuric cuperate which was comprised of the following elements. So 764 00:45:36,680 --> 00:45:38,319 Speaker 1: this is what you have on your shopping list if 765 00:45:38,320 --> 00:45:41,520 Speaker 1: you want to make one of these, it's not easy 766 00:45:41,640 --> 00:45:45,719 Speaker 1: and most of these things are poisonous mercury which is poisonous, 767 00:45:45,920 --> 00:45:50,799 Speaker 1: thallium which is also poisonous, barium, calcium, copper, and oxygen. 768 00:45:51,480 --> 00:45:53,279 Speaker 1: It's not something that you can actually go and put 769 00:45:53,320 --> 00:45:57,359 Speaker 1: together on your own. I wouldn't recommend trying fairly. No, No, Now, 770 00:45:57,360 --> 00:45:59,040 Speaker 1: your average science lab is not gonna be able to 771 00:45:59,040 --> 00:46:02,319 Speaker 1: produce that kind of super conductor. But then we can 772 00:46:02,360 --> 00:46:04,959 Speaker 1: talk a little bit about what we would use this 773 00:46:05,200 --> 00:46:09,440 Speaker 1: stuff for once being used already, how it's being already used. Yeah, 774 00:46:09,120 --> 00:46:12,000 Speaker 1: m R I I think is the probably most common 775 00:46:12,320 --> 00:46:15,480 Speaker 1: that that's magnetic resonance imaging. Yes, so MR eyes are 776 00:46:15,600 --> 00:46:19,479 Speaker 1: used to look at soft tissues, right, because X rays 777 00:46:19,480 --> 00:46:21,960 Speaker 1: are very good at looking at things like like your skeleton, 778 00:46:22,440 --> 00:46:25,239 Speaker 1: but they don't they don't pick up soft tissue very well. 779 00:46:25,320 --> 00:46:27,279 Speaker 1: M R i's, however, are very good at looking at 780 00:46:27,280 --> 00:46:31,040 Speaker 1: soft tissue, so they became very important in the field 781 00:46:31,040 --> 00:46:34,680 Speaker 1: of medicine. And super conductors are a great component for 782 00:46:34,960 --> 00:46:37,919 Speaker 1: m r I machines, as Jonathan mentioned a moment ago, 783 00:46:38,200 --> 00:46:41,520 Speaker 1: super colliders such as the Large Hadron collider YEP, and there, 784 00:46:41,520 --> 00:46:43,200 Speaker 1: of course there are more than just that. That's just 785 00:46:43,239 --> 00:46:46,640 Speaker 1: probably the most famous one that people have heard about recently. 786 00:46:47,000 --> 00:46:50,719 Speaker 1: Magnetic levitation trains mag lev trains. There's a couple of 787 00:46:50,760 --> 00:46:54,440 Speaker 1: examples of these, mostly out in Japan, where the idea 788 00:46:54,480 --> 00:46:58,480 Speaker 1: is to use the super conductors along a track, so 789 00:46:58,560 --> 00:47:02,960 Speaker 1: you super cool them and create this uh, this this 790 00:47:03,040 --> 00:47:07,120 Speaker 1: quantum lock phenomena, and then there are magnets on the 791 00:47:07,160 --> 00:47:11,640 Speaker 1: actual train that can allow it to levitate above the track, 792 00:47:11,800 --> 00:47:15,799 Speaker 1: thus allowing it to move without that friction that would 793 00:47:15,880 --> 00:47:20,000 Speaker 1: normally cause the train to be less efficient and uh 794 00:47:20,040 --> 00:47:22,520 Speaker 1: and allow it to move it on a high speed 795 00:47:22,920 --> 00:47:26,520 Speaker 1: um without with a relative minimum of energy input, right 796 00:47:26,840 --> 00:47:29,000 Speaker 1: right uh. And of course you could also make a 797 00:47:29,040 --> 00:47:31,680 Speaker 1: train the other way around, where the superconductors are on 798 00:47:31,719 --> 00:47:33,919 Speaker 1: the train and the magnets are in the track. In fact, 799 00:47:33,960 --> 00:47:37,080 Speaker 1: I think Japan might have examples of both. I wrote 800 00:47:37,120 --> 00:47:39,960 Speaker 1: an article years and years ago for Discovery News about it, 801 00:47:40,000 --> 00:47:43,480 Speaker 1: but frankly I honestly can't remember at this point. But 802 00:47:44,960 --> 00:47:49,680 Speaker 1: other things, we could use it for nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. 803 00:47:50,360 --> 00:47:53,480 Speaker 1: That's that that that's just very useful in a pharmaceutical 804 00:47:53,680 --> 00:48:01,919 Speaker 1: pharmaceutical research. It catches yeah, biotechnology, etcetera, etcetera. And they're 805 00:48:01,960 --> 00:48:04,399 Speaker 1: they're looking forward to uh to maybe trying to use 806 00:48:04,440 --> 00:48:08,120 Speaker 1: this in more efficient forms of energy storage or energy 807 00:48:08,840 --> 00:48:13,080 Speaker 1: capture like wind turbines, right, also just other electric generators 808 00:48:13,080 --> 00:48:15,400 Speaker 1: in general, so that you don't lose as much of 809 00:48:15,440 --> 00:48:18,960 Speaker 1: that electricity that you've generated through heat. So again that's 810 00:48:19,000 --> 00:48:20,279 Speaker 1: one of those things. You know, if we can make 811 00:48:20,320 --> 00:48:24,080 Speaker 1: power systems more efficient where more of the power we are, 812 00:48:24,120 --> 00:48:27,000 Speaker 1: more of the electricity we're generating, gets to wherever it 813 00:48:27,040 --> 00:48:30,399 Speaker 1: needs to be to do work, then that's a win 814 00:48:30,560 --> 00:48:33,160 Speaker 1: for everybody. It means that you have to consume fewer 815 00:48:33,200 --> 00:48:37,680 Speaker 1: resources because you don't have to worry about losing you know, 816 00:48:37,960 --> 00:48:41,040 Speaker 1: x amount of the energy you're trying to produce as heat. Right. 817 00:48:41,400 --> 00:48:43,400 Speaker 1: Also on the on the quantum level, this could be 818 00:48:43,480 --> 00:48:47,480 Speaker 1: very useful for things like quantum computers because it's it's 819 00:48:47,520 --> 00:48:52,879 Speaker 1: working on that tiny quantum scale. Yeah, quantum computers. There's 820 00:48:52,880 --> 00:48:55,480 Speaker 1: always a super cooling element with quantum computers as well. 821 00:48:55,480 --> 00:48:58,239 Speaker 1: In order to make them work, we've talked about quantum 822 00:48:58,239 --> 00:49:00,440 Speaker 1: computers in previous episodes, but I have a feeling we're 823 00:49:00,440 --> 00:49:02,520 Speaker 1: going to need to do a full episode on quantum 824 00:49:02,520 --> 00:49:05,839 Speaker 1: computers to really explain what the concept is and how 825 00:49:05,880 --> 00:49:09,160 Speaker 1: they work, because again, it gets pretty I guess Einstein 826 00:49:09,160 --> 00:49:12,080 Speaker 1: would call it spooky. I guess I guess he would 827 00:49:12,560 --> 00:49:18,960 Speaker 1: ump speaking of spooky a quantum entanglement. Superconductors are used 828 00:49:19,160 --> 00:49:23,319 Speaker 1: to create quantum entanglement, ah so, which is again a 829 00:49:23,400 --> 00:49:28,920 Speaker 1: very important component in things like the quantum cryptography. Now 830 00:49:29,680 --> 00:49:32,279 Speaker 1: you have a note here that I've read I see 831 00:49:32,320 --> 00:49:34,560 Speaker 1: in front of me. I wanted to mention that this 832 00:49:34,640 --> 00:49:38,640 Speaker 1: is not anti gravity, um, you know it is. You are. 833 00:49:38,880 --> 00:49:43,480 Speaker 1: You are canceling out a magnetic field, right, but it's 834 00:49:43,520 --> 00:49:46,919 Speaker 1: not like you have created some way like you can't 835 00:49:47,000 --> 00:49:51,239 Speaker 1: turn us switch. Everyone floats off the floor exactly. Yeah, 836 00:49:51,239 --> 00:49:54,480 Speaker 1: and we're we're not we're not counteracting gravitons. We still 837 00:49:54,480 --> 00:49:57,640 Speaker 1: don't really know how gravity actually works. I mean, wait, 838 00:49:57,680 --> 00:50:00,960 Speaker 1: we obviously see uh, the effect of it, right, we 839 00:50:01,200 --> 00:50:05,080 Speaker 1: don't see the actual mechanism. Yeah. Back was a Russian 840 00:50:05,080 --> 00:50:09,480 Speaker 1: physicist whose name I'm not even going to attempt right now. Um, 841 00:50:09,520 --> 00:50:12,200 Speaker 1: but but he he claimed to have successfully tested this 842 00:50:12,280 --> 00:50:16,400 Speaker 1: device that would shield an object from gravity. UM. It 843 00:50:16,480 --> 00:50:21,840 Speaker 1: involved levitating a a superconducting disc above m magnet and UM, 844 00:50:22,000 --> 00:50:24,200 Speaker 1: no one, no one in the past couple of decades 845 00:50:24,280 --> 00:50:27,120 Speaker 1: has figured out how has has been able to replicate 846 00:50:27,200 --> 00:50:31,240 Speaker 1: this experiment. So that's not that's not what we're talking about, 847 00:50:31,480 --> 00:50:33,719 Speaker 1: right right. And then, of course the other note I 848 00:50:33,760 --> 00:50:36,840 Speaker 1: was going to mention was the one about people thought 849 00:50:36,880 --> 00:50:43,120 Speaker 1: that we somehow reverse engineered superconductors from alien spacecraft. Yeah, 850 00:50:43,160 --> 00:50:45,200 Speaker 1: because you know what Area fifty one they were. They 851 00:50:45,200 --> 00:50:47,600 Speaker 1: were holding all those that that that alien space craft, 852 00:50:47,680 --> 00:50:50,000 Speaker 1: and so they were You wrote that, and I wrote 853 00:50:50,000 --> 00:50:52,600 Speaker 1: that whole article Area fifty one, and I don't remember 854 00:50:52,680 --> 00:50:56,759 Speaker 1: any alien spacecraft being in there. No. This is again 855 00:50:56,800 --> 00:51:00,200 Speaker 1: why those conspiracy theories where people thought that perhaps humans 856 00:51:00,239 --> 00:51:03,000 Speaker 1: are not ingenious or inventive enough to have come up 857 00:51:03,000 --> 00:51:05,640 Speaker 1: with this on our own now greted. Since we already 858 00:51:05,640 --> 00:51:09,640 Speaker 1: talked about how the first experiments with super conductivity date 859 00:51:09,680 --> 00:51:12,760 Speaker 1: back to nineteen eleven, I think we can be safe 860 00:51:12,800 --> 00:51:15,120 Speaker 1: to say that it's not the Area fifty one reverse 861 00:51:15,160 --> 00:51:19,040 Speaker 1: engineering nonsense. Sure, However, I mean, you know it's I 862 00:51:19,239 --> 00:51:22,560 Speaker 1: do see the connections since we started really up pushing 863 00:51:22,680 --> 00:51:25,080 Speaker 1: pushing the technology off the ground in the nineteen fifties 864 00:51:25,160 --> 00:51:30,080 Speaker 1: and nine and nine seven being the year that um oh, 865 00:51:30,120 --> 00:51:33,360 Speaker 1: the Roswell incident. Of the Roswell incident. Also keep in 866 00:51:33,400 --> 00:51:36,400 Speaker 1: mind that Roswell an Area fifty one are not remotely 867 00:51:36,440 --> 00:51:41,680 Speaker 1: close clearly connected. So I this is where Jonathan says, 868 00:51:42,480 --> 00:51:48,120 Speaker 1: ladies and gentlemen, humans are amazingly smart and amazingly creative, 869 00:51:48,200 --> 00:51:51,400 Speaker 1: and we come up with some amazing accidents. Yeah, there's 870 00:51:51,160 --> 00:51:55,120 Speaker 1: sometimes we find out we find stuff that we weren't 871 00:51:55,120 --> 00:51:58,680 Speaker 1: even looking for, but it becomes really important. And I 872 00:51:58,760 --> 00:52:02,040 Speaker 1: don't I personally, whenever I think of these reverse engineering stories, 873 00:52:02,080 --> 00:52:05,320 Speaker 1: it really to me is just downplaying how how brilliant 874 00:52:05,360 --> 00:52:07,640 Speaker 1: people can be. And that kind of gets me a 875 00:52:07,680 --> 00:52:12,440 Speaker 1: little upset because I've met folks who are truly geniuses 876 00:52:12,600 --> 00:52:16,440 Speaker 1: at specific fields and uh, and you know, I think 877 00:52:16,480 --> 00:52:19,560 Speaker 1: it's an insult to them to say that, Oh, obviously 878 00:52:19,600 --> 00:52:22,080 Speaker 1: no person could have thought this up. It's too magical. 879 00:52:22,160 --> 00:52:24,680 Speaker 1: It must have come from somewhere else. Also, reverse engineering 880 00:52:24,760 --> 00:52:27,799 Speaker 1: isn't really easier necessary. I mean, yeah, because you have 881 00:52:27,840 --> 00:52:29,479 Speaker 1: to figure out how it works in the first place. 882 00:52:29,480 --> 00:52:32,520 Speaker 1: And then it's not like you don't. You don't, just 883 00:52:32,760 --> 00:52:35,400 Speaker 1: know it doesn't involve using a Mac computer to upload 884 00:52:35,400 --> 00:52:38,360 Speaker 1: of virus to a mothership. Boy, we could do a 885 00:52:38,360 --> 00:52:41,480 Speaker 1: full episode on just uh, that would be fun to do. 886 00:52:41,600 --> 00:52:43,799 Speaker 1: Sometimes do a tech stuff episode where we just pick 887 00:52:43,840 --> 00:52:47,000 Speaker 1: a science fiction film and pick apart all the technical 888 00:52:47,040 --> 00:52:50,520 Speaker 1: and accuracies in that film. And we could do that occasionally, 889 00:52:50,560 --> 00:52:52,279 Speaker 1: just once in a while. Let us know. Let us 890 00:52:52,280 --> 00:52:53,879 Speaker 1: know how you guys feel about that, because that could 891 00:52:53,880 --> 00:52:56,520 Speaker 1: either be incredibly tiresome or really fun and I'm not 892 00:52:56,640 --> 00:52:58,720 Speaker 1: entirely sure which one. If you guys, If you guys 893 00:52:58,760 --> 00:53:00,759 Speaker 1: do think that would be a fun idea, let us know, 894 00:53:00,880 --> 00:53:03,439 Speaker 1: and I go ahead and propose it. Independent Stay could 895 00:53:03,440 --> 00:53:05,480 Speaker 1: be the first film that we tackle. That would be 896 00:53:05,520 --> 00:53:07,799 Speaker 1: a fun one, But we don't have to obviously. If 897 00:53:07,800 --> 00:53:10,600 Speaker 1: you all think no, that's lane, well that stuff, you 898 00:53:10,600 --> 00:53:14,160 Speaker 1: should now do it. So, guys, thank you so much 899 00:53:14,440 --> 00:53:17,560 Speaker 1: for tuning in. This has been a really fun podcast 900 00:53:17,840 --> 00:53:22,000 Speaker 1: to to really dive into something really interesting and and 901 00:53:22,080 --> 00:53:25,120 Speaker 1: still mysterious. We're still learning about it. I can't wait 902 00:53:25,200 --> 00:53:27,680 Speaker 1: to learn more about this and see how we use 903 00:53:27,719 --> 00:53:29,759 Speaker 1: it in the future. I expect that this is going 904 00:53:29,800 --> 00:53:33,800 Speaker 1: to be one of those transformative scientific developments that really 905 00:53:33,880 --> 00:53:37,359 Speaker 1: makes the future an exciting time to live in, which 906 00:53:37,400 --> 00:53:39,080 Speaker 1: is good because I don't have any choice in the matter. 907 00:53:39,640 --> 00:53:42,799 Speaker 1: So if you have any suggestions for future episodes of 908 00:53:42,840 --> 00:53:45,200 Speaker 1: tech Stuff, let us know. Send us an email that 909 00:53:45,239 --> 00:53:49,359 Speaker 1: addresses tech Stuff at Discovery dot com, or drop us 910 00:53:49,400 --> 00:53:52,040 Speaker 1: a note On our social media. You can find us 911 00:53:52,040 --> 00:53:54,760 Speaker 1: on Facebook and Twitter. We have the handle text stuff 912 00:53:55,040 --> 00:53:57,600 Speaker 1: hs W and Lauren and I will talk to you 913 00:53:57,640 --> 00:54:07,080 Speaker 1: again really soon for more on this and thousands of 914 00:54:07,120 --> 00:54:18,680 Speaker 1: other topics, because it how stuff works. Dot Com