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Speaker 4: Hey Daniel, do you believe in luck? Do you think

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Speaker 4: you're a lucky person?

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Speaker 1: I'm not sure. I guess I'm pretty happy with how

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Speaker 1: things have turned out.

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Speaker 4: Oh yeah, but was that luck or was it inevitable?

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Speaker 1: I'm sure there was a lot of randomness involved. I

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Speaker 1: guess I'd have to study the multiverse to see how

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Speaker 1: often Daniel gets to be a physics professor.

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Speaker 4: But wait, is that the lucky outcome? Wouldn't the lucky

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Speaker 4: outcome be the one where you get to be a

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Speaker 4: movie star or a billionaire.

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Speaker 1: Or maybe a billionaire movie star physics professor.

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Speaker 4: That's a lot of titles there.

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Speaker 1: It might cause the universe to collapse on itself.

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Speaker 4: Physicists always ending the universe.

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Speaker 1: We might have caused it, but it doesn't mean it's

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Speaker 1: our fault.

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Speaker 4: That sounds like a logical contradiction, one of that also

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Speaker 4: collapse the universe.

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Speaker 1: Into a puff of logic.

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Speaker 4: Hi am Jorge, a cartoonist and the creator of PhD comics.

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Speaker 1: Hi, I'm Daniel. I'm a particle physicist and a professor

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Speaker 1: at UC Irvine, and I'm doing my best to understand

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Speaker 1: the universe without collapsing it.

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Speaker 4: You're doing your best. I feel like your best is

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Speaker 4: not enough, Like a guarantee is not enough. Maybe you

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Speaker 4: should look into that before doing it.

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Speaker 1: I'll check with my legal department. I'll do twice my best.

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Speaker 1: How about that?

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Speaker 4: Still not enough? Because ending the universe twice is still

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Speaker 4: ending the universe.

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Speaker 1: Maybe it's like negative signs, you know, if you do

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Speaker 1: it twice, it comes back.

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Speaker 4: But then are you going to be a physics professor again?

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Speaker 4: Are you going to be that unlucky?

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Speaker 1: Maybe when everything snaps back, that's when I get to

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Speaker 1: be a billionaire.

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Speaker 4: But anyways, welcome to our podcast Daniel and Jorge Explain

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Speaker 4: the Universe aproduct of iHeartRadio.

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Speaker 1: Where we try our best to make sense of this

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Speaker 1: crazy universe. We look out there in the cosmos and

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Speaker 1: try to understand the way things are, the way things

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Speaker 1: might be, and how it all can possibly make sense.

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Speaker 1: We do our best to cram this incredible, giant, fantastical

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Speaker 1: universe into our tiny little primate brains and squish it

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Speaker 1: all around until it makes sense to us and hopefully

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Speaker 1: makes sense to you.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, it is an amazing universe, or maybe an amazing multiverse.

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Speaker 4: There might be more than one universe out there, but

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Speaker 4: at least the one we're in seems pretty amazing, pretty

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Speaker 4: awesome to explore and to ask questions about and to

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Speaker 4: wonder about the logic of it.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, as we look out into the universe, we wonder

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Speaker 1: why is it this way and not some other way?

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Speaker 1: Why are we in this part of the universe and

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Speaker 1: not some other part of the universe? Are we lucky

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Speaker 1: that we ended up here? Was it just a fluke

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Speaker 1: or is it pretty common our experience of the universe?

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Speaker 4: Is the universe guaranteed to be logical? Daniel? Do you

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Speaker 4: think is it logical that the universe is not logical?

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Speaker 1: Yeah? A guarantee itself rests on logic, and so if

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Speaker 1: the universe is illogical, then it cannot provide any kind

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Speaker 1: of guarantees at all. Philosophically speaking, we don't know why

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Speaker 1: the universe makes sense to us at all, Like why

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Speaker 1: is it even possible to describe it in terms of

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Speaker 1: pretty simple mathematical stories. We don't know, But we do

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Speaker 1: know that it seems to work, and it works really,

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Speaker 1: really well.

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Speaker 4: Well, the universe is random, right at the quantum level,

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Speaker 4: things are random? Is random the same as logical.

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Speaker 1: Well, that's a really interesting point because even if quantum

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Speaker 1: mechanics is random, it's still also logical. Like quantum mechanics

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Speaker 1: makes very specific predictions for the probabilities of different things

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Speaker 1: to happen, even if it doesn't actually pin down what

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Speaker 1: will happen. So quantum mechanics being random doesn't mean it's

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Speaker 1: like crazy, you're out of control. It still makes very

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Speaker 1: specific predictions about what can and cannot happen and the

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Speaker 1: probabilities of those things happening.

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Speaker 4: Right although technically, according to quantum physics, like a pink

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Speaker 4: unicorn could technically appear in front of me out of

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Speaker 4: the boob right now, or in front of any of

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Speaker 4: us right now, right and that would be logical. According

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Speaker 4: to physicists.

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Speaker 1: That would be logical, even though it would also be fantastical.

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Speaker 1: And that's something we're always trying to understand about the universe.

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Speaker 1: We see what happens to us, we wonder was that

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Speaker 1: just a random, lucky fluke, or is that the kind

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Speaker 1: of thing we expect to see in the universe. And

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Speaker 1: there's this overriding principle in science called the Copernican principle,

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Speaker 1: which argues that our experience is not weird, that everywhere

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Speaker 1: in the universe is the same and nothing is special anywhere,

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Speaker 1: and so when we look down to the universe, we

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Speaker 1: tend to try to explain what we see without resorting

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Speaker 1: to lucky chances and random flukes.

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Speaker 4: But lucky flukes is why we're here, Daniel, Lucky flukes

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Speaker 4: are the best.

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Speaker 1: Well, every individual person, of course, has an almost astronomically

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Speaker 1: tiny chance of ever existing with all of their constituent details.

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Speaker 1: But what we don't know is what are the chances

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Speaker 1: of any person existing? You know, one of the deep

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Speaker 1: questions in the universe is what are the chances for

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Speaker 1: life of all, for intelligent life to evolve? Are we

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Speaker 1: unusual or are we common in the universe? And we'd

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Speaker 1: like to be able to explain our existence here without

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Speaker 1: resorting to a one in a trillion chance of all

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Speaker 1: of this happening.

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Speaker 4: Well, it seems like there's a sort of a fine

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Speaker 4: line between illogic and unlikeliness or as you said, improbability.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, that's right, and often we can tell the difference,

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Speaker 1: you know, we have just this one example of our

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Speaker 1: lives and the part of the universe that we can see.

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Speaker 1: And often we look out into the universe and we

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Speaker 1: see stuff that seems weird, that seems like a weird coincidence,

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Speaker 1: and we want to try to explain it. We don't

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Speaker 1: want to just like brush it under the rug and say, hmm,

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Speaker 1: that's random, seems weird. I guess sometimes you just get lucky.

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Speaker 1: We'd like to understand if there's something else going on,

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Speaker 1: something deeper behind it, But you know, there isn't always

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Speaker 1: an explanation, like, for example, the Sun and the moon

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Speaker 1: take up about exactly the same space in our sky,

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Speaker 1: which allows for very dramatic eclipses, and that's just a coincidence.

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Speaker 1: Sometimes coincidences happen, but sometimes they do have deeper explanations

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Speaker 1: that we can look for.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, So one way we try to explore the logic

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Speaker 4: of the universe is by coming up with situations in

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Speaker 4: our minds or that maybe we get hints at out

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Speaker 4: there of events or things that seem to break the

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Speaker 4: logic of the universe. And these are paradoxes.

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Speaker 1: Yeah. One very famous paradox is the Fermi paradox, which says,

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Speaker 1: where are all the aliens? You know, if the galaxy

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Speaker 1: is really really old and actually filled with stars and planets,

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Speaker 1: then maybe it should also be filled with aliens. And

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Speaker 1: why haven't we seen any of them yet? Why haven't

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Speaker 1: they sent us messages? This is called the Fermi paradox

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Speaker 1: because if you accept all of those assumptions, then we

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Speaker 1: should have heard from aliens, and yet we haven't. So

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Speaker 1: paradoxes are fun because they make you re examine those

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Speaker 1: assumptions to say, well, we haven't heard from aliens, then

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Speaker 1: which of those assumptions must be wrong and what does

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Speaker 1: that tell us about the universe.

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Speaker 4: Well, another famous paradox is the grandfather of paradox, right,

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Speaker 4: This idea that if you go back in time and

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Speaker 4: you somehow prevent your grandfather from from giving birth or

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Speaker 4: making your father or mother happen, then that creates an

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Speaker 4: illogical consistency because then how could you have existed to

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Speaker 4: them prevent your grandfather from doing that. That's one of

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Speaker 4: the most famous logical paradoxes, right, And that's like something

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Speaker 4: that doesn't make sense logically, but it could maybe happen.

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Speaker 1: Well, we don't know if that could maybe happen exactly.

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Speaker 1: That's one of the paradoxes inherent in time travel. It's

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Speaker 1: the kind of thing that makes people wonder like, well,

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Speaker 1: what are we overlooking? Is there something in time travel

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Speaker 1: which would prevent that from happening? And there are various

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Speaker 1: ideas about cosmic censorship that might prevent paradoxes from cropping

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Speaker 1: up if you could actually achieve time travel. So you're right,

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Speaker 1: it's a really interesting idea, and it focuses your thinking

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Speaker 1: on the issues to say, well, what can we do

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Speaker 1: to prevent this paradox from happening, Because, as you say,

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Speaker 1: the universe seems logical, and so anything that creates a

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Speaker 1: contradiction a logical contradiction, we don't think that that could exist.

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Speaker 1: The universe can't exist in two states that disagree with

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Speaker 1: each other simultaneously.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, so there is another interesting paradox out there. Then

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Speaker 4: maybe the challenge is the logic of us being here

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Speaker 4: in the first place, or at least of our son

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Speaker 4: being here in the first place.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, asked the question basically of why we're not looking

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Speaker 1: up into our sky and seeing a different kind of

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Speaker 1: star than the one that we have, or stars plural.

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Speaker 4: So today on the podcast we'll be asking the question

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Speaker 4: what is the Red Dwarf paradox?

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Speaker 1: The real Red Dwarf paradox is why don't more people

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Speaker 1: watch the show The Red Dwarf?

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Speaker 4: Is that a show I've never seen? That?

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Speaker 1: Is that a show? Oh my gosh, it's like one

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Speaker 1: of the most hilarious campy science fiction shows.

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Speaker 4: Ever, I've never heard of it. Where does it air?

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Speaker 1: I think it's on the BBC, but you can find

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Speaker 1: it online. Is it really hilarious show? Sort of in

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Speaker 1: the vein of Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. Definitely not

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Speaker 1: hard science fiction?

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Speaker 4: Well the paradox maybe? Is how come I've never heard

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Speaker 4: heard this? Yeah? I mean I've seen several seasons of

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Speaker 4: Doctor Who.

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Speaker 1: There you go. Yeah, well, maybe it only exists in

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Speaker 1: another multiverse, and that's proof that I came from another universe.

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Speaker 4: Hmmm, you do seem out of this world, Daniel, you

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Speaker 4: mean out of my mind? But so, the Red Dwarf

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Speaker 4: Paradox apparently is the thing. I had also never heard

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Speaker 4: of this, the paradox or the show before coming into

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Speaker 4: this episode. But it's sort of like a thing that

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Speaker 4: physicists talk about, right.

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Speaker 1: It is a thing that physicists and biologist and basically

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Speaker 1: everybody who's curious about why we ended up on this

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Speaker 1: rock around this star. Fundamentally, we're always asking the question

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Speaker 1: is our experience unusual? Do we have to resort to

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Speaker 1: shrugging our shoulders and saying, well, I guess we were

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Speaker 1: just lucky, or is there a reason that our experience

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Speaker 1: is this way and not some other way. And in

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Speaker 1: this particular case, we're wondering about why our star is

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Speaker 1: one of these yellow stars instead of a red dwarf star.

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Speaker 4: Well, this, like you said earlier, this sort of seems

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Speaker 4: similar to the Fermi paradox, which is sort of this

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Speaker 4: idea that we should have been contacted or seeing aliens

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Speaker 4: right now, but we haven't, given the size of the universe.

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Speaker 4: But I feel like those are not really logical paradoxes, right, Like,

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Speaker 4: strictly speaking, it's not a logical there's no logical contradiction here.

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Speaker 4: It's just like an unlikeliness.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, that's true. I mean, the set of assumptions when

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Speaker 1: you combine them, suggests that it would be very unlikely

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Speaker 1: for us to not be contacted by aliens. So either

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Speaker 1: we're just unlucky, or there's some other reason one of

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Speaker 1: the assumptions that goes into it is wrong. And so

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Speaker 1: you can always explain these things away and say, oh, well,

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Speaker 1: maybe it's just one in a million chance, and that's

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Speaker 1: what it is. But you can also sometimes make progress

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Speaker 1: by digging into those assumptions and saying, is one of

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Speaker 1: those wrong. Let's take another look.

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Speaker 4: You mean, it's sort of like a tool to examine

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Speaker 4: our assumptions about the universe, or as someone else might

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Speaker 4: call on complete guesses.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, but it's a basic part of science.

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Speaker 5: You know.

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Speaker 1: Anytime you think you have an understanding of the universe,

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Speaker 1: you then think about what the consequences are. You know,

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Speaker 1: if the universe is this way, then I should be

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Speaker 1: able to prove it by seeing this thing. And if

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Speaker 1: you don't see that thing happening, then you wonder, well,

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Speaker 1: what's wrong with my idea of the universe? Just like

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Speaker 1: when we thought, oh, the universe would make more sense

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Speaker 1: if it had Higgs Boson in it. Let's go look

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Speaker 1: for it, and we found it. And now if we

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Speaker 1: hadn't found it, then we would have to go back

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Speaker 1: and re examine those assumptions that suggested it does exist

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Speaker 1: and wonder which one of them were wrong.

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Speaker 4: All right, Well, this red Dwarf paradox basically just real

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Speaker 4: quickly in a nutshell. It kind of asked a question

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Speaker 4: that you asked earlier, which is, why isn't our star

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Speaker 4: a red dwarf? Our son is a nice yellow or

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Speaker 4: white I guess technically white ball of fire. It's not

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Speaker 4: a red it's not a dwarf, and so that's kind

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Speaker 4: of what the paradox is about.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, that's about it all right.

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Speaker 4: Well, as usually, we were wondering how many people out

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Speaker 4: there had asked themselves this question, why isn't our son different?

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Speaker 4: Why isn't it a red dwarf?

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Speaker 1: So thanks very much to everybody who participates in this

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Speaker 1: segment of the podcast, and we would love to hear

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Speaker 1: your voice out there. Those of you who have been

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Speaker 1: listening for a while but haven't yet chimed in, please

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Speaker 1: write to us to participate to questions at Danielandjorge dot com.

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Speaker 4: So think about it for a second. Have you ever

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Speaker 4: asked yourself on a nice sunny day, why our star

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Speaker 4: isn't red? Here's what people had to say. I feel

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Speaker 4: like maybe it's too big, too big to be a

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Speaker 4: red dwarf.

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Speaker 6: That's it.

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Speaker 1: I really don't know the answer to this one.

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Speaker 6: I would just imagine that it doesn't have enough mass

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Speaker 6: to either collapse into itself a form a black hole

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Speaker 6: or become a red giant.

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Speaker 7: I don't know.

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Speaker 1: Our Sun didn't follow his diet and has eaten a lot,

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Speaker 1: so it's too big to become a red Dolf.

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Speaker 6: I think the main reason our star isn't a red

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Speaker 6: Dwarf is just because it's something has to do with

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Speaker 6: like the amount of mass it has, the beginning and

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Speaker 6: when it begins, because some stars go supernova and some

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Speaker 6: stars just white doors. I don't know, I get it

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Speaker 6: mixed up.

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Speaker 2: Maybe ours is not old enough to be a red dwarf.

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Speaker 6: Maybe it still has a lot of fool to be

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Speaker 6: larger and right, dar.

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Speaker 7: I don't think that our star is supposed to be

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Speaker 7: a red dwarf. I think that it may someday be

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Speaker 7: a red dwarf given enough time, But I think that

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Speaker 7: it's not quite yet reached that phase of stellar evolution.

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Speaker 4: All right. A lot of interesting answers here.

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Speaker 1: I like the one about the Sun not following a diet.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, or the one about it not being old enough.

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Speaker 4: Although I am disappointed nobody brought off Superman in these answers.

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Speaker 1: What does Superman have to do with the sun being

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Speaker 1: yellow or red?

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Speaker 4: You don't know. I don't know, Yeah, you don't know.

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Speaker 4: It's some basic mythology about Superman.

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Speaker 1: I spent all my time watching the show Red Dwarf

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Speaker 1: instead of reading Superman comics.

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Speaker 4: Well, there you go. That's a multiverse I don't want

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Speaker 4: to live in.

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Speaker 1: So tell us, what does Superman have to do with

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Speaker 1: red stars?

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Speaker 4: Yeah, it's a basic part of his mythology. So in

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Speaker 4: the original comics, he grew up in a planet with

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Speaker 4: the red sun. Oh and so when he comes to Earth,

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Speaker 4: he has all these superpowers because our sun is not red,

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Speaker 4: it's yellow, and somehow that gives him his superpower.

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Speaker 1: Somehow, will you just YadA YadA over all the crucial elements.

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Speaker 4: Of it, Yeah, somehow ye know, of like how physicists do, how.

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Speaker 1: The Higgs boson is created in our detectors. That's exactly

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Speaker 1: what we wrote in the paper. Yeah, that was it basically.

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Speaker 4: I mean, he needs more words and some formulas. But

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Speaker 4: there's not much difference between Action comics in the Journal

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Speaker 4: of Physics.

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Speaker 1: I'm sure that Action Comics hired some physics consultants to

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Speaker 1: work out the details, and there's somewhere in their archives

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Speaker 1: there are formulas explaining how the yellow sun gives Superman

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Speaker 1: his special powers. But does that mean that Superman doesn't

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Speaker 1: have those powers in the dark.

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Speaker 4: Well, later on, sort of like he acts like a battery,

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Speaker 4: kind of like he needs to recharge, he needs to sundate.

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Speaker 4: They get his superpowers at this speed.

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Speaker 1: I see. So kryptonite isn't his kryptonite. It's sunscreen that's his.

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Speaker 4: Kryptonite in the long run.

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Speaker 1: Yes, I see. Okay, fascinating.

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Speaker 4: Well, let's dig into this red dwarf paradox and how

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Speaker 4: it might affect Superman, I guess, or all of us,

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Speaker 4: because it'd be great if we were all Superman and women.

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Speaker 1: Well, actually, what the red dwarf paradox suggests is that

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Speaker 1: most of the universe is basically Superman because one thing

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Speaker 1: that's really interesting about the universe is that most of

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Speaker 1: the stars out there in the universe are red stars,

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Speaker 1: not yellow like ours.

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Speaker 4: All right, well, let's dig into this topic and this

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Speaker 4: red dwarf paradox, and it's start with the basics. What

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Speaker 4: is a red dwarf star? Daniel, So, a.

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Speaker 1: Red dwarf is just a kind of star. Remember that

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Speaker 1: a star is a huge ball of gas and it's

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Speaker 1: squeezed down by gravity, so at its core it's hot

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Speaker 1: enough and dense enough for fusion to happen, which is

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Speaker 1: where the light comes from and why the star burns

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Speaker 1: at the temperature at the core, and therefore the temperature

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Speaker 1: at the surface depends on the mass of the star.

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Speaker 1: The more gas you have, the higher temperature and pressure

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Speaker 1: you have at the core of the star, and so

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Speaker 1: the higher the temperature at the surface, and so the

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Speaker 1: different color of the star. Remember that everything in the

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Speaker 1: universe glows, and how it glows depends on its temperature.

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Speaker 1: Our sun is a surface temperature of five or six

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Speaker 1: thousand degrees kelvin, and so it tends to glow in

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Speaker 1: our visible spectrum. Bigger stars are hotter, and so they

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Speaker 1: tend to be bluer. Smaller star are colder, and so

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Speaker 1: they tend to be redder, and so a red dwarf

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Speaker 1: star is a smaller, colder star that tends to be

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Speaker 1: redder than our star.

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Speaker 4: I guess maybe can you explain why smaller means lower temperature?

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Speaker 4: Is it because when you're smaller, you don't have as

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Speaker 4: much fusion, if at all, inside the core of the

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Speaker 4: gas clouds.

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Speaker 1: It's definitely a close connection between the size of the

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Speaker 1: star and its internal temperature, and that's just because of gravity.

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Speaker 1: Like more mass means more gravitational pressure, which means higher temperature.

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Speaker 1: We once topped our way through that thought experiment like

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Speaker 1: taking a big blob of gas and squeezing it down.

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Speaker 1: Squeezing it down heats it up because you're basically applying

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Speaker 1: pressure which pushes on all those molecules, turning them around

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Speaker 1: to focus them back towards the center. You imagine like

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Speaker 1: a big box containing cold gas. As you can strict

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Speaker 1: that box, you're pushing on all the molecules that would

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Speaker 1: have otherwise escaped, so you're giving them more and more energy.

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Speaker 1: So as you squeeze down harder and harder, you're speeding

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Speaker 1: up all those molecules. You're making them hotter and hotter.

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Speaker 1: So a bigger blob of stuff has more gravitational pressure,

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Speaker 1: which means a higher temperature.

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Speaker 4: But maybe something like Jupiter, which is also a ball

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Speaker 4: of gas. It does squeeze its gas in the middle,

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Speaker 4: but it doesn't radiate light like this star of sun

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Speaker 4: dust did it?

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Speaker 1: It does not. You're right, there's a minimum mass in

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Speaker 1: order to create the conditions for fusion. Fusion is hard.

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Speaker 1: Remember what you're doing is squeezing together two protons which

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Speaker 1: have a pretty powerful force repelling them. Right, they're both

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Speaker 1: positively charged. They don't like to get together, so to

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Speaker 1: get the protons close enough together to fuse to make helium,

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Speaker 1: you have to overcome that. So you got to squeeze

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Speaker 1: them really really hard. And so if you don't have

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Speaker 1: enough gravitational pressure, you haven't raised the temperature enough, then

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Speaker 1: fusion just doesn't happen. So there's a minimum threshold above

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Speaker 1: which fusion happens and below which it doesn't. So Jupiter

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Speaker 1: is below that threshold by like a factor of ten.

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Speaker 1: In order to get Jupiter to have fusion to ignite

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Speaker 1: at its core, you'd have to add like nine more

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Speaker 1: Jupiter's worth of mass to get it to that threshold.

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Speaker 1: Red dwarfs are stars that are just above that minimum threshold.

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Speaker 1: Like eight percent of the mass of the Sun is

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Speaker 1: like the minimum amount of stuff you need to get

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Speaker 1: fusion going. So red dwarfs are like basically the smallest

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Speaker 1: fusion reactor you can have.

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Speaker 4: So red dwarf is a star in the sense that

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Speaker 4: it has fusion inside of it. If you don't make

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Speaker 4: it to the threshold of fusion, like if you're like

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Speaker 4: point nine ninety nine below the fusion limit, would you

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Speaker 4: still glow or did you just be like a giant

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Speaker 4: gas planet like Jupiter.

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Speaker 1: You'd be a giant gas planet like Jupiter, you wouldn't

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Speaker 1: have fusion, but you would still be kind of hot

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Speaker 1: even just having that much mass and that pressure makes

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Speaker 1: you kind of hot. Like the core of Jupiter is

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Speaker 1: not cool, right, it's very high density, high temperature, just

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Speaker 1: not high enough to be fusion. Now, because you're pretty high,

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Speaker 1: you are going to glow. You're gonna glow very deep

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Speaker 1: in the infrared, and you're not gonna be nearly as

440
00:20:52,160 --> 00:20:56,560
Speaker 1: bright as stars that actually have fusion happening in them.

441
00:20:56,600 --> 00:20:59,520
Speaker 4: All right, well, I'll take being kind of hot over

442
00:21:00,200 --> 00:21:03,080
Speaker 4: being hot, although being cool it's also pretty cool.

443
00:21:03,119 --> 00:21:05,760
Speaker 1: These stars are really fascinating, these red dwarfs. They're kind

444
00:21:05,760 --> 00:21:07,560
Speaker 1: of cool, as we say, so, they tend to radiate

445
00:21:07,840 --> 00:21:10,840
Speaker 1: in the red region, and they're also really really dim.

446
00:21:11,040 --> 00:21:13,760
Speaker 1: Like these things are not nearly as bright as our sun.

447
00:21:13,920 --> 00:21:16,239
Speaker 1: As a star gets bigger, it gets hotter, and then

448
00:21:16,280 --> 00:21:19,439
Speaker 1: the fusion happens faster, and so they get brighter and brighter,

449
00:21:19,480 --> 00:21:22,560
Speaker 1: which is why like really big massive stars starts like

450
00:21:22,560 --> 00:21:24,960
Speaker 1: one hundred or two hundred times the mass of our sun,

451
00:21:25,080 --> 00:21:28,520
Speaker 1: burn really brightly, very blue, and don't last for very long.

452
00:21:28,840 --> 00:21:31,320
Speaker 1: They can burn out in just a few million years.

453
00:21:31,480 --> 00:21:33,960
Speaker 1: Stars that are about the size of our sun last

454
00:21:34,000 --> 00:21:37,080
Speaker 1: for billions of years. But if a star is smaller

455
00:21:37,240 --> 00:21:40,679
Speaker 1: and cooler, it doesn't burn as bright, it's much dimmer.

456
00:21:40,680 --> 00:21:43,679
Speaker 1: It can actually last much much longer. So a red

457
00:21:43,760 --> 00:21:46,119
Speaker 1: dwarf can last for like longer than the age of

458
00:21:46,160 --> 00:21:48,240
Speaker 1: the universe, or even much longer.

459
00:21:48,480 --> 00:21:51,320
Speaker 4: Whoa, I guess, because it's god like the heat on

460
00:21:51,440 --> 00:21:54,360
Speaker 4: low basically right, it's like it's got just enough gravity

461
00:21:54,440 --> 00:21:57,359
Speaker 4: to make fusion, but not enough to like burn a

462
00:21:57,359 --> 00:21:59,720
Speaker 4: lot of it, So it's just burning a little bit

463
00:21:59,760 --> 00:22:01,639
Speaker 4: in the center of it like a candle, more like

464
00:22:01,840 --> 00:22:02,520
Speaker 4: a bonfire.

465
00:22:02,720 --> 00:22:04,240
Speaker 1: And there's something else going on at the heart of

466
00:22:04,240 --> 00:22:07,360
Speaker 1: these red dwarfs. Because they're cooler, the way the heat

467
00:22:07,400 --> 00:22:10,080
Speaker 1: gets mixed around in their core is a little bit

468
00:22:10,119 --> 00:22:13,080
Speaker 1: different than in our star. Like at our star, a

469
00:22:13,080 --> 00:22:14,840
Speaker 1: lot of the heat transfer is what we call a

470
00:22:14,960 --> 00:22:18,879
Speaker 1: radiative transfer, Like fusion happens and photons zoom out and

471
00:22:18,920 --> 00:22:22,280
Speaker 1: the energy gets dispersed through the star towards the outside

472
00:22:22,400 --> 00:22:25,119
Speaker 1: by radiation. Right, these photons are flying out, and so

473
00:22:25,160 --> 00:22:27,560
Speaker 1: the outer parts of the star get hotter and hotter,

474
00:22:27,680 --> 00:22:30,439
Speaker 1: and helium the fusion product tends to fall towards the

475
00:22:30,480 --> 00:22:32,840
Speaker 1: core in our star, and that's actually a problem for

476
00:22:32,920 --> 00:22:35,760
Speaker 1: our star because that helium tends to sort of put

477
00:22:35,800 --> 00:22:38,720
Speaker 1: out the fusion, and so then fusion only happens on

478
00:22:38,760 --> 00:22:40,840
Speaker 1: the outside of the star. But in a red dwarf

479
00:22:40,840 --> 00:22:43,000
Speaker 1: it's a little bit different. Remember it's not as.

480
00:22:42,880 --> 00:22:44,600
Speaker 4: Bright the outside of a star.

481
00:22:44,680 --> 00:22:46,359
Speaker 1: What do you mean for a star like our sun

482
00:22:46,640 --> 00:22:48,720
Speaker 1: near the end of its life, as it accumulates helium

483
00:22:48,800 --> 00:22:50,879
Speaker 1: and its core, most of the fusion will not be

484
00:22:50,920 --> 00:22:53,680
Speaker 1: happening at its core anymore. Instead, it will be happening

485
00:22:53,720 --> 00:22:56,040
Speaker 1: on the outer layers of the star, which is one

486
00:22:56,080 --> 00:22:58,800
Speaker 1: reason why our sun will grow eventually become like a

487
00:22:58,840 --> 00:23:02,040
Speaker 1: red giant. It'll puff to have like a radius the

488
00:23:02,080 --> 00:23:05,080
Speaker 1: size of Earth's orbit, because the fusion will be happening

489
00:23:05,119 --> 00:23:07,600
Speaker 1: like in the outer layers, and the core will be

490
00:23:07,600 --> 00:23:09,960
Speaker 1: this sort of cooler helium.

491
00:23:09,960 --> 00:23:11,840
Speaker 4: But a red dwarf won't have that problem.

492
00:23:11,880 --> 00:23:14,360
Speaker 1: A red dwarf mixes in a different way because there's

493
00:23:14,359 --> 00:23:17,120
Speaker 1: not so much radiation produced at its core, so there

494
00:23:17,119 --> 00:23:19,239
Speaker 1: tends to be more convection of the plasma. It like

495
00:23:19,359 --> 00:23:22,520
Speaker 1: mixes more thoroughly, so you don't get this accumulation of

496
00:23:22,560 --> 00:23:24,880
Speaker 1: helium at the core, and it can basically just sort

497
00:23:24,880 --> 00:23:27,760
Speaker 1: of like burn steadily for a long time. This tends

498
00:23:27,760 --> 00:23:30,720
Speaker 1: to prolong the fusion. It's another reason why these red

499
00:23:30,760 --> 00:23:33,920
Speaker 1: dwarfs last a really long time. And we don't know

500
00:23:34,080 --> 00:23:37,800
Speaker 1: because the universe isn't old enough, but some calculations suggest

501
00:23:38,040 --> 00:23:40,560
Speaker 1: that a small star like ten percent the mass of

502
00:23:40,560 --> 00:23:44,160
Speaker 1: our sun could last for ten trillion years.

503
00:23:44,640 --> 00:23:47,760
Speaker 4: Wow, that's like ten thousand billion years, right.

504
00:23:47,840 --> 00:23:51,560
Speaker 1: That's ten thousand billion years, or almost a thousand times

505
00:23:51,600 --> 00:23:54,560
Speaker 1: the current age of the universe. Like some of these

506
00:23:54,600 --> 00:23:57,400
Speaker 1: red dwarfs that were created very early on in the universe,

507
00:23:57,680 --> 00:23:59,760
Speaker 1: they could be less than one to one thousands of

508
00:23:59,760 --> 00:24:02,160
Speaker 1: the way through their life cycle so far.

509
00:24:03,359 --> 00:24:06,520
Speaker 4: By lasting, you mean like sustaining fusion at their core.

510
00:24:06,480 --> 00:24:09,359
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly, because eventually they will burn through their fuel

511
00:24:09,800 --> 00:24:13,240
Speaker 1: and these things will become blue dwarfs and then white dwarfs. Eventually,

512
00:24:13,359 --> 00:24:15,320
Speaker 1: the life cycle of one of these red dwarfs, we

513
00:24:15,359 --> 00:24:18,879
Speaker 1: think ends with it basically becoming a cooler blob of

514
00:24:19,160 --> 00:24:21,520
Speaker 1: heavier metals, probably helium.

515
00:24:21,560 --> 00:24:24,119
Speaker 4: It sounds like the cosmic version of the tortos and

516
00:24:24,240 --> 00:24:28,000
Speaker 4: the hair tail there. That slow and steady kind of

517
00:24:28,040 --> 00:24:28,640
Speaker 4: wins the race.

518
00:24:28,840 --> 00:24:32,159
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. So really big stars burn really brightly but

519
00:24:32,160 --> 00:24:35,080
Speaker 1: don't last very long, and really small stars burn cooler,

520
00:24:35,160 --> 00:24:39,240
Speaker 1: but they last forever almost. And this is really useful

521
00:24:39,240 --> 00:24:41,800
Speaker 1: when we're looking out into the universe trying to understand

522
00:24:41,920 --> 00:24:44,520
Speaker 1: how recently stars were made. If you're looking at a

523
00:24:44,520 --> 00:24:46,760
Speaker 1: part of the universe and you see blue stars, you

524
00:24:46,800 --> 00:24:50,480
Speaker 1: see hot, bright young stars, that means stars must have

525
00:24:50,520 --> 00:24:54,040
Speaker 1: been made recently. If all you're looking at are redder stars,

526
00:24:54,359 --> 00:24:57,119
Speaker 1: then you know that it's pretty old because all the

527
00:24:57,200 --> 00:25:00,240
Speaker 1: hot young blue stars have already burned out. It's a

528
00:25:00,280 --> 00:25:03,280
Speaker 1: really helpful lever for understanding what's going on out there

529
00:25:03,280 --> 00:25:04,400
Speaker 1: in the universe.

530
00:25:04,840 --> 00:25:08,840
Speaker 4: Sort of like looking at TikTok, only young stars there.

531
00:25:09,920 --> 00:25:12,399
Speaker 4: All right, Well, that's what a red dwarf is, and

532
00:25:12,480 --> 00:25:15,159
Speaker 4: so the big question is why isn't our star a

533
00:25:15,280 --> 00:25:18,600
Speaker 4: red dwarf? And would we all have superpowers if it were.

534
00:25:19,640 --> 00:25:21,679
Speaker 4: So let's dig into that, But first let's take a

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604
00:29:03,880 --> 00:29:06,600
Speaker 4: All right, we're talking about the red dwarf paradox. Basically,

605
00:29:06,640 --> 00:29:08,960
Speaker 4: why isn't our son a red dwarf? I feel like

606
00:29:09,000 --> 00:29:11,520
Speaker 4: this is an insensitive question, Daniel, I mean, how would

607
00:29:11,520 --> 00:29:12,160
Speaker 4: our sun feel?

608
00:29:15,320 --> 00:29:17,000
Speaker 1: Maybe we should have asked it the other way, say

609
00:29:17,080 --> 00:29:19,480
Speaker 1: why is our stars so special and wonderful?

610
00:29:19,920 --> 00:29:22,600
Speaker 4: Yeah, there you go, that sounds better. Maybe it should

611
00:29:22,600 --> 00:29:26,480
Speaker 4: be the yellow sun bonus situation.

612
00:29:27,120 --> 00:29:29,360
Speaker 1: There you go, straight from our pr department. But our

613
00:29:29,400 --> 00:29:31,880
Speaker 1: sun is kind of special. I mean, if you look

614
00:29:31,920 --> 00:29:35,280
Speaker 1: out in the universe, our sun is not the most

615
00:29:35,320 --> 00:29:39,560
Speaker 1: common kind of sun. Instead, like seventy five percent of

616
00:29:39,600 --> 00:29:42,840
Speaker 1: the stars in the galaxy are red dwarfs. These things

617
00:29:42,920 --> 00:29:46,240
Speaker 1: like dominate the galaxy. Most of the stars out there

618
00:29:46,320 --> 00:29:49,400
Speaker 1: are red dwarfs, not yellow stars like ours.

619
00:29:49,480 --> 00:29:51,280
Speaker 4: Well, what do you mean dominate? What kind of numbers?

620
00:29:51,320 --> 00:29:52,000
Speaker 4: Are we talking about.

621
00:29:52,240 --> 00:29:55,160
Speaker 1: So three quarters of all stars in our galaxy are

622
00:29:55,280 --> 00:29:58,280
Speaker 1: red dwarfs. It's like overwhelming. M.

623
00:29:59,080 --> 00:30:01,960
Speaker 4: Well, that's you're seeing. So three quarters of the stars

624
00:30:02,000 --> 00:30:04,000
Speaker 4: in our in our galaxy are red dwarfs, but they

625
00:30:04,000 --> 00:30:06,360
Speaker 4: don't look red when you look out into the night sky.

626
00:30:06,560 --> 00:30:09,160
Speaker 1: Yeah, this is really fascinating. Most of the stars in

627
00:30:09,200 --> 00:30:12,720
Speaker 1: the galaxy are red dwarfs, but none of the stars

628
00:30:12,800 --> 00:30:15,320
Speaker 1: you can see in the sky with a naked eye

629
00:30:15,520 --> 00:30:18,320
Speaker 1: are red dwarfs. And the reason is that these red

630
00:30:18,400 --> 00:30:20,880
Speaker 1: dwarfs are pretty dim. Remember, they can be like ten

631
00:30:20,960 --> 00:30:25,320
Speaker 1: thousand times less bright than our sun, and so they're

632
00:30:25,360 --> 00:30:27,479
Speaker 1: all over the place. They're out there. But the stars

633
00:30:27,480 --> 00:30:29,800
Speaker 1: we see in the sky are not red dwarfs. We

634
00:30:29,840 --> 00:30:32,200
Speaker 1: see the bright ones, the rare ones.

635
00:30:33,560 --> 00:30:36,520
Speaker 4: Interesting. So I guess if you looked at the sky

636
00:30:36,640 --> 00:30:39,520
Speaker 4: with maybe like an infrared glasses, or if you could

637
00:30:39,520 --> 00:30:43,479
Speaker 4: see into the lower frequency light spectrum, then you might

638
00:30:43,520 --> 00:30:45,360
Speaker 4: see a whole bunch of more stars when you look

639
00:30:45,400 --> 00:30:46,160
Speaker 4: at the night sky.

640
00:30:46,440 --> 00:30:49,760
Speaker 1: Yeah. In fact, that the closest star to us, Proxima Centauri,

641
00:30:50,080 --> 00:30:52,680
Speaker 1: is a red dwarf. It is like twelve point five

642
00:30:52,720 --> 00:30:55,280
Speaker 1: percent the mass of the Sun. You can't see it

643
00:30:55,320 --> 00:30:58,160
Speaker 1: with the naked eye. Even though it's the closest star

644
00:30:58,320 --> 00:31:00,600
Speaker 1: to Earth, most of the stars you're looking at in

645
00:31:00,600 --> 00:31:03,080
Speaker 1: the sky are what we call like FK or G

646
00:31:03,240 --> 00:31:05,480
Speaker 1: type stars instead of red dwarfs.

647
00:31:05,720 --> 00:31:08,080
Speaker 4: Well, that's super interesting. So I guess animals I can

648
00:31:08,120 --> 00:31:12,040
Speaker 4: see that night vision basically, they can see infrared. More

649
00:31:12,240 --> 00:31:14,200
Speaker 4: would they look out into the nice sky and see

650
00:31:14,520 --> 00:31:16,200
Speaker 4: a totally different picture than we would.

651
00:31:16,240 --> 00:31:18,680
Speaker 1: Wow, that's a super fascinating question. I don't know. I

652
00:31:18,680 --> 00:31:20,480
Speaker 1: guess we'll have to have an animal on the podcast

653
00:31:20,560 --> 00:31:23,320
Speaker 1: as a guest, our first animal astronomer, and ask them

654
00:31:23,360 --> 00:31:24,400
Speaker 1: all about what they see.

655
00:31:24,600 --> 00:31:26,960
Speaker 4: Yeah, sounds good. Which animal would that be?

656
00:31:27,040 --> 00:31:30,840
Speaker 1: An anteater? Of course? For uci zat No. But we

657
00:31:30,920 --> 00:31:34,680
Speaker 1: have built infrared eyeballs, right, James web Remember is an

658
00:31:34,680 --> 00:31:39,280
Speaker 1: infrared telescope. It specializes in seeing in the infrared, and

659
00:31:39,280 --> 00:31:42,160
Speaker 1: we have lots of other infrared facilities that can see

660
00:31:42,400 --> 00:31:45,320
Speaker 1: these spectra. And so we have of course observed these stars.

661
00:31:45,320 --> 00:31:47,680
Speaker 1: We looked out into the universe and notice them. That's

662
00:31:47,680 --> 00:31:49,800
Speaker 1: how we know that they are there. But it's really

663
00:31:49,800 --> 00:31:51,880
Speaker 1: interesting to me to think, like, not only is our

664
00:31:52,000 --> 00:31:54,400
Speaker 1: star not a red dwarf, but none of the stars

665
00:31:54,400 --> 00:31:58,240
Speaker 1: we see our red dwarfs even though they dominate the universe.

666
00:31:58,880 --> 00:32:00,960
Speaker 4: I guess maybe the first question I would have, and

667
00:32:00,960 --> 00:32:03,760
Speaker 4: I imagine anyone would have, is why is the universe

668
00:32:03,800 --> 00:32:06,360
Speaker 4: mostly made out of red dwars? Why is it seventy

669
00:32:06,360 --> 00:32:08,440
Speaker 4: five percent of stars in the galaxy or red dwars?

670
00:32:08,480 --> 00:32:10,240
Speaker 4: Why isn't it more distributed?

671
00:32:10,280 --> 00:32:13,320
Speaker 1: Yeah, it's a really cool question. There's this concept in

672
00:32:13,440 --> 00:32:17,080
Speaker 1: astronomy called the initial mass function, which tries to describe

673
00:32:17,120 --> 00:32:21,040
Speaker 1: basically how much stuff a star gets. You know, ask

674
00:32:21,080 --> 00:32:23,680
Speaker 1: the question like, if you're forming a star, how much

675
00:32:23,680 --> 00:32:26,200
Speaker 1: stuff are you likely to get? What's the distribution of

676
00:32:26,240 --> 00:32:29,280
Speaker 1: the mass of stars, for example, and what turns out

677
00:32:29,280 --> 00:32:31,680
Speaker 1: to be like a power law, you're much much less

678
00:32:31,760 --> 00:32:34,520
Speaker 1: likely to make a big star than a small star.

679
00:32:35,320 --> 00:32:37,760
Speaker 1: And you know, as gas clouds are sort of coming

680
00:32:37,800 --> 00:32:41,320
Speaker 1: together and forming stars, you're just less likely to grab

681
00:32:41,360 --> 00:32:44,280
Speaker 1: a bigger blob of stuff. You're more likely to form

682
00:32:44,600 --> 00:32:48,040
Speaker 1: multiple smaller stars than a single larger.

683
00:32:47,680 --> 00:32:50,280
Speaker 4: Star because of just how gravity works out there in

684
00:32:50,280 --> 00:32:52,040
Speaker 4: space in a gas cloud.

685
00:32:52,160 --> 00:32:54,840
Speaker 1: Yeah, it's actually quite complicated because it involves not just

686
00:32:54,880 --> 00:32:58,880
Speaker 1: gravity but also like where metals are and how they're distributed.

687
00:32:59,040 --> 00:33:02,480
Speaker 1: Imagine this big gas cloud where gravity pulls things together

688
00:33:02,520 --> 00:33:04,920
Speaker 1: to make stars depends on where you have little bits

689
00:33:04,960 --> 00:33:08,000
Speaker 1: of density to start with, and the universe is mostly hydrogen,

690
00:33:08,040 --> 00:33:10,920
Speaker 1: but it's also sprinkled with a bunch of metals, right,

691
00:33:11,360 --> 00:33:14,560
Speaker 1: the metals from previous stars that burned and fused these

692
00:33:14,600 --> 00:33:17,280
Speaker 1: heavy things and then sprayed them out into the universe.

693
00:33:17,920 --> 00:33:20,520
Speaker 1: So we think that also as time goes on and

694
00:33:20,560 --> 00:33:23,960
Speaker 1: the universe gets more and more metallic, less hydrogen and

695
00:33:24,000 --> 00:33:27,440
Speaker 1: more heavy stuff, that the size of stars decreased. Like

696
00:33:27,480 --> 00:33:30,360
Speaker 1: the first generation of stars will we weirdly call type three.

697
00:33:30,760 --> 00:33:34,440
Speaker 1: We think these were all really really big, hugely massive stars,

698
00:33:34,480 --> 00:33:36,640
Speaker 1: like three or four hundred times the mass of our sun,

699
00:33:36,920 --> 00:33:39,200
Speaker 1: and they burned out really really quickly. But while they burned,

700
00:33:39,240 --> 00:33:41,960
Speaker 1: they also made some heavier metals, So the next generation

701
00:33:42,040 --> 00:33:45,240
Speaker 1: of stars got seated with more over densities because you

702
00:33:45,240 --> 00:33:47,920
Speaker 1: had this like spray of little dots of metal to

703
00:33:48,000 --> 00:33:51,800
Speaker 1: start more stars that sort of collapsed more easily into

704
00:33:51,840 --> 00:33:54,560
Speaker 1: these cold blobs. So it's a complicated interplay with like

705
00:33:54,600 --> 00:33:57,360
Speaker 1: the temperature of these gas clouds and the distribution of

706
00:33:57,400 --> 00:34:00,280
Speaker 1: where the metal seeds are to start these things, and

707
00:34:00,320 --> 00:34:03,280
Speaker 1: there's a lot of uncertainty. People aren't really sure exactly

708
00:34:03,320 --> 00:34:06,080
Speaker 1: what the shape of this initial mass function is, but

709
00:34:06,160 --> 00:34:09,240
Speaker 1: we are sure of the overall trend that bigger stars

710
00:34:09,280 --> 00:34:12,120
Speaker 1: tend to be more rare and smaller star is more common,

711
00:34:12,400 --> 00:34:15,560
Speaker 1: and that's why we have more small stars than big stars.

712
00:34:15,880 --> 00:34:18,920
Speaker 4: Hmmm. Interesting. I wonder what that was like when we

713
00:34:19,120 --> 00:34:22,440
Speaker 4: first discovered that fact that most of the stars in

714
00:34:22,480 --> 00:34:25,120
Speaker 4: the universe are red dwarfs, because I imagine we looked

715
00:34:25,160 --> 00:34:26,880
Speaker 4: that into the sky and saw a bunch of stars

716
00:34:26,920 --> 00:34:29,160
Speaker 4: and said, oh, that's pretty neat. But then we looked

717
00:34:29,160 --> 00:34:31,720
Speaker 4: at the universe at a different kind of light and suddenly, boom,

718
00:34:31,920 --> 00:34:34,799
Speaker 4: there's like three times more stars than we thought there were.

719
00:34:35,000 --> 00:34:37,560
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. It's one of my favorite things about astronomy

720
00:34:37,600 --> 00:34:39,520
Speaker 1: that every time we build a new kind of instrument

721
00:34:39,560 --> 00:34:41,879
Speaker 1: and look out into the universe, we discover, Wow, there's

722
00:34:41,880 --> 00:34:44,040
Speaker 1: a lot more going on than we thought. It's like

723
00:34:44,120 --> 00:34:47,160
Speaker 1: a whole other universe out there, filled with these red dwarfs.

724
00:34:47,160 --> 00:34:50,120
Speaker 1: We've been looking mostly at the rare stuff and not

725
00:34:50,239 --> 00:34:53,400
Speaker 1: at the common stuff, not at the typical stuff, and

726
00:34:53,480 --> 00:34:56,120
Speaker 1: it turns out that our sun is not one of

727
00:34:56,160 --> 00:34:58,759
Speaker 1: the usual ones. And that's sort of the core of

728
00:34:58,800 --> 00:35:01,799
Speaker 1: the red dwarf paradigm. It's like, if most of the

729
00:35:01,840 --> 00:35:06,160
Speaker 1: stars out there are red dwarfs and they live much

730
00:35:06,280 --> 00:35:09,600
Speaker 1: much longer than our kind of star, then why did

731
00:35:09,640 --> 00:35:13,040
Speaker 1: we happen to evolve around one of these rare, shorter

732
00:35:13,200 --> 00:35:16,320
Speaker 1: lived stars instead of one of the more common, longer

733
00:35:16,400 --> 00:35:17,040
Speaker 1: lived ones.

734
00:35:17,520 --> 00:35:20,480
Speaker 4: So that's the basic red dwarf products, Like why didn't

735
00:35:20,480 --> 00:35:23,560
Speaker 4: we get to evolve or come up in a star

736
00:35:23,640 --> 00:35:25,560
Speaker 4: that's a red dwarf because there are three times more

737
00:35:25,560 --> 00:35:27,480
Speaker 4: common than our kind of star.

738
00:35:27,560 --> 00:35:30,560
Speaker 1: They're five times more common, and on average they outlast

739
00:35:30,600 --> 00:35:34,040
Speaker 1: our star by twenty So like either it's a one

740
00:35:34,080 --> 00:35:37,800
Speaker 1: in one hundred chance, or maybe there's a reason, Maybe

741
00:35:37,840 --> 00:35:40,720
Speaker 1: there's an explanation why life can't happen around red dwarves

742
00:35:40,800 --> 00:35:43,719
Speaker 1: or it's less likely around red dwarfs. One thing we

743
00:35:43,800 --> 00:35:45,720
Speaker 1: do know is that red dwarves tend to have planets

744
00:35:45,719 --> 00:35:48,120
Speaker 1: around them, just like our kind of star. And so

745
00:35:48,360 --> 00:35:51,360
Speaker 1: it's a fun question like is there life around red dwarves?

746
00:35:51,400 --> 00:35:54,560
Speaker 1: Are we an unusual kind of life? Is everybody else

747
00:35:54,600 --> 00:35:56,160
Speaker 1: out there in the universe? Superman?

748
00:35:56,760 --> 00:35:59,640
Speaker 4: Are all their planets called Krypton? That is what this

749
00:35:59,800 --> 00:36:02,680
Speaker 4: is day up at night wondering about But this is

750
00:36:02,680 --> 00:36:06,520
Speaker 4: an interesting scenario, Like you're saying that most red dwarfs

751
00:36:06,640 --> 00:36:08,480
Speaker 4: are kind of just like our stars. They can have

752
00:36:08,560 --> 00:36:12,120
Speaker 4: planets orbiting around them. What would their sun look like

753
00:36:12,320 --> 00:36:14,719
Speaker 4: to someone living in a planet like that, Well, if.

754
00:36:14,680 --> 00:36:17,960
Speaker 1: You're at the same distance from that red dwarf as

755
00:36:18,000 --> 00:36:19,800
Speaker 1: we are from our sun, then of course it'd be

756
00:36:19,840 --> 00:36:22,920
Speaker 1: a lot dimmer, right and colder, right, Yeah, exactly, dimmer

757
00:36:22,960 --> 00:36:26,160
Speaker 1: and colder. It'd be dark and chilly. Of course, you

758
00:36:26,160 --> 00:36:28,840
Speaker 1: could be closer up and then you'd be brighter and warmer.

759
00:36:29,200 --> 00:36:32,040
Speaker 1: But the star itself also would look different. The star

760
00:36:32,080 --> 00:36:34,920
Speaker 1: itself is colder, which means it's light is redder. So

761
00:36:34,960 --> 00:36:36,759
Speaker 1: you look when the sky, you wouldn't see like a

762
00:36:36,840 --> 00:36:39,920
Speaker 1: yellow or white sun. You see like a pale orange

763
00:36:40,000 --> 00:36:42,279
Speaker 1: or a red disc in the sky. It would be

764
00:36:42,320 --> 00:36:43,600
Speaker 1: a very different experience.

765
00:36:44,080 --> 00:36:46,040
Speaker 4: Well, I wonder if it would be different, you know,

766
00:36:46,200 --> 00:36:48,720
Speaker 4: because you would have to be closer to the star

767
00:36:49,000 --> 00:36:51,560
Speaker 4: to get the same warmth as us. So it is

768
00:36:51,600 --> 00:36:53,480
Speaker 4: possible for there to be a planet around a red

769
00:36:53,560 --> 00:36:57,680
Speaker 4: dwarf that feels like our situation here, and you'd be

770
00:36:57,760 --> 00:36:59,480
Speaker 4: closer to it, so would be just as warm and

771
00:36:59,520 --> 00:37:02,359
Speaker 4: maybe just as bright as our sun is to us,

772
00:37:02,719 --> 00:37:03,239
Speaker 4: wouldn't it.

773
00:37:03,480 --> 00:37:05,920
Speaker 1: Yeah, you could definitely have a planet in a habitable

774
00:37:06,000 --> 00:37:08,680
Speaker 1: zone where water is liquid at the surface and it's

775
00:37:08,680 --> 00:37:11,359
Speaker 1: about the same temperature as Earth, but it would look

776
00:37:11,400 --> 00:37:13,440
Speaker 1: different in the sky, right, it would still be red

777
00:37:13,560 --> 00:37:16,320
Speaker 1: instead of yellow. Though if you evolve on that planet,

778
00:37:16,360 --> 00:37:19,040
Speaker 1: then who knows what your experience of red is.

779
00:37:19,400 --> 00:37:21,399
Speaker 4: Yeah, that's what I mean, Like, it would only look

780
00:37:21,480 --> 00:37:24,040
Speaker 4: red if a human went over there and landed on

781
00:37:24,080 --> 00:37:27,440
Speaker 4: that planet. But to some species that evolve there, it

782
00:37:27,480 --> 00:37:29,480
Speaker 4: would just look like white light, or it would be

783
00:37:29,480 --> 00:37:32,600
Speaker 4: what they call white light, because they would maybe see

784
00:37:32,600 --> 00:37:36,040
Speaker 4: a different, totally different spectrum of light. The visible spectrum

785
00:37:36,040 --> 00:37:38,759
Speaker 4: would be you know, shifted over, but they would call

786
00:37:38,800 --> 00:37:39,680
Speaker 4: that white light, right.

787
00:37:40,880 --> 00:37:42,359
Speaker 1: I don't know what they would call it, but you're

788
00:37:42,400 --> 00:37:45,680
Speaker 1: totally right that it's very likely that their visible spectrum

789
00:37:45,680 --> 00:37:49,040
Speaker 1: would be different from ours because ours evolved in response

790
00:37:49,080 --> 00:37:51,280
Speaker 1: to the light that happens to be here on Earth.

791
00:37:51,719 --> 00:37:54,880
Speaker 1: What we call visible is no coincidence. Peaks around the

792
00:37:54,960 --> 00:37:57,719
Speaker 1: light that the sun puts out our sun, and so

793
00:37:58,000 --> 00:38:00,239
Speaker 1: it makes a lot of sense, as you say, are

794
00:38:00,280 --> 00:38:03,640
Speaker 1: aliens around a red dwarf for their visible sensitivity to

795
00:38:03,680 --> 00:38:06,880
Speaker 1: peak around the light emitted by their star instead of ours.

796
00:38:06,920 --> 00:38:09,080
Speaker 1: Whether they would call that white or not, I'm not

797
00:38:09,120 --> 00:38:11,080
Speaker 1: sure what they would experience it, What would their art

798
00:38:11,120 --> 00:38:11,480
Speaker 1: be like?

799
00:38:11,640 --> 00:38:13,000
Speaker 4: You know, I guess what I mean is like what

800
00:38:13,040 --> 00:38:15,680
Speaker 4: we call white light is just light that has all

801
00:38:15,680 --> 00:38:19,680
Speaker 4: the frequencies in our visible spectrum. Like that's our experience

802
00:38:19,719 --> 00:38:21,680
Speaker 4: of white light. And so if you're growing up in

803
00:38:21,719 --> 00:38:25,200
Speaker 4: that red dwarf planet, you know, your eyes would probably

804
00:38:25,200 --> 00:38:28,960
Speaker 4: evolve to also interpret you know, everything that's in your

805
00:38:29,080 --> 00:38:32,120
Speaker 4: visible spectrum to be you know, the white or what

806
00:38:32,200 --> 00:38:35,200
Speaker 4: we would call white. And so you know, they wouldn't

807
00:38:35,200 --> 00:38:36,160
Speaker 4: know they're in a red planet.

808
00:38:36,320 --> 00:38:38,120
Speaker 1: That's interesting. And so if they tend to paint like

809
00:38:38,160 --> 00:38:40,520
Speaker 1: all their walls white, we show up to visit, there

810
00:38:40,560 --> 00:38:42,799
Speaker 1: would be like, why is everything painted red? You guys

811
00:38:42,840 --> 00:38:45,120
Speaker 1: have like a red sun is not enough, you also

812
00:38:45,160 --> 00:38:46,839
Speaker 1: have to paint all of your walls.

813
00:38:46,520 --> 00:38:49,040
Speaker 4: Red, right, That's what I mean. Or if they came

814
00:38:49,080 --> 00:38:51,680
Speaker 4: to our planet to be like, why is everything blue?

815
00:38:51,920 --> 00:38:55,520
Speaker 4: You guys are nuts. That's not blue, that's that's not white.

816
00:38:55,560 --> 00:38:55,960
Speaker 4: That's weird.

817
00:38:56,120 --> 00:38:58,000
Speaker 1: We say we just got the blues because we didn't

818
00:38:58,000 --> 00:38:59,680
Speaker 1: get to grow up around a red dwarf. We got

819
00:38:59,680 --> 00:39:00,800
Speaker 1: the yellow blues.

820
00:39:00,960 --> 00:39:03,640
Speaker 4: Yeah, and so our star is not a red dwarf.

821
00:39:03,680 --> 00:39:05,840
Speaker 4: It's a different kind of star. It's bigger.

822
00:39:06,560 --> 00:39:07,920
Speaker 1: We have a G dwarf.

823
00:39:07,960 --> 00:39:09,040
Speaker 4: Wait, it's still a dwarf.

824
00:39:09,239 --> 00:39:11,319
Speaker 1: Well, you might not be surprised. But there's a lot

825
00:39:11,320 --> 00:39:13,279
Speaker 1: of disagreement about what to call them. Some people call

826
00:39:13,320 --> 00:39:15,520
Speaker 1: it a yellow dwarf or a G type or a

827
00:39:15,600 --> 00:39:18,600
Speaker 1: G dwarf, but it's part of a category of stars

828
00:39:19,080 --> 00:39:22,600
Speaker 1: FG and K where those letters just indicate basically the

829
00:39:22,640 --> 00:39:25,560
Speaker 1: mass of the star and therefore it's temperature. So every

830
00:39:25,600 --> 00:39:27,880
Speaker 1: star that has a mass of our sun within about

831
00:39:27,880 --> 00:39:30,920
Speaker 1: ten percent, we call it a G type or G dwarf.

832
00:39:31,440 --> 00:39:34,160
Speaker 1: And then there are F type and K type that

833
00:39:34,239 --> 00:39:36,040
Speaker 1: can be like a little bigger or a little hotter

834
00:39:36,239 --> 00:39:39,320
Speaker 1: or whatever. And lots of famous stars like Alpha Centauri,

835
00:39:39,360 --> 00:39:41,680
Speaker 1: for example, is also a G type star.

836
00:39:42,320 --> 00:39:44,960
Speaker 4: Interesting, Well, I like our star. It's pretty nice and

837
00:39:45,000 --> 00:39:47,400
Speaker 4: sunny for us here. Maybe my next question is like,

838
00:39:47,560 --> 00:39:49,839
Speaker 4: why is this a paradox? I feel like maybe you're

839
00:39:51,280 --> 00:39:53,720
Speaker 4: stretching the definition of the word because it doesn't feel

840
00:39:53,719 --> 00:39:58,200
Speaker 4: like a logical inconsistency. It just feels like a philosophical question,

841
00:39:58,560 --> 00:40:00,839
Speaker 4: like why did we happen to live around a star

842
00:40:00,960 --> 00:40:03,799
Speaker 4: that represents, you know, the fifty percent of the all

843
00:40:03,840 --> 00:40:04,840
Speaker 4: the stars in the universe.

844
00:40:04,960 --> 00:40:07,480
Speaker 1: I think it's called a paradox because it asks a

845
00:40:07,480 --> 00:40:10,600
Speaker 1: basic question. It says, if it's true that these stars

846
00:40:10,640 --> 00:40:14,200
Speaker 1: are just as likely to have life as ours, then

847
00:40:14,320 --> 00:40:17,080
Speaker 1: it's much more likely that we would have evolved on

848
00:40:17,160 --> 00:40:20,120
Speaker 1: a red dwarf instead of a G type star. And

849
00:40:20,160 --> 00:40:22,560
Speaker 1: so you have to either say, all right, something very

850
00:40:22,640 --> 00:40:26,640
Speaker 1: unlikely happened, or there's a reason, there's an explanation. Is

851
00:40:26,800 --> 00:40:29,840
Speaker 1: again just a tool to dig into all of those assumptions.

852
00:40:30,120 --> 00:40:33,200
Speaker 1: In this case, it's not like ridiculously unlikely we're talking

853
00:40:33,239 --> 00:40:35,960
Speaker 1: about it's like a one in one hundred chance. If

854
00:40:36,040 --> 00:40:39,600
Speaker 1: life is equally likely to evolve around G type, F type,

855
00:40:39,719 --> 00:40:42,879
Speaker 1: K type and red dwarfs, then it's like a one

856
00:40:42,880 --> 00:40:45,240
Speaker 1: in one hundred chance to not end up evolving around

857
00:40:45,239 --> 00:40:47,640
Speaker 1: a red dwarf. And that's not crazy. You know, one

858
00:40:47,680 --> 00:40:50,200
Speaker 1: in one hundred chances happen. But it's an invitation to

859
00:40:50,239 --> 00:40:52,279
Speaker 1: dig deeper, and for those of us who want to

860
00:40:52,400 --> 00:40:56,160
Speaker 1: understand the universe, these are opportunities, These are clues that say,

861
00:40:56,200 --> 00:40:57,759
Speaker 1: maybe there's something else going on.

862
00:40:57,960 --> 00:41:00,359
Speaker 4: All right, Well, let's dig into what could be going

863
00:41:00,400 --> 00:41:03,200
Speaker 4: on there. What kinds of assumptions are we making about

864
00:41:03,280 --> 00:41:05,759
Speaker 4: life here on Earth and what life could be like

865
00:41:05,960 --> 00:41:08,520
Speaker 4: around a red dwarf planet. So let's stick into that.

866
00:41:08,600 --> 00:41:10,520
Speaker 4: But first, let's take another quick break.

867
00:41:14,560 --> 00:41:16,360
Speaker 1: When you pop a piece of cheese into your mouth,

868
00:41:16,480 --> 00:41:19,600
Speaker 1: or enjoy a rich spoonful of Greek yogurt, you're probably

869
00:41:19,640 --> 00:41:23,680
Speaker 1: not thinking about the environmental impact of each and every bite.

870
00:41:23,719 --> 00:41:26,320
Speaker 1: But the people in the dairy industry are. US Dairy

871
00:41:26,400 --> 00:41:30,680
Speaker 1: has set themselves some ambitious sustainability goals, including being greenhouse

872
00:41:30,719 --> 00:41:33,279
Speaker 1: gas neutral by twenty to fifty. That's why they're working

873
00:41:33,320 --> 00:41:35,680
Speaker 1: hard every day to find new ways to reduce waste,

874
00:41:35,719 --> 00:41:39,919
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Speaker 4: All right, we're talking about Superman what's your favorite Superman

920
00:44:10,800 --> 00:44:11,720
Speaker 4: storyline anyway?

921
00:44:13,880 --> 00:44:17,840
Speaker 1: The one where Daniel didn't know that Superman required sunlight

922
00:44:17,960 --> 00:44:18,400
Speaker 1: to work.

923
00:44:18,680 --> 00:44:20,840
Speaker 4: You didn't know Superman was big on solar energy.

924
00:44:21,680 --> 00:44:24,560
Speaker 1: The one where Superman makes a crossover on my favorite

925
00:44:24,560 --> 00:44:25,880
Speaker 1: TV show, Red Dwarf.

926
00:44:26,360 --> 00:44:29,279
Speaker 4: That might happen. You never know, You know, all these

927
00:44:29,320 --> 00:44:31,400
Speaker 4: companies keep getting bought out by other companies.

928
00:44:32,040 --> 00:44:35,160
Speaker 1: That's right. If DC buys the BBC and we have

929
00:44:35,239 --> 00:44:38,520
Speaker 1: the DC BBC extended Universe, maybe it'll happens.

930
00:44:38,560 --> 00:44:43,600
Speaker 4: Right the d DBC. We're talking about red dwarfs, and

931
00:44:43,880 --> 00:44:46,719
Speaker 4: apparently our star, the one we see during the day,

932
00:44:47,080 --> 00:44:49,520
Speaker 4: is not the most common type of star in the universe.

933
00:44:49,560 --> 00:44:53,080
Speaker 4: It's only maybe fifteen percent of all it's kind, It's

934
00:44:53,120 --> 00:44:55,080
Speaker 4: only fifty percent of all the stars out there in

935
00:44:55,120 --> 00:44:57,640
Speaker 4: the lease in their galaxy, most of the stars seventy

936
00:44:57,640 --> 00:45:00,839
Speaker 4: five of stars in the galaxy are red dwarfs, which

937
00:45:00,840 --> 00:45:03,840
Speaker 4: are different, smaller, cooler, And so maybe a question you

938
00:45:03,840 --> 00:45:06,760
Speaker 4: can ask is like, why isn't our star a red dwarf?

939
00:45:06,920 --> 00:45:08,839
Speaker 4: I guess I'm wondering what we're really asking here. We're

940
00:45:08,880 --> 00:45:12,040
Speaker 4: asking why our star is not a red dwarf? Or

941
00:45:12,120 --> 00:45:16,040
Speaker 4: are we asking why we're not a species that grew

942
00:45:16,080 --> 00:45:17,160
Speaker 4: up around a red dwarf.

943
00:45:17,320 --> 00:45:19,759
Speaker 1: Yeah. The second one we're asking, is it just chance

944
00:45:19,760 --> 00:45:22,560
Speaker 1: that we happen to evolve not in the most likely situation,

945
00:45:22,920 --> 00:45:26,000
Speaker 1: or is there a reason we misunderstood where life is

946
00:45:26,080 --> 00:45:27,160
Speaker 1: possible and likely.

947
00:45:27,480 --> 00:45:30,040
Speaker 4: I guess that's a weird question to ask, because the

948
00:45:30,080 --> 00:45:35,319
Speaker 4: answer could be both. Right. It could be that there's

949
00:45:35,719 --> 00:45:38,879
Speaker 4: equal chances of a species growing up around any star,

950
00:45:39,120 --> 00:45:41,040
Speaker 4: but we just happened to be one of the ones

951
00:45:41,080 --> 00:45:42,399
Speaker 4: that grew up around a yellow star.

952
00:45:42,600 --> 00:45:45,319
Speaker 1: Yeah. Absolutely, It certainly could be both, and it could

953
00:45:45,320 --> 00:45:49,080
Speaker 1: also just be chants. Those coincidences do happen. But we've

954
00:45:49,080 --> 00:45:52,200
Speaker 1: made a lot of progress in science just by pushing

955
00:45:52,239 --> 00:45:55,760
Speaker 1: this basic principle, the Copernican principle, saying let's never assume

956
00:45:55,840 --> 00:45:59,480
Speaker 1: that there's something special or weird about our situation. Let's

957
00:45:59,480 --> 00:46:01,520
Speaker 1: try to describe what we see under the assumption that

958
00:46:01,600 --> 00:46:04,920
Speaker 1: no place is special. And that's been very useful. It's

959
00:46:04,960 --> 00:46:06,799
Speaker 1: not a hard and fast rule, but it's guided our

960
00:46:06,840 --> 00:46:08,440
Speaker 1: thinking and helped us make discoveries.

961
00:46:08,640 --> 00:46:10,760
Speaker 4: All right, Well, if you apply that principle, what would

962
00:46:10,760 --> 00:46:13,320
Speaker 4: be some of the answers to the red dwarf paradox.

963
00:46:13,560 --> 00:46:16,000
Speaker 1: Well, one way you could reduce the unlikeliness of the

964
00:46:16,000 --> 00:46:19,439
Speaker 1: paradox is to think about, like how fast life does

965
00:46:19,560 --> 00:46:22,120
Speaker 1: evolve into intelligent life. One thing we're saying is that

966
00:46:22,160 --> 00:46:24,480
Speaker 1: these red dwarfs is five times as many of them

967
00:46:24,600 --> 00:46:27,560
Speaker 1: and they last twenty times as long. That seems to

968
00:46:27,600 --> 00:46:30,640
Speaker 1: suggest that you're like one hundred times more likely to

969
00:46:30,680 --> 00:46:32,919
Speaker 1: revolve around a red dwarf than our kind of star.

970
00:46:33,120 --> 00:46:36,400
Speaker 1: But that is actually making some assumptions. That's assuming, for example,

971
00:46:36,400 --> 00:46:39,359
Speaker 1: that life might take a long time to evolve. You know,

972
00:46:39,480 --> 00:46:42,080
Speaker 1: that's very unlikely. And so these red dwarfs, because they

973
00:46:42,160 --> 00:46:44,279
Speaker 1: last longer and they're more of them, they're basically like

974
00:46:44,440 --> 00:46:47,239
Speaker 1: buying more lottery tickets, and so they're more likely to win.

975
00:46:47,480 --> 00:46:51,440
Speaker 1: But instead, if intelligent life evolves pretty rapidly, if it

976
00:46:51,440 --> 00:46:54,239
Speaker 1: doesn't take very long to evolve, then the fact that

977
00:46:54,280 --> 00:46:57,280
Speaker 1: red dwarves happen to live longer, have longer life span

978
00:46:57,640 --> 00:47:00,960
Speaker 1: doesn't necessarily help them. And so and that's instead of

979
00:47:01,000 --> 00:47:04,080
Speaker 1: being like one hundred to one, it's more like five

980
00:47:04,160 --> 00:47:06,719
Speaker 1: to one odds. It's just basically the relative rates of

981
00:47:06,760 --> 00:47:10,200
Speaker 1: occurrence that determines your likelihood of being around a red

982
00:47:10,280 --> 00:47:11,759
Speaker 1: dwarf or a yellow star.

983
00:47:12,040 --> 00:47:14,279
Speaker 4: I guess maybe I'm not quite sure I understand that

984
00:47:14,440 --> 00:47:17,320
Speaker 4: argument if you are around longer. If a red dwarf

985
00:47:17,400 --> 00:47:19,520
Speaker 4: is around longer, which it is, as you say, can

986
00:47:19,520 --> 00:47:22,480
Speaker 4: be get even less longer than the age of the universe,

987
00:47:22,760 --> 00:47:25,080
Speaker 4: doesn't it make it more likely that it has or

988
00:47:25,120 --> 00:47:27,160
Speaker 4: at some point in its history, we'll have life. Then

989
00:47:27,239 --> 00:47:28,120
Speaker 4: let's say our star.

990
00:47:28,400 --> 00:47:30,719
Speaker 1: If life is really unusual or it takes a long

991
00:47:30,760 --> 00:47:34,239
Speaker 1: time to evolve, then yes, But say life happens really

992
00:47:34,320 --> 00:47:36,799
Speaker 1: quickly when it does. Right, then the fact that the

993
00:47:36,840 --> 00:47:38,760
Speaker 1: red dwarf is going to last for trillions of years

994
00:47:39,200 --> 00:47:42,120
Speaker 1: means that civilization gets to live longer around its star.

995
00:47:42,320 --> 00:47:44,319
Speaker 1: But it doesn't mean that it's twenty times as likely

996
00:47:44,360 --> 00:47:45,560
Speaker 1: to evolve around.

997
00:47:45,239 --> 00:47:47,680
Speaker 4: One of those Why not? I guess you know you're

998
00:47:47,680 --> 00:47:50,160
Speaker 4: assuming that life is sort of a certainty if you

999
00:47:50,200 --> 00:47:52,640
Speaker 4: have a certain set of conditions. But maybe it's a

1000
00:47:52,680 --> 00:47:55,840
Speaker 4: probability thing for life to occur, right Like, if you

1001
00:47:55,880 --> 00:47:57,880
Speaker 4: need to roll the die and get a certain number

1002
00:47:57,960 --> 00:48:01,439
Speaker 4: to get any kind of seat of life around your star,

1003
00:48:01,719 --> 00:48:04,799
Speaker 4: then the longer you are, the more times you get

1004
00:48:04,840 --> 00:48:07,400
Speaker 4: to throw the dice. You're assuming it's a certainty, but

1005
00:48:07,440 --> 00:48:09,400
Speaker 4: it's not right. It's maybe chance based.

1006
00:48:09,600 --> 00:48:11,480
Speaker 1: It maybe is right. But what we're doing here is

1007
00:48:11,520 --> 00:48:15,080
Speaker 1: we're examining which assumptions could possibly explain this, What assumptions

1008
00:48:15,080 --> 00:48:17,279
Speaker 1: will we have to change in order to explain what

1009
00:48:17,280 --> 00:48:20,240
Speaker 1: we're seeing. You're totally right that if it's like rolling

1010
00:48:20,239 --> 00:48:22,600
Speaker 1: the dice and it's very unlikely, then the more times

1011
00:48:22,640 --> 00:48:24,480
Speaker 1: you roll the dice, the more odds you have, and

1012
00:48:24,480 --> 00:48:26,360
Speaker 1: so then you would be much more likely to evolve

1013
00:48:26,400 --> 00:48:28,439
Speaker 1: around a red star. But if it's not, if it's

1014
00:48:28,440 --> 00:48:31,400
Speaker 1: basically certain it happens pretty quickly, then you would expect

1015
00:48:31,480 --> 00:48:34,319
Speaker 1: life to happen around red dwarfs only five times as

1016
00:48:34,320 --> 00:48:37,399
Speaker 1: often as around yellow stars, because that's the relative rate

1017
00:48:37,520 --> 00:48:40,440
Speaker 1: of their occurrence, and the time wouldn't be a factor.

1018
00:48:41,280 --> 00:48:43,719
Speaker 4: And that could be the case, right, it could be

1019
00:48:44,080 --> 00:48:47,520
Speaker 4: five times more Kryptonians and Earthlings out during the universe.

1020
00:48:47,640 --> 00:48:50,560
Speaker 1: There certainly could be, And we also don't really know,

1021
00:48:51,000 --> 00:48:53,160
Speaker 1: you know, how common is life? How long does it

1022
00:48:53,200 --> 00:48:57,000
Speaker 1: take to evolve? We think that on Earth life itself

1023
00:48:57,120 --> 00:49:00,600
Speaker 1: evolved pretty quickly. There's like fossil records going millions of

1024
00:49:00,719 --> 00:49:03,279
Speaker 1: years back, so we think it didn't take very long.

1025
00:49:03,320 --> 00:49:06,839
Speaker 1: For life itself to evolve, although intelligent life is much

1026
00:49:06,880 --> 00:49:10,600
Speaker 1: more recent development. And so it might be that life

1027
00:49:10,680 --> 00:49:12,520
Speaker 1: is very common in the universe and all those red

1028
00:49:12,560 --> 00:49:16,560
Speaker 1: dwarfs are teeming with little bacteria, but intelligent life, you know,

1029
00:49:16,600 --> 00:49:19,000
Speaker 1: people making podcasts and writing comic books and all that

1030
00:49:19,080 --> 00:49:21,359
Speaker 1: kind of stuff, is more rare. We just don't know

1031
00:49:21,400 --> 00:49:22,520
Speaker 1: the answer to those questions.

1032
00:49:22,840 --> 00:49:25,400
Speaker 4: Well, if it is more rare, then having five times

1033
00:49:25,400 --> 00:49:29,080
Speaker 4: more stars and being around longer would make that so

1034
00:49:29,200 --> 00:49:31,360
Speaker 4: much more likely that they have intelligent life.

1035
00:49:31,239 --> 00:49:33,880
Speaker 1: Right exactly. Yeah, so this isn't a great answer to

1036
00:49:33,880 --> 00:49:37,160
Speaker 1: the question, but it changes the probabilities, right, The likelihood

1037
00:49:37,200 --> 00:49:39,840
Speaker 1: and the time it takes for intelligent life to evolve

1038
00:49:40,239 --> 00:49:43,319
Speaker 1: does change how likely you are to evolve around a

1039
00:49:43,320 --> 00:49:45,040
Speaker 1: red star or a yellow dwarf.

1040
00:49:45,160 --> 00:49:47,320
Speaker 4: So, then how does this resolve the paradox?

1041
00:49:47,480 --> 00:49:49,920
Speaker 1: I don't think it totally resolves the paradox, But if

1042
00:49:49,920 --> 00:49:52,640
Speaker 1: we did live in a universe where intelligent life emerged

1043
00:49:52,719 --> 00:49:56,760
Speaker 1: very very rapidly, then our situation wouldn't be as unlikely.

1044
00:49:56,800 --> 00:49:58,759
Speaker 1: It'd be like a one in five chance instead of

1045
00:49:58,800 --> 00:50:00,960
Speaker 1: a one and a one hundred chance. So it like

1046
00:50:01,160 --> 00:50:02,719
Speaker 1: reduces the tension a little bit.

1047
00:50:03,360 --> 00:50:06,360
Speaker 4: I see, all right, it makes us less of a miracle.

1048
00:50:07,239 --> 00:50:10,480
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly, we're less a little less weird.

1049
00:50:10,280 --> 00:50:13,799
Speaker 4: All right. Well, what are other possible resolutions to this paradox.

1050
00:50:14,040 --> 00:50:16,719
Speaker 1: Well, it might be that it's not as easy for

1051
00:50:16,840 --> 00:50:20,200
Speaker 1: life to evolve around red dwarfs. Like maybe red dwarfs

1052
00:50:20,239 --> 00:50:23,960
Speaker 1: are not as habitable as yellow stars. There are more

1053
00:50:24,040 --> 00:50:28,600
Speaker 1: differences between red dwarfs and yellow stars than just their brightness.

1054
00:50:28,719 --> 00:50:31,240
Speaker 1: Because they're so much smaller, they tend to have different

1055
00:50:31,280 --> 00:50:34,960
Speaker 1: sort of behaviors, which might make it harder for life

1056
00:50:34,960 --> 00:50:36,160
Speaker 1: to evolve around them.

1057
00:50:36,440 --> 00:50:37,680
Speaker 4: Like what kinds of behaviors?

1058
00:50:37,760 --> 00:50:40,040
Speaker 1: Well, for example, we talked earlier about how to be

1059
00:50:40,080 --> 00:50:41,799
Speaker 1: in the habitable zone, you would have to be much

1060
00:50:41,880 --> 00:50:44,200
Speaker 1: much closer to the star, right, because the star is

1061
00:50:44,280 --> 00:50:47,239
Speaker 1: much dimmer. In that scenario, you're more likely to be

1062
00:50:47,360 --> 00:50:50,640
Speaker 1: tidally locked to the star, which means that like one

1063
00:50:50,760 --> 00:50:54,799
Speaker 1: surface of the planet is always facing the star. Tidal

1064
00:50:54,880 --> 00:50:58,440
Speaker 1: forces are really just gravitational forces. Gravity tends to tug

1065
00:50:58,520 --> 00:51:01,319
Speaker 1: on the closer bit hard than on the further bit.

1066
00:51:01,480 --> 00:51:03,719
Speaker 1: If you can elongate the planet a little bit, then

1067
00:51:03,719 --> 00:51:06,360
Speaker 1: it prevents the planet from spinning the way. For example,

1068
00:51:06,480 --> 00:51:08,920
Speaker 1: the same side of the Moon is always facing the Earth,

1069
00:51:09,200 --> 00:51:11,200
Speaker 1: and so if you're on a planet really close to

1070
00:51:11,239 --> 00:51:14,560
Speaker 1: your star, you might be tidally locked. That means that

1071
00:51:14,640 --> 00:51:16,799
Speaker 1: one half of the planet would be super duper hot

1072
00:51:16,840 --> 00:51:19,400
Speaker 1: and the other half would be super duper cold, and

1073
00:51:19,560 --> 00:51:23,120
Speaker 1: biologists disagree about whether that's more likely or less likely

1074
00:51:23,440 --> 00:51:24,440
Speaker 1: to evolve life.

1075
00:51:24,560 --> 00:51:27,360
Speaker 4: Does that assume a planet the same size as Earth.

1076
00:51:27,400 --> 00:51:29,480
Speaker 4: What if you're a smaller planet, or what if you

1077
00:51:29,520 --> 00:51:31,120
Speaker 4: have some spin to begin with?

1078
00:51:31,440 --> 00:51:34,600
Speaker 1: Yeah, smaller planet would be less likely to be tidally locked,

1079
00:51:34,840 --> 00:51:37,640
Speaker 1: that's true, And it's not guaranteed that all these planets

1080
00:51:37,640 --> 00:51:38,520
Speaker 1: would be tidally locked.

1081
00:51:38,680 --> 00:51:38,799
Speaker 7: Right.

1082
00:51:38,800 --> 00:51:40,239
Speaker 1: If you have a lot of spin, you might be

1083
00:51:40,280 --> 00:51:42,719
Speaker 1: able to avoid it. But more of these planets would

1084
00:51:42,760 --> 00:51:46,000
Speaker 1: be tidally locked than, for example, Earth like planets around

1085
00:51:46,000 --> 00:51:49,680
Speaker 1: a yellow dwarf, so it might complicate the evolution of life.

1086
00:51:49,719 --> 00:51:52,120
Speaker 1: Another issue with these stars is that a lot of

1087
00:51:52,200 --> 00:51:54,840
Speaker 1: red dwarfs tend to be what we call flare stars.

1088
00:51:55,640 --> 00:51:58,360
Speaker 1: Unlike the Sun, which burns pretty steadily and you know

1089
00:51:58,400 --> 00:52:01,799
Speaker 1: it has some flare ups and some deviations in its brightness,

1090
00:52:01,880 --> 00:52:05,400
Speaker 1: red dwarfs can sometimes vary dramatically in their brightness. A

1091
00:52:05,400 --> 00:52:07,680
Speaker 1: flare star is something that can be like two or

1092
00:52:07,719 --> 00:52:10,400
Speaker 1: five or one hundred times as bright as it normally

1093
00:52:10,480 --> 00:52:12,600
Speaker 1: is all of a sudden for a little while and

1094
00:52:12,640 --> 00:52:14,880
Speaker 1: then sort of calm back down. They don't tend to

1095
00:52:14,920 --> 00:52:15,880
Speaker 1: burn as steadily.

1096
00:52:16,000 --> 00:52:18,560
Speaker 4: Well, you're saying red dwarves tend to flare up more

1097
00:52:18,560 --> 00:52:19,879
Speaker 4: than our kind of star.

1098
00:52:20,200 --> 00:52:23,680
Speaker 1: Yeah, red dwarfs tend to be more variable than yellow stars.

1099
00:52:23,800 --> 00:52:26,080
Speaker 4: I thought there were more like moderate and steady.

1100
00:52:26,280 --> 00:52:28,560
Speaker 1: It's a subject of intense debate, and we're not sure

1101
00:52:28,640 --> 00:52:31,640
Speaker 1: we understand. But remember that a lot of stars out

1102
00:52:31,680 --> 00:52:34,800
Speaker 1: there are also binary stars, and so these red dwarfs

1103
00:52:34,880 --> 00:52:38,440
Speaker 1: might be in binary systems, and interactions between the magnetic

1104
00:52:38,440 --> 00:52:41,239
Speaker 1: fields of the two stars can interfere with what's going

1105
00:52:41,239 --> 00:52:43,719
Speaker 1: on inside the star and like heat it up briefly

1106
00:52:43,840 --> 00:52:46,120
Speaker 1: and cause it to burn hotter for a short period.

1107
00:52:46,480 --> 00:52:48,480
Speaker 1: So it's not something we understand very well. But the

1108
00:52:48,480 --> 00:52:51,480
Speaker 1: stars that we have studied, most of the flares stars,

1109
00:52:51,560 --> 00:52:53,520
Speaker 1: tend to be these red dwarfs, and that would be

1110
00:52:53,560 --> 00:52:56,160
Speaker 1: pretty unpleasant for life if all of a sudden, the

1111
00:52:56,200 --> 00:52:58,600
Speaker 1: sun is like one hundred times hotter than it usually is.

1112
00:53:00,080 --> 00:53:02,279
Speaker 4: To like leave that planet right, or at least like

1113
00:53:02,320 --> 00:53:04,480
Speaker 4: put your son in a spaceship and send it to

1114
00:53:04,719 --> 00:53:07,759
Speaker 4: another planet, just like the Yellow Sun.

1115
00:53:07,800 --> 00:53:10,040
Speaker 1: Perhaps that sounds like a great idea for a comic book.

1116
00:53:10,080 --> 00:53:12,279
Speaker 1: You should copyright that, like fifty years ago. Let's go

1117
00:53:12,360 --> 00:53:14,840
Speaker 1: back in time to your grandfather and tell him that idea.

1118
00:53:15,480 --> 00:53:17,680
Speaker 4: That's right, it's called the Superman I had the idea

1119
00:53:17,719 --> 00:53:18,800
Speaker 4: for Superman paradox.

1120
00:53:19,120 --> 00:53:21,360
Speaker 1: So why are you wasting your time on this podcast?

1121
00:53:21,400 --> 00:53:22,760
Speaker 1: So you should just be counting your.

1122
00:53:22,600 --> 00:53:25,680
Speaker 4: Money because I'm stuck in this multiverse, Daniel, I could

1123
00:53:25,680 --> 00:53:29,920
Speaker 4: be a billionaire cartoonist instead, I'm just a cartoonist.

1124
00:53:30,400 --> 00:53:33,440
Speaker 1: Just a cartoonist. Yeah, so flair stars would make it

1125
00:53:33,520 --> 00:53:36,120
Speaker 1: harder for life to evolve, or at least lifelike hours.

1126
00:53:36,160 --> 00:53:39,000
Speaker 1: You know, maybe that kind of environment would lead to

1127
00:53:39,000 --> 00:53:41,920
Speaker 1: totally different kinds of life that are less sensitive to radiation.

1128
00:53:42,040 --> 00:53:43,920
Speaker 1: Or maybe they'd have to like burrow underground where it

1129
00:53:44,000 --> 00:53:46,560
Speaker 1: might be safer and they could still somehow tap into

1130
00:53:46,600 --> 00:53:47,439
Speaker 1: the heat of the sun.

1131
00:53:48,360 --> 00:53:50,839
Speaker 4: Right, because we don't, like we assume that you need

1132
00:53:51,000 --> 00:53:54,640
Speaker 4: day and nighttime cycles to thrive like we do, right,

1133
00:53:54,719 --> 00:53:56,560
Speaker 4: Like you need a good night's sleep. Of course you

1134
00:53:56,600 --> 00:53:59,200
Speaker 4: need nighttime for that, but maybe not right like, maybe

1135
00:53:59,280 --> 00:54:01,239
Speaker 4: it could be even and the opposite, Like maybe life

1136
00:54:01,320 --> 00:54:03,400
Speaker 4: flourishes better if there's no nighttime.

1137
00:54:03,840 --> 00:54:07,120
Speaker 1: Yeah, maybe, And maybe it's great to have like super

1138
00:54:07,160 --> 00:54:10,640
Speaker 1: duper hot summers every few hundred years. You know, things

1139
00:54:10,680 --> 00:54:13,760
Speaker 1: get fried to a crisp, but the strong survive. Who knows.

1140
00:54:13,920 --> 00:54:16,640
Speaker 1: There's one more issue with life developing around these red

1141
00:54:16,719 --> 00:54:19,719
Speaker 1: dwarfs is that in the systems we have studied so far,

1142
00:54:19,840 --> 00:54:24,440
Speaker 1: we see fewer large gas giants, basically fewer Jupiters. So,

1143
00:54:24,480 --> 00:54:26,400
Speaker 1: you know, we are very happy to have Jupiter in

1144
00:54:26,400 --> 00:54:29,560
Speaker 1: our Solar system because it's big, and it's gravitational, and

1145
00:54:29,600 --> 00:54:33,280
Speaker 1: it tends to protect us from comets and asteroids. Sometimes

1146
00:54:33,280 --> 00:54:36,120
Speaker 1: it like sweeps these things out of the inner Solar system.

1147
00:54:36,280 --> 00:54:38,440
Speaker 1: But in systems with red dwarf stars, we tend to

1148
00:54:38,480 --> 00:54:41,600
Speaker 1: see fewer of these Jupiters, which might mean that they're

1149
00:54:41,600 --> 00:54:45,240
Speaker 1: not as protected from asteroids, so it might mean more

1150
00:54:45,320 --> 00:54:48,560
Speaker 1: big impacts like the ones that wiped out the dinosaurs.

1151
00:54:49,040 --> 00:54:51,879
Speaker 4: I see. We don't see Jupiter sized planets around those

1152
00:54:52,000 --> 00:54:54,120
Speaker 4: other solar systems, but I wonder if they have their

1153
00:54:54,160 --> 00:54:56,319
Speaker 4: own version of Jupiter, right, I feel like a red

1154
00:54:56,360 --> 00:54:59,520
Speaker 4: dwarf system would be very similar to ours. Just kind

1155
00:54:59,520 --> 00:55:02,799
Speaker 4: of scaled down. So maybe you have to scale down

1156
00:55:02,840 --> 00:55:04,879
Speaker 4: your expectations for what a Jupiter.

1157
00:55:04,560 --> 00:55:06,680
Speaker 1: Would be like, Yeah, as long as they're being hit

1158
00:55:06,719 --> 00:55:09,560
Speaker 1: by many asteroids, and maybe it's cool. And remember also,

1159
00:55:09,680 --> 00:55:12,479
Speaker 1: being hit by an asteroid isn't all bad. I mean, sure,

1160
00:55:12,520 --> 00:55:14,919
Speaker 1: lots of things die, but it also can make room

1161
00:55:15,000 --> 00:55:18,080
Speaker 1: for all sorts of new evolution like mammals and humans.

1162
00:55:18,200 --> 00:55:21,160
Speaker 1: Doesn't necessarily have to be a planet wide extinction event.

1163
00:55:22,320 --> 00:55:25,279
Speaker 4: But I guess you're saying that life around a red

1164
00:55:25,360 --> 00:55:30,520
Speaker 4: dwarf isn't necessarily rosier than or it might be less

1165
00:55:30,600 --> 00:55:36,920
Speaker 4: rosy technically, both metaphorically and physically speaking than life around

1166
00:55:36,920 --> 00:55:37,680
Speaker 4: a yellow start.

1167
00:55:37,920 --> 00:55:40,279
Speaker 1: Yeah, you might be wearing rose colored glasses, but there

1168
00:55:40,320 --> 00:55:43,440
Speaker 1: might actually be fewer roses, or at least the situation

1169
00:55:43,480 --> 00:55:46,040
Speaker 1: would be different. And if we're making a simple argument

1170
00:55:46,120 --> 00:55:48,360
Speaker 1: about the likelihood for life to evolve, this sort of

1171
00:55:48,440 --> 00:55:51,680
Speaker 1: undermine sense as well. The conditions we know are quite different,

1172
00:55:52,040 --> 00:55:54,400
Speaker 1: and so life might be less likely to evolve in

1173
00:55:54,400 --> 00:55:56,759
Speaker 1: those scenarios. On the other hand, it could also be

1174
00:55:56,800 --> 00:56:00,560
Speaker 1: more likely. Right, maybe life in the universe prefers that situation.

1175
00:56:00,640 --> 00:56:02,680
Speaker 1: Two hours, we just don't know, all.

1176
00:56:02,680 --> 00:56:05,840
Speaker 4: Right, Well, then what's another or maybe the last possible

1177
00:56:05,880 --> 00:56:07,160
Speaker 4: resolution to this paradox.

1178
00:56:07,239 --> 00:56:09,680
Speaker 1: The last sort of idea people have to explain this

1179
00:56:10,280 --> 00:56:13,320
Speaker 1: is that maybe there aren't as many earth like worlds

1180
00:56:13,360 --> 00:56:16,600
Speaker 1: around these red dwarfs as we think. Remember, the red dwarfs,

1181
00:56:16,640 --> 00:56:20,160
Speaker 1: they're hard to study because they're small and they're dim.

1182
00:56:20,360 --> 00:56:22,319
Speaker 1: Most of the ones that we studied are like the

1183
00:56:22,400 --> 00:56:24,600
Speaker 1: really big versions of them, sort of on the upper

1184
00:56:24,719 --> 00:56:27,600
Speaker 1: edge of red dwarfs. A lot of the red dwarfs

1185
00:56:27,640 --> 00:56:29,279
Speaker 1: that are out there, most of them that are out there,

1186
00:56:29,320 --> 00:56:31,600
Speaker 1: are smaller. It's not just true that there are more

1187
00:56:31,719 --> 00:56:35,160
Speaker 1: red dwarfs than yellow stars. There are more small red

1188
00:56:35,200 --> 00:56:38,480
Speaker 1: dwarfs than bigger red dwarfs. So most of the red

1189
00:56:38,560 --> 00:56:41,320
Speaker 1: dwarfs out there are the ones that we have trouble seeing.

1190
00:56:41,719 --> 00:56:45,120
Speaker 1: So our calculations, our estimates about like how often there's

1191
00:56:45,160 --> 00:56:48,799
Speaker 1: an earth like planet inhabitable zone around these things, those

1192
00:56:48,800 --> 00:56:51,360
Speaker 1: could just be wrong. And it might be that most

1193
00:56:51,360 --> 00:56:53,759
Speaker 1: of the red dwarfs out there don't have planets the

1194
00:56:53,760 --> 00:56:56,160
Speaker 1: way our stars do. They're just sort of too hard

1195
00:56:56,200 --> 00:56:59,560
Speaker 1: to study. Right now, we're like extrapolating into the unknown,

1196
00:57:00,080 --> 00:57:02,319
Speaker 1: well beyond what we really have confidence in.

1197
00:57:02,600 --> 00:57:05,000
Speaker 4: I see because we haven't. We don't actually know what

1198
00:57:05,040 --> 00:57:07,440
Speaker 4: the planets around those smaller red dwarfs are.

1199
00:57:07,400 --> 00:57:10,360
Speaker 1: Like yeah, or how many there even are, right, So

1200
00:57:10,360 --> 00:57:13,480
Speaker 1: we're making these assumptions. We're extrapolating from our situation and

1201
00:57:13,520 --> 00:57:16,120
Speaker 1: from the few examples we have been able to study

1202
00:57:16,160 --> 00:57:19,600
Speaker 1: about red dwarfs. But that's an extrapolation, and that could

1203
00:57:19,600 --> 00:57:22,240
Speaker 1: be where we're going wrong. Maybe only the bigger red

1204
00:57:22,320 --> 00:57:24,240
Speaker 1: dwarfs have these kind of planets, and most of the

1205
00:57:24,240 --> 00:57:26,400
Speaker 1: ones out there, which are most of the stars in

1206
00:57:26,440 --> 00:57:28,880
Speaker 1: the galaxy, don't have them.

1207
00:57:28,200 --> 00:57:31,480
Speaker 4: M that would make it less weird that we exist

1208
00:57:31,480 --> 00:57:32,360
Speaker 4: around a yellow star.

1209
00:57:32,760 --> 00:57:35,240
Speaker 1: And fortunately we're going to learn more about this soon.

1210
00:57:35,760 --> 00:57:38,720
Speaker 1: In twenty thirty five, we hope to be launching a

1211
00:57:38,800 --> 00:57:42,080
Speaker 1: new space telescope called have X, which is going to

1212
00:57:42,200 --> 00:57:47,480
Speaker 1: specialize in studying planets around stars, even dimmer stars. It's

1213
00:57:47,480 --> 00:57:49,560
Speaker 1: going to be super awesome with this like four meter

1214
00:57:49,720 --> 00:57:52,520
Speaker 1: sized mirror enough star shade to block out the light

1215
00:57:52,560 --> 00:57:54,760
Speaker 1: from the stars, and it's going to help us understand

1216
00:57:54,800 --> 00:57:57,520
Speaker 1: where are the planets in the galaxy. Are they mostly

1217
00:57:57,560 --> 00:58:00,320
Speaker 1: around yellow stars? Are they also around red star? And

1218
00:58:00,360 --> 00:58:03,600
Speaker 1: they also around the smaller, more variable red stars. What's

1219
00:58:03,680 --> 00:58:04,880
Speaker 1: life like over there.

1220
00:58:05,520 --> 00:58:08,160
Speaker 4: That's pretty cool. So a big telescope just to look

1221
00:58:08,160 --> 00:58:12,160
Speaker 4: at planets, not even looking at stars, just totally dedicated

1222
00:58:12,160 --> 00:58:13,360
Speaker 4: to looking for aliens.

1223
00:58:13,400 --> 00:58:17,600
Speaker 1: Basically, it's really amazing technology. This thing, it has a

1224
00:58:17,680 --> 00:58:20,240
Speaker 1: star shade. This thing that fits in front of it

1225
00:58:20,280 --> 00:58:22,840
Speaker 1: floats in space. It's separate from it. It's like a

1226
00:58:22,880 --> 00:58:26,200
Speaker 1: two component thing. The second piece is just there to

1227
00:58:26,360 --> 00:58:30,160
Speaker 1: block out light from stars. Right, Mostly telescopes are focused

1228
00:58:30,160 --> 00:58:33,240
Speaker 1: on stars. This one specifically has a blind spot for

1229
00:58:33,320 --> 00:58:35,400
Speaker 1: stars because it wants to see the planets.

1230
00:58:35,640 --> 00:58:38,040
Speaker 4: Cool. Well, that will go up in twenty thirty five,

1231
00:58:38,120 --> 00:58:40,600
Speaker 4: and I'm sure we'll do an episode when we get

1232
00:58:40,600 --> 00:58:42,160
Speaker 4: to that point if we're still alive.

1233
00:58:43,520 --> 00:58:45,280
Speaker 1: If neither of us are billionaires by then.

1234
00:58:45,440 --> 00:58:50,360
Speaker 4: If an asteroid hasn't hit us, or Superman's and Cup.

1235
00:58:50,360 --> 00:58:53,560
Speaker 1: Or other aliens wearing their rose colored glasses having come

1236
00:58:53,640 --> 00:58:56,480
Speaker 1: to tell us all the secrets of the universe.

1237
00:58:56,280 --> 00:58:59,960
Speaker 4: Well, wouldn't they need blue colored glasses. It's a blue flower,

1238
00:59:00,280 --> 00:59:03,360
Speaker 4: a violet violet. There you go, violet colored glasses.

1239
00:59:03,640 --> 00:59:05,960
Speaker 1: Let's just hope they bring violets and not violence.

1240
00:59:08,160 --> 00:59:10,280
Speaker 4: All right, Well, I think this is an interesting question

1241
00:59:10,360 --> 00:59:12,800
Speaker 4: to think about, you know, it again. Kind of makes

1242
00:59:12,840 --> 00:59:15,720
Speaker 4: you wonder how rare it is for us to be here,

1243
00:59:15,840 --> 00:59:18,360
Speaker 4: or maybe how common it is. Either way, it's kind

1244
00:59:18,360 --> 00:59:19,880
Speaker 4: of a fun question to think about.

1245
00:59:20,120 --> 00:59:22,560
Speaker 1: It's all part of this journey of looking out into

1246
00:59:22,560 --> 00:59:24,880
Speaker 1: the universe and wondering why it is the way that

1247
00:59:24,960 --> 00:59:27,840
Speaker 1: it is, and is our corner of it weird or not?

1248
00:59:28,360 --> 00:59:32,800
Speaker 4: Yeah? Are we superman? Or are we just regular earthlings?

1249
00:59:33,760 --> 00:59:35,760
Speaker 4: You never talk about what happens if you go from

1250
00:59:35,760 --> 00:59:38,320
Speaker 4: the yellowson to a red son? Do you get weaker?

1251
00:59:38,520 --> 00:59:40,480
Speaker 4: Maybe they have a comic book where Earthlings go to

1252
00:59:40,520 --> 00:59:42,800
Speaker 4: their planet and they're called.

1253
00:59:43,600 --> 00:59:46,520
Speaker 1: Underman underwear Man.

1254
00:59:46,560 --> 00:59:50,480
Speaker 4: Maybe, well, I think that one's already taken, Captain Underpants.

1255
00:59:50,640 --> 00:59:52,000
Speaker 1: Every idea is out there.

1256
00:59:52,120 --> 00:59:54,360
Speaker 4: Yeah, there you go. Maybe you can go back in time.

1257
00:59:54,680 --> 00:59:56,480
Speaker 4: All right, Well, we hope that made you think about

1258
00:59:56,960 --> 00:59:59,640
Speaker 4: your life and how likely it is for you to

1259
00:59:59,680 --> 01:00:02,600
Speaker 4: be here, and how appreciative we should be every time

1260
01:00:02,600 --> 01:00:06,080
Speaker 4: you go outside and feel the warm rays of our sun.

1261
01:00:06,080 --> 01:00:09,080
Speaker 1: And wonder about those aliens out there. Are they also

1262
01:00:09,400 --> 01:00:13,440
Speaker 1: enjoying a yellow star? Or is everything on their planet red?

1263
01:00:13,840 --> 01:00:17,120
Speaker 4: Or is what they call red actually yellow? Thanks for

1264
01:00:17,200 --> 01:00:19,040
Speaker 4: joining us, See you next time.

1265
01:00:26,880 --> 01:00:29,680
Speaker 1: Thanks for listening. And remember that Daniel and Jorge Explain

1266
01:00:29,720 --> 01:00:33,680
Speaker 1: the Universe is a production of iHeartRadio. For more podcasts

1267
01:00:33,760 --> 01:00:38,400
Speaker 1: from iHeartRadio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever

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