1 00:00:01,320 --> 00:00:04,240 Speaker 1: Welcome to Stuff You Missed in History Class, a production 2 00:00:04,400 --> 00:00:14,040 Speaker 1: of iHeartRadio, Hellol, and welcome to the podcast. I'm Holly 3 00:00:14,080 --> 00:00:17,520 Speaker 1: Frye and I'm tracy Ne Wilson. Listen. I'm in a 4 00:00:17,520 --> 00:00:20,279 Speaker 1: phase where I just want to follow various threads and 5 00:00:20,360 --> 00:00:25,080 Speaker 1: paths down where they take me on different episode researches, 6 00:00:25,200 --> 00:00:27,080 Speaker 1: and then I find something else in there and it 7 00:00:27,160 --> 00:00:28,800 Speaker 1: kind of relates to it, and I want to come 8 00:00:28,840 --> 00:00:31,320 Speaker 1: back to it, and often I try to space those out, 9 00:00:31,360 --> 00:00:33,839 Speaker 1: but not right now I'm doing it. Also, this is 10 00:00:33,880 --> 00:00:37,080 Speaker 1: another instance where we're talking about a person who is 11 00:00:37,200 --> 00:00:40,680 Speaker 1: interesting and important in the development of a thing, and 12 00:00:41,159 --> 00:00:44,279 Speaker 1: not a jerk, which I just need right now. Apparently 13 00:00:45,159 --> 00:00:48,520 Speaker 1: this is sort of a prequel to our recent episode 14 00:00:48,600 --> 00:00:51,560 Speaker 1: on Emil Kua and Kuaism, because we are going to 15 00:00:51,640 --> 00:00:57,600 Speaker 1: talk about hypnosis and how that actually became a thing 16 00:00:57,960 --> 00:01:05,400 Speaker 1: separate from Mesmeri's. In eighteen ninety nine, one of James 17 00:01:05,440 --> 00:01:10,040 Speaker 1: Braid's most significant texts was reprinted. That's fifty six years 18 00:01:10,040 --> 00:01:16,920 Speaker 1: after its original publication, and it includes a somewhat depending 19 00:01:16,959 --> 00:01:20,000 Speaker 1: on your point of view, insulting note in the introduction, 20 00:01:20,120 --> 00:01:23,040 Speaker 1: which is written by Arthur Edward Waite. It reads quote, 21 00:01:23,200 --> 00:01:26,080 Speaker 1: the materials for the biography of James Braid are so 22 00:01:26,280 --> 00:01:29,679 Speaker 1: meager that a paragraph of modest dimensions will be found 23 00:01:29,680 --> 00:01:33,279 Speaker 1: to exhaust them. Nor is the reason far to seek. 24 00:01:33,880 --> 00:01:36,360 Speaker 1: His life would seem to have been of an uncheckered 25 00:01:36,400 --> 00:01:39,959 Speaker 1: and even character. It was free from early struggles, for 26 00:01:40,040 --> 00:01:43,600 Speaker 1: it was entered under favorable circumstances, and it was moderately 27 00:01:43,680 --> 00:01:48,040 Speaker 1: successful throughout, but with no approach to brilliance, being lifted 28 00:01:48,160 --> 00:01:51,400 Speaker 1: out of the groove of the ordinary competent practitioner in 29 00:01:51,440 --> 00:01:54,680 Speaker 1: the north of England by a single great event. By 30 00:01:54,720 --> 00:01:57,880 Speaker 1: this event, also it was ruled, and all details of 31 00:01:57,920 --> 00:02:02,360 Speaker 1: a domestic and private kind disappear beneath the shadow cast 32 00:02:02,400 --> 00:02:08,120 Speaker 1: by the discovery of hypnotism. Listen, James Braid did study 33 00:02:08,240 --> 00:02:11,400 Speaker 1: and advance hypnotism, and we're going to talk about that today. 34 00:02:11,840 --> 00:02:14,720 Speaker 1: But he was also a surgeon with a reputation for 35 00:02:14,840 --> 00:02:18,040 Speaker 1: pioneering new treatments, some of which helped a lot of 36 00:02:18,080 --> 00:02:22,640 Speaker 1: people before he became fascinated with the scientific aspects that 37 00:02:22,720 --> 00:02:26,799 Speaker 1: he felt underpinned mesmerism. And his life certainly merits more 38 00:02:26,840 --> 00:02:30,200 Speaker 1: than one paragraph. And in fact, the author of that quote, 39 00:02:30,600 --> 00:02:34,040 Speaker 1: Arthur Edward, Waite, who edited the new edition of his book, 40 00:02:34,400 --> 00:02:37,400 Speaker 1: wrote a whole lot more pages on Braid. It wasn't 41 00:02:37,440 --> 00:02:40,680 Speaker 1: just a paragraph, so he kind of proved himself wrong 42 00:02:40,760 --> 00:02:43,640 Speaker 1: in that opener anyway. But we're going to talk about 43 00:02:43,720 --> 00:02:48,720 Speaker 1: James Braid today. So James Braid was born on June nineteenth, 44 00:02:48,800 --> 00:02:53,320 Speaker 1: seventeen ninety five at his family's home that was rylaw 45 00:02:53,400 --> 00:02:58,240 Speaker 1: House in the parish of Portmouk in the County of Kinross, Scotland. 46 00:02:59,120 --> 00:03:01,840 Speaker 1: You may all see his place of birth listed as 47 00:03:01,960 --> 00:03:05,200 Speaker 1: County Fife, and that is because the county lines have 48 00:03:05,320 --> 00:03:09,560 Speaker 1: shifted over the years. His parents were James and Anne 49 00:03:09,720 --> 00:03:12,760 Speaker 1: Suttie Braid, and there's really not a lot of information 50 00:03:12,800 --> 00:03:15,440 Speaker 1: about his childhood other than that he worked on the 51 00:03:15,440 --> 00:03:18,840 Speaker 1: family farm. His story really picks up with his higher 52 00:03:18,919 --> 00:03:23,799 Speaker 1: education in eighteen twelve, when he enrolled at Edinburgh University. 53 00:03:24,639 --> 00:03:28,800 Speaker 1: On November seventeenth, eighteen thirteen, James married a woman named 54 00:03:28,840 --> 00:03:32,000 Speaker 1: Margaret Mason. He and his wife would go on to 55 00:03:32,040 --> 00:03:35,000 Speaker 1: have two children, a son named James and a daughter 56 00:03:35,120 --> 00:03:38,640 Speaker 1: named Anne. They had two other children as well, who 57 00:03:38,760 --> 00:03:43,000 Speaker 1: unfortunately died as infants. During the early years of their marriage, 58 00:03:43,160 --> 00:03:46,040 Speaker 1: James was in a surgeon's apprenticeship at a practice in 59 00:03:46,120 --> 00:03:50,240 Speaker 1: Leith owned by a father and son surgeon team, both 60 00:03:50,240 --> 00:03:53,320 Speaker 1: of whom were named Charles Anderson. I will say I 61 00:03:53,360 --> 00:03:56,400 Speaker 1: did find a contrary account that gave one of their 62 00:03:56,480 --> 00:03:59,280 Speaker 1: names as Thomas, but the ones I deemed more credible 63 00:03:59,280 --> 00:04:03,120 Speaker 1: said they were both named Charles. Historian Lindsay Bertram Yates, 64 00:04:03,160 --> 00:04:06,520 Speaker 1: who has written a whole lot about James Braid, noted 65 00:04:06,520 --> 00:04:09,440 Speaker 1: in his doctoral thesis about Braid that it was unclear 66 00:04:09,520 --> 00:04:12,800 Speaker 1: if James and Margaret lived with the Andersons during this 67 00:04:12,920 --> 00:04:16,120 Speaker 1: time or not. Although it would have been customary for 68 00:04:16,200 --> 00:04:19,800 Speaker 1: an apprentice to do so, the marriage part is usually 69 00:04:19,800 --> 00:04:22,919 Speaker 1: not in the equation for an apprentice. Though. During the 70 00:04:22,960 --> 00:04:25,640 Speaker 1: time that Braid was apprenticed with the Andersons, he was 71 00:04:25,720 --> 00:04:30,200 Speaker 1: also attending school from eighteen fourteen to eighteen fifteen that 72 00:04:30,279 --> 00:04:34,719 Speaker 1: included lectures at the Royal Edinburgh Infirmary. In November of 73 00:04:34,720 --> 00:04:38,120 Speaker 1: eighteen fifteen he also became a member of the Edinburgh 74 00:04:38,160 --> 00:04:42,480 Speaker 1: Royal College of Surgeons. Then he moved to Lead Hills, Scotland, 75 00:04:42,560 --> 00:04:45,000 Speaker 1: where he served as a surgeon to a community that 76 00:04:45,080 --> 00:04:48,200 Speaker 1: was made up largely of mine workers. He was an 77 00:04:48,200 --> 00:04:51,479 Speaker 1: employee of the Scotch Mining Company, which ran the lead 78 00:04:51,520 --> 00:04:54,640 Speaker 1: and silver mines in the area. During his time that 79 00:04:54,680 --> 00:04:57,520 Speaker 1: he was there, he treated all kinds of ailments, from 80 00:04:57,720 --> 00:05:02,600 Speaker 1: severed fingers to suffocate in the minds. His write ups 81 00:05:02,600 --> 00:05:06,480 Speaker 1: about some of these cases were published. From his early 82 00:05:06,600 --> 00:05:11,279 Speaker 1: years in medicine and surgery, Braid often treated impoverished patients 83 00:05:11,279 --> 00:05:14,159 Speaker 1: at no charge, and that was something that continued through 84 00:05:14,240 --> 00:05:18,320 Speaker 1: his career. After working in led Hills for about eight years, 85 00:05:18,400 --> 00:05:21,240 Speaker 1: he moved on to practice in Dumfries, where he took 86 00:05:21,320 --> 00:05:24,200 Speaker 1: over a practice that had been established by another surgeon. 87 00:05:25,040 --> 00:05:28,760 Speaker 1: He made this move in eighteen twenty five, and after 88 00:05:28,800 --> 00:05:32,040 Speaker 1: he moved there, he met another surgeon named William Maxwell, 89 00:05:32,080 --> 00:05:35,159 Speaker 1: and these two men became close colleagues. And while this 90 00:05:35,320 --> 00:05:39,400 Speaker 1: is sometimes described as a partnership, it does not appear 91 00:05:39,520 --> 00:05:42,320 Speaker 1: to have been any sort of formal business arrangement. They 92 00:05:42,360 --> 00:05:45,480 Speaker 1: weren't actual business partners so much as the two men 93 00:05:45,640 --> 00:05:51,080 Speaker 1: kind of sharing expertise and consulting on one another's cases. Maxwell, 94 00:05:51,120 --> 00:05:54,279 Speaker 1: who was older than Braid, was also something of a mentor, 95 00:05:54,440 --> 00:05:58,679 Speaker 1: and he significantly expanded the younger surgeon's knowledge in the field. 96 00:06:00,000 --> 00:06:02,640 Speaker 1: One note on the status of surgeons, which has come 97 00:06:02,720 --> 00:06:05,760 Speaker 1: up on the show before is. At this point in 98 00:06:05,839 --> 00:06:09,920 Speaker 1: the UK, surgeons were not on the same level as physicians. 99 00:06:10,440 --> 00:06:13,800 Speaker 1: Being a surgeon didn't require a Doctor of Medicine or 100 00:06:13,800 --> 00:06:17,680 Speaker 1: an MD degree, although surgeons did often have a university 101 00:06:17,839 --> 00:06:22,599 Speaker 1: education in surgery, as Braid did. A surgeon could also 102 00:06:22,720 --> 00:06:25,920 Speaker 1: practice if they had learned through an apprenticeship, as Braid 103 00:06:26,200 --> 00:06:29,400 Speaker 1: had also done, and their focus was really not on 104 00:06:29,600 --> 00:06:32,919 Speaker 1: internal medicine and diagnosis. A lot of surgeons were doing 105 00:06:32,920 --> 00:06:38,279 Speaker 1: things more like setting fractures and performing amputations. Braid was 106 00:06:38,400 --> 00:06:41,680 Speaker 1: practicing as a surgeon at a time when this was shifting. 107 00:06:41,920 --> 00:06:45,240 Speaker 1: The Royal College of Surgeons in London was founded in 108 00:06:45,279 --> 00:06:48,680 Speaker 1: eighteen hundred and a lot of surgeons like Braid could 109 00:06:48,760 --> 00:06:52,000 Speaker 1: become members of the Royal College of Surgeons, as he 110 00:06:52,040 --> 00:06:54,839 Speaker 1: had done in Edinburgh, but they could not become fellows, 111 00:06:55,760 --> 00:07:00,360 Speaker 1: so he and Maxwell were not addressed as doctor. They 112 00:07:00,360 --> 00:07:05,880 Speaker 1: would have instead been called mister. Somewhat confusing situation, especially 113 00:07:05,880 --> 00:07:07,600 Speaker 1: if you don't live in the UK where it is 114 00:07:07,680 --> 00:07:11,480 Speaker 1: still This way has continued into modern medicine. There's an 115 00:07:11,560 --> 00:07:13,960 Speaker 1: article from the year two thousand that was published in 116 00:07:14,000 --> 00:07:18,200 Speaker 1: the British Medical Journal which said quote medical qualifications in 117 00:07:18,240 --> 00:07:22,280 Speaker 1: the United Kingdom have been in an unholy muddle ever 118 00:07:22,320 --> 00:07:25,440 Speaker 1: since the Medical Act of eighteen fifty eight, when no 119 00:07:25,760 --> 00:07:33,760 Speaker 1: less than eighteen independent medical institutions offered a range of bachelorships, licenses, diplomas, memberships, 120 00:07:33,760 --> 00:07:39,920 Speaker 1: fellowships and doctorates, all officially recognized by the General Medical Council. 121 00:07:40,880 --> 00:07:46,880 Speaker 1: This cannot be altered. So basically today set in Stone, yeah, 122 00:07:47,080 --> 00:07:50,720 Speaker 1: and so still today the surgeons are are our mister 123 00:07:50,880 --> 00:07:55,800 Speaker 1: and mss and missus and miss and not doctor. Yeah, 124 00:07:55,840 --> 00:07:58,840 Speaker 1: which some would argue now that is more of an 125 00:07:58,880 --> 00:08:01,960 Speaker 1: honorific because of the associated skill you need with it. 126 00:08:02,240 --> 00:08:05,080 Speaker 1: I will say I did find a lovely h I 127 00:08:05,160 --> 00:08:08,240 Speaker 1: didn't include it in the notes here, but I found 128 00:08:08,280 --> 00:08:11,880 Speaker 1: a lovely obituary of James Braid that kind of said, like, 129 00:08:12,000 --> 00:08:14,680 Speaker 1: we know he's a mister, but we call him doctor 130 00:08:14,680 --> 00:08:17,400 Speaker 1: in the community because he takes care of everybody, which 131 00:08:17,480 --> 00:08:20,760 Speaker 1: was very sweet. There was another meeting in Dumfries that 132 00:08:20,800 --> 00:08:25,040 Speaker 1: would also influence Braid's life, and that is with a patient. 133 00:08:25,640 --> 00:08:28,480 Speaker 1: He treated a man named Alexander Petty who had hurt 134 00:08:28,520 --> 00:08:32,040 Speaker 1: his ankle in a stagecoach accident while he was visiting 135 00:08:32,040 --> 00:08:36,400 Speaker 1: Scotland on business. Petty was from Manchester, England, and during 136 00:08:36,440 --> 00:08:39,560 Speaker 1: the time he was under Braid's care while his ankle healed, 137 00:08:39,559 --> 00:08:43,040 Speaker 1: which took some time, he and Braid became pretty good friends, 138 00:08:43,640 --> 00:08:46,920 Speaker 1: and in eighteen twenty eight Braid moved to Manchester and 139 00:08:47,000 --> 00:08:51,440 Speaker 1: opened a practice there. That decision is usually attributed to 140 00:08:51,559 --> 00:08:55,240 Speaker 1: his friendship with Petty, although there were also likely some 141 00:08:55,360 --> 00:08:59,120 Speaker 1: other factors involved, including a lot of economic struggle that 142 00:08:59,200 --> 00:09:02,040 Speaker 1: was going on in Ski Outland at the time. While 143 00:09:02,080 --> 00:09:07,160 Speaker 1: in Manchester, Braid established himself as a reliable and knowledgeable surgeon. 144 00:09:07,720 --> 00:09:10,920 Speaker 1: He kept learning from and sharing knowledge with his colleagues. 145 00:09:11,360 --> 00:09:15,040 Speaker 1: He also trained several young surgeons through apprenticeships with him. 146 00:09:15,559 --> 00:09:18,600 Speaker 1: He served the Manchester community with a strong sense of duty, 147 00:09:18,800 --> 00:09:23,600 Speaker 1: advocating for things like improved city sanitation after helping to 148 00:09:23,760 --> 00:09:27,640 Speaker 1: usher the city through a cholera epidemic in eighteen thirty two. 149 00:09:28,120 --> 00:09:30,800 Speaker 1: He also took up causes that he believed would improve 150 00:09:30,880 --> 00:09:35,560 Speaker 1: people's overall well being, including concepts we are still working 151 00:09:35,600 --> 00:09:39,640 Speaker 1: on today, like better work life balance through reduction and 152 00:09:39,760 --> 00:09:45,040 Speaker 1: expected working hours. Yeah. He specifically thought like young people 153 00:09:45,480 --> 00:09:48,840 Speaker 1: that were working in jobs should not be working long 154 00:09:48,920 --> 00:09:52,480 Speaker 1: hours because they in some cases. Remember, child labor not uncommon. 155 00:09:52,800 --> 00:09:54,600 Speaker 1: They were still growing and he was like, they need 156 00:09:54,640 --> 00:09:56,720 Speaker 1: rest and nutrition. They don't need to be working all 157 00:09:56,760 --> 00:10:00,319 Speaker 1: the time. One of the most significant ways that Braid 158 00:10:00,320 --> 00:10:03,720 Speaker 1: distinguished himself as a surgeon was through his study and 159 00:10:03,800 --> 00:10:08,959 Speaker 1: work focusing on the condition known as Talipe's equinavius, or 160 00:10:09,320 --> 00:10:13,280 Speaker 1: more commonly clubfoot. So just in case you don't know, 161 00:10:13,440 --> 00:10:16,800 Speaker 1: clubfoot is a condition where the foot is turned inward 162 00:10:16,880 --> 00:10:19,800 Speaker 1: to a sharp degree, often with the bottom of the 163 00:10:19,840 --> 00:10:23,680 Speaker 1: foot facing sideways or in extreme cases, the bottom of 164 00:10:23,679 --> 00:10:26,040 Speaker 1: the foot can even be turned to be facing up. 165 00:10:27,000 --> 00:10:29,840 Speaker 1: It often appears in infancy, that's normally when you would 166 00:10:29,840 --> 00:10:32,880 Speaker 1: see it, and for years, clubfoot was believed to be 167 00:10:32,920 --> 00:10:37,400 Speaker 1: a skeletal deformity, but during Braid's time, the medical establishment 168 00:10:37,559 --> 00:10:40,360 Speaker 1: was starting to understand that it is actually a tendon 169 00:10:40,520 --> 00:10:43,679 Speaker 1: issue and more a matter of the connective tissues from 170 00:10:43,800 --> 00:10:47,559 Speaker 1: muscle to bone. At a time when the only surgery 171 00:10:47,679 --> 00:10:52,439 Speaker 1: most practitioners were doing on clubfoot was amputation, Braid, who 172 00:10:52,559 --> 00:10:55,760 Speaker 1: kept up with the latest literature, was an early adopter 173 00:10:55,920 --> 00:11:00,160 Speaker 1: of instead operating on that connective tissue instead with the 174 00:11:00,200 --> 00:11:03,840 Speaker 1: intent to save the leg, and he developed his own 175 00:11:03,920 --> 00:11:06,640 Speaker 1: technique to do so that was less invasive and more 176 00:11:06,720 --> 00:11:09,880 Speaker 1: nuanced in terms of how it handled the tendons involved, 177 00:11:10,000 --> 00:11:13,800 Speaker 1: even more so than other surgeons that were considered to 178 00:11:13,800 --> 00:11:16,920 Speaker 1: be like on the cutting edge of this technique. He 179 00:11:17,000 --> 00:11:19,880 Speaker 1: stated in his writing that he was performing this surgery 180 00:11:19,960 --> 00:11:22,520 Speaker 1: almost daily in that he was able to reverse a 181 00:11:22,559 --> 00:11:26,760 Speaker 1: state of paralysis in his patients. His nuanced approach to 182 00:11:26,840 --> 00:11:29,720 Speaker 1: tendon surgery was one that he did not only confine 183 00:11:29,720 --> 00:11:33,160 Speaker 1: to clubfoot, but also started using when people had issues 184 00:11:33,200 --> 00:11:35,800 Speaker 1: with other parts of their bodies, kind of applying the 185 00:11:35,840 --> 00:11:41,720 Speaker 1: same concepts and understandings of this connective tissue. He was 186 00:11:41,760 --> 00:11:44,240 Speaker 1: widely recognized for his skill in this area, and it 187 00:11:44,280 --> 00:11:48,520 Speaker 1: became common for both patients and medical professionals to travel 188 00:11:49,000 --> 00:11:52,360 Speaker 1: long distances to seek his care or get his opinion 189 00:11:52,400 --> 00:11:56,719 Speaker 1: on the matter. Braid became an expert on connective tissues 190 00:11:56,960 --> 00:12:01,480 Speaker 1: and was always intent on streamlining his surgical process as 191 00:12:01,559 --> 00:12:04,960 Speaker 1: much as possible for the benefit of the patient. This 192 00:12:05,120 --> 00:12:09,640 Speaker 1: is like before the development of modern anesthesia and antibiotics, 193 00:12:09,640 --> 00:12:11,840 Speaker 1: so there are many reasons to want to do that. 194 00:12:12,960 --> 00:12:16,160 Speaker 1: This was incredibly beneficial when he turned his scalpel to 195 00:12:16,200 --> 00:12:18,920 Speaker 1: a very different type of surgery, and that was dealing 196 00:12:18,960 --> 00:12:23,199 Speaker 1: with the eyes. This started with patients who had an 197 00:12:23,200 --> 00:12:26,839 Speaker 1: issue of chronic squinting, where the connective tissue around their 198 00:12:26,840 --> 00:12:31,000 Speaker 1: eyes made them unable to relax the muscles in that area. 199 00:12:31,160 --> 00:12:34,560 Speaker 1: It led him to eventually correcting issues with eye alignment. 200 00:12:35,120 --> 00:12:38,359 Speaker 1: He was not the first surgeon to note the similarities 201 00:12:38,400 --> 00:12:41,240 Speaker 1: of the way the tendons affected the limbs and the 202 00:12:41,280 --> 00:12:45,880 Speaker 1: way connective tissues could cause problems like crossed eyes or wallleyes. 203 00:12:46,720 --> 00:12:49,199 Speaker 1: Building on the work of other professionals in his field, 204 00:12:49,520 --> 00:12:53,000 Speaker 1: he started applying his knowledge to corrective eye surgeries and 205 00:12:53,040 --> 00:12:55,360 Speaker 1: he had a lot of success, and his speed with 206 00:12:55,480 --> 00:12:59,439 Speaker 1: this was almost terrifying. He was said to have conducted 207 00:12:59,600 --> 00:13:03,880 Speaker 1: six such surgeries in rapid succession, taking less than fourteen 208 00:13:03,920 --> 00:13:06,920 Speaker 1: minutes for all six of them. But this was in 209 00:13:06,920 --> 00:13:10,000 Speaker 1: part because he believed that once the problem was identified, 210 00:13:10,040 --> 00:13:13,520 Speaker 1: getting in and out very quickly was the best thing 211 00:13:13,640 --> 00:13:16,720 Speaker 1: for the patient. Noting that the actual work on the 212 00:13:16,760 --> 00:13:20,160 Speaker 1: tendon took him less than thirty seconds. He believed that 213 00:13:20,240 --> 00:13:23,600 Speaker 1: his consistently good recovery outcomes were in part due to 214 00:13:23,640 --> 00:13:27,359 Speaker 1: the patient not having to endure a really long procedure. 215 00:13:28,040 --> 00:13:32,040 Speaker 1: Brad had similar success applying his understanding of connective tissue 216 00:13:32,160 --> 00:13:35,840 Speaker 1: and body mechanics to scoliosis, and wrote about several patients 217 00:13:35,880 --> 00:13:40,120 Speaker 1: with lateral curvatures of the spine whose conditions were much 218 00:13:40,160 --> 00:13:44,280 Speaker 1: improved by surgical intervention. A lot of these things are 219 00:13:44,280 --> 00:13:47,599 Speaker 1: treated non surgically today, or if they're surgical, surgery is 220 00:13:47,640 --> 00:13:51,760 Speaker 1: not the first line. But he was so innovative with this. Yeah, 221 00:13:51,840 --> 00:13:55,840 Speaker 1: it's also important to remember this may squink people out. 222 00:13:55,880 --> 00:13:57,240 Speaker 1: I know it does me. It's one of the few 223 00:13:57,240 --> 00:14:01,000 Speaker 1: areas that I get a little like about. When he 224 00:14:01,040 --> 00:14:04,160 Speaker 1: was operating on people's eyes, they were awake, so he 225 00:14:04,240 --> 00:14:08,160 Speaker 1: really wanted to minimize their discomfort in every way he could, 226 00:14:08,200 --> 00:14:11,600 Speaker 1: and also minimize the chance that they would move or 227 00:14:11,640 --> 00:14:16,800 Speaker 1: twitch and potentially cause greater damage during the surgery. But 228 00:14:16,840 --> 00:14:20,320 Speaker 1: Braid also waded into some pretty controversial waters when he 229 00:14:20,440 --> 00:14:24,680 Speaker 1: used his connective tissue knowledge to operate on patients who 230 00:14:24,720 --> 00:14:28,760 Speaker 1: came to him for help with of all things, stammering. 231 00:14:29,680 --> 00:14:31,880 Speaker 1: He was not the only surgeon to do this during 232 00:14:31,920 --> 00:14:34,040 Speaker 1: the eighteen forties. You want to be clear. He wasn't 233 00:14:34,120 --> 00:14:38,280 Speaker 1: just like, yeah, sure, i'll cut this open. And he 234 00:14:38,360 --> 00:14:41,520 Speaker 1: only did this after he examined the patient and determined 235 00:14:41,760 --> 00:14:44,480 Speaker 1: that they actually had a physical problem that was causing 236 00:14:44,560 --> 00:14:48,200 Speaker 1: tongue paralysis. But there were a lot of doctors and 237 00:14:48,320 --> 00:14:52,080 Speaker 1: surgeons who protested these surgeries, not just his, but by 238 00:14:52,120 --> 00:14:57,120 Speaker 1: the medical establishment as bypassing other non invasive therapies, and 239 00:14:57,200 --> 00:15:00,160 Speaker 1: Braid did stop doing these after just a couple of years. 240 00:15:01,080 --> 00:15:04,480 Speaker 1: The pivotal moment in Braid's life as it relates to 241 00:15:04,560 --> 00:15:07,960 Speaker 1: hypnotism happened on November thirteenth, eighteen forty one, at the 242 00:15:07,960 --> 00:15:13,800 Speaker 1: Manchester Athenaeum. That evening he attended a demonstration given by 243 00:15:13,840 --> 00:15:18,640 Speaker 1: a traveling mesmerist named Charles la Fontaine. We will talk 244 00:15:18,680 --> 00:15:31,240 Speaker 1: about that after we pause for a sponsor break. There 245 00:15:31,360 --> 00:15:35,440 Speaker 1: are many descriptions of people being in states that could 246 00:15:35,440 --> 00:15:39,360 Speaker 1: be described as hypnotic going back thousands of years, and 247 00:15:39,480 --> 00:15:43,080 Speaker 1: some of those are certainly a matter of interpretation. There 248 00:15:43,200 --> 00:15:47,200 Speaker 1: are spiritual practices from places like Egypt and India going 249 00:15:47,280 --> 00:15:51,560 Speaker 1: back thousands of years, and Braid actually invoked Indian yogic 250 00:15:51,640 --> 00:15:55,000 Speaker 1: traditions as a historical example when he wrote about hypnotism. 251 00:15:55,120 --> 00:15:59,280 Speaker 1: Leader in his life. Swiss physician Paracelsus, working in the 252 00:15:59,320 --> 00:16:03,080 Speaker 1: sixteenth six introduced a couple of ideas that it seems, 253 00:16:03,120 --> 00:16:05,880 Speaker 1: would later get sort of amalgamated into one in the 254 00:16:05,880 --> 00:16:09,680 Speaker 1: work of Franz Mesmer. One was the concept of mumia, 255 00:16:09,960 --> 00:16:12,720 Speaker 1: of which Paracelsus wrote, quote for the mumia is the 256 00:16:12,760 --> 00:16:16,920 Speaker 1: man himself. The mummia is the balsam which heals the wound. 257 00:16:17,720 --> 00:16:21,800 Speaker 1: And the other that Paracelsus kind of introduced was this 258 00:16:21,960 --> 00:16:28,880 Speaker 1: concept of magnetic fields having curative and healing properties. Franz 259 00:16:29,120 --> 00:16:32,760 Speaker 1: Anton Mesmer is of course well known for his development 260 00:16:32,920 --> 00:16:37,240 Speaker 1: of the concept of animal magnetism. This seems to have 261 00:16:37,320 --> 00:16:41,320 Speaker 1: combined the mumia and magnetic work of Paracelsus to the 262 00:16:41,400 --> 00:16:45,000 Speaker 1: idea that he could heal patience by controlling the flow 263 00:16:45,680 --> 00:16:50,120 Speaker 1: of an invisible fluid. That's what animal magnetism supposedly was. 264 00:16:51,120 --> 00:16:55,440 Speaker 1: Mesmer was discredited in his own lifetime. In seventeen eighty four, 265 00:16:55,600 --> 00:16:59,720 Speaker 1: King Louis the sixteenth sent a commission to investigate Mesmeri 266 00:16:59,720 --> 00:17:02,800 Speaker 1: as a and that was because it was being perceived 267 00:17:02,840 --> 00:17:05,680 Speaker 1: at the time as a threat. There was a blind 268 00:17:06,000 --> 00:17:09,680 Speaker 1: trial that led to the determination that Mesmer's cures were 269 00:17:09,800 --> 00:17:13,520 Speaker 1: largely a matter of patients believing that they had improved 270 00:17:14,200 --> 00:17:18,880 Speaker 1: rather than showing any kind of actual physical improvement. Yeah, 271 00:17:18,880 --> 00:17:21,640 Speaker 1: I didn't dig into it here. But Mesmerism was considered 272 00:17:21,640 --> 00:17:25,480 Speaker 1: a threat to the state because in a country where 273 00:17:25,520 --> 00:17:28,720 Speaker 1: religion is so important, and a national religion is so important, 274 00:17:28,960 --> 00:17:33,200 Speaker 1: for someone to be like no I control paranormal forces. 275 00:17:33,560 --> 00:17:39,000 Speaker 1: It made the crowd very nervous. Let's get it, but listen, 276 00:17:39,080 --> 00:17:42,160 Speaker 1: it didn't matter. People didn't trust Louis the Sixteenth Commission, 277 00:17:42,280 --> 00:17:45,920 Speaker 1: even though people like Antoine Lavoisier were on it. And 278 00:17:46,160 --> 00:17:49,880 Speaker 1: during Mesmer's life and after his death, his concepts were 279 00:17:49,880 --> 00:17:53,560 Speaker 1: picked up by a number of other people, including armand 280 00:17:53,680 --> 00:17:58,200 Speaker 1: Marie Jacques de Chastinet Marquis de pai Segeux. So Chastine 281 00:17:58,280 --> 00:18:01,480 Speaker 1: de Paicegeux had tried out the use of magnets on 282 00:18:01,560 --> 00:18:06,560 Speaker 1: a family employee after reading about Mesmer's work, and the 283 00:18:06,640 --> 00:18:10,720 Speaker 1: man appeared to go into a trance like state while 284 00:18:11,200 --> 00:18:14,600 Speaker 1: Chastined de Passegux did this whatever he was doing with 285 00:18:14,680 --> 00:18:20,080 Speaker 1: the magnets. Ruminating on this whole thing, Schastine de Passegueer 286 00:18:20,320 --> 00:18:23,120 Speaker 1: thought that a sleep state could be induced to more 287 00:18:23,200 --> 00:18:27,800 Speaker 1: fully affect Mesmer's magnetic healing, so he wasn't onto the 288 00:18:27,840 --> 00:18:31,639 Speaker 1: science of hypnotism, but he had kind of stumbled onto 289 00:18:31,680 --> 00:18:34,520 Speaker 1: the mechanism of it, and he was not the only 290 00:18:34,560 --> 00:18:38,439 Speaker 1: person who was fascinated by mesmerism and its potential uses. 291 00:18:39,160 --> 00:18:43,520 Speaker 1: Another example is the surgeon Juescoque, who claimed to use 292 00:18:43,520 --> 00:18:47,680 Speaker 1: mesmerism to sedate a patient who had breast cancer during 293 00:18:47,720 --> 00:18:52,800 Speaker 1: a surgical procedure to remove her tumor. Other medical professionals 294 00:18:52,880 --> 00:18:55,760 Speaker 1: used mesmerism in this same way, and there was even 295 00:18:55,840 --> 00:18:59,480 Speaker 1: a mesmeric hospital in Calcutta that was founded by doctor 296 00:18:59,560 --> 00:19:04,320 Speaker 1: James as Dale. Incidentally, though as Dale shifted entirely to 297 00:19:04,400 --> 00:19:07,359 Speaker 1: the use of ether once it was introduced as an 298 00:19:07,400 --> 00:19:11,320 Speaker 1: anesthetic and stopped trying to put his patients in a trance. 299 00:19:12,160 --> 00:19:17,040 Speaker 1: Charles Lafontaine studied the work of Poissiger. He also routinely 300 00:19:17,080 --> 00:19:20,639 Speaker 1: claimed that Louis the Sixteenth Commission had found the opposite 301 00:19:20,920 --> 00:19:25,840 Speaker 1: of their actual findings, saying that their review had validated mesmerism, 302 00:19:26,000 --> 00:19:30,200 Speaker 1: which it had not. Lafontaine was not, we should be clear, 303 00:19:30,280 --> 00:19:34,800 Speaker 1: a medical practitioner of any kind. He had a theatrical background. 304 00:19:35,480 --> 00:19:39,240 Speaker 1: He was more like a stage magician. Before becoming interested 305 00:19:39,240 --> 00:19:43,359 Speaker 1: in animal magnetism in eighteen forty one, Lafontaine decided to 306 00:19:43,440 --> 00:19:47,359 Speaker 1: go on a tour of Britain exhibiting his mesmerism technique. 307 00:19:47,960 --> 00:19:50,240 Speaker 1: This is pretty interesting because he spoke not one word 308 00:19:50,320 --> 00:19:53,680 Speaker 1: of English, so everything had to happen through interpreters. By 309 00:19:53,680 --> 00:19:58,280 Speaker 1: the time Lafontaine arrived in Manchester, Braid, like most medical practitioners, 310 00:19:58,600 --> 00:20:02,720 Speaker 1: had come to view mesmerism as completely fraudulent. Lafontaine had 311 00:20:02,720 --> 00:20:05,280 Speaker 1: appeared in London for a while before this, and there 312 00:20:05,359 --> 00:20:08,199 Speaker 1: was a lot of like huh, all right in the 313 00:20:08,240 --> 00:20:13,000 Speaker 1: reviews about it. Arthur and Edward Waite, writing about Braid's life, 314 00:20:13,000 --> 00:20:16,720 Speaker 1: noted quote the hostility was honest in its way, though 315 00:20:16,800 --> 00:20:22,120 Speaker 1: based on a priori considerations which are somewhat humiliating to recall, 316 00:20:22,359 --> 00:20:26,520 Speaker 1: as for example, that mesmerism had been practiced by impostors 317 00:20:26,560 --> 00:20:30,000 Speaker 1: and quacks, that most of its believers were ignorant or 318 00:20:30,040 --> 00:20:34,760 Speaker 1: mere smatterers, and that many of their stories were undeniably exaggerated, 319 00:20:34,960 --> 00:20:39,120 Speaker 1: if not actually invented. But a lot of people were 320 00:20:39,160 --> 00:20:45,119 Speaker 1: still interested in what Lafontaine builled as magnetism, So like 321 00:20:45,200 --> 00:20:48,480 Speaker 1: a lot of other people, Braid was very skeptical and 322 00:20:48,560 --> 00:20:52,120 Speaker 1: wrote later quote, I was led to discover the mode 323 00:20:52,160 --> 00:20:55,879 Speaker 1: I now adopt, with so much success, for inducing this 324 00:20:56,080 --> 00:20:59,840 Speaker 1: artificial condition of the nervous system by a course of 325 00:21:00,160 --> 00:21:03,960 Speaker 1: experiments instituted with the view to determine the cause of 326 00:21:04,160 --> 00:21:09,520 Speaker 1: mesmeric phenomena. From all I had read and heard of mesmerism, 327 00:21:09,560 --> 00:21:13,199 Speaker 1: such as the phenomena being capable of being excited in 328 00:21:13,400 --> 00:21:17,320 Speaker 1: so few and those few individuals in a state of disease, 329 00:21:17,520 --> 00:21:21,919 Speaker 1: or naturally of a delicate constitution or particularly susceptible temperament, 330 00:21:22,480 --> 00:21:26,199 Speaker 1: and from the phenomena when induced, being said to be 331 00:21:26,320 --> 00:21:30,560 Speaker 1: so exaggerated or of such an extraordinary nature, I was 332 00:21:30,680 --> 00:21:34,960 Speaker 1: fully inclined to join with those who considered the whole 333 00:21:35,119 --> 00:21:39,320 Speaker 1: to be a system of collusion or delusion, or of 334 00:21:39,359 --> 00:21:46,560 Speaker 1: excited imagination, sympathy, or imitation. A lot of people thought 335 00:21:46,640 --> 00:21:51,479 Speaker 1: Lafontaine was a fraud. Braid attended la Fontaine's third lecture 336 00:21:51,560 --> 00:21:55,960 Speaker 1: in Manchester on November thirteenth, eighteen forty one, and so 337 00:21:56,080 --> 00:21:58,320 Speaker 1: did a lot of other people, because write ups about 338 00:21:58,320 --> 00:22:01,720 Speaker 1: his earlier two lectures I'd really stoked public interests. So 339 00:22:01,760 --> 00:22:04,200 Speaker 1: even people who initially were like I don't care, were 340 00:22:04,200 --> 00:22:06,320 Speaker 1: suddenly like, I feel like I should check this out. 341 00:22:07,200 --> 00:22:11,159 Speaker 1: The Manchester Times described this scene on the third lecture, quote, 342 00:22:11,200 --> 00:22:13,200 Speaker 1: we should think there could not be less than six 343 00:22:13,320 --> 00:22:16,800 Speaker 1: or seven hundred persons present, among whom were many of 344 00:22:16,800 --> 00:22:20,560 Speaker 1: our leading medical and surgical practitioners and a few ladies. 345 00:22:21,440 --> 00:22:25,399 Speaker 1: La Fontaine's demonstration involved putting his assistant, who was a 346 00:22:25,440 --> 00:22:29,280 Speaker 1: young man named Eugen, into a so called mesmeric state, 347 00:22:29,680 --> 00:22:33,800 Speaker 1: and then letting people jab him with pins, under the 348 00:22:33,840 --> 00:22:36,640 Speaker 1: assurance that the young man could feel no pain in 349 00:22:36,680 --> 00:22:42,040 Speaker 1: this trance. This caused a mix of excited jabbing from 350 00:22:42,080 --> 00:22:46,280 Speaker 1: some volunteers who stepped forward to help, and horrified protests 351 00:22:46,280 --> 00:22:50,159 Speaker 1: from audience members who found the whole exercise cruel and 352 00:22:50,240 --> 00:22:55,600 Speaker 1: downright shameful. In addition to the pins, detonating caps were 353 00:22:55,640 --> 00:22:59,800 Speaker 1: discharged near this person's ears, Ammonia was held under his nose, 354 00:23:00,320 --> 00:23:03,840 Speaker 1: and a magnetic current was sent through wires that he held 355 00:23:03,760 --> 00:23:06,879 Speaker 1: in his hands, all to show that the subject was 356 00:23:07,000 --> 00:23:12,240 Speaker 1: cataleptic and quote insensible to all of these very cruel stimuli, 357 00:23:13,200 --> 00:23:17,879 Speaker 1: which were all still happening and involved injuring him in 358 00:23:17,920 --> 00:23:24,119 Speaker 1: some cases, which is wild to me. Simplified versions of 359 00:23:24,240 --> 00:23:27,320 Speaker 1: James Braid's story really make it sound like he went 360 00:23:27,359 --> 00:23:31,399 Speaker 1: to this lecture and demonstration, he saw Lafontaine, and he 361 00:23:31,520 --> 00:23:35,160 Speaker 1: just came away convinced that something worthwhile was going on 362 00:23:35,840 --> 00:23:40,640 Speaker 1: that did not actually happen, at least not initially. According 363 00:23:40,640 --> 00:23:43,680 Speaker 1: to Braid's account quote, the first exhibition of the kind 364 00:23:43,760 --> 00:23:47,040 Speaker 1: I ever had an opportunity of attending was one of 365 00:23:47,160 --> 00:23:52,880 Speaker 1: Monsieur la Fontaine's conversacione on the thirteenth November eighteen forty one. 366 00:23:53,760 --> 00:23:57,200 Speaker 1: That night, I saw nothing to diminish, rather than confirm 367 00:23:57,400 --> 00:24:03,120 Speaker 1: my previous prejudices. At the next conversacione six nights afterwards, 368 00:24:03,280 --> 00:24:06,639 Speaker 1: one fact, the inability of a patient who opened his 369 00:24:06,720 --> 00:24:11,040 Speaker 1: eyelids arrested my attention. I considered that to be a 370 00:24:11,080 --> 00:24:14,840 Speaker 1: real phenomenon, and was anxious to discover the physiological cause 371 00:24:14,880 --> 00:24:18,399 Speaker 1: of it. Next night, I watched this case when it 372 00:24:18,640 --> 00:24:23,120 Speaker 1: again operated on, with intense interest, and before the termination 373 00:24:23,200 --> 00:24:26,920 Speaker 1: of the experiment, felt assured I had discovered its cause, 374 00:24:27,400 --> 00:24:31,040 Speaker 1: but considered it prudent not to announce my opinion publicly 375 00:24:31,359 --> 00:24:34,840 Speaker 1: until I had an opportunity of testing its accuracy by 376 00:24:34,920 --> 00:24:39,919 Speaker 1: experiments and observation in private. So, as Braid mentioned in 377 00:24:39,960 --> 00:24:43,639 Speaker 1: that writing, he went to Lafontene's fourth Manchester appearance that 378 00:24:43,760 --> 00:24:46,679 Speaker 1: was on November nineteenth, and he was invited, along with 379 00:24:46,760 --> 00:24:51,240 Speaker 1: other medical professionals in attendance, to go on stage. Braid 380 00:24:51,440 --> 00:24:55,719 Speaker 1: really wanted someone who had never seen Lafontene's procedure before 381 00:24:56,160 --> 00:24:59,719 Speaker 1: to be the first person magnetized, to ensure that they 382 00:24:59,720 --> 00:25:02,360 Speaker 1: are imagination was not in play, that they weren't kind 383 00:25:02,359 --> 00:25:06,639 Speaker 1: of subconsciously buying into the idea. At one point, Braid 384 00:25:06,720 --> 00:25:10,560 Speaker 1: even offered to be magnetized himself, but Lafontaine said he 385 00:25:10,560 --> 00:25:13,920 Speaker 1: didn't think Braid was susceptible to it. There was apparently 386 00:25:14,000 --> 00:25:16,720 Speaker 1: so much arguing in the lecture hall over all of 387 00:25:16,760 --> 00:25:20,560 Speaker 1: this that the paper printed a scolding of all the attendees, 388 00:25:20,640 --> 00:25:23,240 Speaker 1: noting that they were treating a guest in their country 389 00:25:23,359 --> 00:25:26,800 Speaker 1: very rudely, which should not happen even if someone was 390 00:25:26,840 --> 00:25:34,400 Speaker 1: a charlatan. When Lafontaine had a fifth appearance on November twentieth, 391 00:25:34,440 --> 00:25:38,320 Speaker 1: Braid was there again. This time, he stood up and 392 00:25:38,400 --> 00:25:41,000 Speaker 1: he read a letter that he had sent to Lafontaine 393 00:25:41,040 --> 00:25:43,560 Speaker 1: in the morning, but he hadn't gotten a response to 394 00:25:43,600 --> 00:25:47,159 Speaker 1: that letter. The letter indicated that he still thought that 395 00:25:47,240 --> 00:25:49,760 Speaker 1: a sympathetic mind on the part of the subject was 396 00:25:50,320 --> 00:25:55,399 Speaker 1: creating their seemingly altered consciousness. He asked once again that 397 00:25:55,480 --> 00:25:58,880 Speaker 1: someone unfamiliar with this process be the subject and see 398 00:25:58,920 --> 00:26:03,600 Speaker 1: if Lafontaine's magnetism worked. This was actually met with some 399 00:26:03,680 --> 00:26:06,520 Speaker 1: resistance from some of the attendees, who thought that Braid 400 00:26:06,600 --> 00:26:11,160 Speaker 1: was basically interfering with a public lecturer by dictating how 401 00:26:11,200 --> 00:26:15,560 Speaker 1: that lecturer should give his presentation. But though his request 402 00:26:15,840 --> 00:26:19,320 Speaker 1: was not honored and a subject that had previously been 403 00:26:19,320 --> 00:26:22,800 Speaker 1: put into a trance was used once again, once Braid 404 00:26:22,840 --> 00:26:25,560 Speaker 1: was able to examine that person, he was convinced that 405 00:26:25,600 --> 00:26:30,240 Speaker 1: they were somehow in an altered state, although he did 406 00:26:30,320 --> 00:26:35,679 Speaker 1: not buy into la Fontaine's animal magnetism explanation, and he 407 00:26:35,800 --> 00:26:39,280 Speaker 1: wanted to figure out what was really happening. So we 408 00:26:39,320 --> 00:26:42,439 Speaker 1: will talk about how Braid conducted his own experiments to 409 00:26:42,520 --> 00:26:45,280 Speaker 1: test his idea. After we hear from the sponsors that 410 00:26:45,359 --> 00:26:58,240 Speaker 1: keep stuff you missed in history class going, Braid started 411 00:26:58,280 --> 00:27:02,200 Speaker 1: working on his ideas about the science behind la Fontaine's 412 00:27:02,200 --> 00:27:05,840 Speaker 1: magnetism right away, he wrote, quote, my first object was 413 00:27:05,880 --> 00:27:08,359 Speaker 1: to prove that the inability of the patient to open 414 00:27:08,400 --> 00:27:12,280 Speaker 1: his eyes was caused by paralyzing the leaventer muscles of 415 00:27:12,320 --> 00:27:16,919 Speaker 1: the eyelids through their continued action during the practiced fixed stare, 416 00:27:17,400 --> 00:27:21,520 Speaker 1: and thus rendering it physically impossible for him to open them. 417 00:27:21,800 --> 00:27:24,720 Speaker 1: With the view of proving this, I requested mister Walker, 418 00:27:24,880 --> 00:27:28,239 Speaker 1: a young gentleman present, to sit down and maintain a 419 00:27:28,320 --> 00:27:31,520 Speaker 1: fixed stare at the top of a wine bottle, placed 420 00:27:31,560 --> 00:27:34,959 Speaker 1: so much above him as to produce a considerable strain 421 00:27:35,040 --> 00:27:38,400 Speaker 1: on the eyes and eyelids to enable him to maintain 422 00:27:38,440 --> 00:27:42,040 Speaker 1: a steady view of the object. In three minutes, his 423 00:27:42,119 --> 00:27:45,760 Speaker 1: eyelids closed, a gush of tears ran down his cheeks, 424 00:27:46,119 --> 00:27:49,960 Speaker 1: his head drooped, his face was slightly convulsed. He gave 425 00:27:50,000 --> 00:27:54,480 Speaker 1: a groan, and instantly fell into profound sleep, the respiration 426 00:27:54,640 --> 00:27:58,360 Speaker 1: becoming slow, deep and sibilant, the right hand and arm 427 00:27:58,480 --> 00:28:02,520 Speaker 1: being agitated by slight convulsive movements. At the end of 428 00:28:02,560 --> 00:28:05,879 Speaker 1: four minutes, I considered it necessary for his safety to 429 00:28:05,920 --> 00:28:09,960 Speaker 1: put an end to the experiment. Braid also conducted this 430 00:28:10,040 --> 00:28:13,600 Speaker 1: experiment on someone that he said had no knowledge of mesmerism, 431 00:28:13,720 --> 00:28:16,639 Speaker 1: didn't know what it was, telling that subject that he 432 00:28:16,720 --> 00:28:20,439 Speaker 1: needed him to carefully watch. Quote a chemical experiment in 433 00:28:20,480 --> 00:28:23,960 Speaker 1: the preparation of some medicine, and then it had the 434 00:28:24,000 --> 00:28:26,800 Speaker 1: same effect noting quote in two minutes and a half, 435 00:28:26,920 --> 00:28:31,080 Speaker 1: his eyelids closed slowly with a vibrating motion. His chin 436 00:28:31,200 --> 00:28:33,879 Speaker 1: fell on his breast. He gave a deep sigh and 437 00:28:34,040 --> 00:28:39,320 Speaker 1: instantly was in a profound sleep, breathing loudly. Having just 438 00:28:39,400 --> 00:28:41,680 Speaker 1: been to an eye doctor appointment where I had to 439 00:28:41,760 --> 00:28:46,400 Speaker 1: like look up with my eyes for a retinal photograph 440 00:28:47,000 --> 00:28:50,680 Speaker 1: for like a few seconds, the idea of maintaining that 441 00:28:51,560 --> 00:28:55,880 Speaker 1: I posture for three minutes sounds awful to me, And 442 00:28:55,960 --> 00:28:58,560 Speaker 1: that is why he thought your body just shut down 443 00:28:58,640 --> 00:29:03,360 Speaker 1: at that point. Yeah. All of this was to disprove 444 00:29:03,440 --> 00:29:08,280 Speaker 1: something that Lafontaine and other mesmerists claimed. They also said 445 00:29:08,280 --> 00:29:11,800 Speaker 1: that the key to mesmerism was a connection that flowed 446 00:29:12,280 --> 00:29:16,360 Speaker 1: between the practitioner and the subject, and often this included 447 00:29:16,400 --> 00:29:21,640 Speaker 1: physical touch. Lafontaine would grasp his subject's thumbs while inducing 448 00:29:21,680 --> 00:29:25,880 Speaker 1: their trance. But, as Braid guessed, there was a scientific 449 00:29:25,920 --> 00:29:28,920 Speaker 1: basis for this that had nothing to do with animal 450 00:29:28,960 --> 00:29:33,520 Speaker 1: magnetism that was associated with Mesmer's work. It didn't require 451 00:29:33,560 --> 00:29:39,080 Speaker 1: this kind of physical connection. Braid was reluctant to outright 452 00:29:39,400 --> 00:29:43,600 Speaker 1: denounce that mesmerizers had some kind of connection going on, 453 00:29:43,640 --> 00:29:47,000 Speaker 1: writing quote, now, I do not consider it fair or 454 00:29:47,040 --> 00:29:50,280 Speaker 1: proper to impugne the statements of others in this matter, 455 00:29:50,360 --> 00:29:53,680 Speaker 1: who are known to be men of talent and observation, 456 00:29:54,360 --> 00:29:58,800 Speaker 1: and of undoubted credit in other matters, merely because I 457 00:29:58,880 --> 00:30:02,960 Speaker 1: have not personally witnessed the phenomena or been able to 458 00:30:03,040 --> 00:30:06,920 Speaker 1: produce them myself, either by my own mode or theirs, 459 00:30:07,760 --> 00:30:10,360 Speaker 1: with my present means of knowledge. I am willing to 460 00:30:10,440 --> 00:30:14,120 Speaker 1: admit that certain phenomena to which I refer have been 461 00:30:14,240 --> 00:30:17,560 Speaker 1: induced by others, but I still think most of them 462 00:30:17,720 --> 00:30:21,760 Speaker 1: may be explained in a different and more natural way 463 00:30:22,280 --> 00:30:26,840 Speaker 1: than that of the mesmerizers. When I shall have personally 464 00:30:26,920 --> 00:30:30,600 Speaker 1: had evidence of the special influence and its effects to 465 00:30:30,640 --> 00:30:34,000 Speaker 1: which they lay claim, I shall not be backward and 466 00:30:34,040 --> 00:30:38,080 Speaker 1: bearing testimony to the fact basically that all amounts to. 467 00:30:38,680 --> 00:30:40,920 Speaker 1: I don't think the mystic part of it is real, 468 00:30:41,280 --> 00:30:44,720 Speaker 1: but if I ever have an experience that convinces me otherwise, 469 00:30:44,840 --> 00:30:50,280 Speaker 1: I'll surely say so. Yeah, he's so kind, he's very magnanimous. 470 00:30:50,280 --> 00:30:53,040 Speaker 1: Like listen, I don't want to trash talk these guys, 471 00:30:53,040 --> 00:30:54,760 Speaker 1: but I really don't think they know what's going on. 472 00:30:56,840 --> 00:31:00,280 Speaker 1: But his other issue with Mesmerism was an issue of 473 00:31:00,280 --> 00:31:04,880 Speaker 1: a subject's consent. Once he had developed his focus method 474 00:31:04,960 --> 00:31:08,920 Speaker 1: of achieving a translate state, he stated that his way 475 00:31:08,960 --> 00:31:12,440 Speaker 1: of doing this was just superior, writing quote mine also 476 00:31:12,520 --> 00:31:15,480 Speaker 1: has this advantage that I am quite certain no one 477 00:31:15,520 --> 00:31:18,920 Speaker 1: can be affected by it in any stage of the process, 478 00:31:19,120 --> 00:31:22,160 Speaker 1: unless by the free will and consent of the patient, 479 00:31:22,560 --> 00:31:25,760 Speaker 1: which is at once sufficient to exonerate the practice from 480 00:31:25,760 --> 00:31:30,280 Speaker 1: the imputations of being capable of being converted to immoral purposes, 481 00:31:30,680 --> 00:31:33,680 Speaker 1: which has been so much insisted on to the prejudice 482 00:31:33,680 --> 00:31:38,680 Speaker 1: of animal magnetism. This has arisen from the mesmerizers asserting 483 00:31:38,720 --> 00:31:44,240 Speaker 1: that they have the power of overmastering patients irresistibly, even 484 00:31:44,280 --> 00:31:48,160 Speaker 1: whilst at a distance, by mere volitions and secret passes. 485 00:31:48,880 --> 00:31:51,680 Speaker 1: And Braid was eager to show that he could achieve 486 00:31:51,800 --> 00:31:55,680 Speaker 1: the same results that la Fontaine had without having any 487 00:31:55,720 --> 00:31:59,280 Speaker 1: contact with the subject, so he gave his own lecture 488 00:31:59,680 --> 00:32:03,920 Speaker 1: on no November twenty seventh, just days after having encountered 489 00:32:04,040 --> 00:32:08,120 Speaker 1: Lafontaine for the first time, to demonstrate he had quickly 490 00:32:08,120 --> 00:32:11,400 Speaker 1: come to the conclusion that the state of being hypnotized, 491 00:32:11,560 --> 00:32:14,600 Speaker 1: although he wasn't using that term yet, was tied to 492 00:32:14,720 --> 00:32:18,480 Speaker 1: an exhaustion of the nervous system. He also believed that 493 00:32:18,600 --> 00:32:23,000 Speaker 1: anyone could hypnotize themselves because he had determined that you 494 00:32:23,080 --> 00:32:26,280 Speaker 1: could not be hypnotized without your own consent. He was 495 00:32:26,320 --> 00:32:29,120 Speaker 1: onto the idea that you can bring yourself out of 496 00:32:29,200 --> 00:32:32,760 Speaker 1: hypnosis if you want to. Yeah. His whole thing is 497 00:32:32,960 --> 00:32:36,040 Speaker 1: you have to have someone willingly concentrate on an object 498 00:32:36,160 --> 00:32:40,560 Speaker 1: so long that it actually like strains their nervous system 499 00:32:40,600 --> 00:32:42,440 Speaker 1: and their connective tissue in a way that puts them 500 00:32:42,480 --> 00:32:45,360 Speaker 1: to sleep. And they can literally look away at any 501 00:32:45,360 --> 00:32:49,600 Speaker 1: time if they want, and if they go into this trance, 502 00:32:49,720 --> 00:32:51,960 Speaker 1: their conscious mind is still in there and can go 503 00:32:52,320 --> 00:32:55,880 Speaker 1: I don't want to be hypnotized anymore, which a lot 504 00:32:55,880 --> 00:33:01,760 Speaker 1: of like modern day institution that study hypnosis will also 505 00:33:01,840 --> 00:33:06,240 Speaker 1: say like hypnosis is a thing you can absolutely opt 506 00:33:06,240 --> 00:33:09,680 Speaker 1: out of at any point in the process. James Braid 507 00:33:09,880 --> 00:33:14,120 Speaker 1: had uncoupled this state of being from mesmerism and magnetism, 508 00:33:14,360 --> 00:33:17,240 Speaker 1: but he still wasn't quite correct in his assessment of 509 00:33:17,280 --> 00:33:20,160 Speaker 1: how it worked. So you'll recall that in his early 510 00:33:20,240 --> 00:33:23,880 Speaker 1: descriptions of his tests using intense focus to achieve this state, 511 00:33:24,280 --> 00:33:27,720 Speaker 1: he mentioned the subject falling asleep, and while he didn't 512 00:33:27,720 --> 00:33:31,280 Speaker 1: think it was the same as being asleep. The use 513 00:33:31,320 --> 00:33:34,120 Speaker 1: of that word has caused him confusion. He did think 514 00:33:34,160 --> 00:33:37,720 Speaker 1: that it was closely related to sleep. His first name 515 00:33:37,760 --> 00:33:41,400 Speaker 1: for it was neuro hypnology or nervous sleep, and his 516 00:33:41,440 --> 00:33:43,920 Speaker 1: first book on the subject, which was written in eighteen 517 00:33:44,000 --> 00:33:47,160 Speaker 1: forty three, went by a shortened version of that word, 518 00:33:47,200 --> 00:33:51,720 Speaker 1: which was neuropnology. It was the full title was Neuropnology, 519 00:33:51,920 --> 00:33:55,160 Speaker 1: or the Rationale of Nervous Sleep Considered in Relation with 520 00:33:55,240 --> 00:34:00,120 Speaker 1: Animal Magnetism. The quotes that we've been reading his writing 521 00:34:00,160 --> 00:34:03,240 Speaker 1: about this whole thing and coming into this knowledge are 522 00:34:03,280 --> 00:34:05,920 Speaker 1: all from that book, and in addition to describing the 523 00:34:05,920 --> 00:34:08,520 Speaker 1: way that he became interested in the subject, he also 524 00:34:08,640 --> 00:34:12,239 Speaker 1: lays out the details of numerous cases in which hypnotism 525 00:34:12,360 --> 00:34:15,480 Speaker 1: was used medically. By the time he published the book, 526 00:34:15,520 --> 00:34:18,680 Speaker 1: he was using the term neuropnology to apply to the 527 00:34:18,719 --> 00:34:21,960 Speaker 1: science as a whole, and then the word hypnotism to 528 00:34:22,120 --> 00:34:27,040 Speaker 1: replace the uses of mesmerism or magnetism. In the representation 529 00:34:27,160 --> 00:34:30,839 Speaker 1: of this more scientific approach, he also included a lot 530 00:34:30,840 --> 00:34:33,600 Speaker 1: of cases of patients who had health improvements through the 531 00:34:33,680 --> 00:34:37,040 Speaker 1: use of hypnosis. So in one example, he writes, quote 532 00:34:37,080 --> 00:34:40,160 Speaker 1: miss E Atkinson had been unable to speak above a 533 00:34:40,160 --> 00:34:44,040 Speaker 1: whisper for four years and a half, notwithstanding every known 534 00:34:44,080 --> 00:34:48,880 Speaker 1: remedy had been perseveringly adopted under able practitioners. After the 535 00:34:49,000 --> 00:34:52,560 Speaker 1: ninth hypnotic operation, she could speak aloud without effort, and 536 00:34:52,640 --> 00:34:56,440 Speaker 1: has continued quite well ever since, now about nine months. 537 00:34:57,239 --> 00:34:59,960 Speaker 1: Another example that he gave was a woman named Miss Collin, 538 00:35:00,239 --> 00:35:02,960 Speaker 1: who had had a seizure and as a consequence, was 539 00:35:03,040 --> 00:35:06,720 Speaker 1: left with quote her head bound firmly to her left shoulder. 540 00:35:07,280 --> 00:35:10,280 Speaker 1: When I first examined her, no force I was capable 541 00:35:10,320 --> 00:35:13,440 Speaker 1: of succeeded in separating the head and shoulder in the 542 00:35:13,480 --> 00:35:17,560 Speaker 1: slightest degree. Experience led me to hope, however, that I 543 00:35:17,640 --> 00:35:20,480 Speaker 1: might be able to do so after she was hypnotized. 544 00:35:21,200 --> 00:35:24,920 Speaker 1: Having requested all present except the patient, her father, and 545 00:35:24,960 --> 00:35:28,640 Speaker 1: her physician to retire, I hypnotized her, and in three 546 00:35:28,680 --> 00:35:32,160 Speaker 1: minutes from commencing the operation, with the most perfect ease 547 00:35:32,239 --> 00:35:34,880 Speaker 1: to myself and without the slightest pain to the patient, 548 00:35:35,280 --> 00:35:38,200 Speaker 1: her head was inclined in the opposite direction, and in 549 00:35:38,239 --> 00:35:41,040 Speaker 1: two minutes more she was roused and was quite straight. 550 00:35:41,920 --> 00:35:46,440 Speaker 1: Miss Collins had he described some additional twitching after this 551 00:35:46,680 --> 00:35:50,200 Speaker 1: initial success, but that her own doctor named Chawner was 552 00:35:50,280 --> 00:35:53,799 Speaker 1: able to use Braid's hypnotism method and rid her of it, 553 00:35:54,320 --> 00:35:56,680 Speaker 1: and as of when Braid wrote the account, she had 554 00:35:56,719 --> 00:36:01,560 Speaker 1: been a year without complaint. It also explains in the 555 00:36:01,600 --> 00:36:05,920 Speaker 1: book why he felt it so necessary to lecture publicly 556 00:36:06,080 --> 00:36:08,920 Speaker 1: on this topic, which is to straighten out all the 557 00:36:08,960 --> 00:36:15,240 Speaker 1: confusion being caused by so much misunderstanding and non scientific practitioners. Quote. 558 00:36:16,040 --> 00:36:18,400 Speaker 1: I felt it to be a duty I owed to 559 00:36:18,520 --> 00:36:21,759 Speaker 1: the cause of humanity and my profession to use my 560 00:36:21,840 --> 00:36:26,520 Speaker 1: best endeavors to remove these fallacies, so that the profession 561 00:36:26,680 --> 00:36:30,160 Speaker 1: generally might be at liberty to prosecute the inquiry and 562 00:36:30,239 --> 00:36:35,120 Speaker 1: apply it practically without hazarding their personal and professional interest. 563 00:36:35,640 --> 00:36:40,560 Speaker 1: By prosecuting it in opposition to popular prejudice, it appeared 564 00:36:40,600 --> 00:36:44,000 Speaker 1: to me there was no mode so likely to ensure 565 00:36:44,080 --> 00:36:48,000 Speaker 1: this happy consummation as delivering lectures on the subject to 566 00:36:48,160 --> 00:36:53,840 Speaker 1: mixed audiences. He also wrote numerous articles, pamphlets, and books 567 00:36:53,840 --> 00:36:56,280 Speaker 1: on the subject to try to help educate the public 568 00:36:56,640 --> 00:37:01,319 Speaker 1: about the science of hypnotism. Is a really valid need 569 00:37:01,360 --> 00:37:04,960 Speaker 1: because a lot of people still did view hypnotism as 570 00:37:05,000 --> 00:37:08,960 Speaker 1: pretty shady per George Fletcher in nineteen twenty nine, quote 571 00:37:09,040 --> 00:37:12,520 Speaker 1: his Manchester career was one of success and distinction, but 572 00:37:12,600 --> 00:37:15,600 Speaker 1: he had little connection with official medicine in the city. 573 00:37:16,440 --> 00:37:20,279 Speaker 1: The fact is that his advocacy of hypnotism, an advocacy 574 00:37:20,280 --> 00:37:23,279 Speaker 1: which strikes one now as having been temperate and reasonable, 575 00:37:23,920 --> 00:37:26,960 Speaker 1: led to his being regarded by his more disciplined brethren 576 00:37:27,080 --> 00:37:30,880 Speaker 1: as something of a charlatan. But Braid continued in his 577 00:37:31,000 --> 00:37:34,840 Speaker 1: work and refined his own understanding of hypnotism over the years. 578 00:37:35,360 --> 00:37:38,720 Speaker 1: He shifted from thinking it was something that was induced 579 00:37:38,920 --> 00:37:42,880 Speaker 1: through a sort of sleep state, so something physiological, to 580 00:37:42,960 --> 00:37:47,040 Speaker 1: it being a psychological phenomenon, and he also continued his 581 00:37:47,160 --> 00:37:51,279 Speaker 1: work as a surgeon throughout his life. James Braid died 582 00:37:51,320 --> 00:37:55,279 Speaker 1: suddenly on March twenty fifth, eighteen sixty. According to a 583 00:37:55,320 --> 00:37:58,879 Speaker 1: newspaper account, Braid quote went to bed on Saturday night 584 00:37:58,960 --> 00:38:01,600 Speaker 1: in his usual good health health, but about nine o'clock 585 00:38:01,680 --> 00:38:04,880 Speaker 1: yesterday morning he observed, I feel great pain at my 586 00:38:05,000 --> 00:38:08,560 Speaker 1: spine and in my back, and I'm very cold. By 587 00:38:08,560 --> 00:38:11,719 Speaker 1: his request, a cup of tea was fetched. He drank it, 588 00:38:11,880 --> 00:38:16,279 Speaker 1: breathed heavily twice or thrice, and died. His death was 589 00:38:16,320 --> 00:38:20,200 Speaker 1: determined to have been of natural causes. Some sources conclude 590 00:38:20,239 --> 00:38:23,120 Speaker 1: that he had a cerebral hemorrhage, but others state that 591 00:38:23,239 --> 00:38:25,640 Speaker 1: Braid died of a heart attack, and since there was 592 00:38:25,680 --> 00:38:29,120 Speaker 1: no autopsy, it's uncertain which is correct, but it happened 593 00:38:29,200 --> 00:38:32,719 Speaker 1: very quickly. Braid was buried at Neston, Cheshire, in the 594 00:38:32,760 --> 00:38:37,239 Speaker 1: parish churchyard. His obituary in The Guardian described a man 595 00:38:37,280 --> 00:38:41,360 Speaker 1: who was much admired and who devoted himself to helping others. Quote. 596 00:38:41,800 --> 00:38:44,680 Speaker 1: Braid had much more than a local reputation, which was 597 00:38:44,800 --> 00:38:48,360 Speaker 1: due not alone to his theory of hypnotism, which some 598 00:38:48,560 --> 00:38:53,680 Speaker 1: years ago he pertinaciously but temperately advocated in opposition to 599 00:38:53,719 --> 00:38:57,560 Speaker 1: that of mesmerism, but very greatly to his special skill 600 00:38:58,000 --> 00:39:01,560 Speaker 1: in dealing with some dangerous and differ occult forms of disease. 601 00:39:02,320 --> 00:39:06,040 Speaker 1: Among his friends, he was ever warm hearted and cheerful, 602 00:39:06,480 --> 00:39:09,920 Speaker 1: and his kindness in devoting his skill for the benefit 603 00:39:10,000 --> 00:39:14,319 Speaker 1: of humble sufferers in cases where money recompenses could not 604 00:39:14,560 --> 00:39:19,040 Speaker 1: be anticipated or where it was declined when tendered, has 605 00:39:19,160 --> 00:39:24,040 Speaker 1: endeared him to large numbers by the strongest feelings of gratitude. 606 00:39:25,480 --> 00:39:27,399 Speaker 1: I mean, that's a pretty good od bit to have. 607 00:39:27,960 --> 00:39:30,480 Speaker 1: He clearly was very loved by his community because he 608 00:39:30,520 --> 00:39:32,239 Speaker 1: did a lot of work in the community. Like it's 609 00:39:32,280 --> 00:39:34,319 Speaker 1: easy to forget in the midst of all the hypnotism, 610 00:39:34,680 --> 00:39:36,080 Speaker 1: and it's one of the reasons I wanted to talk 611 00:39:36,080 --> 00:39:39,720 Speaker 1: about him. It's like he literally was trying to clean 612 00:39:39,800 --> 00:39:42,600 Speaker 1: up like their sewage system and their infrastructure and like 613 00:39:43,040 --> 00:39:45,920 Speaker 1: improve overall quality of life for everybody in the city, 614 00:39:45,960 --> 00:39:48,319 Speaker 1: and like he was pretty great, right, but it all 615 00:39:48,360 --> 00:39:50,360 Speaker 1: kind of gets lost in the hypnotism talk, which is 616 00:39:50,400 --> 00:39:55,280 Speaker 1: also very important. But yeah, I have listener mail that's 617 00:39:55,320 --> 00:39:57,640 Speaker 1: sort of a not really a correction, but like a 618 00:39:57,719 --> 00:40:02,000 Speaker 1: nuanced thing, okay, that I opted to not bring up 619 00:40:02,000 --> 00:40:04,399 Speaker 1: in the course of the thing we talked about. But sure, 620 00:40:04,560 --> 00:40:09,239 Speaker 1: we'll explain now today just the weireness t intro. This 621 00:40:09,400 --> 00:40:12,280 Speaker 1: is from our listener Claudine, who writes, Hello, Ali and Tracy. 622 00:40:12,440 --> 00:40:14,360 Speaker 1: I'm writing to you again from the past, but this 623 00:40:14,440 --> 00:40:17,720 Speaker 1: time I'm only three months behind instead of five. Listen, 624 00:40:17,800 --> 00:40:20,759 Speaker 1: We're never gonna judge. Nope. I listened recently to the 625 00:40:20,800 --> 00:40:24,000 Speaker 1: episode about inventions for pets, and it sounded like maybe 626 00:40:24,080 --> 00:40:26,760 Speaker 1: you haven't learned about the difference between a design patent 627 00:40:26,800 --> 00:40:30,919 Speaker 1: and a utility pattern. Most patents are utility patterns. Meaning 628 00:40:30,920 --> 00:40:33,680 Speaker 1: they grant the patent holder exclusive rights to a machine, 629 00:40:34,000 --> 00:40:36,160 Speaker 1: the way a machine or thing works, or a set 630 00:40:36,160 --> 00:40:39,000 Speaker 1: of steps like the steps performed by a piece of software, 631 00:40:39,239 --> 00:40:41,640 Speaker 1: or and this is not my area, the steps to 632 00:40:41,680 --> 00:40:44,799 Speaker 1: make a pharmaceutical. A design patent, on the other hand, 633 00:40:44,880 --> 00:40:47,400 Speaker 1: is quite the opposite, and that it grants the holder 634 00:40:47,480 --> 00:40:50,560 Speaker 1: exclusive rights to how a thing looks, as long as 635 00:40:50,560 --> 00:40:53,880 Speaker 1: those looks are specifically not functional. You can tell that 636 00:40:53,920 --> 00:40:56,239 Speaker 1: a patent is a design patent if the claims say 637 00:40:56,280 --> 00:40:58,600 Speaker 1: something like just look at the pictures, and if the 638 00:40:58,600 --> 00:41:02,880 Speaker 1: patent number has a D prepended. Design patents are common 639 00:41:02,920 --> 00:41:05,640 Speaker 1: where the thing being patented doesn't do anything new, but 640 00:41:05,640 --> 00:41:07,920 Speaker 1: the look of it was new, and it wasn't obvious 641 00:41:07,960 --> 00:41:11,240 Speaker 1: for the thing to look that way. Apple, the computer company, 642 00:41:11,280 --> 00:41:13,960 Speaker 1: not the fruit, has many design patents on icons, and 643 00:41:14,040 --> 00:41:17,000 Speaker 1: car companies often have design patents on the shape of 644 00:41:17,040 --> 00:41:21,760 Speaker 1: a car think Porsche, or on specific bodywork on a car. Anyway, 645 00:41:21,840 --> 00:41:24,440 Speaker 1: I figured you'd get multiple emails on this topic, but 646 00:41:24,480 --> 00:41:27,680 Speaker 1: I'm several episodes past the pet Invention episode and it 647 00:41:27,760 --> 00:41:31,520 Speaker 1: wasn't mentioned, probably because this topic is way too pedantic 648 00:41:31,600 --> 00:41:34,680 Speaker 1: to be interesting to your listeners. In search shrug emoji. 649 00:41:35,040 --> 00:41:37,360 Speaker 1: On an unrelated note, there have been so many times 650 00:41:37,360 --> 00:41:39,200 Speaker 1: over the past year that I just wanted to give 651 00:41:39,239 --> 00:41:41,319 Speaker 1: you both a hug. I hear you and feel your 652 00:41:41,360 --> 00:41:43,400 Speaker 1: pain every step of the way. Guess I need a 653 00:41:43,480 --> 00:41:46,000 Speaker 1: hug too. Stay strong and carry on. We will get 654 00:41:46,040 --> 00:41:48,960 Speaker 1: through this, Claudine, I love this. I know there is 655 00:41:49,000 --> 00:41:52,680 Speaker 1: a difference between utility and design patents. In that case 656 00:41:53,000 --> 00:41:56,080 Speaker 1: where we were talking about the patents for various dog 657 00:41:56,120 --> 00:41:59,400 Speaker 1: toys and whatnot, even for a design patent, some of 658 00:41:59,400 --> 00:42:04,239 Speaker 1: those seemed to very very brief to me. It's like 659 00:42:04,440 --> 00:42:07,960 Speaker 1: it would literally say in some cases like see appended 660 00:42:08,080 --> 00:42:10,719 Speaker 1: diagram and that was it. I was like, wait, there's 661 00:42:10,760 --> 00:42:13,920 Speaker 1: not even like not even like a little cozy. I 662 00:42:13,960 --> 00:42:16,920 Speaker 1: invented a dog toy or I designed a dog toy, 663 00:42:18,200 --> 00:42:20,080 Speaker 1: but I did not get into it. And I really 664 00:42:20,160 --> 00:42:24,000 Speaker 1: didn't even think about the need or the value in 665 00:42:25,920 --> 00:42:29,480 Speaker 1: explaining the differentation between the two. So thank you for that. Listen, 666 00:42:29,560 --> 00:42:33,680 Speaker 1: I'll send you a virtual hug anytime. Oh yeah, we 667 00:42:33,719 --> 00:42:36,880 Speaker 1: love it. We love it, and I love pedantic things 668 00:42:36,880 --> 00:42:39,920 Speaker 1: when they're related to stuff like this, So rock on, 669 00:42:40,040 --> 00:42:42,239 Speaker 1: bring it on all the time. If you would like 670 00:42:42,320 --> 00:42:45,759 Speaker 1: to write to us, about some thing you have expertise 671 00:42:45,800 --> 00:42:50,920 Speaker 1: in that could clarify or add nuance or extra extra 672 00:42:51,000 --> 00:42:53,319 Speaker 1: layers of understanding to anything we've talked about. Or if 673 00:42:53,320 --> 00:42:55,600 Speaker 1: you just want to send us pictures of your pet, 674 00:42:56,080 --> 00:42:59,239 Speaker 1: you're embroidery, whatever you got going on a tree, I 675 00:42:59,239 --> 00:43:04,080 Speaker 1: don't care it. Bring flowers or bottom leaves. If you're 676 00:43:04,080 --> 00:43:09,080 Speaker 1: in the other hemisphere. Uh yeah, listen, I've been posting 677 00:43:09,160 --> 00:43:11,000 Speaker 1: lots of pictures of the flowers I'm growing in my 678 00:43:11,040 --> 00:43:14,319 Speaker 1: office online lately. You can send those pictures to us 679 00:43:14,640 --> 00:43:23,000 Speaker 1: at History podcast at iHeartRadio dot com. Stuff you Missed 680 00:43:23,000 --> 00:43:26,160 Speaker 1: in History Class is a production of iHeartRadio. For more 681 00:43:26,200 --> 00:43:30,560 Speaker 1: podcasts from iHeartRadio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or 682 00:43:30,600 --> 00:43:32,560 Speaker 1: wherever you listen to your favorite shows.