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Speaker 1: Oh lessons from the world's top professors anytime, anyplace, world

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Speaker 1: history examined and science explained. This is one day University. Welcome.

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Speaker 1: You're listening to episode three of half hour History Secrets

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Speaker 1: of the Medieval World. I'm your host and resident history

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Speaker 1: nerd Mike Coscarelli. Last episode, we witnessed the fall of

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Speaker 1: Rome and the rise of the Vikings, end Islamic rule.

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Speaker 1: Now we're moving into Charlemagne's cultural golden Age, a Renaissance,

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Speaker 1: if you will take it away, Chris. You think a renaissance,

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Speaker 1: and everybody thinks of the da Vinci Code and Italian

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Speaker 1: Renaissance and all of those things. And there have been

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Speaker 1: many renaissances in history. The word renaissance is actually a

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Speaker 1: French word. It means nothing other than rebirth. The word Nativity,

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Speaker 1: which is another word for Christmas, is related to that

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Speaker 1: word naissance or rebirth. And so we're going to have

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Speaker 1: a renaissance right in the middle of the early medieval period, which,

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Speaker 1: though I don't like the phrase dark ages, I will

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Speaker 1: admit as dimmer than certain other centuries. And the story

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Speaker 1: of the Carolingian Renaissance, the Renaissance under Charlemagne, Carolus Magnus

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Speaker 1: actually takes us back a few centuries to someone that

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Speaker 1: we mentioned earlier named Clovis. Clovis is a tribal chieftain,

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Speaker 1: and he is in control of the area of what

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Speaker 1: had been Roman Gaul or Germania and converts to Christianity

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Speaker 1: around five h three. Now, some people say, did he

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Speaker 1: really convert to Christianity or did he convert to Christianity

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Speaker 1: because his wife, there are some members of his family

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Speaker 1: who had been sick who came back to health miraculously.

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Speaker 1: We're never gonna know what was in Clovis's heart, just

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Speaker 1: like we're never gonna know what was in Constantine's heart

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Speaker 1: when he begins to favor Christianity around three twelve. And

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Speaker 1: did ten thousand of his warriors convert as well? Is

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Speaker 1: that just a made up number? Did they really convert

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Speaker 1: or did they follow the faith because he told them too.

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Speaker 1: We're never gonna quite know. And there's a level at

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Speaker 1: which the historian can never quite know. But be that

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Speaker 1: as it may, it happened, and because it happens, and

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Speaker 1: because the energy of the empire was now in Constantinople

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Speaker 1: in the east, the power of Christianity and the energy

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Speaker 1: begins to get married with Northern up and that energy

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Speaker 1: is sitting there for several hundred years, and it gets

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Speaker 1: a big boost in seven thirty two something we just

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Speaker 1: saw in the prior topic, when Charles Martel, Charlemagne's grandfather

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Speaker 1: is the defense or fidei, the defender of the faith

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Speaker 1: or Christianity, and he pushes the Muslims back at the

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Speaker 1: Battle of Poitier in seven thirty two. Now, what happens

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Speaker 1: after that is very quickly the city of Rome, under

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Speaker 1: the authority of the Bishop of Rome, enters into a

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Speaker 1: relationship with the heirs of Clovis and Charles Martel. Charles

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Speaker 1: Martell's son is named Peppin sometimes it comes up as

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Speaker 1: Pippin in the sources, and he was not very tall.

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Speaker 1: He was called Pepin the short and he was in

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Speaker 1: a battle with some other tribal chieftains, and he appeals

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Speaker 1: to the pope. The pope was named Zachary here and

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Speaker 1: he says to the Pope, listen, who is in charge

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Speaker 1: up here? The person who has the paper claim or

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Speaker 1: the person who has the real power. And Zachary decides

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Speaker 1: it's you. It's the person who has the real power.

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Speaker 1: And this is a decision that's going to have profound implications,

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Speaker 1: because now Peppin owes his authority to the Pope, and

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Speaker 1: the Pope now has kind of a partner when he

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Speaker 1: needs some help, and so Zachary declares Pepin king, and

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Speaker 1: Peppin In thanks gives the Pope some land in central Europe,

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Speaker 1: central Italy that will be called the Papal States. And

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Speaker 1: that land in central Italy is probably the same patch

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Speaker 1: of land that Constantine had originally given to the church

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Speaker 1: in the three hundreds, what's sometimes called the donation of Constantine.

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Speaker 1: And even though the piece of paper is a forgery

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Speaker 1: was proved to be a forgery in the fourteen hundreds,

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Speaker 1: still it is very clear that what you have is

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Speaker 1: a military political person endorsing a certain religious leader, and

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Speaker 1: the religious leader endorsing the political person back. And this

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Speaker 1: all comes together under Charlemagne. Now his name wasn't Charlemagne.

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Speaker 1: His name was Charles carl Carolus in Latin Carolus magnus.

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Speaker 1: Charlemagne becomes the French version of that, and so he

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Speaker 1: gives his name to this period called the carol Lingian period.

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Speaker 1: Charlemagne had a very long reign, very long life, and

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Speaker 1: What happened was that a pope, a very unpopular pope

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Speaker 1: in Rome named Leo the Third, was ousted by his

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Speaker 1: own people in the year seven ninety nine. And this pope, Leo,

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Speaker 1: reaches back to that relationship between Zachary and Peppin and says, hey,

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Speaker 1: I need some help. Down comes Charlemagne into Rome, puts

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Speaker 1: Leo back in power, and on Christmas Day in the

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Speaker 1: year eight hundred, Leo, in thanksgiving, crowns Charles, the Holy

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Speaker 1: Roman Emperor. Now in the sources, Charles says, oh, gee,

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Speaker 1: if I had known he was going to make me emperor,

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Speaker 1: never would have shown up in his chapel, as completely

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Speaker 1: unbelievable idea. And Leo anoints Charles. He gives him purple

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Speaker 1: robes the purple is the color of the Roman emperor,

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Speaker 1: and a crown and a scepter. And so now we

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Speaker 1: have this question who is more powerful. Is it the

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Speaker 1: emperor who actually has the physical power, or is it Leo.

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Speaker 1: Leo has the religious power. But Leo wouldn't be standing

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Speaker 1: there if it wasn't for Charlemagne. And so Charlemagne becomes

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Speaker 1: a patron of the church. And Charlemagne's son Louis the Pious.

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Speaker 1: Listen to that title, right, the Pious obviously protected the

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Speaker 1: church as well, and that empire lasted for quite some time.

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Speaker 1: But Louis's children quibbled among themselves and that empire collapses.

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Speaker 1: So we have a carol Jian renaissance of roughly one

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Speaker 1: hundred years seven to fifty to eight fifty, and the

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Speaker 1: high point is that anointing on Chris Day in the

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Speaker 1: year eight hundred. Well, Charlemagne, in the aftermath of that anointing,

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Speaker 1: wraps himself and what we call the iconography of political theology.

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Speaker 1: There's a phrase, huh, iconography illiterate population. You have an

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Speaker 1: illiterate population. What I see is what I know. And

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Speaker 1: political theology a phrase that makes Americans and modern people

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Speaker 1: very uncomfortable is de rigour. At that time, from the

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Speaker 1: ancient times, political power and religious power had come together.

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Speaker 1: And so what Charles does is he wraps himself in

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Speaker 1: the mantle of Constantine. He says, I am the new Constantine.

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Speaker 1: In fact, he calls his capital at Akin the Tertsia Roma.

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Speaker 1: Remember we had Rome and then the Nova Roma Constantinople.

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Speaker 1: And so Charles says, well, it's been transferred up into

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Speaker 1: Akin or the Tertsia Roma or the third Roma, and

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Speaker 1: he strikes a seal using words that had been used

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Speaker 1: by Constantine a little bit of Latin. Here. This seal

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Speaker 1: reads Dominus nostaire Carolus, imperatur Pius felix, perpetuus Augustus, our

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Speaker 1: Lord Emperor, Charles Pious, Happy Augustus forever. And that seal

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Speaker 1: has the city of Rome with a cross and acin

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Speaker 1: as well making a marriage. And on his coins, Charlemagne's coins,

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Speaker 1: he depicts himself as a Roman emperor with laurel leaves

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Speaker 1: and the words Religio Christiana Christian religion and Renovatsio Romani imperie.

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Speaker 1: The renewal of the Roman Empire never died, but now

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Speaker 1: we're going to give it a booster shot and return

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Speaker 1: it again. So for Charlemagne, the City of God, Augustine

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Speaker 1: City of God has been incarnated in his empire. He

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Speaker 1: calls it a Christian society associatas Christiana in the sources,

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Speaker 1: and he wears titles in his documents. And when he

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Speaker 1: is he walks into a room and they call out

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Speaker 1: his titles, and some of these titles may shock us.

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Speaker 1: The vicar of Christ the vicar of Saint Peter, the

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Speaker 1: rector of the Christian people, the rector of true religion,

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Speaker 1: priest and king. And so you see that he is

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Speaker 1: putting himself on par maybe a little higher than that

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Speaker 1: Bishop of Rome. You can see that there's gonna be tension,

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Speaker 1: and we're going to see this tension in later topics

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Speaker 1: where we talk about nation building and papal monarchy. Okay,

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Speaker 1: that's the politics. What's the renaissance? Cliffhanger, Chris answers that

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Speaker 1: question when we come back from a quick break, what's

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Speaker 1: the cultural renaissance in this period? Like all renaissances, you

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Speaker 1: reach back and you push forward. We have to reach

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Speaker 1: back a little bit to before Charles to understand the

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Speaker 1: spiritual engine that fuels his Christian society, and it's Benedictine monasticism.

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Speaker 1: So we have to talk about Benedictine monasticism. And I

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Speaker 1: need to point out that when you look at the

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Speaker 1: sources of this period, whenever they refer to monks, they

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Speaker 1: also mean nuns. Whenever they refer to monasteries, they also

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Speaker 1: refer to convents. So if you ever hear anyone say

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Speaker 1: the monks prayed eight times a day, so did the nuns.

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Speaker 1: And we should say too that in this period these

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Speaker 1: folks are mostly lay people. Instead of taking formal vows

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Speaker 1: of poverty, chastity and obedience what some members of religious

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Speaker 1: orders today call no money, no honey, and a boss,

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Speaker 1: those vows aren't formali until about eleven hundred. They take promises,

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Speaker 1: and the most important promissio is stub billitas that they're

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Speaker 1: going to spend their lives in that monastery or that

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Speaker 1: convent and work on a conversion of their own heart,

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Speaker 1: a conversio morum, and a conversion of their entire spirit.

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Speaker 1: And the key person here is Benedict, Benedict of Norcia,

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Speaker 1: and Benedict is living around the year five hundred. He's

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Speaker 1: one of these late antique characters like Augustine, a Roman

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Speaker 1: in his training but a Christian in his heart. His

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Speaker 1: most famous abbey is the abbey of Monte Casino, which

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Speaker 1: was bombed by the Allies in World War two and

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Speaker 1: then rebuilt, and there he writes his rule or his regula.

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Speaker 1: Now it was not original. There have been rules floating

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Speaker 1: around that period for several hundred years, but Benedict was

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Speaker 1: an administrator and he took all of these rules here,

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Speaker 1: and he says, what's good about them and what's bad

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Speaker 1: about them. Let's dial up what's good, let's get rid

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Speaker 1: of what's bad. And they're very practical and they have

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Speaker 1: these Roman values in them, like mediocritoss. Now mediocritas mediocrity, right,

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Speaker 1: is a bad word in our society today. How is

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Speaker 1: the meal? It was mediocre? It was okay? Right? Italian say,

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Speaker 1: ohs kumsikumsa, it was okay. Mediocritos in this world, in

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Speaker 1: the Roman and early Medieval world, is a virtue. It

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Speaker 1: means you're steady. It means to be like EMTs or nurses, doctors,

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Speaker 1: firemen are today in the midst of crisis. They stay medium,

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Speaker 1: in the middle. They are in control of their emotions.

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Speaker 1: They're not cold fish, but they are in control of

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Speaker 1: their emotions. And the rule instead of being rigid. Yes,

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Speaker 1: the rule says you pray at these times and you

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Speaker 1: do these tasks. But the abbot and the abbess have

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Speaker 1: great discretion. If they see a monk or a nun

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Speaker 1: who's having a bad day, they tell them to take

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Speaker 1: the day off. They're allowed to know when to push

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Speaker 1: and when to pull went to and when to flow,

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Speaker 1: and this is the great gift of Benedict to religious life,

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Speaker 1: this notion of discretcio. So what is a day like

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Speaker 1: in a medieval early medieval monastery or convent. This is

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Speaker 1: going to be the stabilizing force that Charlemagne is really

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Speaker 1: going to emphasize because he's going to look at monasteries

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Speaker 1: and convents as stabilizing forces in his empire. The key

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Speaker 1: is the prayer life. And now the prayer life is

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Speaker 1: the Opus day e. When you say that, immediately some

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Speaker 1: people say, wait a second, isn't there a religious kind

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Speaker 1: of community in the Catholic Church today called Opus Day? Yes,

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Speaker 1: there is. That's not what we're talking about. Opus day

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Speaker 1: literally means the work of God, and the work of

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Speaker 1: God is to pray. That's your job as a monk

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Speaker 1: or a nun. And that prayer was eight particular times

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Speaker 1: in a day. And those prayers go on and on,

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Speaker 1: and the most famous one that a lot of people

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Speaker 1: know is vespers are called evensong. And this is a

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Speaker 1: Protestant churches as well as Catholic churches nowadays. Back in

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Speaker 1: our own period, we're all Christian. We don't have that

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Speaker 1: Catholic Protestant split for another thousand years and vespers or

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Speaker 1: evensong is something that a lot of people have attended,

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Speaker 1: even if they're not believers, because some great composers have

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Speaker 1: written vespers services. And what do they do the rest

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Speaker 1: of the time. They read, and they study individually and together.

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Speaker 1: There's a sense of a community trying to help each other,

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Speaker 1: and they work. And this was one of Benedict's great

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Speaker 1: contributions because in the Roman world, slaves worked. But what

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Speaker 1: Benedict does is he sanctifies work. And this is going

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Speaker 1: to be important later on in something called the twelfth

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Speaker 1: century Renaissance, that my work is my prayer. Why because

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Speaker 1: Jesus worked. Jesus had a trade, Because Mary worked, she

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Speaker 1: had to make bread, she had to take care of

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Speaker 1: the house, and there's something sanctifying about it. Plus the

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Speaker 1: fact that a monastery or a convent has to be

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Speaker 1: self sufficient, and so it needs to make its own

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Speaker 1: bread and needs to grind its own grain, and it

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Speaker 1: needs to make its own wax and candles, it needs

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Speaker 1: to make vellum, it needs to make ink. And also,

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Speaker 1: I think, as we all know, you can't study all

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Speaker 1: day long, even when you're in graduate school or you're

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Speaker 1: working on a degree, or you're reading, you have to

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Speaker 1: get up and you have to move around. You have

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Speaker 1: to turn your brain off, and sometimes your brain keeps

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Speaker 1: working in interesting ways when you're doing physical labor. What

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Speaker 1: was the key to monastic spirituality? What was monastic theology? Like, well,

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Speaker 1: it usually gets a bad name, you know. We have

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Speaker 1: this notion from movies like Monty Python on the Holy

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Speaker 1: Grail that monks just kind of lamented the psalms all

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Speaker 1: day long and knocked themselves on the head and whipped

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Speaker 1: themselves and it's all very silly. The big aspect of

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Speaker 1: study and prayer in the medieval convents and monastery was

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Speaker 1: this notion that there is an authority to the word

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Speaker 1: of God. There's something that I think we've lost in

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Speaker 1: the modern world, and that's intellectual humility. Yes, we want

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Speaker 1: to understand things, we want to push the envelope out,

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Speaker 1: and we're going to see that in a later topic

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Speaker 1: called scholasticism or scholastic theology, which gets very aggressive. And

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Speaker 1: you need both of those, right. You need to come

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Speaker 1: to a point when you study when you say, well,

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Speaker 1: I can't explain this anymore, because how do you explain

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Speaker 1: the love of God? How do you explain the fact

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Speaker 1: that Jesus is fully human and fully divine without being

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Speaker 1: a two hundred percent creature. Comes a point where there

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Speaker 1: are mysteries, and the monk and the nun will defer

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Speaker 1: to those mysteries much more readily than a scholastic theologian.

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Speaker 1: And there's a reverence for the texts. And this is

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Speaker 1: why the copying of texts becomes so important in the monastery.

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Speaker 1: To write out the texts is to read the words,

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Speaker 1: and to read the words is to pray the words

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Speaker 1: as well. And let's remember that nuns are doing this

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Speaker 1: as well. So nuns had a higher rate of literacy

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Speaker 1: than women who are outside of the convent. And so

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Speaker 1: what does Charlemagne do with this monastic Benedictine tradition to

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Speaker 1: add to his renaissance. What he does is he marries

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Speaker 1: this structure of Roman imperial administration with Christian morality, and

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Speaker 1: he says, I want my society to be Christian. I

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Speaker 1: need to send out word of how to organize the

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Speaker 1: society and how people should act so that we have

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Speaker 1: law and order. And these words are sent out in

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Speaker 1: books organized by chapters. The Latin word for chapter is capitula,

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Speaker 1: and so these collections of books are called capitularies. So

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Speaker 1: there are rules on marriage, there's rules on crime, there

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Speaker 1: are rules on how people interact with each other in

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Speaker 1: terms of buying and selling, inheritance, what happens when things

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Speaker 1: go wrong, negotiations, criminal and civil actions, law and order

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Speaker 1: and punishment. And the people who get sent out are

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Speaker 1: legates or messengers. They're called the missi dominici, the messengers

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Speaker 1: of the lord, the lord being the emperor here who

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Speaker 1: is Charlemagne. And these people themselves reach back into history

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Speaker 1: and they say, well, let's see we have Roman learning,

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Speaker 1: but Roman learning is mythological, and mythology from Greco Roman

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Speaker 1: times is polytheistic. How does that work with Christian monotheism

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Speaker 1: and the belief in this god man Jesus. And again

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Speaker 1: they reach back and they find one of these late

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Speaker 1: antique characters, one of whom is named Cassiodorus, an exact

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Speaker 1: contemporary of Benedict. He was a Roman aristocrat, and he said, oh,

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Speaker 1: there's no problem here. You can read the Pagan classics,

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Speaker 1: and you can read the Christian classics, and you can

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Speaker 1: learn certain skills of rhetoric, of logic of organization from

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Speaker 1: the Pagans, and you simply apply them to Christian morality,

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Speaker 1: and in fact, his most famous book is called an

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Speaker 1: Introduction to Divine and Human Readings. Well, this is great

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Speaker 1: for Charlemagne because it's exactly what he's trying to do.

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Speaker 1: He's trying to recreate the Roman imperial structure, but he's

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Speaker 1: trying to do it in a Christian context, using Christian values.

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Speaker 1: And so now we begin to find not only in

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Speaker 1: Charlemagne's kingdom, but elsewhere as well, people doing precisely this

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Speaker 1: up in England, character by the name of the Venerable Bead.

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Speaker 1: Now he's not venerable in any formal Roman sense nowadays,

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Speaker 1: where you venerate a servant of God venerable. He was

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Speaker 1: called venerable in his own day. People just you know

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Speaker 1: people in your life who everyone says that person is

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Speaker 1: just wise. And so he was known as the Venerable Bead.

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Speaker 1: And he was in English Benedictine, someone who was living

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Speaker 1: in a monastery, who spent most of his life between

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Speaker 1: two monasteries, Wheremouth and Yarrow, and he collected documents, he

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Speaker 1: read these documents, he copied them, and he wrote his

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Speaker 1: own histories. And the most famous one is called the

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Speaker 1: Ecclesiastical History of the English people, and so Bede is

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Speaker 1: doing at the most famous level what monks and nuns

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Speaker 1: are doing all over this Carolingian Empire, and also down

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Speaker 1: in Italy as well, some of which was controlled by Charlemagne.

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Speaker 1: They are organizing libraries places where you do the script

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Speaker 1: a scriptorium in plural scriptoria, and they're copying texts. Now,

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Speaker 1: I'd like to make two points about those texts. The

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Speaker 1: first is that we think we have from the Greco

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Speaker 1: Roman world about twenty percent of what was written. In

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Speaker 1: some cases, we have lists of books, but we don't

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Speaker 1: have all of the books. So we might have a

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Speaker 1: list of seventy or eighty plays by Escalus, but we

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Speaker 1: only have in hand about ten or twelve of them.

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Speaker 1: It would be having like having a library burned down

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Speaker 1: but still having the card catalog. You know, those books

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Speaker 1: existed at one point. Well, those twenty percent of Greco

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Speaker 1: Roman texts exist almost exclusively in the hand writing of

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Speaker 1: early medieval monks and nuns. Without them, we would have

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Speaker 1: lost touch with that ancient world. And so what we

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Speaker 1: look at as this very tedious work is actually an

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Speaker 1: act of devotion and an intellectual action as well. But

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Speaker 1: it's important to know that monks and nuns are not

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Speaker 1: really challenging those texts. They're transferring those texts to a

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Speaker 1: later period that scholastic theologians will then challenge. So let's

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Speaker 1: look upon these two things as partnership and not competition.

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Speaker 1: The other point that I wanted to make was the

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Speaker 1: physical copying itself takes place in very careful handwriting. There

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Speaker 1: have been studies of handwriting. The study of handwriting is

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Speaker 1: called paleography, and it is a study in its own right.

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Speaker 1: Some of you have been to museums, or if you've

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Speaker 1: opened books and you see these ancient Greek or Roman

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Speaker 1: texts and you can't make any sense of them. That's

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Speaker 1: because there's no punctuation in ancient Greek and in ancient Latin.

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Speaker 1: All the words run together, and when you come to

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Speaker 1: the end of the line, if your word isn't finished,

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Speaker 1: you just wrap around to the next line. If you've

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Speaker 1: ever seen a three or four or five year old

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Speaker 1: learning to write, this is exactly how it gets. So

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Speaker 1: if you put a piece of paper down in front

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Speaker 1: of a young child and you tell them to write

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Speaker 1: a long word, and they at first letter is huge,

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Speaker 1: and you say to them write small, they'll just go

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Speaker 1: to the end of the line and wrap around again.

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Speaker 1: And so the handwriting of ancient Rome began to deteriorate

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Speaker 1: when Rome started to go through its transformation, and the

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Speaker 1: imperial system in the organization began to get a little

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Speaker 1: bit weaker than it had been. So one of the

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Speaker 1: things that Charles orders is that handwriting improves, that documents improve,

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Speaker 1: and so punctuation begins to be brought in and a

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Speaker 1: very careful handwriting, a slower handwriting with basically lined paper

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Speaker 1: called Carolingian minuscule, takes place. And it's this kind of

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Speaker 1: careful handwriting that you see. So you can look at

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Speaker 1: what is chicken scratch or a spider web crawling across

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Speaker 1: a page in the year six hundred. By the year

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Speaker 1: eight hundred, it looks as if it's printed, that's how

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Speaker 1: regular it is. And then that was checked by a

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Speaker 1: senior monk or a senior nun to make sure that

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Speaker 1: there were no errors in it. And the lext logical

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Speaker 1: step is to start illuminating those manuscripts. And if you've

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Speaker 1: ever seen, for instance, a page from the Book of Kells,

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Speaker 1: a very interesting example of medieval monks and nuns taking

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Speaker 1: Celtic and Gaelic native pagan imagery like circles and squirrels

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Speaker 1: and tying them into the gospels. So you might have

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Speaker 1: an illuminated initial letter, or you may have an image of,

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Speaker 1: say Gabriel announcing to Mary that God had chosen her

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Speaker 1: to be the mother of Jesus, and you might see

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Speaker 1: a fancy representation of that basically in the margin next

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Speaker 1: to the text of what Christians call the Annunciation. So

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Speaker 1: now this big effort begins to take place, and we

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Speaker 1: have a second Benedict. We had Benedict of Nurcia around

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Speaker 1: five hundred. Charlemagne has his own Benedict, and his name

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Speaker 1: is Benedict of Anien. And Benedict of Anien worked under

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Speaker 1: all of these people, Pepin the Short, remember him, Charlemagne

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Speaker 1: and Charlemagne's son Louis the Pious, and he took Monte Casino,

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Speaker 1: and he built a new monastery, his own monastery, a

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Speaker 1: place called Dan and he made it a second center

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Speaker 1: of Benedictine monasticism. And remember that there's a relationship between

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Speaker 1: Benedictine monasticism and those capitularies and people living a moral life.

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Speaker 1: In Charlemagne's empire, and he had a standard perfect copy

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Speaker 1: of Benedict's rule at Inden. Two monks and two nuns

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Speaker 1: from every monastery and convent in Charlemagne's territories had to

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Speaker 1: come and study for a year at Inden. And while

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Speaker 1: they were there, a copy of Benedict's rule was made

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Speaker 1: for them, and they took that copy from a mother

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Speaker 1: monastery or a convent to their son or daughter monastery

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Speaker 1: or a convent. And you can see how this change

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Speaker 1: in handwriting is fueling this Carolingian Renaissance. Somebody came from

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Speaker 1: England named Alcuin of York and he was Charlemagne's tutor.

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Speaker 1: He had studied under Bead and he taught Charlemagne. So

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Speaker 1: you see these cycles coming together in the Carolingian Renaissance.

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Speaker 1: There is no idea of a dark age in this period.

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Speaker 1: What we have is a transformation of Roman culture to

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Speaker 1: a new Christian age. Thank you for listening to another

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Speaker 1: episode of Secrets of the Medieval World. Next week we'll

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Speaker 1: learn about feudalism, peasant life and revolution, agricultural revolution half

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Speaker 1: hour history. Secrets of the Medieval World from One Day

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Speaker 1: University is a production of iHeart podcasts and a School

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Speaker 1: of Humans. If you're enjoying the show, leave a review

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