1 00:00:01,280 --> 00:00:04,320 Speaker 1: Welcome to Stuff You Missed in History Class, a production 2 00:00:04,400 --> 00:00:13,960 Speaker 1: of I Heart Radio. Hello, and welcome to the podcast. 3 00:00:14,040 --> 00:00:17,919 Speaker 1: I'm Tracy V. Wilson and I'm Holly Fry. Today we 4 00:00:18,000 --> 00:00:20,920 Speaker 1: are going to talk about Kitty Knox, who was a 5 00:00:20,960 --> 00:00:24,959 Speaker 1: cyclist during the bicycle boom of the late nineteenth century, 6 00:00:25,000 --> 00:00:28,680 Speaker 1: and her story is tied to so much, just really 7 00:00:28,720 --> 00:00:32,520 Speaker 1: so much. This bicycle boom had connections to the Good 8 00:00:32,600 --> 00:00:37,239 Speaker 1: Roads movement and the suffrage movement and dress reform, and 9 00:00:37,280 --> 00:00:40,839 Speaker 1: then Kitty Knox's story in particular also connects to civil 10 00:00:40,920 --> 00:00:45,440 Speaker 1: rights because Knox was biracial and became known not just 11 00:00:45,600 --> 00:00:49,360 Speaker 1: for participating in what was a predominantly white sport, but 12 00:00:49,479 --> 00:00:52,120 Speaker 1: also for the clothes that she wore to do it, 13 00:00:53,080 --> 00:00:56,120 Speaker 1: and the fact that the League of American Wheelman tried 14 00:00:56,160 --> 00:00:59,760 Speaker 1: to close its membership to people of color after she 15 00:00:59,840 --> 00:01:03,000 Speaker 1: had already joined. We are going to start off in 16 00:01:03,040 --> 00:01:06,680 Speaker 1: this episode with a bit of bicycle history. Some of 17 00:01:06,680 --> 00:01:08,840 Speaker 1: it is stuff that has like come up in tiny 18 00:01:08,920 --> 00:01:12,440 Speaker 1: little glimpses and some of our past episodes on cyclists, 19 00:01:12,440 --> 00:01:15,960 Speaker 1: but this is some more comprehensive look at how bicycles 20 00:01:16,000 --> 00:01:18,880 Speaker 1: developed because we want to set the stage for how 21 00:01:18,959 --> 00:01:23,080 Speaker 1: bicycles became so incredibly popular in the United States during 22 00:01:23,160 --> 00:01:29,080 Speaker 1: Knox's lifetime, and how the sudden popularity of bicycles affected 23 00:01:29,120 --> 00:01:32,640 Speaker 1: the society that she was living in. Precursors to the 24 00:01:32,680 --> 00:01:36,080 Speaker 1: bicycle as we know it today didn't have pedals. You 25 00:01:36,120 --> 00:01:38,440 Speaker 1: pushed along the ground with your feet, or you rolled 26 00:01:38,440 --> 00:01:42,320 Speaker 1: downhill on them. One was the swift Walker, also called 27 00:01:42,319 --> 00:01:45,880 Speaker 1: the dre Zine after its inventor carlv Andres, who introduced 28 00:01:45,880 --> 00:01:50,120 Speaker 1: it in Germany in eighteen seventeen. The swift Walker had 29 00:01:50,120 --> 00:01:53,320 Speaker 1: a wooden frame and wooden wheels which had iron rims 30 00:01:53,440 --> 00:01:58,200 Speaker 1: and leather covered tires. Over the decades that followed, various 31 00:01:58,280 --> 00:02:02,120 Speaker 1: people improved on this designed by adding pedals to it, 32 00:02:02,560 --> 00:02:05,640 Speaker 1: and they also started calling these new vehicles by a 33 00:02:05,720 --> 00:02:10,560 Speaker 1: number of different names, including both velocipede and bicycle. But 34 00:02:10,639 --> 00:02:14,600 Speaker 1: these early bicycles were also called bone shakers because they 35 00:02:14,600 --> 00:02:18,640 Speaker 1: gave such a very rough ride. They were introduced to 36 00:02:18,639 --> 00:02:21,240 Speaker 1: the United States by eighteen sixty eight, but they were 37 00:02:21,320 --> 00:02:25,400 Speaker 1: so heavy and so cumbersome and frankly, so unpleasant to 38 00:02:25,440 --> 00:02:28,560 Speaker 1: be on that they did not really take off. Also, 39 00:02:28,919 --> 00:02:31,960 Speaker 1: if you're gonna send in a note about what the 40 00:02:32,000 --> 00:02:35,440 Speaker 1: word velocopied means there were a lot of different people 41 00:02:35,480 --> 00:02:38,280 Speaker 1: who used this word to describe a lot of different vehicles, 42 00:02:38,680 --> 00:02:42,480 Speaker 1: and it's become kind of an umbrella for usually two 43 00:02:42,520 --> 00:02:48,679 Speaker 1: wheeled human powered vehicles. But in my head, it's a 44 00:02:48,760 --> 00:02:55,120 Speaker 1: monster bug with a cajillion legs. Bicycles moved from leather 45 00:02:55,200 --> 00:02:58,640 Speaker 1: covered tires to solid rubber ones in eighteen sixty nine 46 00:02:59,000 --> 00:03:01,919 Speaker 1: and in eighteen seven and the bicycle builders started making 47 00:03:02,000 --> 00:03:06,120 Speaker 1: frames from hollow steel tubes and using wire spoked wheels 48 00:03:06,200 --> 00:03:10,519 Speaker 1: rather than wooden ones. Using wire spokes under tension made 49 00:03:10,520 --> 00:03:13,200 Speaker 1: it possible to make the wheels bigger without their being 50 00:03:13,360 --> 00:03:17,359 Speaker 1: unmanageably heavy. The result was the high wheeler, also known 51 00:03:17,400 --> 00:03:20,239 Speaker 1: as the penny farthing, which had one very large front 52 00:03:20,280 --> 00:03:24,040 Speaker 1: wheel and a smaller back wheel. This nickname came from 53 00:03:24,040 --> 00:03:27,360 Speaker 1: the relative sizes of two British coins, the penny and 54 00:03:27,400 --> 00:03:31,120 Speaker 1: the much smaller farthing. With a high wheeler, the rider 55 00:03:31,240 --> 00:03:33,840 Speaker 1: sat on a seat that was mounted above that big 56 00:03:33,880 --> 00:03:36,840 Speaker 1: front wheel, and the size of the front wheel gave 57 00:03:36,880 --> 00:03:41,240 Speaker 1: it several advantages. Each rotation of the petals moved that 58 00:03:41,400 --> 00:03:43,920 Speaker 1: huge wheel a lot, so as long as you were 59 00:03:43,960 --> 00:03:46,720 Speaker 1: not trying to go uphill you could go farther with 60 00:03:46,880 --> 00:03:50,480 Speaker 1: less effort. The size of the wheel also meant that 61 00:03:50,520 --> 00:03:53,160 Speaker 1: it could roll over things like small holes in the 62 00:03:53,240 --> 00:03:56,560 Speaker 1: road without a big problem, and once you were actually moving, 63 00:03:57,280 --> 00:04:00,160 Speaker 1: the whole thing was pretty stable. But there were are 64 00:04:00,200 --> 00:04:04,920 Speaker 1: also some pretty significant downsides. High wheelers were expensive and 65 00:04:05,000 --> 00:04:08,760 Speaker 1: for the most part only upper class people could afford them. 66 00:04:08,800 --> 00:04:11,840 Speaker 1: The seat was roughly chest high on the average rider, 67 00:04:11,960 --> 00:04:14,760 Speaker 1: so getting on and off could be a challenge, so 68 00:04:15,000 --> 00:04:18,359 Speaker 1: was safely bringing it to a stop. Brakes were minimal, 69 00:04:18,440 --> 00:04:20,480 Speaker 1: and they had to work against the power of that 70 00:04:20,640 --> 00:04:23,640 Speaker 1: huge front wheel. And while the front wheel could go 71 00:04:23,680 --> 00:04:26,039 Speaker 1: over small holes without a problem, if it hit a 72 00:04:26,040 --> 00:04:28,320 Speaker 1: big rock or a big stick or something else that 73 00:04:28,360 --> 00:04:32,280 Speaker 1: could cause it to stop suddenly. The rider usually took 74 00:04:32,320 --> 00:04:35,040 Speaker 1: a header, meaning that they flew over the handlebars and 75 00:04:35,160 --> 00:04:39,719 Speaker 1: landed head first. That could cause serious or even fatal injuries. Yeah, 76 00:04:39,760 --> 00:04:43,000 Speaker 1: I mean, people still can fly over the handlebars of 77 00:04:43,000 --> 00:04:45,160 Speaker 1: a bicycle, but this was from a height of like 78 00:04:45,680 --> 00:04:48,360 Speaker 1: a five foot tall wheel that you were sitting above, 79 00:04:49,000 --> 00:04:53,000 Speaker 1: a long way to fall. In spite of these limitations, 80 00:04:53,120 --> 00:04:56,560 Speaker 1: high wheelers were popular enough that people started forming clubs 81 00:04:56,600 --> 00:04:59,279 Speaker 1: to encourage their use and to provide a place for 82 00:04:59,320 --> 00:05:02,640 Speaker 1: a rider's to meet and socialize. For example, the first 83 00:05:02,760 --> 00:05:06,160 Speaker 1: bicycling club in the US was the Boston Bicycle Club, 84 00:05:06,240 --> 00:05:09,880 Speaker 1: formed in eighteen seventy eight. The high wheelers design made 85 00:05:09,880 --> 00:05:12,960 Speaker 1: it nearly impossible for most women to ride in the 86 00:05:13,000 --> 00:05:16,960 Speaker 1: clothing that was considered appropriate for them, so most women 87 00:05:17,040 --> 00:05:20,920 Speaker 1: who wanted to ride instead opted for a tricycle. These 88 00:05:21,000 --> 00:05:24,520 Speaker 1: had the same juxtaposition of big and small wheels, but 89 00:05:24,680 --> 00:05:27,680 Speaker 1: in a woman's tricycle there were two large rear wheels 90 00:05:27,680 --> 00:05:30,159 Speaker 1: with a seat in between them and then a smaller 91 00:05:30,160 --> 00:05:33,840 Speaker 1: wheel in front. The pedals connected to the rear wheels 92 00:05:33,839 --> 00:05:37,240 Speaker 1: through rods in a crank. There were also tricycles that 93 00:05:37,279 --> 00:05:40,000 Speaker 1: had a larger front wheel and two smaller rear wheels, 94 00:05:40,240 --> 00:05:44,760 Speaker 1: but these were mostly ridden by children, especially boys. Bicycles 95 00:05:44,760 --> 00:05:48,159 Speaker 1: and tricycles rose in popularity in spite of a major 96 00:05:48,279 --> 00:05:53,640 Speaker 1: obstacle to actually using them. The roads were not great. 97 00:05:54,440 --> 00:05:57,279 Speaker 1: The first recorded use of asphalt as a road surface 98 00:05:57,320 --> 00:06:00,520 Speaker 1: in the US was in Newark, New Jersey, in eighteen seventy, 99 00:06:00,560 --> 00:06:03,360 Speaker 1: but that very first attempt did not hold up very well. 100 00:06:03,880 --> 00:06:07,840 Speaker 1: The types of asphalt and concrete and composite that are 101 00:06:07,960 --> 00:06:11,080 Speaker 1: used for most road surfaces in the US today had 102 00:06:11,120 --> 00:06:15,440 Speaker 1: not been developed yet, so instead road surfaces included things 103 00:06:15,480 --> 00:06:20,480 Speaker 1: like McAdam, which incorporated compacted crushed stone, as well as 104 00:06:20,520 --> 00:06:24,680 Speaker 1: things like cobble stones and planks. But for the most part, 105 00:06:24,880 --> 00:06:28,080 Speaker 1: these kinds of roads were built in and around cities. 106 00:06:28,600 --> 00:06:32,000 Speaker 1: In more rural areas, roads were more like dirt paths. 107 00:06:32,600 --> 00:06:36,200 Speaker 1: The farmer whose land the road ran through or next too, 108 00:06:36,400 --> 00:06:39,960 Speaker 1: was responsible for maintaining that road on their own time 109 00:06:40,000 --> 00:06:42,840 Speaker 1: and at their own expense, so how well any road 110 00:06:42,920 --> 00:06:46,320 Speaker 1: was maintained, or whether it was maintained at all, could 111 00:06:46,400 --> 00:06:50,599 Speaker 1: really vary. Bad weather often meant that rural roads became 112 00:06:50,680 --> 00:06:55,800 Speaker 1: totally impassable. Obviously, there are still plenty of problems with 113 00:06:55,920 --> 00:06:58,680 Speaker 1: roads in the US today, and not every road is paved, 114 00:06:58,720 --> 00:07:01,320 Speaker 1: but at the end of the nineteenth century the roads 115 00:07:01,360 --> 00:07:05,960 Speaker 1: in the US were a lot worse. In eighteen eighty, 116 00:07:06,120 --> 00:07:10,000 Speaker 1: the League of American Wheelman was founded in Newport, Rhode Island, 117 00:07:10,120 --> 00:07:14,200 Speaker 1: as quote an organization to promote the general interests of cycling, 118 00:07:14,680 --> 00:07:18,240 Speaker 1: to ascertain, defend, and protect the rights of wheelman, and 119 00:07:18,320 --> 00:07:22,880 Speaker 1: to facilitate touring. The League did things like arranging rides 120 00:07:22,920 --> 00:07:27,800 Speaker 1: and races, providing social opportunities for members, helping people recover 121 00:07:27,960 --> 00:07:33,240 Speaker 1: stolen bikes and recover from crashes while biking, and advocating 122 00:07:33,280 --> 00:07:37,320 Speaker 1: for better roads. The league became a big part of 123 00:07:37,360 --> 00:07:41,680 Speaker 1: the good Roads movement, which called for taxpayer funded improved 124 00:07:41,800 --> 00:07:47,600 Speaker 1: roads all over the United States. This idea was really controversial. 125 00:07:48,520 --> 00:07:51,400 Speaker 1: Cyclists or wheelman as they were known at the time, 126 00:07:51,680 --> 00:07:55,239 Speaker 1: faced a lot of antagonism from other people using the roads, 127 00:07:55,280 --> 00:07:59,840 Speaker 1: including pedestrians, people on horseback, horse drawn vehicles, and in 128 00:08:00,040 --> 00:08:04,480 Speaker 1: some cities, street cars and trolleys. People argued that cyclists 129 00:08:04,480 --> 00:08:08,920 Speaker 1: were creating traffic jams and endangering themselves and other road users, 130 00:08:09,280 --> 00:08:12,760 Speaker 1: and some places tried to pass legislation to prohibit bicycles 131 00:08:12,760 --> 00:08:17,320 Speaker 1: and tricycles from using roads and parks. People were irate 132 00:08:17,640 --> 00:08:20,680 Speaker 1: over the idea that these same people who were supposedly 133 00:08:20,720 --> 00:08:24,240 Speaker 1: clogging up and misusing the roads were also calling for 134 00:08:24,360 --> 00:08:28,760 Speaker 1: measures that could raise taxes, and in rural areas, farmers 135 00:08:28,760 --> 00:08:33,000 Speaker 1: were very angry that the proposed road improvements could force 136 00:08:33,040 --> 00:08:36,280 Speaker 1: them to do even more work to maintain those roads. 137 00:08:36,960 --> 00:08:39,800 Speaker 1: Except for the part about rural farmers, this is still 138 00:08:39,840 --> 00:08:43,360 Speaker 1: the comments section on every article about someplace adding a 139 00:08:43,400 --> 00:08:48,200 Speaker 1: bike lane today. When the League of American Wheelman was founded, 140 00:08:48,600 --> 00:08:52,480 Speaker 1: there were already cycling organizations all over the United States, 141 00:08:52,600 --> 00:08:55,360 Speaker 1: especially in the Northeast, but a lot of them brought 142 00:08:55,440 --> 00:08:58,920 Speaker 1: together cyclists of a particular race or ethnicity, so these 143 00:08:58,960 --> 00:09:03,080 Speaker 1: tended to be small organizations that were locally focused. The 144 00:09:03,200 --> 00:09:06,320 Speaker 1: idea behind the League of American Wheelman was to open 145 00:09:06,440 --> 00:09:09,680 Speaker 1: up its membership to anyone over the age of eighteen 146 00:09:10,120 --> 00:09:14,160 Speaker 1: and bring cyclists together at the national level, giving them 147 00:09:14,200 --> 00:09:17,960 Speaker 1: more leverage to advocate for cycling and advocate for better 148 00:09:18,160 --> 00:09:21,520 Speaker 1: roads to ride on. In the mid eighteen eighties, the 149 00:09:21,559 --> 00:09:26,120 Speaker 1: potential membership of the League of American Wheelman increased enormously 150 00:09:26,280 --> 00:09:30,240 Speaker 1: thanks to a new development in bicycles, the safety cycle. 151 00:09:31,160 --> 00:09:34,160 Speaker 1: As was the case with the addition of pedals, several 152 00:09:34,200 --> 00:09:38,079 Speaker 1: different people introduced designs that incorporated the same basic elements 153 00:09:38,559 --> 00:09:41,200 Speaker 1: front and rear wheels of the same size, with the 154 00:09:41,240 --> 00:09:43,920 Speaker 1: pedals connected to the rear wheel by a treadle or 155 00:09:43,920 --> 00:09:48,280 Speaker 1: a chain. The first commercially successful version of the safety 156 00:09:48,280 --> 00:09:51,040 Speaker 1: cycle was called the Rover, and it was introduced by 157 00:09:51,120 --> 00:09:56,480 Speaker 1: John Kemp Starley in five Not long after pneumatic tires 158 00:09:56,559 --> 00:10:01,080 Speaker 1: also made the ride both smoother and faster. Safety cycles 159 00:10:01,120 --> 00:10:04,760 Speaker 1: were a lot smaller, lighter, and safer than the penny farthing, 160 00:10:04,920 --> 00:10:08,640 Speaker 1: and a lot less expensive. While a penny farthing might 161 00:10:08,679 --> 00:10:12,160 Speaker 1: cost a hundred dollars or more, soon there were safeties 162 00:10:12,200 --> 00:10:15,240 Speaker 1: that cost between thirty and seventy five dollars, and people 163 00:10:15,240 --> 00:10:18,439 Speaker 1: could pay as little as five dollars for a used one. 164 00:10:18,960 --> 00:10:22,839 Speaker 1: This was still most affordable to middle and upper class people, 165 00:10:22,960 --> 00:10:25,680 Speaker 1: but it was also just more affordable to a lot 166 00:10:25,720 --> 00:10:29,400 Speaker 1: more people than the penny farthing had been. The result 167 00:10:29,559 --> 00:10:32,679 Speaker 1: was a bicycle boom, and by the eighteen nineties there 168 00:10:32,679 --> 00:10:36,760 Speaker 1: were more than five hundred organizations dedicated to cycling all 169 00:10:36,800 --> 00:10:40,800 Speaker 1: around the US. Hundreds of businesses had started up to 170 00:10:41,000 --> 00:10:45,040 Speaker 1: make and sell hundreds of thousands of bicycles per year. 171 00:10:45,800 --> 00:10:49,679 Speaker 1: When the Panic of eight three started, the bicycle industry 172 00:10:49,760 --> 00:10:52,720 Speaker 1: was one of the only ones that really kept growing. 173 00:10:53,320 --> 00:10:56,560 Speaker 1: Kitty Knox's bicycle was a safety and we'll get to 174 00:10:56,640 --> 00:11:09,960 Speaker 1: that after a sponsor break. In addition to being less expensive, 175 00:11:10,200 --> 00:11:13,760 Speaker 1: safety cycles made it easier for nineteenth century women to 176 00:11:13,960 --> 00:11:18,880 Speaker 1: ride while still wearing clothing that was considered appropriate. That 177 00:11:18,920 --> 00:11:22,120 Speaker 1: meant that many women, especially middle and upper class women 178 00:11:22,280 --> 00:11:25,520 Speaker 1: suddenly had access to a new source of recreation and 179 00:11:25,600 --> 00:11:29,160 Speaker 1: a new way to travel on their own. Soon, bicycles 180 00:11:29,200 --> 00:11:32,680 Speaker 1: were becoming associated with the suffrage movement and with women's 181 00:11:32,800 --> 00:11:36,880 Speaker 1: rights and freedoms more generally. Both Susan B. Anthony and 182 00:11:36,920 --> 00:11:40,640 Speaker 1: Elizabeth Katie Stanton were quoted as saying woman is writing 183 00:11:40,679 --> 00:11:44,800 Speaker 1: to suffrage on the bicycle. Stanton talked about the bicycle 184 00:11:44,920 --> 00:11:49,720 Speaker 1: as inspiring women with courage, self respect, and self reliance, 185 00:11:50,080 --> 00:11:52,680 Speaker 1: and at one point Anthony said, quote, let me tell 186 00:11:52,720 --> 00:11:55,439 Speaker 1: you what I think of bicycling. I think it has 187 00:11:55,440 --> 00:11:58,400 Speaker 1: done more to emancipate women than anything else in the world. 188 00:11:58,640 --> 00:12:01,880 Speaker 1: It gives women a feeling of freedom and self reliance. 189 00:12:02,360 --> 00:12:05,360 Speaker 1: I stand and rejoice every time I see a woman 190 00:12:05,480 --> 00:12:10,120 Speaker 1: ride by on a wheel, the picture of free, untrammeled womanhood. 191 00:12:11,280 --> 00:12:14,959 Speaker 1: There were still some challenges though. Long dresses and their 192 00:12:15,080 --> 00:12:19,080 Speaker 1: underlayers could easily get caught in chains, gears, or spokes. 193 00:12:19,840 --> 00:12:22,360 Speaker 1: One attempt to deal with this was the introduction of 194 00:12:22,400 --> 00:12:25,760 Speaker 1: bicycles with a step through frame rather than the original 195 00:12:25,840 --> 00:12:29,680 Speaker 1: diamond frame. So the diamond frame had a bar stretching 196 00:12:29,720 --> 00:12:32,720 Speaker 1: from below the handlebars to below the seat, but the 197 00:12:32,760 --> 00:12:36,080 Speaker 1: step through frame had a lower central bar, so someone 198 00:12:36,160 --> 00:12:39,480 Speaker 1: in a dress could step over it more easily and, 199 00:12:39,600 --> 00:12:43,160 Speaker 1: in the view of the time, more modestly. This also 200 00:12:43,360 --> 00:12:46,160 Speaker 1: left more room for all of that fabric. If you've 201 00:12:46,160 --> 00:12:48,400 Speaker 1: ever warn't a dress from this period, even if you're 202 00:12:48,400 --> 00:12:52,600 Speaker 1: doing the most simple day dress, it's a lot of fabric. 203 00:12:52,880 --> 00:12:55,559 Speaker 1: It is a lot. Some step through models also had 204 00:12:55,640 --> 00:12:58,120 Speaker 1: guards around the chain or around the back wheel to 205 00:12:58,160 --> 00:13:01,440 Speaker 1: try to keep dresses from becoming in hangled. For a 206 00:13:01,480 --> 00:13:04,440 Speaker 1: lot of women, though, a better solution was not to 207 00:13:04,720 --> 00:13:09,480 Speaker 1: ride in a dress. So the skyrocketing popularity of bicycles 208 00:13:09,520 --> 00:13:13,440 Speaker 1: in eighteen eighties and nineties also encouraged a movement for 209 00:13:13,520 --> 00:13:18,640 Speaker 1: dress reform. Women's cyclists started wearing trousers or leggings under 210 00:13:18,679 --> 00:13:22,640 Speaker 1: their dresses, or wearing bloomers and other bifurcated garments as 211 00:13:22,640 --> 00:13:26,359 Speaker 1: they rode, and of course this led to lots of criticism, 212 00:13:26,520 --> 00:13:30,040 Speaker 1: some of it from other women. Mary Sergeant Hopkins was 213 00:13:30,080 --> 00:13:34,040 Speaker 1: a vocal advocate for women's cycling, publishing a magazine called 214 00:13:34,080 --> 00:13:39,720 Speaker 1: Wheel Women from to eight. In eighteen ninety four, she 215 00:13:39,840 --> 00:13:42,880 Speaker 1: told a New York Times reporter quote, if there is 216 00:13:42,960 --> 00:13:46,120 Speaker 1: one thing I hate, it is a masculine woman. It 217 00:13:46,200 --> 00:13:49,080 Speaker 1: has made my heart sore to see the women who 218 00:13:49,080 --> 00:13:52,720 Speaker 1: have been putting on knickerbockers, riding with the diamond framed wheel, 219 00:13:53,000 --> 00:13:56,640 Speaker 1: the wheel with a high crossbar, and racing and scorching 220 00:13:56,679 --> 00:13:59,559 Speaker 1: with the men. It has made whee link just another 221 00:13:59,600 --> 00:14:03,280 Speaker 1: way to make a fool of herself, bring cycling to disrepute, 222 00:14:03,520 --> 00:14:06,760 Speaker 1: and make herself the laughing stock of the people. She 223 00:14:06,840 --> 00:14:09,880 Speaker 1: has made a halfway sort of creature of herself. She 224 00:14:09,960 --> 00:14:12,760 Speaker 1: can't be a man, and she is a disgrace as 225 00:14:12,800 --> 00:14:17,079 Speaker 1: a woman. I don't like her. That's a bless your 226 00:14:17,120 --> 00:14:23,080 Speaker 1: heart moment for me. Bless your heart, Mary Sergeant hop Yeah. So. 227 00:14:23,920 --> 00:14:29,200 Speaker 1: People also speculated that cycling would cause women to become aroused, 228 00:14:29,440 --> 00:14:33,600 Speaker 1: or damage their reproductive organs, or harm their health and 229 00:14:33,640 --> 00:14:37,440 Speaker 1: their bodies in some other way. There were even concerns 230 00:14:37,480 --> 00:14:40,960 Speaker 1: about something called bicycle face, which was described in all 231 00:14:41,080 --> 00:14:46,160 Speaker 1: kinds of ways. One article in edition of Literary Digest 232 00:14:46,280 --> 00:14:50,840 Speaker 1: cited British medical journals before describing bicycle face this way. 233 00:14:50,920 --> 00:14:55,120 Speaker 1: Quote over exertion, the upright position on the wheel, and 234 00:14:55,160 --> 00:14:58,880 Speaker 1: the unconscious effort to maintain one's balance tend to produce 235 00:14:59,040 --> 00:15:04,520 Speaker 1: a wearied and exhausted bicycle face. This piece also quoted 236 00:15:04,520 --> 00:15:09,320 Speaker 1: the Springfield Republican is saying bicycle face was quote usually flushed, 237 00:15:09,360 --> 00:15:13,200 Speaker 1: but sometimes pale, often with lips more or less drawn 238 00:15:13,320 --> 00:15:16,520 Speaker 1: in the beginning of dark shadows under the eyes, and 239 00:15:16,760 --> 00:15:23,360 Speaker 1: always with an expression of weariness. We don't have any 240 00:15:23,480 --> 00:15:26,920 Speaker 1: journals or letters or other personal memories from Kitty Knox, 241 00:15:27,040 --> 00:15:28,880 Speaker 1: but based on what we do know of her, it 242 00:15:28,880 --> 00:15:31,320 Speaker 1: seems like she did not care at all about whether 243 00:15:31,360 --> 00:15:34,880 Speaker 1: people thought her writing clothes were too masculine or about 244 00:15:34,920 --> 00:15:38,600 Speaker 1: the threat of so called bicycle face. She was born 245 00:15:38,760 --> 00:15:43,840 Speaker 1: Catherine Tole Knox on October seven, four. In news reports 246 00:15:43,840 --> 00:15:46,760 Speaker 1: and other documents from her life, her nickname of Kitty 247 00:15:47,000 --> 00:15:51,080 Speaker 1: is spelled in multiple ways, and sometimes she's also called Katie, 248 00:15:51,480 --> 00:15:53,640 Speaker 1: and it's not totally clear if this is a mistake 249 00:15:53,800 --> 00:15:56,800 Speaker 1: or if she just had more than one nickname. She 250 00:15:57,000 --> 00:16:00,600 Speaker 1: was born in Cambridgeport, Massachusetts, which today is considered a 251 00:16:00,640 --> 00:16:04,360 Speaker 1: neighborhood of Cambridge. Kitty's mother was Katherine Toll, who was 252 00:16:04,400 --> 00:16:08,960 Speaker 1: a white woman from East Parsonfield, Maine. Katherine's family really 253 00:16:09,000 --> 00:16:11,480 Speaker 1: does not seem to have been an affluent one. Her 254 00:16:11,600 --> 00:16:15,000 Speaker 1: grandmother was a bond servant, and Katherine had worked in 255 00:16:15,000 --> 00:16:19,240 Speaker 1: a mill in Maine before moving to Massachusetts. Kitty's father 256 00:16:19,440 --> 00:16:22,680 Speaker 1: was a black man from Philadelphia named John H. Knox, 257 00:16:22,720 --> 00:16:26,240 Speaker 1: who worked as a tailor and a clothes cleaner. Kitty 258 00:16:26,320 --> 00:16:28,840 Speaker 1: also had a brother named Ernest, who was about two 259 00:16:28,920 --> 00:16:32,640 Speaker 1: years older than she was. At some point, Katherine and 260 00:16:32,720 --> 00:16:36,320 Speaker 1: John separated, and then John died in eighteen eighty three. 261 00:16:36,400 --> 00:16:39,960 Speaker 1: That was when Kitty was about seven. After that, the 262 00:16:40,040 --> 00:16:42,960 Speaker 1: family moved to Irving Street on the northern slope of 263 00:16:43,000 --> 00:16:46,440 Speaker 1: Beacon Hill in Boston. At this point, the city of 264 00:16:46,480 --> 00:16:48,920 Speaker 1: Boston had a population of a little more than three 265 00:16:49,000 --> 00:16:52,280 Speaker 1: hundred sixty thousand people in about a hundred and fourteen 266 00:16:52,320 --> 00:16:55,200 Speaker 1: thousand of those were immigrants, or about a third of 267 00:16:55,240 --> 00:16:59,120 Speaker 1: the city's population. The city also had about eight thousand 268 00:16:59,160 --> 00:17:02,680 Speaker 1: black residents. The northern slope of Beacon Hill and the 269 00:17:02,720 --> 00:17:05,800 Speaker 1: neighboring West End were home to a mix of black, 270 00:17:05,880 --> 00:17:09,600 Speaker 1: Irish and Italian families, as well as Jewish families who 271 00:17:09,600 --> 00:17:12,960 Speaker 1: had immigrated from Eastern Europe and immigrants from other parts 272 00:17:13,000 --> 00:17:16,960 Speaker 1: of the world. Interracial marriages were not all that unusual 273 00:17:17,080 --> 00:17:19,960 Speaker 1: in these neighborhoods. In about a fourth of the marriages 274 00:17:20,080 --> 00:17:22,560 Speaker 1: in which one half of the couple was black the 275 00:17:22,600 --> 00:17:24,840 Speaker 1: other was white, and often that was a black man 276 00:17:24,960 --> 00:17:28,480 Speaker 1: and a white immigrant woman. So while a white woman 277 00:17:28,600 --> 00:17:32,560 Speaker 1: raising two biracial children might have seemed unusual in some 278 00:17:32,640 --> 00:17:35,159 Speaker 1: parts of Boston, it would have been less so in 279 00:17:35,160 --> 00:17:38,160 Speaker 1: the neighborhood where the Knox family moved after John's death. 280 00:17:38,840 --> 00:17:42,280 Speaker 1: While this part of Boston was diverse in terms of race, ethnicity, 281 00:17:42,359 --> 00:17:45,400 Speaker 1: and religion, there were also a lot of tensions connected 282 00:17:45,400 --> 00:17:50,240 Speaker 1: to this diversity. Although whole neighborhoods looked integrated from the outside, 283 00:17:50,600 --> 00:17:55,720 Speaker 1: individual multi family buildings tended to essentially be segregated. There 284 00:17:55,720 --> 00:17:59,719 Speaker 1: were tensions and sometimes violence related to race and ethnicity, 285 00:17:59,760 --> 00:18:03,359 Speaker 1: as well as anti Catholic and anti immigrant violence, and 286 00:18:03,400 --> 00:18:06,919 Speaker 1: there were economic struggles as well. The Panic of eighteen 287 00:18:07,000 --> 00:18:10,800 Speaker 1: nine three started when Kitty was about nineteen. Kitty and 288 00:18:10,880 --> 00:18:14,440 Speaker 1: Ernest both seemed to have tried to establish respectable careers 289 00:18:14,480 --> 00:18:17,320 Speaker 1: for themselves in the face of all this. Kitty started 290 00:18:17,359 --> 00:18:20,600 Speaker 1: working as a seamstress and a dressmaker, and Ernest became 291 00:18:20,640 --> 00:18:24,880 Speaker 1: a steam fitter. That's somebody who installs, maintains, repairs piping 292 00:18:25,040 --> 00:18:28,000 Speaker 1: systems for things like steam and gas, and that was 293 00:18:28,040 --> 00:18:31,760 Speaker 1: considered a skilled trade, and Kitty saved up enough money 294 00:18:31,840 --> 00:18:35,920 Speaker 1: to buy her own diamond frame bicycle. She soon became 295 00:18:35,960 --> 00:18:38,840 Speaker 1: a visible figure in the world of cycling. The first 296 00:18:38,880 --> 00:18:41,560 Speaker 1: written mention of her as a cyclist is in the 297 00:18:41,600 --> 00:18:46,640 Speaker 1: Indianapolis Freeman in June of eight, which described her cycling 298 00:18:46,680 --> 00:18:49,280 Speaker 1: as graceful and noted that she was a member of 299 00:18:49,280 --> 00:18:52,960 Speaker 1: the Riverside Cycle Club, which was an organization for black 300 00:18:53,000 --> 00:18:58,000 Speaker 1: cyclists in Cambridge. And she made her own cycling outfits, 301 00:18:58,160 --> 00:19:01,680 Speaker 1: ones that were practical and stylish, and she became well 302 00:19:01,760 --> 00:19:06,800 Speaker 1: known for these as well. We don't like have insight 303 00:19:06,880 --> 00:19:09,520 Speaker 1: into her thought process on like why she decided to 304 00:19:09,560 --> 00:19:12,800 Speaker 1: buy a diamond frame bike specifically and why she decided 305 00:19:12,840 --> 00:19:15,400 Speaker 1: to make these particular clothes to wear on that bike, 306 00:19:15,880 --> 00:19:19,760 Speaker 1: but I love that she did. In eight she entered 307 00:19:19,760 --> 00:19:24,080 Speaker 1: a contest for the most approved female bicycling costume, which 308 00:19:24,160 --> 00:19:27,879 Speaker 1: was part of the July four festivities that Waltham, Massachusetts. 309 00:19:28,480 --> 00:19:32,480 Speaker 1: Her riding costume was described in the cycling publication the 310 00:19:32,560 --> 00:19:37,200 Speaker 1: Bearings quote a shirtwaist, man's shortcoat and bloomers to the 311 00:19:37,280 --> 00:19:41,600 Speaker 1: knee with tight leggings from the knee down. She also 312 00:19:41,680 --> 00:19:44,320 Speaker 1: wore a hat, and this whole outfit was in gray 313 00:19:44,400 --> 00:19:48,000 Speaker 1: checked fabric. Some people in the crowd hissed when she 314 00:19:48,119 --> 00:19:51,960 Speaker 1: was announced as the winner, and while some newspapers tried 315 00:19:52,000 --> 00:19:54,600 Speaker 1: to play that off as being about the fact that 316 00:19:54,640 --> 00:19:58,040 Speaker 1: she was in trousers, some of the other contestants were 317 00:19:58,040 --> 00:20:01,879 Speaker 1: in dresses, others concluded that it was really because a 318 00:20:01,920 --> 00:20:04,960 Speaker 1: woman of color had won this contest over the white 319 00:20:04,960 --> 00:20:08,200 Speaker 1: women who had entered. By this point, Boston had become 320 00:20:08,240 --> 00:20:11,840 Speaker 1: home to the League of American Wheelman's national headquarters, and 321 00:20:11,920 --> 00:20:16,240 Speaker 1: cycling had become incredibly popular in the area. Boston had 322 00:20:16,280 --> 00:20:19,639 Speaker 1: the highest per capita League membership of any city and 323 00:20:19,680 --> 00:20:23,560 Speaker 1: the highest percentage of women among its members. Knox had 324 00:20:23,640 --> 00:20:28,800 Speaker 1: joined the League in the League's advocacy for better roads 325 00:20:28,920 --> 00:20:32,440 Speaker 1: was accelerating during this time as well. The same year 326 00:20:32,560 --> 00:20:35,760 Speaker 1: that Knox joined the League, it had started publishing Good 327 00:20:35,840 --> 00:20:39,920 Speaker 1: Roads Magazine as part of its advocacy for federal legislation 328 00:20:40,000 --> 00:20:45,159 Speaker 1: for better roads. Boston based bicycle manufacturer Colonel Albert A. 329 00:20:45,400 --> 00:20:49,399 Speaker 1: Hope also circulated a petition calling for the establishment of 330 00:20:49,440 --> 00:20:53,200 Speaker 1: a Federal Roads Department to present the Congress that year. 331 00:20:53,960 --> 00:20:56,800 Speaker 1: When he did, it contained a hundred and fifty thousand 332 00:20:56,920 --> 00:21:01,119 Speaker 1: signatures which were wound onto these two giant wooden spools. 333 00:21:02,280 --> 00:21:05,439 Speaker 1: The Senate funded the Office of Road Inquiry, which was 334 00:21:05,480 --> 00:21:09,320 Speaker 1: a precursor to the Federal Highways Administration, and this marked 335 00:21:09,760 --> 00:21:13,000 Speaker 1: the start of an increasing effort to have the state 336 00:21:13,119 --> 00:21:17,719 Speaker 1: and federal government's take over the creation and maintenance of roads. 337 00:21:18,800 --> 00:21:21,919 Speaker 1: But even as the League was seeing some progress in 338 00:21:21,960 --> 00:21:26,480 Speaker 1: its objectives in nine four, it was also facing upheaval 339 00:21:26,680 --> 00:21:29,480 Speaker 1: about who could be a member. We'll talk more about 340 00:21:29,520 --> 00:21:42,040 Speaker 1: that after a sponsor break. We mentioned earlier that the 341 00:21:42,119 --> 00:21:45,960 Speaker 1: League of American Wheelman was at least theoretically open to 342 00:21:46,119 --> 00:21:48,880 Speaker 1: anyone over the age of eighteen when it was founded 343 00:21:48,880 --> 00:21:52,600 Speaker 1: in eighteen eighty, and Kitty Knox, who was biracial, became 344 00:21:52,680 --> 00:21:56,600 Speaker 1: a member in eighteen nine three. But at that point 345 00:21:56,640 --> 00:21:59,040 Speaker 1: some of the League's members were in the middle of 346 00:21:59,080 --> 00:22:03,600 Speaker 1: a multi air campaign to change the organization's constitution to 347 00:22:03,720 --> 00:22:07,840 Speaker 1: allow only white people to join. This was led by 348 00:22:07,880 --> 00:22:13,000 Speaker 1: Colonel William W. Watts from Louisville, Kentucky. This was happening 349 00:22:13,160 --> 00:22:15,840 Speaker 1: during a period of US history known as the Native 350 00:22:16,040 --> 00:22:19,960 Speaker 1: of American race relations. Many of the steps towards equal 351 00:22:20,080 --> 00:22:23,600 Speaker 1: rights and protections that have been made during reconstruction had 352 00:22:23,640 --> 00:22:27,480 Speaker 1: been rolled back, and Southern states in particular were implementing 353 00:22:27,560 --> 00:22:33,040 Speaker 1: discriminatory laws to disenfranchise and oppress their black population. This 354 00:22:33,240 --> 00:22:36,720 Speaker 1: was also a time of widespread lynching and other racist 355 00:22:36,840 --> 00:22:41,640 Speaker 1: violence and terror. Watts's calls to allow only white members 356 00:22:41,680 --> 00:22:45,520 Speaker 1: in the League of American Wheelmen were unanimously supported by 357 00:22:45,560 --> 00:22:48,600 Speaker 1: delegates from Southern states, and they had at least some 358 00:22:48,680 --> 00:22:51,600 Speaker 1: support from the states that have been considered border states 359 00:22:51,680 --> 00:22:56,920 Speaker 1: during the Civil War. While northern states generally opposed this proposal, 360 00:22:57,440 --> 00:23:01,560 Speaker 1: in a lot of cases that opposition was particularly vocal. 361 00:23:02,280 --> 00:23:06,080 Speaker 1: Watts first introduced this language at the league's annual meeting 362 00:23:06,119 --> 00:23:09,359 Speaker 1: in eighteen ninety two, but when the delegates took a vote, 363 00:23:09,400 --> 00:23:14,080 Speaker 1: it failed. At the eighteen ninety three meeting, of majority 364 00:23:14,080 --> 00:23:16,760 Speaker 1: of the delegates voted in favor of it, but not 365 00:23:16,920 --> 00:23:20,040 Speaker 1: the two thirds majority that was required to amend the 366 00:23:20,119 --> 00:23:24,359 Speaker 1: league's constitution. After the failed vote in eighteen ninety three, 367 00:23:24,400 --> 00:23:28,920 Speaker 1: members in some Southern states started leaving the organization in protest. 368 00:23:30,040 --> 00:23:33,560 Speaker 1: The league's eighteen ninety four meeting was held in Louisville, Kentucky, 369 00:23:33,720 --> 00:23:39,280 Speaker 1: and on February delegates voted on Watts proposed language. This time, 370 00:23:39,320 --> 00:23:41,560 Speaker 1: the measure passed with a vote of a hundred and 371 00:23:41,560 --> 00:23:45,359 Speaker 1: twenty seven to fifty four. A line was added to 372 00:23:45,400 --> 00:23:49,280 Speaker 1: the league's constitution which read, quote none but white persons 373 00:23:49,320 --> 00:23:52,639 Speaker 1: can become members of the League. The fact that this 374 00:23:52,760 --> 00:23:55,840 Speaker 1: meeting took place in Louisville, where Watts was from, played 375 00:23:55,840 --> 00:23:57,919 Speaker 1: a part in the way that the vote went. But 376 00:23:58,200 --> 00:24:01,879 Speaker 1: Watts and other white site lists from Louisville had also 377 00:24:02,040 --> 00:24:05,960 Speaker 1: pressured a local organization for black cyclists called the Union 378 00:24:06,080 --> 00:24:10,960 Speaker 1: Cycling Club to write a letter supporting the measure. This 379 00:24:11,080 --> 00:24:14,359 Speaker 1: letter itself was pretty ambiguous, but Watts had used it 380 00:24:14,400 --> 00:24:17,520 Speaker 1: as evidence that black cyclists were in support of a 381 00:24:17,600 --> 00:24:21,720 Speaker 1: segregated league. This measure also passed in spite of the 382 00:24:21,760 --> 00:24:24,800 Speaker 1: fact that the vast majority of the league's members lived 383 00:24:24,880 --> 00:24:28,560 Speaker 1: in the Northeast. While delegates from southern and border states 384 00:24:28,560 --> 00:24:31,359 Speaker 1: were the ones that were really most aggressively pushing for 385 00:24:31,359 --> 00:24:34,800 Speaker 1: this change, they also made up less than ten percent 386 00:24:34,920 --> 00:24:38,760 Speaker 1: of the league's total membership. The Massachusetts delegates to the 387 00:24:38,840 --> 00:24:42,479 Speaker 1: League of American Wheelmen were unanimously opposed to the measure. 388 00:24:43,320 --> 00:24:46,720 Speaker 1: One of its members was state Representative Robert Timo, a 389 00:24:46,760 --> 00:24:51,879 Speaker 1: black representative from Boston, Timo, called on the Massachusetts legislature 390 00:24:51,960 --> 00:24:55,840 Speaker 1: to denounce the league's resolution, which both houses did in March. 391 00:24:55,920 --> 00:25:01,480 Speaker 1: Of this resolution read in part quote, General Court deprecates 392 00:25:01,520 --> 00:25:04,920 Speaker 1: the action of the organization above reference to and regards 393 00:25:04,920 --> 00:25:08,919 Speaker 1: the enforcement of discriminations of this character as a revival 394 00:25:09,040 --> 00:25:14,520 Speaker 1: of baseless and obsolete prejudices. Organizations for black cyclists denounced 395 00:25:14,520 --> 00:25:17,639 Speaker 1: the measure as well, including the Riverside Cycling Club and 396 00:25:17,680 --> 00:25:21,760 Speaker 1: the Colored National League, And right away people started talking 397 00:25:21,760 --> 00:25:27,000 Speaker 1: about repealing this measure at the meeting, and Louis Jacqueesh 398 00:25:27,119 --> 00:25:31,399 Speaker 1: of Illinois introduced a measure to do so. This also 399 00:25:31,480 --> 00:25:35,600 Speaker 1: came as the League was deciding where to hold its meeting. 400 00:25:36,200 --> 00:25:39,959 Speaker 1: It was down to two options, Boston, Massachusetts, and the 401 00:25:39,960 --> 00:25:43,840 Speaker 1: coastal resort town of Asbury Park, New Jersey. Even though 402 00:25:43,880 --> 00:25:48,640 Speaker 1: the Massachusetts delegation had strongly opposed Watts's proposal, it appears 403 00:25:48,640 --> 00:25:51,159 Speaker 1: that they also backed down on trying to repeal it 404 00:25:51,280 --> 00:25:54,360 Speaker 1: in the hope that doing so would encourage Southern delegates 405 00:25:54,400 --> 00:25:58,560 Speaker 1: to vote for Boston to host the meeting. Ultimately, that 406 00:25:58,640 --> 00:26:02,800 Speaker 1: repeal measure was with on and despite the Massachusetts delegations 407 00:26:02,840 --> 00:26:07,760 Speaker 1: apparent finagling, Asbury Park was selected as host city. Kitty 408 00:26:07,840 --> 00:26:10,600 Speaker 1: Knox was one of the people from Boston who traveled 409 00:26:10,640 --> 00:26:14,000 Speaker 1: to Asbury Park for the meeting that July. She left 410 00:26:14,000 --> 00:26:17,080 Speaker 1: for New Jersey not long after that July fourth cycling 411 00:26:17,119 --> 00:26:22,160 Speaker 1: costume contests that we mentioned before the break. Boston attendees 412 00:26:22,280 --> 00:26:26,080 Speaker 1: made their way to Asbury Park by some combination of train, ship, 413 00:26:26,160 --> 00:26:28,800 Speaker 1: and ferry, and about thirty of them planned to make 414 00:26:28,920 --> 00:26:32,199 Speaker 1: at least part of the trip by bike, although the 415 00:26:32,280 --> 00:26:35,960 Speaker 1: weather and consequently the roads were so terrible that only 416 00:26:36,080 --> 00:26:38,840 Speaker 1: nine of them actually got there that way. As planned. 417 00:26:39,560 --> 00:26:44,200 Speaker 1: Asbury Park itself was largely segregated, with various public accommodations 418 00:26:44,240 --> 00:26:48,119 Speaker 1: accessible only to white patrons, even though that violated a 419 00:26:48,200 --> 00:26:51,439 Speaker 1: civil rights law that New Jersey had passed in eight four. 420 00:26:52,240 --> 00:26:55,360 Speaker 1: Asbury Park also did not allow trains to stop there 421 00:26:55,400 --> 00:26:58,560 Speaker 1: on Sundays, presumably to try to keep working class people 422 00:26:58,600 --> 00:27:01,400 Speaker 1: from New York from taking day trips there on their 423 00:27:01,440 --> 00:27:04,399 Speaker 1: one day off. According to her report in The New 424 00:27:04,480 --> 00:27:07,919 Speaker 1: York Times, after getting to ask Bray Park, Knox quote 425 00:27:08,000 --> 00:27:10,639 Speaker 1: did a few fancy cuts in front of the clubhouse 426 00:27:10,720 --> 00:27:14,119 Speaker 1: and was requested to desist. It is thought that this 427 00:27:14,160 --> 00:27:18,520 Speaker 1: episode will result in temporarily opening the color line question. 428 00:27:19,119 --> 00:27:21,920 Speaker 1: Some of the Aspray Park Wheelman officials, it has said, 429 00:27:21,920 --> 00:27:26,000 Speaker 1: will protest against permitting miss Knox to remain a member 430 00:27:26,040 --> 00:27:28,880 Speaker 1: of the league. She has held a league card for 431 00:27:28,920 --> 00:27:32,119 Speaker 1: six years. The local kickers say they will have a 432 00:27:32,200 --> 00:27:36,000 Speaker 1: reckoning with the league's secretary Abbott Bassett upon his arrival. 433 00:27:36,640 --> 00:27:38,800 Speaker 1: It's not clear where the Times reporter got the number 434 00:27:38,840 --> 00:27:44,679 Speaker 1: six years. This was in and she had become a 435 00:27:44,680 --> 00:27:52,440 Speaker 1: member in according to league records. Sometimes arithmetic will get him. Uh. 436 00:27:52,600 --> 00:27:55,960 Speaker 1: Knox was denied entry to the league's meeting even after 437 00:27:56,119 --> 00:27:59,280 Speaker 1: showing her membership card. In an article from the San 438 00:27:59,280 --> 00:28:02,640 Speaker 1: Francisco Hall that was reprinted in papers all over the country, 439 00:28:02,720 --> 00:28:05,880 Speaker 1: it was described this way quote When Miss Knox, whose 440 00:28:05,880 --> 00:28:09,560 Speaker 1: appearance and dress had been objects of admiration all day, 441 00:28:09,720 --> 00:28:12,359 Speaker 1: walked into the committee room at the local clubhouse and 442 00:28:12,440 --> 00:28:15,840 Speaker 1: presented her league card for a credential badge, the gentleman 443 00:28:15,880 --> 00:28:18,960 Speaker 1: in charge refused to recognize the card, and the young 444 00:28:19,000 --> 00:28:24,120 Speaker 1: woman withdrew very quietly. Nine out of every hundred members 445 00:28:24,160 --> 00:28:28,520 Speaker 1: interviewed expressed the heartiest sympathy for her and condemnation of 446 00:28:28,560 --> 00:28:32,080 Speaker 1: the hasty action of the Badge Committee. She was also 447 00:28:32,240 --> 00:28:34,960 Speaker 1: barred from the hotel where she had planned to stay 448 00:28:35,000 --> 00:28:38,160 Speaker 1: and wound up at a boarding house instead. At least 449 00:28:38,200 --> 00:28:40,920 Speaker 1: one restaurant turned her away, and she was kept out 450 00:28:40,960 --> 00:28:45,000 Speaker 1: of the league's women's lounge. She did attend a ball 451 00:28:45,040 --> 00:28:47,360 Speaker 1: that was held as part of the meeting, escorted by 452 00:28:47,400 --> 00:28:50,240 Speaker 1: a young man from Boston, but according to her report 453 00:28:50,320 --> 00:28:53,680 Speaker 1: in the New York Herald, quote, the many snubs which 454 00:28:53,680 --> 00:28:55,960 Speaker 1: have been placed upon her by many of the women 455 00:28:56,040 --> 00:28:59,840 Speaker 1: culminated last night, and dozens of them leaving the ball 456 00:29:00,040 --> 00:29:04,000 Speaker 1: the auditorium because she was not only there but the 457 00:29:04,040 --> 00:29:06,680 Speaker 1: first upon the floor in the waltz, which took the 458 00:29:06,720 --> 00:29:09,920 Speaker 1: place of the Grand march Um or right up in 459 00:29:09,960 --> 00:29:13,320 Speaker 1: the bearings, did not mention people leaving at all, instead 460 00:29:13,400 --> 00:29:16,520 Speaker 1: noting that only six hundred of the expected five thousand 461 00:29:16,520 --> 00:29:19,520 Speaker 1: people had been at the ball, and reported that Knox 462 00:29:19,600 --> 00:29:22,640 Speaker 1: quote danced every number on the order and added to 463 00:29:22,680 --> 00:29:26,320 Speaker 1: her reputation as a clever wheelwoman by proving herself a 464 00:29:26,400 --> 00:29:29,920 Speaker 1: model of gracefulness on the floor. And there was a 465 00:29:30,000 --> 00:29:33,320 Speaker 1: lot of reporting on all of this. We've already mentioned 466 00:29:33,320 --> 00:29:36,440 Speaker 1: papers from New York and San Francisco, but the story 467 00:29:36,520 --> 00:29:40,400 Speaker 1: was carried in newspapers from Savannah and Atlanta, Georgia, Pittsburgh 468 00:29:40,440 --> 00:29:46,040 Speaker 1: and Scranton, Pennsylvania, Chicago, Illinois, Louisville, Kentucky, Wilmington, Delaware, just 469 00:29:46,200 --> 00:29:48,320 Speaker 1: on and on. You can just put this in a 470 00:29:48,360 --> 00:29:52,960 Speaker 1: newspaper database and just like hundreds of hundreds of articles 471 00:29:53,000 --> 00:29:55,160 Speaker 1: come up, some of them the same syndicated articles, some 472 00:29:55,200 --> 00:29:58,520 Speaker 1: of them original ones reporting on all of this. Although 473 00:29:58,560 --> 00:30:02,640 Speaker 1: the league's constitute s and now allowed only white members, 474 00:30:02,840 --> 00:30:04,920 Speaker 1: a person did not have to be a member of 475 00:30:04,960 --> 00:30:09,120 Speaker 1: the league to participate in most league sponsored rides and races, 476 00:30:09,800 --> 00:30:13,480 Speaker 1: and it's possible that Watts had intentionally worded his proposal 477 00:30:13,520 --> 00:30:16,320 Speaker 1: this way, knowing that some of the nation's black bicycle 478 00:30:16,440 --> 00:30:20,280 Speaker 1: riders were extremely popular athletes and that just barring them 479 00:30:20,320 --> 00:30:23,960 Speaker 1: from racing and the league sponsored events entirely might cause 480 00:30:24,000 --> 00:30:28,800 Speaker 1: a backlash. For example, Marshall Taylor, known as Major Taylor 481 00:30:28,840 --> 00:30:31,800 Speaker 1: and also as the Worcester Whirlwind, had won his first 482 00:30:31,960 --> 00:30:36,360 Speaker 1: race in eighteen nine two and would eventually become internationally famous. 483 00:30:36,480 --> 00:30:40,520 Speaker 1: So Kitty Knox was allowed to participate in some rides 484 00:30:40,560 --> 00:30:43,520 Speaker 1: that were arranged as part of the league meeting, as 485 00:30:43,520 --> 00:30:46,400 Speaker 1: were delegates from the Riverside Cycle Club, who had also 486 00:30:46,480 --> 00:30:49,840 Speaker 1: come in from Boston. A few weeks after the meeting, 487 00:30:49,920 --> 00:30:53,960 Speaker 1: the July issue of the league's bulletin and Good Roads 488 00:30:54,000 --> 00:30:57,760 Speaker 1: was published, in which w h S from Asbury Park, 489 00:30:57,760 --> 00:31:01,560 Speaker 1: New Jersey posed the question. At the national meet held 490 00:31:01,600 --> 00:31:04,760 Speaker 1: here last week, a negro was entered and rode in 491 00:31:04,840 --> 00:31:07,280 Speaker 1: one of the trial heats in a Class A race 492 00:31:07,440 --> 00:31:11,720 Speaker 1: on Saturday morning, July. The number pinned to him was 493 00:31:11,800 --> 00:31:15,600 Speaker 1: one thirteen. The trial heat was in the one mile 494 00:31:15,720 --> 00:31:20,120 Speaker 1: open Class A, the second race on Saturday's program. How 495 00:31:20,160 --> 00:31:23,920 Speaker 1: can a negro compete with Class Amen? How can a 496 00:31:24,000 --> 00:31:26,680 Speaker 1: negro be a member of the l A W As 497 00:31:26,680 --> 00:31:30,280 Speaker 1: it appears miss Knox of Boston is The answer that 498 00:31:30,360 --> 00:31:33,040 Speaker 1: was printed with this question was quote Miss Katie J. 499 00:31:33,280 --> 00:31:37,880 Speaker 1: Knox joined the league April eighteen ninety three. The word 500 00:31:37,920 --> 00:31:43,000 Speaker 1: white was put into the constitution February nine four. Such 501 00:31:43,120 --> 00:31:47,360 Speaker 1: laws are not and cannot be retroactive. We don't know 502 00:31:47,480 --> 00:31:49,880 Speaker 1: who it was that competed in the races, and we 503 00:31:49,960 --> 00:31:52,600 Speaker 1: know of no law that would keep a negro out 504 00:31:52,640 --> 00:31:55,640 Speaker 1: of an open race, be he league member or not. 505 00:31:56,800 --> 00:31:59,520 Speaker 1: So it seems as though, at least at the national level, 506 00:32:00,120 --> 00:32:03,200 Speaker 1: League of American Wheelman considered NX to be a member 507 00:32:03,240 --> 00:32:05,720 Speaker 1: in spite of the change to its constitution that was 508 00:32:05,800 --> 00:32:09,400 Speaker 1: made after she joined. It doesn't seem like she or 509 00:32:09,520 --> 00:32:12,840 Speaker 1: members of the Riverside Cycling Club were involved in national 510 00:32:12,920 --> 00:32:16,600 Speaker 1: level League events after this, though. A measure to remove 511 00:32:16,680 --> 00:32:19,880 Speaker 1: the league's color bar was reintroduced in eighteen ninety six 512 00:32:20,280 --> 00:32:23,960 Speaker 1: and then withdrawn and in even it was voted on 513 00:32:24,080 --> 00:32:27,840 Speaker 1: and passed, but not by the two thirds majority required, 514 00:32:28,600 --> 00:32:30,760 Speaker 1: and it seems like at that point the matter was 515 00:32:30,880 --> 00:32:34,520 Speaker 1: dropped and the league more or less stopped operating in 516 00:32:34,680 --> 00:32:38,960 Speaker 1: nineteen hundred. At that point, the bicycle boom had become 517 00:32:39,000 --> 00:32:42,560 Speaker 1: a bubble and it was collapsing thanks to everything from 518 00:32:42,600 --> 00:32:45,840 Speaker 1: a huge oversupply of bicycles on the market, to the 519 00:32:45,880 --> 00:32:50,360 Speaker 1: introduction of the motorcycle, to changing tastes as people started 520 00:32:50,360 --> 00:32:53,480 Speaker 1: to think of cycling as kind of a passing fad. 521 00:32:53,760 --> 00:32:58,520 Speaker 1: After the meeting in Asbury Park, Kitty had continued to ride, 522 00:32:58,520 --> 00:33:03,200 Speaker 1: though including participated in several centuries or hundred mile rides. 523 00:33:03,840 --> 00:33:06,680 Speaker 1: She and other black riders had also continued to face 524 00:33:06,720 --> 00:33:10,920 Speaker 1: discrimination from white riders and from the greater community, especially 525 00:33:10,960 --> 00:33:15,400 Speaker 1: in those long distance rides. These events usually involved stops 526 00:33:15,400 --> 00:33:19,240 Speaker 1: at ends for meals and rest, and sometimes those accommodations 527 00:33:19,320 --> 00:33:22,240 Speaker 1: only allowed white people to enter, even though in some 528 00:33:22,320 --> 00:33:26,959 Speaker 1: places that kind of racial discrimination had been outlawed. So 529 00:33:27,040 --> 00:33:30,720 Speaker 1: sometimes race organizers used the likelihood of being turned away 530 00:33:30,720 --> 00:33:33,480 Speaker 1: at a meal stop as a pretense to exclude black 531 00:33:33,520 --> 00:33:37,520 Speaker 1: writers entirely. When Knox and a group of about fifteen 532 00:33:37,520 --> 00:33:40,320 Speaker 1: black men were all turned away from a century ride 533 00:33:40,400 --> 00:33:44,120 Speaker 1: later on in eight it led to a discussion about 534 00:33:44,160 --> 00:33:47,840 Speaker 1: whether the state's various anti discrimination laws covering things like 535 00:33:47,920 --> 00:33:52,440 Speaker 1: theaters and restaurants also applied to cycling events. That was 536 00:33:52,480 --> 00:33:55,680 Speaker 1: obviously the state of Massachusetts, which I didn't specifically write 537 00:33:55,680 --> 00:33:59,320 Speaker 1: in this sentence. Kenny Knox made a name and reputation 538 00:33:59,400 --> 00:34:01,480 Speaker 1: for herself in the world of cycling at the end 539 00:34:01,520 --> 00:34:05,360 Speaker 1: of the nineteenth century. Newspapers all over the country reported 540 00:34:05,360 --> 00:34:08,200 Speaker 1: on her races and her outfits, although some of that 541 00:34:08,320 --> 00:34:12,120 Speaker 1: reporting was excessively focused on things like her skin color 542 00:34:12,480 --> 00:34:15,840 Speaker 1: and her appearance, and what her appearance looked like in 543 00:34:15,960 --> 00:34:19,560 Speaker 1: terms of her race. Her photograph and comments on her 544 00:34:19,560 --> 00:34:22,719 Speaker 1: writing and her writing clothes she made also appeared in 545 00:34:22,800 --> 00:34:28,280 Speaker 1: cycling publications all over the United States. Sadly, Kitty Knox 546 00:34:28,360 --> 00:34:32,480 Speaker 1: died on October eleven, nine hundred, at Massachusetts General Hospital 547 00:34:32,520 --> 00:34:36,480 Speaker 1: as a result of chronic kidney disease. She was very young, 548 00:34:36,600 --> 00:34:39,760 Speaker 1: just twenty six. She was buried in an unmarked grave 549 00:34:39,880 --> 00:34:43,640 Speaker 1: off of Vesper Path in Mount Auburn Cemetery. Her mother 550 00:34:43,719 --> 00:34:46,800 Speaker 1: died six years later and her brother died in nineteen eleven. 551 00:34:47,560 --> 00:34:50,480 Speaker 1: The first cars had been introduced by the time Kitty 552 00:34:50,520 --> 00:34:53,960 Speaker 1: Knox died, and Colonel Pope, who had presented that big 553 00:34:54,040 --> 00:34:58,200 Speaker 1: petition to Congress about improving the roads, had shifted his 554 00:34:58,320 --> 00:35:03,080 Speaker 1: manufacturing focus from pikes to cars. By nineteen ten, the 555 00:35:03,120 --> 00:35:06,600 Speaker 1: American Automobile Association had picked up where the League of 556 00:35:06,640 --> 00:35:10,120 Speaker 1: American Wheelman had left off with the good Roads movement 557 00:35:10,640 --> 00:35:14,480 Speaker 1: that continued into the nineteen twenties. The United States had 558 00:35:14,520 --> 00:35:17,799 Speaker 1: started passing some laws that set up federal funding for 559 00:35:17,920 --> 00:35:21,280 Speaker 1: roads in the nineteen teens, and the Federal Aid Road Act, 560 00:35:21,360 --> 00:35:26,280 Speaker 1: passed in nineteen sixteen, established the first large federally funded 561 00:35:26,360 --> 00:35:31,000 Speaker 1: highway construction programs in conjunction with the states. This was 562 00:35:31,120 --> 00:35:34,480 Speaker 1: the start of more widespread state and federal road and 563 00:35:34,600 --> 00:35:38,120 Speaker 1: highway projects once that were really focused on the needs 564 00:35:38,160 --> 00:35:42,240 Speaker 1: of automobiles rather than the needs of cyclists or pedestrians. 565 00:35:43,160 --> 00:35:46,719 Speaker 1: In some places, the first highways that were built for 566 00:35:46,760 --> 00:35:50,640 Speaker 1: automotive use actually followed roads that had originally been made 567 00:35:50,680 --> 00:35:54,160 Speaker 1: and improved for cycling. Some other parts of the world 568 00:35:54,200 --> 00:35:57,600 Speaker 1: saw similar trends, although not necessarily to the same extent 569 00:35:57,680 --> 00:36:00,920 Speaker 1: that the US did. But over the last few decades 570 00:36:01,000 --> 00:36:03,400 Speaker 1: some parts of the world have seen a bigger focus 571 00:36:03,440 --> 00:36:07,080 Speaker 1: on bicycles as a critical form of transportation, one that 572 00:36:07,200 --> 00:36:11,320 Speaker 1: is less expensive and far less environmentally destructive than cars are. 573 00:36:11,880 --> 00:36:15,600 Speaker 1: This includes everything from wealthier nations adding more dedicated bike 574 00:36:15,680 --> 00:36:19,000 Speaker 1: lanes and bike paths to their infrastructure, to efforts to 575 00:36:19,080 --> 00:36:23,080 Speaker 1: provide people living in impoverished rural areas with bicycles, which 576 00:36:23,160 --> 00:36:25,319 Speaker 1: can make a life or death difference in things like 577 00:36:25,400 --> 00:36:29,360 Speaker 1: access to medical care. Yes, some of the infrastructure stuff, 578 00:36:29,400 --> 00:36:32,080 Speaker 1: like I said earlier, it's like gets the same kind 579 00:36:32,080 --> 00:36:35,600 Speaker 1: of opposition um as stuff was happening in the in 580 00:36:35,680 --> 00:36:39,799 Speaker 1: the late nineteenth century, with people upset that a bike 581 00:36:39,880 --> 00:36:42,280 Speaker 1: lane is taking away parking, or that a bike lane 582 00:36:42,360 --> 00:36:47,560 Speaker 1: is making the road narrower for cars. Things like that. Today, 583 00:36:47,719 --> 00:36:50,360 Speaker 1: the League of American Wheelman has been revived as the 584 00:36:50,440 --> 00:36:55,520 Speaker 1: League of American Bicyclists, and in League president Earl Jones 585 00:36:55,719 --> 00:37:00,800 Speaker 1: signed a resolution revoking that e color line, also issuing 586 00:37:00,840 --> 00:37:04,920 Speaker 1: an apology and granting posthumous membership to Major Taylor the 587 00:37:04,920 --> 00:37:09,680 Speaker 1: Worcester Whirlwind. Jones had realized that that segregation language had 588 00:37:09,760 --> 00:37:13,120 Speaker 1: never been formally repealed and had asked the league's Board 589 00:37:13,120 --> 00:37:16,319 Speaker 1: of Directors to take action on it. Kinny Knox has 590 00:37:16,360 --> 00:37:20,879 Speaker 1: become locally better known in recent years. Laurence Phinison, known 591 00:37:20,880 --> 00:37:24,120 Speaker 1: as Larry, found her name while researching the history of cycling, 592 00:37:24,400 --> 00:37:26,800 Speaker 1: and went on to do more research into her life, 593 00:37:26,880 --> 00:37:30,799 Speaker 1: including finding surviving family members who were related to her 594 00:37:30,840 --> 00:37:35,120 Speaker 1: through her mother. This, plus research into other Boston areas 595 00:37:35,120 --> 00:37:38,400 Speaker 1: cyclists from the late nineteenth century, went into his book, 596 00:37:38,600 --> 00:37:42,719 Speaker 1: Boston's Bicycling Craze eighteen eighty to nineteen hundred, and that 597 00:37:42,760 --> 00:37:46,600 Speaker 1: book is dedicated to Kitty Knox. Her grave at Mount 598 00:37:46,640 --> 00:37:50,360 Speaker 1: Auburn Cemetery is also no longer unmarked, thanks to the 599 00:37:50,360 --> 00:37:55,080 Speaker 1: efforts of Knox's surviving relatives, Phenison, and other donors. A 600 00:37:55,280 --> 00:37:58,680 Speaker 1: marker designed by David Sullivan was placed in the summer 601 00:37:58,719 --> 00:38:03,279 Speaker 1: of It reads Katherine T. Kitty Knox eighteen seventy four 602 00:38:03,320 --> 00:38:06,440 Speaker 1: to nine hundred, and there's also an engraving of a bicycle. 603 00:38:07,320 --> 00:38:10,680 Speaker 1: Several of her living relatives were present at its official 604 00:38:10,760 --> 00:38:17,080 Speaker 1: unveiling on September. In August of the City of Boston 605 00:38:17,160 --> 00:38:20,600 Speaker 1: added an electric assist cargo trike to its fleet named 606 00:38:20,600 --> 00:38:24,520 Speaker 1: after Kitty Knox, and then Mayor Marty Walsh proclaimed August 607 00:38:24,560 --> 00:38:28,200 Speaker 1: twenty as Kitty Knox Day. This Kio trake is kind 608 00:38:28,239 --> 00:38:30,800 Speaker 1: of a pilot project and part of the city's efforts 609 00:38:30,800 --> 00:38:33,880 Speaker 1: to go carbon neutral. The idea is that if city 610 00:38:33,880 --> 00:38:37,120 Speaker 1: employees need to take something from one location to another, 611 00:38:37,480 --> 00:38:39,839 Speaker 1: they can use the trike rather than driving a car. 612 00:38:40,440 --> 00:38:43,400 Speaker 1: There is also a bike path named for her in Cambridge, 613 00:38:43,400 --> 00:38:46,919 Speaker 1: and in June of mass Bike hosted the Kitty Knox Ride, 614 00:38:46,960 --> 00:38:50,440 Speaker 1: which was a community ride with three options that included 615 00:38:50,520 --> 00:38:54,080 Speaker 1: the Kitty Knox Path. Yeah, the path is not particularly long, 616 00:38:54,160 --> 00:38:57,000 Speaker 1: so it's sort of like three loops that incorporated that 617 00:38:57,080 --> 00:39:00,759 Speaker 1: stretch as a part of a longer ride. Do you 618 00:39:00,840 --> 00:39:04,360 Speaker 1: have some listener man, sure do. This is from Claire, 619 00:39:04,480 --> 00:39:07,080 Speaker 1: and Claire said, hello, ladies. I've been catching up on 620 00:39:07,120 --> 00:39:09,400 Speaker 1: older episodes and I just listened to your episode on 621 00:39:09,480 --> 00:39:14,440 Speaker 1: penicillin fascinating and also all the egos. My background is 622 00:39:14,520 --> 00:39:18,040 Speaker 1: microbiology and I currently teach at a local university as 623 00:39:18,080 --> 00:39:21,360 Speaker 1: a sessional adjunct is the u S term teaching the 624 00:39:21,400 --> 00:39:25,680 Speaker 1: molecular end of biology, genetics and microbiology in particular. I'll 625 00:39:25,680 --> 00:39:28,600 Speaker 1: be posting this episode as an additional resource for my 626 00:39:28,680 --> 00:39:32,880 Speaker 1: micro class. Have you heard about phage therapy as something 627 00:39:32,880 --> 00:39:36,560 Speaker 1: we can use to enhance antibiotics or even to replace them? 628 00:39:36,760 --> 00:39:39,360 Speaker 1: Right now, it's looking like the best bet is to 629 00:39:39,480 --> 00:39:43,160 Speaker 1: use them in tandem, but it's early days. Phage therapy 630 00:39:43,239 --> 00:39:47,040 Speaker 1: predates universal antibiotic use, and even during the antibiotic era 631 00:39:47,120 --> 00:39:50,239 Speaker 1: in the West, Russia for sure, and China I think, 632 00:39:50,400 --> 00:39:54,800 Speaker 1: continued to use phage therapy because chemical therapy was so expensive. 633 00:39:55,600 --> 00:39:58,040 Speaker 1: This is an excellent introduction to phage therapy if you're 634 00:39:58,040 --> 00:40:00,719 Speaker 1: familiar with it. I am a huge micro nerve and 635 00:40:00,840 --> 00:40:04,520 Speaker 1: I find it one of the most exciting developments currently happening. 636 00:40:04,840 --> 00:40:07,280 Speaker 1: And then there's a link to an article from August 637 00:40:08,040 --> 00:40:11,799 Speaker 1: called phage therapy Past, Present and Future. Thanks for your 638 00:40:11,920 --> 00:40:16,319 Speaker 1: excellent work, Claire. And then also you got some pictures 639 00:40:16,360 --> 00:40:19,680 Speaker 1: of a rescue cat named Sedona also called in visit 640 00:40:19,680 --> 00:40:23,279 Speaker 1: cat and long cat. I love the cat pictures obviously, 641 00:40:23,840 --> 00:40:26,840 Speaker 1: UM I nearly accidentally printed them all out with the 642 00:40:26,840 --> 00:40:29,120 Speaker 1: text of the email, as I am pro to doing 643 00:40:29,719 --> 00:40:32,520 Speaker 1: when we get cat pictures. I had not heard of 644 00:40:32,840 --> 00:40:36,279 Speaker 1: phage therapy, and that does sound incredibly fascinating, And it's 645 00:40:36,320 --> 00:40:39,080 Speaker 1: also so fascinating that this is something that like has 646 00:40:39,120 --> 00:40:44,920 Speaker 1: such long origins, such long ago historical origins. UM that 647 00:40:45,080 --> 00:40:47,319 Speaker 1: is still considered to be in its early days in 648 00:40:47,440 --> 00:40:51,680 Speaker 1: terms of research now because of various complexities, the fact 649 00:40:51,719 --> 00:40:54,080 Speaker 1: that for a long time the world was more focused 650 00:40:54,080 --> 00:40:57,080 Speaker 1: on antibiotics. So thank you so much Claire for sending 651 00:40:57,480 --> 00:41:00,000 Speaker 1: this email. If you would like to write to us 652 00:41:00,040 --> 00:41:02,759 Speaker 1: about this or any other podcast or history podcasts that 653 00:41:02,840 --> 00:41:05,120 Speaker 1: I heart radio dot com and we're also all over 654 00:41:05,239 --> 00:41:08,200 Speaker 1: social media. That's where you'll find our Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, 655 00:41:08,280 --> 00:41:12,040 Speaker 1: and Instagram. And you can subscribe to our show on 656 00:41:12,160 --> 00:41:15,080 Speaker 1: the I heart Radio app wherever else you get your podcasts. 657 00:41:20,400 --> 00:41:22,560 Speaker 1: Stuff you missed in History Class is a production of 658 00:41:22,640 --> 00:41:25,840 Speaker 1: I heart Radio. For more podcasts from I heart Radio, 659 00:41:26,000 --> 00:41:29,200 Speaker 1: visit the iHeart Radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you 660 00:41:29,280 --> 00:41:30,600 Speaker 1: listen to your favorite shows.