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Speaker 3: Hey Daniel, I think we've been using too much toilet.

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Speaker 1: Humor you mean all those obvious dark matter jokes we make.

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Speaker 3: Yeah, you know, I'm sure it makes all the nine

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Speaker 3: year old to giggle and the audience. But I don't

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Speaker 3: think we want to undercut our educational message.

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Speaker 1: All right, that's a good point. Let's try that, all right.

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Speaker 3: Well, so what are we talking about today?

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Speaker 1: Today? We're talking about hot gas.

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Speaker 3: Well that didn't last very long. Kai am poorham Mack,

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Speaker 3: cartoonist and the author of Oliver's Great Big Universe.

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Speaker 5: Hi.

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Speaker 1: I'm Daniel. I'm a particle physicist and a professor at

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Speaker 1: UC Irvine, and I'm often full of hot air.

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Speaker 3: Are an all physicists full of hot air?

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Speaker 1: I'm just talking about the weather here in southern California.

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Speaker 1: I don't know what you mean.

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Speaker 3: What do you mean the weather is inside of it?

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Speaker 1: I'm breathing in the atmosphere literally.

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Speaker 3: I guess if you were breathing out cold there, that

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Speaker 3: would be bad news, because we all know physicists aren't

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Speaker 3: very cool.

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Speaker 1: I'm trying to make physics hot, is what I'm doing.

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Speaker 3: But anyways, welcome to our podcast, Daniel and Jorge Explain

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Speaker 3: the Universe, a production of iHeartRadio in which.

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Speaker 1: We try to marinate in all of the wonders and

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Speaker 1: mysteries of the universe. We think that everything that's out

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Speaker 1: there should make sense to you, can make sense to you,

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Speaker 1: will make sense to you if you just think about it,

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Speaker 1: ask enough questions and listen to this podcast long enough.

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Speaker 3: That's why we try to breathe in the universe and

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Speaker 3: breathe it out and think about all of the hot

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Speaker 3: and cold stuff out there in the universe, even the

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Speaker 3: things in toilets.

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Speaker 1: I thought we're avoiding the toilet jokes.

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Speaker 3: Well, that was in the joke. I mean, there is

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Speaker 3: physics in toilets, isn't there.

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Speaker 1: That's true. You once challenged our listeners to record their

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Speaker 1: toilet spinning to see if they flush differently in Australia.

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Speaker 3: Oh did they do it?

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Speaker 1: I haven't gotten any did yet, so we're still waiting

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Speaker 1: for the results of those experiments. But that is toilet science.

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Speaker 3: Yeah, there you go.

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Speaker 1: But in the non toilet realm of the universe, we

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Speaker 1: are very curious about how everything works out there, and

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Speaker 1: more specifically, what's out there and where is it all?

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Speaker 1: Can we figure out what in the end the universe

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Speaker 1: is made out of and where it's all distributed?

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Speaker 3: Yeah, because that is a fundamental human quest to figure

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Speaker 3: out what's going on out there? What is this universe

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Speaker 3: we're in, what's in it? Who else is in it?

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Speaker 3: And what is it made out of?

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Speaker 1: And where have they been dropping all their trash?

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Speaker 5: Wait?

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Speaker 1: What? Well you mentioned who else is in it? Makes

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Speaker 1: it sound like, you know, we're trying to figure out

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Speaker 1: where all their stuff is, Like, did they lose their keys?

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Speaker 1: Where did that box go? This kind of stuff?

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Speaker 3: I was just wondering, you know, so we could say, hi,

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Speaker 3: not find their keys.

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Speaker 1: The first thing we want to do when we talk

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Speaker 1: to the aliens is ask them where they left their stuff.

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Speaker 1: Is this your trash? Did you leave this over here?

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Speaker 1: Please pick that up?

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Speaker 3: Although if they leave their keys to their spaceship line around,

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Speaker 3: I'm not real going to return that one. No one's

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Speaker 3: staying with me.

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Speaker 1: Well, On this podcast, we are often talking about one

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Speaker 1: of the deepest mysteries in modern physics, which is where

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Speaker 1: the dark matter is. We know that most of the

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Speaker 1: stuff in the universe is an invisible kind of matter

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Speaker 1: we've only recently discovered and have very little concrete information

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Speaker 1: about what it is. So we're used to the concept

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Speaker 1: of not understanding everything that's out there in the universe.

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Speaker 1: But it might surprise you to learn that even the

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Speaker 1: kind of stuff that we're used to, the hydrogen, the helium,

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Speaker 1: the kind of matter we're made out of, is still

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Speaker 1: something of a mystery.

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Speaker 3: Wait what so then, how do we know how much

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Speaker 3: of it there is out there?

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Speaker 1: We have a bunch of really clever ways of figuring

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Speaker 1: out how much normal matter there should be out there

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Speaker 1: in the universe, but it's tricky to actually find all

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Speaker 1: of it.

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Speaker 3: I see, we know how much there should be, but

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Speaker 3: we just haven't found it. Is that what you're saying?

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Speaker 1: That's basically it episode done?

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Speaker 3: All right, Well, thanks you for joining us. I can

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Speaker 3: go and do something else now.

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Speaker 1: Well, maybe the aliens have stolen all that missing matter.

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Speaker 3: WHOA, that's a pretty serious allegation. I mean, you're just,

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Speaker 3: you know, I computing the the goodwill of the aliens

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Speaker 3: and their legality.

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Speaker 1: Well, maybe instead of making a big mess, they've been

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Speaker 1: a little bit too aggressive about cleaning up after themselves.

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Speaker 3: Maybe it's the physicist hmmm who stole all the matter

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Speaker 3: on the planet Earth with the wrench.

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Speaker 1: In the end, it's not about understanding the universe. It's

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Speaker 1: about figuring out who to blame for it.

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Speaker 3: Or who do thank for it? Right? Also, right, maybe

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Speaker 3: it's good that we live in this universe. I would

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Speaker 3: think so. But anyways, it is a big question about

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Speaker 3: where all the matter in the universe is that we

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Speaker 3: think should be there, and where it all went. So

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Speaker 3: todayend the podcast, we'll be asking the question where is

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Speaker 3: all the missing matter? I guess this is kind of

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Speaker 3: a surprising question because because I didn't know there was

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Speaker 3: missing matter? Did this happen recently or a long time ago?

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Speaker 1: I mean, you're making it sound like an I. Gota

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Speaker 1: Christie novel, like the Case of the Missing Matter, Like

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Speaker 1: we put all this hydroieden over here and we came

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Speaker 1: back and it was gone.

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Speaker 3: Yeah. Yeah, there was a blackout, the lights went out.

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Speaker 3: There some screams, and suddenly there was a missing matter.

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Speaker 3: We're all trapped on an island with a limited number

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Speaker 3: of suspects.

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Speaker 1: That's right. No, it's been a long standing mystery. It's

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Speaker 1: gotten a little bit less play and a less attention

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Speaker 1: than the grander mystery of dark matter, but it's still

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Speaker 1: a very important question in understanding how galaxies form and

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Speaker 1: how the universe looks. The way that it does and

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Speaker 1: where all this stuff is.

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Speaker 3: Now you're saying that this is actually called, or it's

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Speaker 3: called in physics, the missing baryon problem.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, that's right, because the kind of matter that we

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Speaker 1: are made out of is made of protons and neutrons,

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Speaker 1: and those are things called baryons. A baryon is anything

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Speaker 1: made out of three quarks, and protons and neutrons are

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Speaker 1: made out of three quarks. So the kind of matter

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Speaker 1: that we are made out of, me and you, and

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Speaker 1: stars and galaxies and all the dust, all the visible

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Speaker 1: matter that's out there, we call that baryonic matter. And

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Speaker 1: so scientists have been trying to understand, like, where are

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Speaker 1: all the baryons in the universe? Are there as many

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Speaker 1: as we think there should be, And when they couldn't

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Speaker 1: find them, they call it the missing barrier problem.

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Speaker 3: M sounds very mysterious, and you also kind of make

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Speaker 3: it sound like it's somebody else's problem.

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Speaker 1: Hey, it's all about pre assignment to blame, right.

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Speaker 3: Right, Yeah, Like if you say like, yeah, it's a problem,

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Speaker 3: I think you're basically saying it's somebody else's problem.

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Speaker 1: Mistakes were made, right.

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Speaker 3: That's right? Yeah, things went missing.

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Speaker 1: Grand Funding misallocated.

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Speaker 3: I don't know, so as usual, we were wondering how

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Speaker 3: many people out there knew or know that there is

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Speaker 3: missing baryonic matter out there in the universe.

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Speaker 1: So thanks very much to everybody who participates in this

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Speaker 1: segment of the podcast. We would love to hear your

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Speaker 1: voice among the coors of listeners, so please don't be shy.

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Speaker 1: Write to me too. Questions at Danielandjorge dot com.

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Speaker 3: So think about it for a second. Do you know

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Speaker 3: where the missing baryonic matter in the universe could be?

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Speaker 3: What is the missing baryon problem?

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Speaker 6: I have never heard of the missing baryon problem, but

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Speaker 6: it might be something like the way that we had

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Speaker 6: predicted that the Higgs boson existed and we hadn't experimentally

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Speaker 6: verified it. So maybe there is a baryon, some form

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Speaker 6: of Bearyon particle that we mathematically know must exist, but

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Speaker 6: have it found.

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Speaker 3: I don't know what the missing baryon is, but I

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Speaker 3: hope someone finds it.

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Speaker 7: This is the term I've actually heard of before, if

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Speaker 7: I remember correctly. It has to do with the fact

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Speaker 7: that there is unexplained difference between the matter that existed

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Speaker 7: right after the Big Bang and the matter that exists today.

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Speaker 8: The baryon sounds like some sort of barrier to a atom,

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Speaker 8: So I suppose if it's missing, then it would be

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Speaker 8: some sort of other force that we cannot explain, that

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Speaker 8: it's holding something like an atom together.

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Speaker 3: All right, or interviews here didn't give us a lot

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Speaker 3: of clues.

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Speaker 1: This has not gotten a lot of press compared to

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Speaker 1: dark matter, out of which they've been like dozens and

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Speaker 1: dozens of books written, and it's all sorts of podcasts whatever.

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Speaker 1: It's a famous problem in physics, but the missing baryon

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Speaker 1: problem is sort of like its second cousin that doesn't

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Speaker 1: get top building.

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Speaker 3: It sounds like maybe it's a branding problem, you know,

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Speaker 3: like dark matter. Where's dark matter in the universe? That

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Speaker 3: sounds mysterious and intriguing. Where's the baryonic matter in the universe.

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Speaker 3: It's like, I'm not a fan of Barry.

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Speaker 1: What they should have called it the dark baryons or something.

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Speaker 3: M yeah, or some other name, right, shining matter, super matter.

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Speaker 1: Well, you know, dark means a lot of different things.

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Speaker 1: As you know, dark can mean mysterious, unknown, not yet understood.

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Speaker 1: It can mean literally dark light does not emit light,

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Speaker 1: and it's confusing because there are things out there that

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Speaker 1: are dark and are made of matter, but are not

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Speaker 1: dark matter, right, Like a lump of charcoal is pretty dark,

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Speaker 1: but it's not dark matter.

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Speaker 3: You might think that physicists name things very confusingly.

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Speaker 1: The Missing Physics name committee.

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Speaker 3: So there's a bunch of matter that's missing that we

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Speaker 3: think should be there, but it's missing. That's what we'll

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Speaker 3: be talking about here today. And so let's break it down, Daniel,

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Speaker 3: what is bare matter?

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Speaker 1: So baryonic matter is our kind of matter, hydrogen, helium,

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Speaker 1: All of the elements are built out of baryons, because again,

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Speaker 1: a baryon is a particle made of three quarks number

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Speaker 1: quarks on these little particles that we think are probably fundamental,

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Speaker 1: maybe fundamental, but they interact with the strong nuclear force,

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Speaker 1: and the way they form stable objects is either you

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Speaker 1: get a pair of quarks like quark antiquark that can

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Speaker 1: make a pion, or you can get three of them

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Speaker 1: together to cancel out a red quark, a green cork,

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Speaker 1: and a blue cork, and that gives you a color

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Speaker 1: neutral object like a proton or a neutron that has

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Speaker 1: no overall strong force.

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Speaker 3: Okay, so a baryotic matter is matter made out of

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Speaker 3: quarks basically, right, that's the basic definition of it, like

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Speaker 3: the things that we're made out of, which are protons

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Speaker 3: and neutrons. But it sounds like there are other things

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Speaker 3: besides protons and neutrons you can make out of quarks.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, you can make all kinds of things out of quarks.

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Speaker 1: You can make other hadrons. There's other combinations of quarks

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Speaker 1: that you can use to make other hadrons, Like you

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Speaker 1: could put three strange quarks together other or you can

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Speaker 1: make an up and down in a strange etc. There's

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Speaker 1: lots of different baryons you can make out of three quarks.

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Speaker 1: You can also make combinations out of pairs of quarks.

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Speaker 1: It's a huge zoo of particles made out of quark pairs.

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Speaker 1: The only stable one is the proton. The proton by

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Speaker 1: itself we think will last for a long long time,

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Speaker 1: and the neutron is stable when combined with the proton

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Speaker 1: inside of nucleus. So that's why protons and neutrons are

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Speaker 1: the most common kind of baryon out there.

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Speaker 3: So today we're talking about which kind specifically all of

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Speaker 3: them or mostly protons and neutrons.

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Speaker 1: Mostly protons and neutrons, because that's what we expect the

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Speaker 1: baryons out there to be made out of. If you

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Speaker 1: have other baryons out there, they typically decay down to

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Speaker 1: protons and neutrons. Really, though, we're trying to account for

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Speaker 1: all the quarks. In the end, we don't really care

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Speaker 1: if they're in protons or neutrons, or in helium or

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Speaker 1: in hydrogen. We just want to know how much of

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Speaker 1: our kind of matter, quark based matter, is there, and

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Speaker 1: how much of the other stuff is there, and can

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Speaker 1: we figure out where all the quarks went.

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Speaker 3: So you're saying baryon matter on which kind of matter

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Speaker 3: it settles in.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, that's right. And it's a fascinating situation to be

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Speaker 1: in because we have all these really clever ways of

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Speaker 1: knowing how many quarks there should be in the universe.

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Speaker 1: That seems sort of crazy, like, how could you possibly

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Speaker 1: have an idea of how many quarks they're on the universe?

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Speaker 1: They're here, they're there, they're everywhere. How could you possibly

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Speaker 1: count them?

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Speaker 3: Well, I mean that's kind of basically what you're asking,

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Speaker 3: right is you're asking where are all the quarks in

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Speaker 3: the universe?

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Speaker 1: Right exactly? We are asking that, But we're asking in

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Speaker 1: two ways. One way is using information from the very

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Speaker 1: early universe, which tells us how many quarks there should be,

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Speaker 1: and then another way is more direct, is going out

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Speaker 1: there and actually looking for them and saying, can we

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Speaker 1: find all the quarks that our early universe theories predict

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Speaker 1: are out there? And that's where the discrepancy comes from.

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Speaker 8: HM.

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Speaker 3: So I think you're saying that we could have just

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Speaker 3: titled the episode where are all the Missing quarks?

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Speaker 1: Yeah? Where are all the missing quarks? Exactly? But in

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Speaker 1: physics it's called the missing baryon problem, and it makes

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Speaker 1: up the kind kind of matter that we're familiar with. Right,

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Speaker 1: we think that dark matter is not made of quarks,

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Speaker 1: that's made of something else entirely. So this little sliver

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Speaker 1: of the universe that we think is about five percent

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Speaker 1: of all the energy density of the universe baryonic matter

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Speaker 1: stuff made out of quarks. That's the thing we're still

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Speaker 1: trying to understand after all these years.

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Speaker 3: Is there an important distinction between asking where all the

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Speaker 3: baryonic matter is and asking where all the quarks are? Like,

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Speaker 3: are there quarks that are not in baryonic matter? Or

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Speaker 3: is it all the same term?

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Speaker 1: There are no quarks that are not in some kind

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Speaker 1: of particle because quarks can't be by themselves, so they

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Speaker 1: always form either masons, which are quark quark pairs, or baryons,

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Speaker 1: which are triplets of quarks. Baryonic matter technically probably also

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Speaker 1: includes the electrons. So if you have, for example, a

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Speaker 1: hydrogen atom that's a proton and an electron, that you

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Speaker 1: could call baryonic matter because it's based on the baryon

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Speaker 1: the proton, that technically includes the electron. So baryonic matter

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Speaker 1: is probably more accurate description because it includes the electrons. Also,

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Speaker 1: they bind with the protons.

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Speaker 3: Wait, so there's electrons missing too well.

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Speaker 1: Electrons are part of the five percent of the universe

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Speaker 1: made out of normal matter, basically quarks and leptons.

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Speaker 3: Okay, so then there's a certain amount of quarks and

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Speaker 3: electrons in the universe that we think should be there.

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Speaker 3: And you're saying, we have an idea of how much

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Speaker 3: there should be there based on our measurements of the

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Speaker 3: origin of the universe.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, we have all these really clever ways of looking

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Speaker 1: at details from their early universe and using that to

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Speaker 1: figure out essentially how many quarks there should be today.

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Speaker 1: In order to build stuff up. We should be able

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Speaker 1: to predict how much hydrogen and how much helium and

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Speaker 1: all sorts of stuff there are from our pictures of

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Speaker 1: the early universe. And there's two totally separate ways to

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Speaker 1: predict how much baryonic matter there should be left over today.

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Speaker 1: One of them comes from the cosmic microwave background radiation,

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Speaker 1: this very early light from about three hundred and eighty

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Speaker 1: thousand years after the Big Bang, and another comes from

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Speaker 1: the ratio of the elements. How much hydrogen, how much helium,

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Speaker 1: how much detorium there is in the universe. Both of

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Speaker 1: those are very sensitive to the quark density in the

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Speaker 1: early universe, and so can tell us how many quarks

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Speaker 1: there should be.

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Speaker 3: Meaning like, we maybe start with a guess and see

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Speaker 3: if that makes the universe make sense as we see

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Speaker 3: it today, and then you adjust that until you get

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Speaker 3: an amount that do you think makes what we see

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Speaker 3: in the cosmic microwave background and in the amount of

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Speaker 3: stuff we see makes sense.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, I don't know that we have to start with

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Speaker 1: a guess. It's more like there's information in the cosmic

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Speaker 1: microwave background radiation that tells us exactly how many baryons

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Speaker 1: there should be. And also by measuring the ratios of

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Speaker 1: the elements how much hydrogen, how much helium, we can

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Speaker 1: use that to make a calculation of how many baryons

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Speaker 1: there should be, so we don't have to guess. We

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Speaker 1: can just like extract it directly from these measurements.

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Speaker 3: Well, maybe break it down for people. How does the

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Speaker 3: ratio of hydrogen and helium tells how many quarts the

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Speaker 3: universe started with?

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Speaker 1: So in the very early universe, things were super duper

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Speaker 1: dense and hot, right, the basic story of the universe

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Speaker 1: is things were very very hot and dense. We don't

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Speaker 1: know how we got to that state, that's sort of

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Speaker 1: big question mark, but we're very certain that things were

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Speaker 1: very hot and dense and very compressed. And then the

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Speaker 1: universe expanded, and as it expands, it cools. So you

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Speaker 1: start out with like crazy high energy, and then things

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Speaker 1: cool further and those quarks form protons and neutrons, et cetera.

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Speaker 1: And then as things cool even further, those protons and

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Speaker 1: neutrons start to form bonds, so you make, for example, deuterium,

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Speaker 1: which is a combination of protons and neutrons. The deuterium

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Speaker 1: can then fuse into helium. So what's happening is the

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Speaker 1: universe is cooling and things are sort of like settling

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Speaker 1: into place. You're like baking bits and pieces of the universe.

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Speaker 1: After about twenty minutes, things are then too cold to

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Speaker 1: make any more helium or make any more deuterium, so

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Speaker 1: you sort of ran out of time to make deterium.

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Speaker 1: So in the very early universe you had this little

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Speaker 1: window to make deterium and to make helium, and the

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Speaker 1: rest of everything is just hydrogen. And the amount of

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Speaker 1: deuterium and helium you get depends very very sensitively on

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Speaker 1: the density of quarks. Like you have more quarks floating

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Speaker 1: around in that window, you get more deterium. You have

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Speaker 1: fewer quarks, you get less deterium. So if you measure

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Speaker 1: the hydrogen deterium helium ratios, now you can tell the

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Speaker 1: quark density back in that first little window in the

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Speaker 1: first twenty minutes of the universe.

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Speaker 3: And how do you measure that ratio right now? Like

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Speaker 3: we can we go out there into space and gather

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Speaker 3: hydrogen and helium. How do we determine it?

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Speaker 1: Yeah, you can actually just fill up a glass of

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Speaker 1: water from your tap, because one out of like every

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Speaker 1: six thousand atoms of hydrogen is actually an isotope of

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Speaker 1: hydrogen called deuterium, has a little neutron stuck to it,

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Speaker 1: and that deuterium is pretty stable. So the amount we

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Speaker 1: made back then is still the amount we make now.

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Speaker 1: There's like basically no other natural significant sources of deuterium,

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Speaker 1: So the universe is kind of like locked into this

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Speaker 1: deterium ratio. When you fill a glass of water at

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Speaker 1: the tap, one out of six thousand atoms of those

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Speaker 1: waters has a hydrogen in it that's actually deuterium. How

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Speaker 1: do you measure that? You can just put it through

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Speaker 1: like a mass spectrometer to measure the weight of the atoms,

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Speaker 1: and you'll see this little peak of some water that's

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Speaker 1: a little heavier.

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Speaker 3: But how do I know that's just not the water

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Speaker 3: in my town that has that level of deuterium, or

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Speaker 3: even like in our solar system or even galactic neighborhood.

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Speaker 3: How do you do you extrapolate my tap water to

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Speaker 3: the entire universe?

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Speaker 1: You're right, you've unraveled this entire science. No, we obviously

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Speaker 1: don't just base it on the top water in your

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Speaker 1: house or anybody else's house. We make measurements all over

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Speaker 1: the place. We can make measurements in the rest of

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Speaker 1: the Solar system by looking at like vibrational modes, because

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Speaker 1: deuterium has slightly different energy levels than normal hydrogen, So

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Speaker 1: you can see evidence for this all over the universe.

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Speaker 1: And so we see a pretty well known mixture of

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Speaker 1: deuterium inside hydrogen.

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Speaker 3: All right, So then that tells us how much quark

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Speaker 3: matter there should be in the universe, and how much

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Speaker 3: is that amount?

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Speaker 1: That's about five percent of the energy density of the universe,

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Speaker 1: And this is a number that's easy to misunderstand. What

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Speaker 1: we mean by that is like, take a big chunk

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Speaker 1: of the universe, like a cubic light year, and out

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Speaker 1: of all the energy inside of it, all the photons,

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Speaker 1: all the dark matter, all the normal matter, all the

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Speaker 1: dark energy, all of that stuff, and the normal matter

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Speaker 1: should account for five percent of the energy density of

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Speaker 1: that chunk. So we're not saying anything about the size

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Speaker 1: of the universe or the total number. We're just saying, like,

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Speaker 1: what's the ratio five percent of all the energy in

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Speaker 1: any given chunk of space should be due to buryonic matter.

439
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Speaker 3: According to what we know of the Big Bang and

440
00:20:21,359 --> 00:20:25,080
Speaker 3: the cosmic microwave background. But it seems that some of

441
00:20:25,119 --> 00:20:28,480
Speaker 3: that matter is missing. Somebody took it or destroyed it,

442
00:20:28,640 --> 00:20:31,680
Speaker 3: or I don't know hat it. And so let's get

443
00:20:31,720 --> 00:20:35,159
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444
00:20:35,280 --> 00:20:37,879
Speaker 3: in more detail. But first let's take a quick break.

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Speaker 3: All right, we're talking about some missing matter in the universe.

514
00:24:22,440 --> 00:24:25,840
Speaker 3: There's a certain amount of quark matter in the universe

515
00:24:25,840 --> 00:24:28,480
Speaker 3: that we think should be there. Pricimately five percent of

516
00:24:28,520 --> 00:24:31,200
Speaker 3: the energy and matter in the universe should be quark matter.

517
00:24:31,320 --> 00:24:33,840
Speaker 3: But Daniel, it sounds like that's not what we're seeing.

518
00:24:33,960 --> 00:24:36,160
Speaker 1: Yeah, that's right. We have not yet figured out where

519
00:24:36,240 --> 00:24:38,760
Speaker 1: that five percent of matter is. And if you're skeptical

520
00:24:38,800 --> 00:24:41,680
Speaker 1: about that five percent calculation, know that we have other

521
00:24:41,720 --> 00:24:44,719
Speaker 1: ways to calculate this number that are totally independent. Right.

522
00:24:44,720 --> 00:24:47,000
Speaker 1: The description we gave you about the deterium fraction of

523
00:24:47,040 --> 00:24:51,280
Speaker 1: the universe, that's called Big Bang nucleosynthesis. It's understanding how

524
00:24:51,359 --> 00:24:54,200
Speaker 1: much of various elements were made in the very early universe.

525
00:24:54,320 --> 00:24:57,399
Speaker 1: We have other measurements from the cosmic microwave background radiation

526
00:24:57,560 --> 00:24:59,520
Speaker 1: which come from much later in the universe, like three

527
00:24:59,640 --> 00:25:05,000
Speaker 1: hundred eighty thousand years, that are completely independent, totally separate measurements. There,

528
00:25:05,040 --> 00:25:08,439
Speaker 1: we see the early universe plasma sloshing around in a

529
00:25:08,440 --> 00:25:11,040
Speaker 1: way that's sensitive to the number of baryons and the

530
00:25:11,080 --> 00:25:13,439
Speaker 1: amount of dark matter and the number of photons. And

531
00:25:13,480 --> 00:25:16,480
Speaker 1: that's a very very precise measurement, much more precise even

532
00:25:16,520 --> 00:25:19,800
Speaker 1: than the Big Bang nucleosynthesis. And it agrees it's about

533
00:25:19,840 --> 00:25:22,919
Speaker 1: five percent of the energy density should be baryons.

534
00:25:23,680 --> 00:25:26,399
Speaker 3: But I wonder are they really that independent. I mean,

535
00:25:26,440 --> 00:25:29,360
Speaker 3: don't they both depend on our model of the universe

536
00:25:29,400 --> 00:25:31,560
Speaker 3: and or at least our model of the Big Bang?

537
00:25:31,640 --> 00:25:33,760
Speaker 1: Absolutely? Yeah, there are a lot of assumptions in common,

538
00:25:34,000 --> 00:25:37,040
Speaker 1: but there are independent measurements, Like they have different sources.

539
00:25:37,080 --> 00:25:39,800
Speaker 1: You know, one is measuring the fraction of deterium in

540
00:25:39,840 --> 00:25:42,080
Speaker 1: the universe. The other one is like looking at these

541
00:25:42,280 --> 00:25:45,720
Speaker 1: very cold photons in the night sky. They also come

542
00:25:45,800 --> 00:25:48,320
Speaker 1: from a different age in the universe. So they're absolutely

543
00:25:48,320 --> 00:25:51,800
Speaker 1: they're not completely independent, but they're very useful cross checks. Right.

544
00:25:52,040 --> 00:25:54,560
Speaker 1: We would be surprised and confused if those two numbers

545
00:25:54,600 --> 00:25:55,880
Speaker 1: didn't agree with each other.

546
00:25:56,080 --> 00:25:58,399
Speaker 3: Right, all right, So then those measurements are telling us

547
00:25:58,440 --> 00:26:01,240
Speaker 3: there's missing matter. How much quark matter in the universe

548
00:26:01,359 --> 00:26:05,280
Speaker 3: is missing, So like most of it percent percent of

549
00:26:05,280 --> 00:26:06,520
Speaker 3: the universe is missing.

550
00:26:07,400 --> 00:26:09,840
Speaker 1: More like eighty percent of the universe. If you look

551
00:26:09,880 --> 00:26:11,960
Speaker 1: around for quark matter, you can find loss of it. Right,

552
00:26:12,000 --> 00:26:15,000
Speaker 1: Like I'm made of cork matter. You're made of cork matter, right,

553
00:26:15,200 --> 00:26:17,320
Speaker 1: Your lunch is made of cork matter. The Earth, the

554
00:26:17,480 --> 00:26:19,920
Speaker 1: Sun is made out of quark matter. All this stuff

555
00:26:19,960 --> 00:26:22,800
Speaker 1: is pretty easy. Add up all the galaxies and the

556
00:26:22,840 --> 00:26:26,080
Speaker 1: stars and the gas that glows in the universe, and

557
00:26:26,119 --> 00:26:28,280
Speaker 1: then add the harder bits. Right, some of the stuff

558
00:26:28,280 --> 00:26:29,760
Speaker 1: that's out there in the universe, Like we were talking

559
00:26:29,760 --> 00:26:33,119
Speaker 1: about earlier is matter that is dark, but it's not

560
00:26:33,280 --> 00:26:36,960
Speaker 1: dark matter. You know, things like black holes or things

561
00:26:37,000 --> 00:26:40,160
Speaker 1: like big massive planets that are not glowing. These things

562
00:26:40,200 --> 00:26:43,600
Speaker 1: are harder to spot and harder to account for. But

563
00:26:43,640 --> 00:26:45,439
Speaker 1: people have done a sort of census of all of

564
00:26:45,480 --> 00:26:48,280
Speaker 1: this stuff. Where is all the stuff that we know about,

565
00:26:48,640 --> 00:26:50,800
Speaker 1: how much is there? And how does it add up?

566
00:26:50,840 --> 00:26:53,680
Speaker 1: And together it comes to, you know, about fifteen twenty

567
00:26:53,800 --> 00:26:55,120
Speaker 1: percent of what we.

568
00:26:55,080 --> 00:26:58,080
Speaker 3: Expect, fifteen to twenty percent of the five percent that

569
00:26:58,160 --> 00:26:59,000
Speaker 3: we think should be there.

570
00:26:59,320 --> 00:27:01,840
Speaker 1: Hm, exactly. So most of the buryonic matter in the

571
00:27:01,880 --> 00:27:04,760
Speaker 1: universe is not in the stars and in the galaxies

572
00:27:04,880 --> 00:27:07,440
Speaker 1: and in the gas or in black holes or in planets,

573
00:27:07,800 --> 00:27:10,000
Speaker 1: or we think in big chunks of rock floating out

574
00:27:10,000 --> 00:27:12,440
Speaker 1: there in the universe. And again we're not talking about

575
00:27:12,520 --> 00:27:14,600
Speaker 1: dark matter, right. We know dark matter is out there,

576
00:27:14,640 --> 00:27:17,280
Speaker 1: and it's another mysterious thing. We're just talking about the

577
00:27:17,320 --> 00:27:20,040
Speaker 1: missing quarks. We just can't find as many quarks as

578
00:27:20,080 --> 00:27:20,680
Speaker 1: we expect.

579
00:27:22,240 --> 00:27:24,119
Speaker 3: I wonder if then you just need to lure your

580
00:27:24,119 --> 00:27:29,840
Speaker 3: expectations Daniels, Like, maybe your expectation is wrong. Maybe that's

581
00:27:29,880 --> 00:27:30,600
Speaker 3: the real problem.

582
00:27:30,960 --> 00:27:34,199
Speaker 1: Yeah, but we have these two fairly independent measurements that

583
00:27:34,280 --> 00:27:37,080
Speaker 1: tell us that the universe should be five percent. And

584
00:27:37,119 --> 00:27:39,520
Speaker 1: this all fits in very nicely with our model of

585
00:27:39,520 --> 00:27:42,600
Speaker 1: the universe, how it expands and how structure has formed.

586
00:27:43,240 --> 00:27:45,879
Speaker 1: We have all these ideas for how the universe comes

587
00:27:45,880 --> 00:27:48,679
Speaker 1: together from the hot gas to forming these very cold

588
00:27:48,720 --> 00:27:51,800
Speaker 1: galaxies later on, and all these things are very sensitive

589
00:27:51,800 --> 00:27:55,280
Speaker 1: to the dark energy, dark matter, and normal matter fraction

590
00:27:55,480 --> 00:27:58,199
Speaker 1: of the universe. So it's the number we feel pretty

591
00:27:58,200 --> 00:28:01,520
Speaker 1: confident in five percent, and it gives us enough confidence

592
00:28:01,520 --> 00:28:03,160
Speaker 1: that we want to like go out there and look

593
00:28:03,200 --> 00:28:05,800
Speaker 1: for these missing burials. We're pretty sure they exist, we

594
00:28:05,920 --> 00:28:07,160
Speaker 1: just hadn't seen them yet.

595
00:28:07,880 --> 00:28:09,560
Speaker 3: Well, well, just so you know, that is an option

596
00:28:09,600 --> 00:28:12,800
Speaker 3: in life. You can just lower your expectations and then

597
00:28:12,840 --> 00:28:13,639
Speaker 3: you can take a vacation.

598
00:28:13,800 --> 00:28:15,560
Speaker 1: Well, I want to encourage all of our listeners in

599
00:28:15,600 --> 00:28:18,880
Speaker 1: the opposite direction to keep pushing forward until your questions

600
00:28:18,920 --> 00:28:20,280
Speaker 1: are answered. Don't give up.

601
00:28:20,320 --> 00:28:22,240
Speaker 3: All right, Well, let's keep going then. So, there is

602
00:28:22,400 --> 00:28:24,760
Speaker 3: a certain amount of quark matter in the universe we

603
00:28:24,760 --> 00:28:27,640
Speaker 3: think should be there, but we can't seem to account

604
00:28:27,640 --> 00:28:29,560
Speaker 3: for it like we do some accounting of what we

605
00:28:29,600 --> 00:28:31,720
Speaker 3: can see and what we think is there, and it's

606
00:28:31,760 --> 00:28:33,800
Speaker 3: not enough, so where could it be and how are

607
00:28:33,800 --> 00:28:34,399
Speaker 3: we going to find it?

608
00:28:34,480 --> 00:28:37,920
Speaker 1: So one obvious place to look is between the galaxies.

609
00:28:38,480 --> 00:28:40,959
Speaker 1: Like we know there's a lot of quark matter in galaxies.

610
00:28:41,000 --> 00:28:43,360
Speaker 1: We can see it, this gas, this dust, is stars,

611
00:28:43,440 --> 00:28:45,360
Speaker 1: is all that stuff. But we also know that there

612
00:28:45,400 --> 00:28:48,280
Speaker 1: should be a lot of matter between the galaxies, that

613
00:28:48,320 --> 00:28:51,520
Speaker 1: there should be these huge filaments of gas and dark

614
00:28:51,600 --> 00:28:54,840
Speaker 1: matter as well between the galaxies. Because remember, the universe

615
00:28:54,920 --> 00:28:57,280
Speaker 1: is not just like all these little dots of stars

616
00:28:57,320 --> 00:29:00,600
Speaker 1: and dots of galaxies. It's more like a big cosmic

617
00:29:00,680 --> 00:29:04,320
Speaker 1: web because as the universe cooled down, it was this hot,

618
00:29:04,360 --> 00:29:07,880
Speaker 1: dense plasma, you know, these little dense spots that gather

619
00:29:08,000 --> 00:29:11,360
Speaker 1: together more stuff. The universe is expanding, and then those

620
00:29:11,400 --> 00:29:14,640
Speaker 1: dense spots see the formation of structure, right, they see

621
00:29:14,720 --> 00:29:18,000
Speaker 1: those galaxies, but they don't become isolated. You still have

622
00:29:18,040 --> 00:29:20,840
Speaker 1: these strands between them. And so the place to look,

623
00:29:20,880 --> 00:29:23,800
Speaker 1: the place that our simulations predict there should be a

624
00:29:23,880 --> 00:29:26,320
Speaker 1: lot of quark matter that's sort of hard to spot

625
00:29:26,480 --> 00:29:27,400
Speaker 1: is between the.

626
00:29:27,320 --> 00:29:31,760
Speaker 3: Galaxies because they can't be in the galaxies. Because you

627
00:29:31,800 --> 00:29:33,800
Speaker 3: think you can see everything in a galaxy.

628
00:29:33,960 --> 00:29:36,040
Speaker 1: We think we know how much matter there is in

629
00:29:36,080 --> 00:29:39,080
Speaker 1: a galaxy. Yeah, we can see all the luminous stuff

630
00:29:39,080 --> 00:29:42,080
Speaker 1: that's there, all the gas and all the stars and

631
00:29:42,120 --> 00:29:44,440
Speaker 1: the dark matter, and the motion of those stars tells

632
00:29:44,480 --> 00:29:48,760
Speaker 1: us a lot about the gravitational profile of the galaxy. Remember,

633
00:29:48,800 --> 00:29:52,240
Speaker 1: as the galaxy spins, we can tell how much gravitational

634
00:29:52,280 --> 00:29:54,400
Speaker 1: force there is on those stars by looking at the

635
00:29:54,480 --> 00:29:57,680
Speaker 1: rotation velocity of the stars. That's how we deduce the

636
00:29:57,760 --> 00:30:00,680
Speaker 1: existence of dark matter in the first place. We're pretty

637
00:30:00,680 --> 00:30:04,200
Speaker 1: sure we understand the density profiles of galaxies, which is

638
00:30:04,200 --> 00:30:06,600
Speaker 1: why outside of galaxies is a good target.

639
00:30:06,760 --> 00:30:08,840
Speaker 3: So you're saying that maybe eighty to eighty five percent

640
00:30:08,880 --> 00:30:11,240
Speaker 3: of the missing quark matter in the universe might be

641
00:30:11,480 --> 00:30:15,520
Speaker 3: in between galaxies where we can't see them or what.

642
00:30:15,800 --> 00:30:18,080
Speaker 1: Yeah, that's exactly right. Most of the quarks in the

643
00:30:18,160 --> 00:30:22,000
Speaker 1: universe are not in galaxies like you might imagine that.

644
00:30:22,080 --> 00:30:24,200
Speaker 1: You know, matter forms in the Big Bang and then

645
00:30:24,240 --> 00:30:27,120
Speaker 1: things cool and clump together and form galaxies, and that's

646
00:30:27,160 --> 00:30:28,960
Speaker 1: part of the story. But it turns out it's not

647
00:30:29,240 --> 00:30:32,880
Speaker 1: most of the story. That this galaxy formation process is

648
00:30:33,000 --> 00:30:35,280
Speaker 1: kind of inefficient, that most of the normal matter in

649
00:30:35,320 --> 00:30:38,520
Speaker 1: the universe didn't participate it, or hasn't.

650
00:30:38,240 --> 00:30:42,560
Speaker 3: Yet because I guess the stuff that does clump together

651
00:30:42,800 --> 00:30:45,680
Speaker 3: is kind of the fancy stuff that everyone pays attention to, right,

652
00:30:45,760 --> 00:30:47,000
Speaker 3: the stars and the planets.

653
00:30:47,360 --> 00:30:49,480
Speaker 1: Yeah, it's got the most glitter and glam.

654
00:30:50,440 --> 00:30:52,720
Speaker 3: Right, So then now is that confirmed? Like if you

655
00:30:52,880 --> 00:30:55,320
Speaker 3: look for things in between galaxies, do you find all

656
00:30:55,320 --> 00:30:56,520
Speaker 3: of this missing quark matter?

657
00:30:56,720 --> 00:30:59,000
Speaker 1: So there's several steps here. The first thing is to

658
00:30:59,000 --> 00:31:02,320
Speaker 1: look for hydrogen, so like, are there huge amounts of

659
00:31:02,400 --> 00:31:05,880
Speaker 1: hydrogen between the galaxies? And you can imagine the galaxies

660
00:31:05,920 --> 00:31:08,360
Speaker 1: is sort of like in these gravitational wells, you have

661
00:31:08,360 --> 00:31:11,120
Speaker 1: a blob of dark batter which has gathered together the

662
00:31:11,160 --> 00:31:13,719
Speaker 1: normal matter to form stars and galaxies. And you can

663
00:31:13,760 --> 00:31:17,240
Speaker 1: think about like gravitational filaments like feeding into these wells,

664
00:31:17,240 --> 00:31:20,080
Speaker 1: sort of the way rivers feed into a lake, and

665
00:31:20,160 --> 00:31:23,560
Speaker 1: gas flowing into these galaxies. And we know that gas

666
00:31:23,600 --> 00:31:25,640
Speaker 1: is flowing into these galaxies. We can see like the

667
00:31:25,680 --> 00:31:28,840
Speaker 1: impact of gas flowing into these galaxies. Sometimes it even

668
00:31:28,840 --> 00:31:32,040
Speaker 1: affects star formation in those galaxies. But this gas can

669
00:31:32,080 --> 00:31:34,840
Speaker 1: be tricky to see because it's very very dilute. Remember

670
00:31:34,840 --> 00:31:39,520
Speaker 1: the huge space between galaxies millions and millions of light years,

671
00:31:39,960 --> 00:31:42,360
Speaker 1: and so seeing these things is tricky. One way that

672
00:31:42,400 --> 00:31:44,720
Speaker 1: we have seen them though, is using quasars.

673
00:31:45,120 --> 00:31:47,240
Speaker 3: What do you mean, how do those help us see

674
00:31:47,440 --> 00:31:49,440
Speaker 3: the hydrogen between galaxies?

675
00:31:49,480 --> 00:31:51,640
Speaker 1: They basically light it up for us in this really

676
00:31:51,640 --> 00:31:54,720
Speaker 1: cool way. Remember, a quasar is like a black hole

677
00:31:54,840 --> 00:31:57,479
Speaker 1: at the center of a galaxy that's actively feeding. It's

678
00:31:57,520 --> 00:32:00,240
Speaker 1: like gobbling up a lot of stuff and emitting a

679
00:32:00,360 --> 00:32:03,400
Speaker 1: huge amount of radiation. Now it's confusing for people sometimes

680
00:32:03,440 --> 00:32:05,239
Speaker 1: when you say a black hole is emitting a lot

681
00:32:05,280 --> 00:32:08,400
Speaker 1: of radiation. The black hole itself is not emitting the radiation.

682
00:32:08,520 --> 00:32:11,480
Speaker 1: But if there's a very intense disk of matter near

683
00:32:11,560 --> 00:32:13,880
Speaker 1: the black hole, it's going to be very hot because

684
00:32:13,880 --> 00:32:16,760
Speaker 1: of all the gravitational tidal forces glowing, and a lot

685
00:32:16,760 --> 00:32:18,960
Speaker 1: of that radiation gets funneled up because of the magnetic

686
00:32:19,040 --> 00:32:21,960
Speaker 1: field of the black hole, and you get these extraordinarily

687
00:32:22,000 --> 00:32:24,880
Speaker 1: powerful beams of light that sort of like pencil raised

688
00:32:24,920 --> 00:32:28,000
Speaker 1: through the universe. Some of them hit the Earth. So

689
00:32:28,080 --> 00:32:30,560
Speaker 1: if there's this very powerful beam of light that passes

690
00:32:30,560 --> 00:32:32,560
Speaker 1: all the way through the universe, it's also going to

691
00:32:32,600 --> 00:32:35,040
Speaker 1: pass through some of these filaments of gas, and when

692
00:32:35,080 --> 00:32:38,160
Speaker 1: it does so, it changes the spectrum of light because

693
00:32:38,160 --> 00:32:40,480
Speaker 1: that gas likes to absorb some light, So if there's

694
00:32:40,560 --> 00:32:42,920
Speaker 1: hydrogen there, it's going to absorb the light that likes

695
00:32:42,960 --> 00:32:46,520
Speaker 1: to interact with hydrogen, it's sort of deleted from the spectrum.

696
00:32:46,760 --> 00:32:49,840
Speaker 1: So by looking at the spectrum of light from these quasars,

697
00:32:50,080 --> 00:32:52,840
Speaker 1: we can tell how much hydrogen there is between us

698
00:32:53,120 --> 00:32:54,280
Speaker 1: and the source of the light.

699
00:32:54,560 --> 00:32:57,080
Speaker 3: You mean, like all of this quark matter that's floating

700
00:32:57,080 --> 00:32:59,720
Speaker 3: out there between galaxies X kind of like a filter.

701
00:33:00,280 --> 00:33:02,880
Speaker 3: So you have something bright like a quasar is shining

702
00:33:03,080 --> 00:33:06,160
Speaker 3: just directly at us and it filters through this gas.

703
00:33:06,240 --> 00:33:08,000
Speaker 3: You can sort of tell how much of the gas

704
00:33:08,000 --> 00:33:09,120
Speaker 3: there is exactly.

705
00:33:09,200 --> 00:33:12,160
Speaker 1: And it's even more detailed and powerful than that, because

706
00:33:12,160 --> 00:33:15,680
Speaker 1: the hydrogen between us and this distant quasar is all

707
00:33:15,680 --> 00:33:18,240
Speaker 1: going to be moving at different velocities relative to us,

708
00:33:18,560 --> 00:33:20,760
Speaker 1: Like the further away it is, the faster it's going

709
00:33:20,840 --> 00:33:22,240
Speaker 1: to be moving away from us, it's going to be

710
00:33:22,240 --> 00:33:25,479
Speaker 1: red shifted, and that actually changes the frequency of light

711
00:33:25,560 --> 00:33:28,240
Speaker 1: that it interacts with. And so if you look at

712
00:33:28,240 --> 00:33:30,600
Speaker 1: the spectrum of life from a quasar, you don't just

713
00:33:30,640 --> 00:33:32,959
Speaker 1: see one dip that tells you how much hydrogen there is.

714
00:33:33,200 --> 00:33:35,280
Speaker 1: You see a lot of dips. You see a forest

715
00:33:35,480 --> 00:33:39,400
Speaker 1: of these dips, each one corresponding to absorption of hydrogen

716
00:33:39,440 --> 00:33:42,480
Speaker 1: at a different red shift. And so not only does

717
00:33:42,560 --> 00:33:44,640
Speaker 1: it tell you how much hydrogen there is between you

718
00:33:44,680 --> 00:33:47,120
Speaker 1: and the quasar, it's like a one D map that

719
00:33:47,200 --> 00:33:50,560
Speaker 1: tells you where that hydrogen was between you and the quasar.

720
00:33:50,680 --> 00:33:52,320
Speaker 1: You can use these quasars to sort of like X

721
00:33:52,400 --> 00:33:55,360
Speaker 1: ray the universe and tell you where the hydrogen is.

722
00:33:55,600 --> 00:33:58,480
Speaker 3: WHOA, but how often do we get signals like this?

723
00:33:58,560 --> 00:34:00,800
Speaker 3: How many quasars are pointing directly at.

724
00:34:00,680 --> 00:34:02,720
Speaker 1: Its Yeah, not as many as we'd like, of course,

725
00:34:02,920 --> 00:34:05,200
Speaker 1: lots of them, because there's lots of galaxies out there,

726
00:34:05,240 --> 00:34:08,719
Speaker 1: and in the early universe quoasars were very active. It's

727
00:34:08,719 --> 00:34:11,399
Speaker 1: a whole other mystery like why did quasars mostly get

728
00:34:11,400 --> 00:34:13,680
Speaker 1: formed in the early universe and not so much now.

729
00:34:14,040 --> 00:34:16,719
Speaker 1: But there are a lot of very distant, very bright quasars.

730
00:34:16,719 --> 00:34:19,320
Speaker 1: That's sort of like shine these lights through the universe,

731
00:34:19,360 --> 00:34:21,080
Speaker 1: and we'd like to see more of them. It's tricky,

732
00:34:21,239 --> 00:34:23,120
Speaker 1: but there's enough that we could have an estimate for

733
00:34:23,200 --> 00:34:26,759
Speaker 1: how much hydrogen gas there is in these filaments between galaxies.

734
00:34:27,000 --> 00:34:30,479
Speaker 3: And so these quasars basically like illuminate the hidden matter

735
00:34:30,560 --> 00:34:31,560
Speaker 3: between galaxies.

736
00:34:31,719 --> 00:34:34,319
Speaker 1: They do, they illuminate the hydrogen. Right, that's when you

737
00:34:34,320 --> 00:34:37,319
Speaker 1: have a proton and an electron together, because that's what's

738
00:34:37,360 --> 00:34:40,520
Speaker 1: going to interact with these photons. The neutral hydrogen will

739
00:34:40,520 --> 00:34:42,399
Speaker 1: do this. So when you look at this information from

740
00:34:42,400 --> 00:34:44,080
Speaker 1: the quasars, you can add it all up and you

741
00:34:44,080 --> 00:34:48,120
Speaker 1: can guess how much neutral hydrogen gas there is between galaxies,

742
00:34:48,400 --> 00:34:50,799
Speaker 1: and that brings you to about half of the five

743
00:34:50,920 --> 00:34:53,880
Speaker 1: percent that we expected. So it's just stars and galaxies

744
00:34:53,880 --> 00:34:56,840
Speaker 1: and all that stuff gives you like fifteen percent. Add

745
00:34:56,840 --> 00:34:59,239
Speaker 1: in the neutral hydrogen between galaxies and you're up to

746
00:34:59,239 --> 00:35:02,319
Speaker 1: about fifty that we can account for that, we can

747
00:35:02,360 --> 00:35:03,760
Speaker 1: account for exactly.

748
00:35:03,400 --> 00:35:05,319
Speaker 3: What you're saying. It's not missing. Then that we know

749
00:35:05,360 --> 00:35:05,879
Speaker 3: where it is.

750
00:35:06,040 --> 00:35:08,400
Speaker 1: Well, even this very clever technique only brings us to

751
00:35:08,440 --> 00:35:11,680
Speaker 1: fifty percent. The other half is still not explained.

752
00:35:12,000 --> 00:35:15,200
Speaker 3: Mmm, so only half of that five percent is missing.

753
00:35:14,920 --> 00:35:17,719
Speaker 1: Then, Yeah, So like fifteen percent of it is stars

754
00:35:17,760 --> 00:35:20,800
Speaker 1: and galaxies and black holes and the obvious easy stuff.

755
00:35:21,080 --> 00:35:23,799
Speaker 1: Another like thirty five percent turns out to be this

756
00:35:23,960 --> 00:35:28,359
Speaker 1: neutral hydrogen between galaxies. Until very recently, we've had no

757
00:35:28,520 --> 00:35:32,240
Speaker 1: explanation for the other fifty percent. That part was still missing.

758
00:35:32,440 --> 00:35:35,480
Speaker 3: Could it be some other kinds of gases in between galaxies.

759
00:35:35,760 --> 00:35:38,920
Speaker 1: So the crucial thing is that this quasar method will

760
00:35:38,960 --> 00:35:42,160
Speaker 1: tell us about neutral hydrogen, because you know, the photons

761
00:35:42,200 --> 00:35:45,600
Speaker 1: passing through these filaments will excite. Neutral hydrogen has these

762
00:35:45,680 --> 00:35:48,720
Speaker 1: very particular energy levels. The rest of a popular theory

763
00:35:49,080 --> 00:35:52,439
Speaker 1: is that it's a low density plasma that it's ionized.

764
00:35:52,760 --> 00:35:55,000
Speaker 1: It's not like a proton or electron hanging out in

765
00:35:55,040 --> 00:35:57,160
Speaker 1: a hydrogen atom. It might just be like a bunch

766
00:35:57,160 --> 00:35:59,520
Speaker 1: of protons and a bunch of electrons that are too

767
00:35:59,640 --> 00:36:02,320
Speaker 1: hot settle down into a hygrogen out. They're like flying

768
00:36:02,360 --> 00:36:05,239
Speaker 1: around free and they wouldn't interact with the quasars in

769
00:36:05,280 --> 00:36:07,960
Speaker 1: the same way. And people argue about whether it's warm

770
00:36:08,120 --> 00:36:10,480
Speaker 1: or whether it's hot, and so they give this stuff

771
00:36:10,520 --> 00:36:16,759
Speaker 1: the name warm hot intergalactic medium WHIM or whim M.

772
00:36:17,880 --> 00:36:22,840
Speaker 3: Interesting acronym there. So you're saying that light doesn't interact

773
00:36:22,880 --> 00:36:26,160
Speaker 3: with quark matter unless there's an electron attached to it,

774
00:36:26,200 --> 00:36:29,520
Speaker 3: and that's because light only interacts with electrons.

775
00:36:29,640 --> 00:36:32,680
Speaker 1: Light will interact with any charge particle. But this particular

776
00:36:32,719 --> 00:36:36,080
Speaker 1: signature that we can see relies on a feature of

777
00:36:36,239 --> 00:36:40,040
Speaker 1: neutral hydrogen. So photons will interact with protons when electrons

778
00:36:40,040 --> 00:36:42,480
Speaker 1: and scatter and do all sorts of stuff. But this

779
00:36:42,520 --> 00:36:45,200
Speaker 1: particular method only lets us see the neutral hydrogen.

780
00:36:45,280 --> 00:36:47,360
Speaker 3: Why doesn't it let us see the protons?

781
00:36:47,560 --> 00:36:49,520
Speaker 1: Well, what happens when the light from the quasar hits

782
00:36:49,520 --> 00:36:51,640
Speaker 1: a proton or hits an electron, is it just basically

783
00:36:51,640 --> 00:36:53,960
Speaker 1: gives it a boost. It makes it glow a little bit,

784
00:36:54,040 --> 00:36:55,759
Speaker 1: But it's hard to know how to interpret that. We

785
00:36:55,800 --> 00:36:58,120
Speaker 1: can't see very well the glow from these protons and

786
00:36:58,120 --> 00:37:01,520
Speaker 1: these electrons because they're very very hot, so we think

787
00:37:01,560 --> 00:37:05,000
Speaker 1: they might emit some X rays or some UV rays,

788
00:37:05,200 --> 00:37:07,520
Speaker 1: but it's very hard to detect those here on Earth.

789
00:37:07,640 --> 00:37:10,560
Speaker 3: So we wouldn't see it in the signature from the quasars.

790
00:37:10,120 --> 00:37:12,759
Speaker 1: Exactly, because these free protons and these free electrons can

791
00:37:12,800 --> 00:37:15,479
Speaker 1: interact with any kind of photon, so they generally would

792
00:37:15,480 --> 00:37:18,680
Speaker 1: just like overall, reduce the signature from the quasars neutral

793
00:37:18,760 --> 00:37:20,880
Speaker 1: hydrogen because it's a bound state of the proton, and

794
00:37:20,920 --> 00:37:23,759
Speaker 1: the electron is very rigid about which photons it will

795
00:37:23,760 --> 00:37:26,440
Speaker 1: interact with, and so it makes this very particular measurable

796
00:37:26,480 --> 00:37:29,720
Speaker 1: signature on the quasars. A free proton or free electron

797
00:37:29,760 --> 00:37:32,160
Speaker 1: can interact with any kind of photon, and so it

798
00:37:32,200 --> 00:37:35,440
Speaker 1: doesn't create this like obvious signature in the quasar beam.

799
00:37:35,640 --> 00:37:38,799
Speaker 1: We need another method to see these protons and electrons.

800
00:37:39,200 --> 00:37:41,719
Speaker 3: I see the light from the quasar is maybe getting

801
00:37:41,760 --> 00:37:45,600
Speaker 3: absorbed by these free quarks floating out there, but it

802
00:37:45,600 --> 00:37:47,440
Speaker 3: would just look like it's a little dimmer to us,

803
00:37:47,440 --> 00:37:49,520
Speaker 3: which we can tell if it's because of that or

804
00:37:49,719 --> 00:37:51,719
Speaker 3: maybe because the quasar is not as bright as we

805
00:37:51,719 --> 00:37:54,000
Speaker 3: thought it is. All right, well, let's get into some

806
00:37:54,040 --> 00:37:56,720
Speaker 3: of the ways that we maybe could measure this missing

807
00:37:56,920 --> 00:38:00,120
Speaker 3: quark matter and what it all means about our understanding

808
00:38:00,160 --> 00:38:03,280
Speaker 3: of the universe. But first, let's take another quick break.

809
00:38:07,320 --> 00:38:09,120
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810
00:38:09,200 --> 00:38:12,360
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811
00:38:12,400 --> 00:38:16,480
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812
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813
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814
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815
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817
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820
00:38:42,200 --> 00:38:45,960
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821
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822
00:38:49,920 --> 00:38:52,040
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823
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824
00:38:54,120 --> 00:38:56,799
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825
00:38:56,840 --> 00:39:00,359
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826
00:39:00,480 --> 00:39:03,200
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828
00:39:07,120 --> 00:39:10,520
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829
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830
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831
00:39:15,280 --> 00:39:17,399
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832
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833
00:39:18,280 --> 00:39:21,120
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834
00:39:21,280 --> 00:39:24,120
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860
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Speaker 3: All right, we are slowly peezing together this problem, this

861
00:40:48,239 --> 00:40:51,040
Speaker 3: missing matter in the universe. Apparently there's a lot of

862
00:40:51,080 --> 00:40:53,120
Speaker 3: cork matter that we think should be there, but it's not.

863
00:40:53,360 --> 00:40:55,920
Speaker 3: Although I feel like we've already accounted for fifty percent

864
00:40:55,960 --> 00:40:58,120
Speaker 3: of it, we started with only being able to count

865
00:40:58,600 --> 00:41:01,319
Speaker 3: fifteen percent of it. Up to fifty percent of it.

866
00:41:01,520 --> 00:41:03,400
Speaker 1: Yeah, and you know, I guess fifty percent is like

867
00:41:03,560 --> 00:41:06,040
Speaker 1: on the edge of a passing grade. So you might

868
00:41:06,080 --> 00:41:08,120
Speaker 1: be tempted to call it a day move on, But

869
00:41:08,360 --> 00:41:10,040
Speaker 1: you know, some of us are curious. We want to

870
00:41:10,080 --> 00:41:12,400
Speaker 1: know where is the other half of all the matter in.

871
00:41:12,400 --> 00:41:14,719
Speaker 3: The universe, don't Some of these measurements have like a

872
00:41:14,800 --> 00:41:19,200
Speaker 3: plus or minus fifty percent uncertainty or error bar on them.

873
00:41:19,239 --> 00:41:21,480
Speaker 1: Anyway, I guess that's one way to resolve the mystery.

874
00:41:21,640 --> 00:41:23,920
Speaker 1: Just be like, well, let's just inflate the aeror and

875
00:41:24,000 --> 00:41:25,360
Speaker 1: it's no longer a mystery.

876
00:41:25,600 --> 00:41:26,239
Speaker 3: There you go.

877
00:41:27,360 --> 00:41:29,840
Speaker 1: Yeah, there are big uncertainties on some of these measurements,

878
00:41:29,880 --> 00:41:32,520
Speaker 1: but they're smaller than the discrepancy. That's how you know

879
00:41:32,600 --> 00:41:35,000
Speaker 1: when you have an interesting scientific puzzle that you think

880
00:41:35,040 --> 00:41:37,360
Speaker 1: you have measured things well, and yet you still can't

881
00:41:37,360 --> 00:41:39,960
Speaker 1: explain it. Things are not adding up. The error is

882
00:41:40,080 --> 00:41:42,440
Speaker 1: smaller than the size of the effect you're looking for.

883
00:41:43,160 --> 00:41:45,400
Speaker 3: All right. So now we've accounted for fifty percent of

884
00:41:45,440 --> 00:41:48,440
Speaker 3: the quark matter in the universe. There's still fifty percent missing.

885
00:41:48,520 --> 00:41:49,440
Speaker 3: How are we looking for it?

886
00:41:49,560 --> 00:41:51,520
Speaker 1: So we're using all sorts of clever techniques to look

887
00:41:51,560 --> 00:41:53,960
Speaker 1: for this stuff the whim. And this stuff is hard

888
00:41:54,040 --> 00:41:56,439
Speaker 1: to see because even though it could be pretty hot,

889
00:41:56,480 --> 00:41:59,400
Speaker 1: we're talking about like a million kelvin right ten to

890
00:41:59,440 --> 00:42:03,480
Speaker 1: the sixth to the seven calvin, it's also very very dilute.

891
00:42:03,960 --> 00:42:07,040
Speaker 1: You know, it's like one atom per cubic meter. It's

892
00:42:07,160 --> 00:42:10,239
Speaker 1: like a billionth of a billionth of the density of

893
00:42:10,280 --> 00:42:13,040
Speaker 1: our atmosphere. So this stuff is not very easy to see,

894
00:42:13,120 --> 00:42:16,080
Speaker 1: especially if it's very far away. And so we're looking

895
00:42:16,120 --> 00:42:18,040
Speaker 1: for a way to excite it. We're looking for something

896
00:42:18,040 --> 00:42:20,520
Speaker 1: that's going to pass through it and get interacted with

897
00:42:20,560 --> 00:42:23,080
Speaker 1: it in a characteristic way that can tell us about

898
00:42:23,120 --> 00:42:25,759
Speaker 1: the density of this plasma. And one really cool way

899
00:42:25,800 --> 00:42:29,640
Speaker 1: is to use another cosmic mystery, these things called fast

900
00:42:29,800 --> 00:42:33,480
Speaker 1: radio bursts. Something out there in the universe is generating

901
00:42:33,560 --> 00:42:37,799
Speaker 1: these very intense pulses of radio waves. Remember, radio waves

902
00:42:37,840 --> 00:42:41,239
Speaker 1: are just photons with very very long frequency. We call

903
00:42:41,280 --> 00:42:43,640
Speaker 1: it radio waves if it's in a certain frequency regime.

904
00:42:43,640 --> 00:42:45,960
Speaker 1: We call them X rays in another frequency regime, and

905
00:42:46,120 --> 00:42:49,840
Speaker 1: visible light in another. It's all just photons of different energies.

906
00:42:49,920 --> 00:42:52,680
Speaker 1: But these very very bright pulses of radio waves are

907
00:42:52,680 --> 00:42:56,040
Speaker 1: created somewhere out there in the universe, passing through all

908
00:42:56,080 --> 00:42:58,520
Speaker 1: the matter between us and them, And as we study

909
00:42:58,520 --> 00:43:00,640
Speaker 1: them here on Earth, we can look at the details

910
00:43:00,640 --> 00:43:02,640
Speaker 1: of those radio waves as a way to sort of

911
00:43:02,680 --> 00:43:06,640
Speaker 1: like X ray, this whim, this warm, hot intergalactic medium.

912
00:43:06,719 --> 00:43:09,680
Speaker 3: So how do these bursts of radio waves tell us

913
00:43:09,760 --> 00:43:13,360
Speaker 3: about this plasma that might be hiding all of the

914
00:43:13,360 --> 00:43:14,200
Speaker 3: missing cord matter.

915
00:43:14,360 --> 00:43:16,880
Speaker 1: Yeah, so you had the basic idea earlier when you're saying, like,

916
00:43:17,239 --> 00:43:21,000
Speaker 1: woulden photons interact with this whim? Their protons, they're electrons,

917
00:43:21,000 --> 00:43:23,560
Speaker 1: they're charged particles, And you're absolutely right they do. But

918
00:43:23,600 --> 00:43:25,759
Speaker 1: you need the right kind of photon in order to

919
00:43:25,800 --> 00:43:28,120
Speaker 1: tell you what you need to know. As light passes

920
00:43:28,160 --> 00:43:30,839
Speaker 1: through matter, it slows down, like the speed of light

921
00:43:30,880 --> 00:43:33,239
Speaker 1: through a vacuum is the famous speed that we all know.

922
00:43:33,520 --> 00:43:36,080
Speaker 1: But light passing through glass or through air will move

923
00:43:36,160 --> 00:43:39,320
Speaker 1: slower than light through a vacuum, and that effect actually

924
00:43:39,320 --> 00:43:43,400
Speaker 1: depends on the energy of the photon. So longer wavelengths

925
00:43:43,400 --> 00:43:47,120
Speaker 1: of light are slowed more than shorter wavelengths of light.

926
00:43:47,200 --> 00:43:48,600
Speaker 1: So if you start with the pulse of light of

927
00:43:48,640 --> 00:43:51,759
Speaker 1: several frequencies and then you measure the arrival time of

928
00:43:51,800 --> 00:43:54,400
Speaker 1: that light here on Earth, you can actually measure the

929
00:43:54,440 --> 00:43:58,480
Speaker 1: density of stuff between you and the pulse because the

930
00:43:58,560 --> 00:44:01,040
Speaker 1: higher the density, the more the difference in the arrival

931
00:44:01,040 --> 00:44:03,960
Speaker 1: times between the long wavelengths and the short wavelengths.

932
00:44:04,280 --> 00:44:06,560
Speaker 3: I see, But don't you need to know what that

933
00:44:06,640 --> 00:44:09,080
Speaker 3: bursts looked like before it went through the filter of

934
00:44:09,200 --> 00:44:12,319
Speaker 3: this plasma between galaxies? How do we know that if

935
00:44:12,320 --> 00:44:14,680
Speaker 3: these are of unknown origin.

936
00:44:14,480 --> 00:44:16,400
Speaker 1: You're right, we do need to know something, But essentially

937
00:44:16,440 --> 00:44:19,120
Speaker 1: all we need to know is that they're all produced

938
00:44:19,160 --> 00:44:21,319
Speaker 1: at the same moment, or very very close to the

939
00:44:21,320 --> 00:44:23,840
Speaker 1: same time. We don't need to know something about the

940
00:44:23,880 --> 00:44:26,279
Speaker 1: spectrum because we're looking for it's just the difference in

941
00:44:26,360 --> 00:44:28,680
Speaker 1: arrival times. If you shoot a long wavelength and a

942
00:44:28,719 --> 00:44:31,920
Speaker 1: short wavelength photon at me at the same time, then

943
00:44:31,960 --> 00:44:34,399
Speaker 1: I can tell you the density of matter between us

944
00:44:34,600 --> 00:44:36,960
Speaker 1: by looking at the difference in the arrival times between

945
00:44:36,960 --> 00:44:40,120
Speaker 1: the short and the long wavelength photon, because the long

946
00:44:40,120 --> 00:44:44,240
Speaker 1: waveleonging photon will be slowed down more by higher density material.

947
00:44:44,360 --> 00:44:45,880
Speaker 1: So I don't need to know anything else. I just

948
00:44:45,920 --> 00:44:47,960
Speaker 1: need to know that there's like a pulse created and

949
00:44:48,040 --> 00:44:50,520
Speaker 1: these two photons were made of basically the same moment.

950
00:44:50,920 --> 00:44:53,120
Speaker 1: And that's what these fast radio bursts do. We don't

951
00:44:53,239 --> 00:44:55,920
Speaker 1: know what's actually making them. That's a big mystery still,

952
00:44:56,080 --> 00:44:57,920
Speaker 1: but we suspect that they're being made in a very

953
00:44:57,920 --> 00:45:00,000
Speaker 1: short amount of time, like a one millisecond part.

954
00:45:01,040 --> 00:45:03,160
Speaker 3: But how do you know they weren't made at different times.

955
00:45:03,320 --> 00:45:05,400
Speaker 1: Yeah, we're not exactly sure. That's an assumption. When they

956
00:45:05,480 --> 00:45:07,399
Speaker 1: arrive here on Earth, they're spread out over a few

957
00:45:07,440 --> 00:45:09,799
Speaker 1: seconds or sometimes tens of seconds. But because of the

958
00:45:09,880 --> 00:45:12,880
Speaker 1: enormous amount of energy overall, we suspect that it was

959
00:45:12,920 --> 00:45:15,680
Speaker 1: a very fast event, though we still don't understand it.

960
00:45:15,760 --> 00:45:17,040
Speaker 3: I think I know what you're saying. You're saying like

961
00:45:17,360 --> 00:45:20,080
Speaker 3: there's a burst of radio waves, like a bright flash

962
00:45:20,120 --> 00:45:22,680
Speaker 3: of light that we see that was made out there

963
00:45:22,840 --> 00:45:25,960
Speaker 3: in the universe, and we measure that burst of light

964
00:45:26,000 --> 00:45:29,040
Speaker 3: when it gets here on Earth at different frequencies. You're saying, like,

965
00:45:29,239 --> 00:45:32,920
Speaker 3: the bursts at one frequency is going to arrive earlier

966
00:45:32,920 --> 00:45:36,160
Speaker 3: than the burst from another frequency, and that difference in

967
00:45:36,200 --> 00:45:38,319
Speaker 3: the arrival time tells you like, oh, there must have

968
00:45:38,360 --> 00:45:42,839
Speaker 3: been some quark matter in plasma form between us and

969
00:45:42,880 --> 00:45:46,960
Speaker 3: that burst that absorb or slow down some of that

970
00:45:47,120 --> 00:45:49,040
Speaker 3: second frequency exactly.

971
00:45:49,200 --> 00:45:53,160
Speaker 1: This effect is called dispersion, you know, wavelength dependent effect

972
00:45:53,280 --> 00:45:55,440
Speaker 1: on the speed of light essentially, and by measuring this

973
00:45:55,480 --> 00:45:58,960
Speaker 1: dispersion you can infer the density of the plasma between

974
00:45:58,960 --> 00:46:01,319
Speaker 1: you and the source. But you're right, we're making some

975
00:46:01,400 --> 00:46:04,320
Speaker 1: assumptions about the nature of the source. We're assuming, essentially

976
00:46:04,640 --> 00:46:07,440
Speaker 1: that the length of time over which those radio waves

977
00:46:07,440 --> 00:46:09,960
Speaker 1: were produced is negligible compared to the length of time

978
00:46:10,000 --> 00:46:10,960
Speaker 1: over which they arrive.

979
00:46:11,280 --> 00:46:13,359
Speaker 3: You also have to know where that burst came from,

980
00:46:13,400 --> 00:46:13,719
Speaker 3: don't you.

981
00:46:13,880 --> 00:46:16,279
Speaker 1: Yeah, you do. You have to know the direction, and

982
00:46:16,360 --> 00:46:19,320
Speaker 1: so we've been seeing these fast radio bursts over the

983
00:46:19,400 --> 00:46:22,320
Speaker 1: last few decades. They were discovered sort of accidentally. We

984
00:46:22,440 --> 00:46:25,319
Speaker 1: have a whole fun podcast episode about that, but only

985
00:46:25,400 --> 00:46:27,719
Speaker 1: recently have we been able to locate them, to tell

986
00:46:27,760 --> 00:46:30,319
Speaker 1: where in the sky they come from, and to do

987
00:46:30,360 --> 00:46:33,120
Speaker 1: that you need like larger instruments, or you need coordination

988
00:46:33,239 --> 00:46:36,080
Speaker 1: between various instruments so you can tell about their arrival

989
00:46:36,160 --> 00:46:38,239
Speaker 1: time at various parts on Earth. But in the last

990
00:46:38,239 --> 00:46:40,080
Speaker 1: couple of decades they've been able to do that and

991
00:46:40,160 --> 00:46:43,640
Speaker 1: gather enough information to estimate the mass of the WHIM

992
00:46:43,840 --> 00:46:45,320
Speaker 1: from these fast radio.

993
00:46:45,080 --> 00:46:48,719
Speaker 3: Bursts, at least the part of that quark plasma that's

994
00:46:48,800 --> 00:46:52,080
Speaker 3: hiding that we can tell using this method.

995
00:46:52,160 --> 00:46:55,480
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. And you always want to have like multiple

996
00:46:55,520 --> 00:46:58,160
Speaker 1: ways to measure things, especially if it's very uncertain, and

997
00:46:58,239 --> 00:47:00,520
Speaker 1: if you're talking about half of all this stuff in

998
00:47:00,560 --> 00:47:03,440
Speaker 1: the universe or the normal matter. So there actually is

999
00:47:03,480 --> 00:47:07,799
Speaker 1: a second, completely independent way to measure this WIM to

1000
00:47:07,880 --> 00:47:10,440
Speaker 1: see where it is and how much stuff there is.

1001
00:47:10,880 --> 00:47:13,560
Speaker 1: And this one is more sensitive to the electrons in

1002
00:47:13,600 --> 00:47:15,600
Speaker 1: the wim. Remember we think the WIM is a plasma.

1003
00:47:15,640 --> 00:47:18,600
Speaker 1: It's protons and it's electrons, and those are separated, and

1004
00:47:18,640 --> 00:47:22,480
Speaker 1: the electrons themselves can get like jazzed up by interacting

1005
00:47:22,520 --> 00:47:25,520
Speaker 1: with the old cosmic microwave background light in a way

1006
00:47:25,560 --> 00:47:28,040
Speaker 1: that some people can see and can use that to

1007
00:47:28,280 --> 00:47:30,480
Speaker 1: estimate where the WIM is and how much there is.

1008
00:47:31,239 --> 00:47:34,239
Speaker 3: And so using these measurements what is our estimate of

1009
00:47:34,440 --> 00:47:37,560
Speaker 3: r all this missing quark matter up to.

1010
00:47:37,640 --> 00:47:40,160
Speaker 1: So it comes out pretty close to one hundred percent.

1011
00:47:40,560 --> 00:47:43,440
Speaker 1: So the current idea is that this WIM fills in

1012
00:47:43,480 --> 00:47:45,759
Speaker 1: the gap that when you add in the WHIM and

1013
00:47:45,840 --> 00:47:48,760
Speaker 1: the neutral hydrogen between galaxies and then all the stuff

1014
00:47:48,800 --> 00:47:52,319
Speaker 1: inside the galaxies, it all adds up to explain the

1015
00:47:52,320 --> 00:47:55,840
Speaker 1: amount of baryonic matter we predicted from the CMB and

1016
00:47:56,040 --> 00:47:58,799
Speaker 1: from Big Bang nucleosynthesis. So it all sort of like

1017
00:47:58,840 --> 00:48:00,000
Speaker 1: clicks into place. Amazing.

1018
00:48:00,400 --> 00:48:02,719
Speaker 3: So then we think we found all the missing matter.

1019
00:48:02,800 --> 00:48:05,040
Speaker 1: Then we have cracked the case of the missing matter

1020
00:48:05,160 --> 00:48:08,560
Speaker 1: in the universe, which is like sort of exciting and

1021
00:48:08,600 --> 00:48:10,040
Speaker 1: also sort of disappointing.

1022
00:48:10,200 --> 00:48:13,160
Speaker 3: So wait, using these radio burths, we think we seem

1023
00:48:13,280 --> 00:48:14,239
Speaker 3: all of the missing matter.

1024
00:48:14,400 --> 00:48:16,520
Speaker 1: Yeah, the current thinking is that this WHIM is that

1025
00:48:16,600 --> 00:48:19,399
Speaker 1: missing piece, that fifty percent that we couldn't account for

1026
00:48:19,560 --> 00:48:22,320
Speaker 1: after we figured out the neutral hydrogen component is probably

1027
00:48:22,320 --> 00:48:24,680
Speaker 1: all the WHIM, which means that like half of all

1028
00:48:24,719 --> 00:48:27,560
Speaker 1: the quarks in the universe are in the WHIM.

1029
00:48:27,600 --> 00:48:30,400
Speaker 3: Are in hot gas in between in the middle of nowhere.

1030
00:48:30,440 --> 00:48:34,080
Speaker 1: Basically, yeah, the universe is half hot gas.

1031
00:48:34,200 --> 00:48:38,279
Speaker 3: It's incredible, sort of like the US. I guess, so

1032
00:48:38,320 --> 00:48:40,080
Speaker 3: the population lives in the middle of nowhere.

1033
00:48:40,239 --> 00:48:42,719
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. And so if you want to make a

1034
00:48:42,840 --> 00:48:44,400
Speaker 1: ranked list of all the stuff that's out there in

1035
00:48:44,440 --> 00:48:47,279
Speaker 1: the universe, it's mostly, you know, stuff that's very susceptible

1036
00:48:47,280 --> 00:48:49,920
Speaker 1: to toilet humor. It's dark matter is a lot of

1037
00:48:49,960 --> 00:48:52,799
Speaker 1: the universe. And then of the five percent that makes

1038
00:48:52,840 --> 00:48:55,160
Speaker 1: up our kind of stuff, half of it is hot

1039
00:48:55,200 --> 00:48:58,200
Speaker 1: gas floating out there in the universe between galaxies.

1040
00:48:58,440 --> 00:49:00,880
Speaker 3: Well, it's only toilet humor if you're like, if your

1041
00:49:00,960 --> 00:49:02,080
Speaker 3: head is in the toilet.

1042
00:49:04,480 --> 00:49:06,399
Speaker 1: Maybe it's gout or humor then. But you know, it's

1043
00:49:06,440 --> 00:49:08,960
Speaker 1: exciting to have these confirmation to be like, wow, we

1044
00:49:09,040 --> 00:49:11,320
Speaker 1: do really understand what's going on out there in the universe.

1045
00:49:11,480 --> 00:49:14,520
Speaker 1: These incredible calculations from the early universe that make these

1046
00:49:14,520 --> 00:49:17,640
Speaker 1: predictions about how many baryons should be floating out there

1047
00:49:17,680 --> 00:49:21,399
Speaker 1: billions of years later are kind of accurate. And we've

1048
00:49:21,400 --> 00:49:23,880
Speaker 1: been able to like X ray and pinpoint the universe

1049
00:49:23,960 --> 00:49:26,279
Speaker 1: using all these clever techniques to figure out where the

1050
00:49:26,320 --> 00:49:29,640
Speaker 1: stuff actually is. And it tells us this amazing story

1051
00:49:29,640 --> 00:49:32,600
Speaker 1: that galaxies are not the most important thing in the universe.

1052
00:49:32,600 --> 00:49:35,240
Speaker 1: They're not even the most important part of the normal matter.

1053
00:49:35,600 --> 00:49:39,160
Speaker 1: There are these massive halos of gas surrounding the galaxies

1054
00:49:39,200 --> 00:49:43,040
Speaker 1: and then between the galaxies, So that's super exciting, but

1055
00:49:43,080 --> 00:49:45,400
Speaker 1: it's also kind of a letdown because when you do

1056
00:49:45,440 --> 00:49:48,279
Speaker 1: these kind of calculations, which you're hoping for is some

1057
00:49:48,600 --> 00:49:51,480
Speaker 1: great new discovery. Right the way we discover dark matter

1058
00:49:51,719 --> 00:49:54,640
Speaker 1: by finding a discrepancy in our calculations, this could have

1059
00:49:54,680 --> 00:49:57,760
Speaker 1: been the discovery of something else, totally weird and new.

1060
00:49:58,000 --> 00:50:00,760
Speaker 3: Well, you're disappointed that you solve the problem. You wanted

1061
00:50:00,800 --> 00:50:02,000
Speaker 3: more problems, Yes.

1062
00:50:01,920 --> 00:50:03,640
Speaker 1: I wanted more problems.

1063
00:50:03,200 --> 00:50:05,720
Speaker 3: Exactly, wanted more more of a job.

1064
00:50:06,880 --> 00:50:08,920
Speaker 1: It would be fascinating, right, Like finding out that it's

1065
00:50:08,920 --> 00:50:11,919
Speaker 1: the whim is cool, it makes sense. But it would

1066
00:50:11,920 --> 00:50:14,200
Speaker 1: have been more exciting if it was some new kind

1067
00:50:14,200 --> 00:50:17,040
Speaker 1: of matter, something else that we didn't expect, quarks forming

1068
00:50:17,120 --> 00:50:20,400
Speaker 1: some new kind of stuff that we hadn't anticipated, or

1069
00:50:20,440 --> 00:50:23,680
Speaker 1: maybe discovering something was wrong in our early universe calculations.

1070
00:50:23,960 --> 00:50:26,520
Speaker 1: That would have been I think a bigger discovery because

1071
00:50:26,520 --> 00:50:28,600
Speaker 1: we would have learned more about the universe.

1072
00:50:28,880 --> 00:50:30,880
Speaker 3: Well, maybe that's why this problem didn't get a lot

1073
00:50:30,920 --> 00:50:32,960
Speaker 3: of press, because you guys sold it as like Eh,

1074
00:50:33,200 --> 00:50:36,600
Speaker 3: we found it. Whatever, it's not that exciting, and now

1075
00:50:36,600 --> 00:50:39,440
Speaker 3: you're complaining that it doesn't get an uh press.

1076
00:50:39,680 --> 00:50:42,200
Speaker 1: Well, here we are trying to get some more attention, right,

1077
00:50:42,239 --> 00:50:44,560
Speaker 1: So I'm out here trumpeting the case of the missing

1078
00:50:44,600 --> 00:50:46,400
Speaker 1: matter and its whimsical solution.

1079
00:50:46,680 --> 00:50:48,600
Speaker 3: Well, I think maybe the other reason is that it's

1080
00:50:48,640 --> 00:50:50,200
Speaker 3: not really a problem anymore, exactly.

1081
00:50:50,960 --> 00:50:54,840
Speaker 1: Yeah, Unfortunately we've mostly figured it out, unfortunately or unfortunately

1082
00:50:54,840 --> 00:50:57,200
Speaker 1: fortunately because it means our theories of physics are mostly

1083
00:50:57,239 --> 00:51:00,320
Speaker 1: working and our techniques are clever and effective on virtually

1084
00:51:00,360 --> 00:51:01,880
Speaker 1: because it means now we've got to move on to

1085
00:51:01,960 --> 00:51:02,720
Speaker 1: something else.

1086
00:51:03,200 --> 00:51:05,719
Speaker 3: So maybe you just need to rename it, right, It's

1087
00:51:05,719 --> 00:51:08,280
Speaker 3: no longer the missing baryon problem is just the found

1088
00:51:08,320 --> 00:51:09,080
Speaker 3: barian flash.

1089
00:51:11,920 --> 00:51:15,160
Speaker 1: Yeah, the once missing baryon. The baryon's formerly known as

1090
00:51:15,200 --> 00:51:16,120
Speaker 1: missing all right.

1091
00:51:16,200 --> 00:51:20,399
Speaker 3: Well, another interesting reminder that the universe keeps surprising us,

1092
00:51:20,440 --> 00:51:23,920
Speaker 3: even in I guess not so surprising ways. It's surprising

1093
00:51:23,960 --> 00:51:27,080
Speaker 3: that you can sort of make these models and figure

1094
00:51:27,080 --> 00:51:30,360
Speaker 3: out where everything should be and where it needs to be.

1095
00:51:30,600 --> 00:51:33,480
Speaker 1: Yeah, asking questions in several different ways, trying to do

1096
00:51:33,560 --> 00:51:36,440
Speaker 1: calculations from this and from that, piecing it all together

1097
00:51:36,600 --> 00:51:38,520
Speaker 1: is a great way to figure out what's actually out

1098
00:51:38,520 --> 00:51:41,239
Speaker 1: there in the universe and sometimes actually leads you to

1099
00:51:41,280 --> 00:51:41,760
Speaker 1: an answer.

1100
00:51:41,840 --> 00:51:43,160
Speaker 3: Well, I kind of wish we had read the last

1101
00:51:43,200 --> 00:51:45,719
Speaker 3: chapter of this mystery. I had to save this a

1102
00:51:45,719 --> 00:51:46,520
Speaker 3: lot of time here.

1103
00:51:46,680 --> 00:51:50,080
Speaker 1: This was decades of work and lots of careful energy

1104
00:51:50,239 --> 00:51:52,920
Speaker 1: and like lots of people's peachdpcs. You know, we're like

1105
00:51:52,960 --> 00:51:56,040
Speaker 1: taking tiny steps in this direction. So yeah, you can

1106
00:51:56,080 --> 00:51:58,520
Speaker 1: summarize it all in about five seconds, but you know,

1107
00:51:58,600 --> 00:51:58,960
Speaker 1: it was a.

1108
00:51:58,960 --> 00:52:02,160
Speaker 3: Journey, and also it's kind of a still a work

1109
00:52:02,160 --> 00:52:04,640
Speaker 3: in progress, I imagine. I mean, you have some measurements

1110
00:52:04,680 --> 00:52:07,799
Speaker 3: that you can always refine those or somebody might find

1111
00:52:07,840 --> 00:52:09,760
Speaker 3: something that disproved those measurements.

1112
00:52:09,320 --> 00:52:12,200
Speaker 1: Right, yeah, precisely. Now we fold these things into our

1113
00:52:12,239 --> 00:52:15,319
Speaker 1: models of galaxy formation because we have a better understanding

1114
00:52:15,400 --> 00:52:18,160
Speaker 1: of the density and the temperature of this whim. You

1115
00:52:18,239 --> 00:52:20,880
Speaker 1: can make sure that it describes the kinds of galaxies

1116
00:52:20,880 --> 00:52:23,200
Speaker 1: that we see, the sizes of galaxies, the rate of

1117
00:52:23,239 --> 00:52:27,160
Speaker 1: galaxy formation, how often galaxies merge. It all gets folded

1118
00:52:27,160 --> 00:52:30,400
Speaker 1: into a more precise description of our universe, which we

1119
00:52:30,480 --> 00:52:34,680
Speaker 1: hope will reveal more discrepancies and more surprises in the future,

1120
00:52:34,880 --> 00:52:38,000
Speaker 1: and more toilet humor inevitable.

1121
00:52:38,080 --> 00:52:40,719
Speaker 3: All right, well it's time to flush. I guess we

1122
00:52:40,800 --> 00:52:44,360
Speaker 3: hope you enjoyed that. Thanks for joining us, See you

1123
00:52:44,360 --> 00:52:44,799
Speaker 3: next time.

1124
00:52:52,760 --> 00:52:55,560
Speaker 1: Thanks for listening, and remember that Daniel and Jorge Explain

1125
00:52:55,600 --> 00:52:59,600
Speaker 1: the Universe is a production of iHeartRadio. For more podcasts

1126
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Speaker 1: from Heart Radio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or

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