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Speaker 1: Hey or hey, do you have strong opinions about pasta?

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Speaker 1: I mean, like in my pro pasta or antipasta. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: but I want to dig a little deeper, like, do

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Speaker 1: you have opinions about all of the varieties? Yeah? No,

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Speaker 1: I love that there are so many kinds of pasta,

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Speaker 1: the more of the tastier. So then in the opinion

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Speaker 1: of an artist, what is the prettiest pasta there is?

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Speaker 1: M I try not to judge pasta bytes looks, you know,

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Speaker 1: that seems kind of rude, So I just go by taste. Well,

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Speaker 1: to me, it all tastes the same. I mean, fundamentally,

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Speaker 1: it's all made of the same stuff. Though my kids

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Speaker 1: insist that some of them are tastier than others. I

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Speaker 1: think it's your kids. In an entire country called Italy

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Speaker 1: would argue the same thing. I mean, it's all made

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Speaker 1: of dough, right, which in the end just made of

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Speaker 1: like protons, neutrons and electrons. How can it taste different? Can?

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Speaker 1: We'll probably get a lot of hate mail from Italians

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Speaker 1: because you know your physicist, right, Like, each pasta has

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Speaker 1: a different cross section and a different ratio of volume

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Speaker 1: to surface area. Right. Welcome to the physics of pasta podcasting.

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Speaker 1: That's right, we're all postic. I am Jorge. I'm a

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Speaker 1: cartoonists and the co author of Frequently Asked Questions about

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Speaker 1: the Universe. Hi, I'm Daniel. I'm a particle physicist and

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Speaker 1: a professor at u C Irvine. And I seriously can't

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Speaker 1: taste the difference between different kinds of pasta. And I'm

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Speaker 1: sure there are a lot of Italians right now feeling

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Speaker 1: kind of sorry for you. You can't see. It's like

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Speaker 1: nuts being able to see colors. I mean, I don't

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Speaker 1: even understand the chemistry of it. Right once it gets

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Speaker 1: into your mouth, it's just sauce and noodle. What does

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Speaker 1: it matter what the shape of the noodle was when

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Speaker 1: it was on your plate. Explain it to me. What's

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Speaker 1: the science of it? Are you and those people that

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Speaker 1: just blends all their food into smoothies, you know, salmon, steak, rice,

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Speaker 1: whatever it just said, it's all going to get digested.

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Speaker 1: It might as will blended together. No, I'm a big

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Speaker 1: fan of texture. I get that absolutely, But you know,

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Speaker 1: in the end, the noodles they don't taste different. They're

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Speaker 1: not different texture when they go into your mouth. Maybe

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Speaker 1: I'm overcooking them. I don't know. Yeah, I think if

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Speaker 1: you overcook them, it's kind a big giant globe. But

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Speaker 1: you know, it's like the ratio between the volume and

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Speaker 1: the surface area, you know, makes the sauces kind of

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Speaker 1: coat the pasta a little differently. Right, taste makes makes

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Speaker 1: to taste different, I guess. So it definitely makes it

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Speaker 1: look different, and it gives my kids an excuse to

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Speaker 1: refuse to eat something like my son will not eat

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Speaker 1: or Ka and my daughter will not eat Farfalla. And

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Speaker 1: I'm like, look, it's just postable sauce on it. What's

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Speaker 1: the big deal. Wow, your kids are pretty picky there.

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Speaker 1: Maybe I should just blend it into a smoothie before

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Speaker 1: I serve it to them. There you go. You could

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Speaker 1: blend it and then make your own pasta. We do

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Speaker 1: make our own pasta. Actually, sometimes we start from scratch,

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Speaker 1: We make the dough, we roll it out. It's pretty fun. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: it's kind of I guess. It's kind of like bread, right,

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Speaker 1: Like all breads are basically flour and water. But you

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Speaker 1: know you're gonna have a whole range of different breads

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Speaker 1: and they all taste different. Oh my gosh, don't get

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Speaker 1: into bread with me. Bread have very different mixtures of

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Speaker 1: flower and water. You've got your moist breads, You've got

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Speaker 1: your drier breads. You've got breads with more fat or

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Speaker 1: less fat. It's totally different ingredients. That's what makes different

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Speaker 1: kind of bread delicious. It's the same ingredients, isn't it.

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Speaker 1: With different proportions? Oh, different proportions you mean, like different

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Speaker 1: proportions of surface area volume. Alright, good point, but anyway,

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Speaker 1: welcome to our I guess Culinary podcast. Daniel and Jorge

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Speaker 1: Explain the Universe, a production of I Heart Radio in

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Speaker 1: which to total lon experts argue about pasta when we

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Speaker 1: really should be talking about the deepest questions in the universe.

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Speaker 1: What shape do fundamental objects take? How do they come

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Speaker 1: together to make this incredible universe with all of its

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Speaker 1: amazing and different shapes. How do we get baseballs and

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Speaker 1: fish and clouds and far falla and rikieta and spaghetti

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Speaker 1: and cappellini and all the incredible shapes that we find

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Speaker 1: here on our planet and the insane things going on

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Speaker 1: inside our planet and inside stars and inside neutron stars

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Speaker 1: and inside black hole. We dig into all of it

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Speaker 1: for you. We codd with the delicious sauce of explanations

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Speaker 1: and banana jokes and serve it up to you. That's right.

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Speaker 1: It is a big, beautiful and delicious universe full of

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Speaker 1: oodles and noodles of interesting things to learn and discover

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Speaker 1: and to figure out how it works. Because somehow we

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Speaker 1: are able to discover how things work in this universe

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Speaker 1: using science. Absolutely, we think that it's possible to sit

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Speaker 1: here on the crust of our planet and to just

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Speaker 1: use our minds and our eyeballs to explore what's going

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Speaker 1: on deep within our planet in conditions we could never

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Speaker 1: replicate in our laboratories, and also what's going on inside

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Speaker 1: crazy things out there in the universe. These our minds

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Speaker 1: to try to extrapolate from the situations we can explore

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Speaker 1: from the laws we have discovered, and wonder if those

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Speaker 1: ideas and understandings hold up under very extreme conditions. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: because that is one way to do science, is to

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Speaker 1: observe things, and especially observe the crazy and the wild

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Speaker 1: and the extreme situations out there in the universe, because

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Speaker 1: they do teach us a lot about what can happen

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Speaker 1: in the universe, even if you don't see it in

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Speaker 1: an everyday basis, because one of our goals in physics

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Speaker 1: is not to have a special set of rules for

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Speaker 1: every situation. We don't want the physics of laundry and

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Speaker 1: the physics of pasta, and the physics of air and

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Speaker 1: the physics of water weight. That sounds like a great podcast. Actually,

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Speaker 1: maybe we should do more of those rather than amplitus

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Speaker 1: the physics of laundry. Yeah, I'll listen to that might

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Speaker 1: give me some pointers, you know, like what are the

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Speaker 1: physics of taking out post stains out of your white shirt? Wow?

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Speaker 1: Crossover episode with our culinary podcast series. Yeah, well, that's fascinating.

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Speaker 1: You know. All the different applications of physics in different

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Speaker 1: conditions are interesting how these things emerge. But physics, you know,

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Speaker 1: in the end, is reductionists. We want to go down

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Speaker 1: to the lowest level. We want to understand a general

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Speaker 1: theory about the universe that applies everywhere that you could

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Speaker 1: take to your laundry or pasta or neutron star and

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Speaker 1: say I can start from these rules and I can

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Speaker 1: understand what's going on here, and the way to test that,

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Speaker 1: the way to make sure that the ideas you have

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Speaker 1: are not just specific to your pasta stains or to

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Speaker 1: the experiments you do in your laboratory, but our general

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Speaker 1: is to test them under extreme conditions, to say what

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Speaker 1: happens if I make this really really dense or really

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Speaker 1: really hot where we go really really fast. So that's

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Speaker 1: why the extreme conditions are the best places to learn

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Speaker 1: where your rules break down and to get clues about

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Speaker 1: how to make new rules about the universe. Yeah, we

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Speaker 1: like to look at extremes here on the podcast, and

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Speaker 1: we have a whole series of extreme things that we've

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Speaker 1: looked at in the universe, like the brightest things in

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Speaker 1: the universe or the hottest things in the universe, and

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Speaker 1: it usually comes down to only a couple of candidates.

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Speaker 1: One of them are neutron stars. Neutron stars are one

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Speaker 1: of the most amazing laboratories for physics in the universe

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Speaker 1: because it's one of the few places where all of

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Speaker 1: the forces are important. And we talk a lot in

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Speaker 1: this podcast about quantum field theory and understanding three of

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Speaker 1: the forces electromagnetism, the weak force, and the strong force.

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Speaker 1: But we don't have many situations where we can put

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Speaker 1: those three forces up against gravity because gravity is so weak.

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Speaker 1: It's only really in the heart of black coals that

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Speaker 1: gravity dominates and takes over. But in the inside of

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Speaker 1: neutron stars, we think that gravity is just about as

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Speaker 1: strong as these other forces. So it's a great laboratory

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Speaker 1: for understanding how gravity and these other forces talk to

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Speaker 1: each other and play together or don't play together. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: we've talked about neutron stars before, but we've never sort

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Speaker 1: of dug deeper into them to find out what it's

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Speaker 1: all made out of on the inside. So to be

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Speaker 1: on the program, we'll be asking the question what is

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Speaker 1: inside a neutron star? And what would Italians call it? Neutrinos? No,

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Speaker 1: that's taken. I think I know what the answer to

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Speaker 1: this question is, though, Daniel, what's inside a neutron star?

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Speaker 1: Isn't it just neutrons? Done? Thanks for joining us, see

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Speaker 1: you next time. I thought you were gonna say what's

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Speaker 1: inside a neutron star? One neutron star? I mean, that's

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Speaker 1: like the ingredients, right, It's like what is pasta made

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Speaker 1: out of pasta? Is that what you're saying? Is that

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Speaker 1: what physics has come down to, giving up? Giving up? Yes, exactly. No,

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Speaker 1: of course neutrons are inside a new tron star. But

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Speaker 1: what are they doing. Man, what's the conditions? How dense

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Speaker 1: are they? They form weird objects and shapes when they're

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Speaker 1: in that crazy conditions. Are they even really still neutrons?

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Speaker 1: Or they squeezed down into some other weird kind of matter,

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Speaker 1: maybe even a quirk gluon plasma. Wait wait, neutron stars

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Speaker 1: might not be made out of neutrons. I smell some

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Speaker 1: misnaming here exactly. That is the question of the podcast,

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Speaker 1: Our neutron stars fundamentally misnamed? That seems to be the

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Speaker 1: mission of the entire program here. You're just trying to

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Speaker 1: undermine people's confidence in physics, man or physicists. Is their

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Speaker 1: confidence in physics? I mean, think about all the technology

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Speaker 1: you're using to make this podcast and to listen to

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Speaker 1: this podcast. All of that is based on fundamental physics

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Speaker 1: that we understood through basic research. So I think, on

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Speaker 1: one hand, we've been doing a pretty good job of

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Speaker 1: exploring the universe and learning how to manipulate it for

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Speaker 1: our benefit. On the other hand, we definitely don't understand

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Speaker 1: a lot about the universe, so there's a huge amount

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Speaker 1: left to discover. Yeah, I know, physics, it's just a

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Speaker 1: big confident game, right, That's right. Keep paying us, and

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Speaker 1: we'll keep teaching you the secrets of the universe. Except

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Speaker 1: in this confidence game, the secrets are true, or at

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Speaker 1: least as true as you think they can be. But

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Speaker 1: I think maybe what you're saying that the question is

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Speaker 1: in this episode is actually more like what's it like

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Speaker 1: inside a neutron star? What's it like? You know, like,

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Speaker 1: what's going on inside a neutron star? Yeah? Exactly. We

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Speaker 1: did an episode on what's it like inside the Earth?

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Speaker 1: What we dug into the crust and talked about, you know,

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Speaker 1: the different layers. You could have answered that question what's

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Speaker 1: inside the Earth by saying Earth, but that's not as

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Speaker 1: satisfactory and answer. So, yeah, we want to understand like

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Speaker 1: are there layers? There is it one big soup of neutrons?

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Speaker 1: You know? Are there different phases of matter as you

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Speaker 1: get crazy hot and dense? What is going on inside

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Speaker 1: a neutron star? Can you find pasta inside? And apparently

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Speaker 1: the answer is yes, there is pasta inside of neutron stars.

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Speaker 1: If Michael Bay could film a movie about journey to

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Speaker 1: the center of a neutron star, what would he show

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Speaker 1: you on the screen? You would have to bring in

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Speaker 1: some Italian consultants, because apparently the answer is pasta. Pasta

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Speaker 1: is everywhere turns out to be the fundamental building block

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Speaker 1: of the universe. Well, it's usually were wondering how many

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Speaker 1: people out there had thought about this question, what's going

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Speaker 1: on inside of a neutron star? So Daniel went out

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Speaker 1: there to the wilds of the internet to get people's opinions.

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Speaker 1: And I'm eternally grateful to our volunteers who answer these

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Speaker 1: random questions and give us a sense for what people

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Speaker 1: know and what they might be curious to learn about.

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Speaker 1: Thank you very much. And if you are out there

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Speaker 1: listening and they've never been on the podcast, we would

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Speaker 1: love to have your voice to add it to our library.

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Speaker 1: So please write to us two questions at Daniel and

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Speaker 1: Jorge dot com. It's free, it's easy, it's fun. So

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Speaker 1: think about it for a second. What kind of pasta

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Speaker 1: would you like to see inside of a neutron star?

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Speaker 1: And what do you think it's doing. Here's what people

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Speaker 1: had to say. I've heard you guys talk about this

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Speaker 1: in the past. Um, I know, like there is a

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Speaker 1: crust and then as you go down deeper towards the core,

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Speaker 1: there's like I think they call it quantum spaghetti. And

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Speaker 1: then at the very center, I've heard you guys talk

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Speaker 1: about luans, and the neutrons are no longer associated, so

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Speaker 1: it's just like the soup of quarks and gluons floating around. Well,

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Speaker 1: I would say it's pretty tight. I wouldn't want to

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Speaker 1: be in there. Actually, in neutron stars are made out

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Speaker 1: of nutrons, and the core I would think is the

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Speaker 1: densest part of a star. So I would say there's

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Speaker 1: a lot of nutrons, really really packed with nutrons. I

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Speaker 1: would imagine it's hot and bright and chaotic, and if

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Speaker 1: it had a high enough mass and you were actually

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Speaker 1: inside it, then you might be able to find out

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Speaker 1: what's in a black hole. Oh boy, very hot, very dense,

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Speaker 1: very angry. I wouldn't want to be inside of a

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Speaker 1: neutron star. A neutron star, other than a black hole,

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Speaker 1: is the densest known object in the universe. It is

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Speaker 1: so dense, in fact, that it has high enough pressure

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Speaker 1: to merge to push all of the electrons and the

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Speaker 1: protons together to form neutrons. Fusion is over, but it

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Speaker 1: is very hot, and it is emanating very high frequency

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Speaker 1: black body radiation, and I know it must be spinning

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Speaker 1: very fast due to the laws of the conservation of

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Speaker 1: angular momentum. Well, it's very compressed, extreme pressure, lots of heat, radiation,

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Speaker 1: extreme electromagnetic fields, dizzy and spinning and death. I can

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Speaker 1: only imagine that being inside a neutron star is like

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Speaker 1: being inside of a bag of popcorn that is being

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Speaker 1: cooked in the microwave. Um. There's a lot of pressure,

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Speaker 1: a lot of build up, it's hot, and there's no escape.

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Speaker 1: It seems like a prison. All right. People aren't painting

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Speaker 1: a very pleasant picture here of neutron stars. Yeah, but

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Speaker 1: they're reaching for a lot of food analogies. You know,

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Speaker 1: we've got soup, We've got spaghetti, we even got popcorn.

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Speaker 1: I guess did you pull people right before lunch or something.

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Speaker 1: I think there's a deep and unexplored connection between physics

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Speaker 1: and food, you know. I think that's what we're discovering

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Speaker 1: here today because physicists like to eat a lot of

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Speaker 1: or is that just your personal perspective, Daniel. You know

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Speaker 1: I'm not a big eater. I don't eat anything actually

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Speaker 1: during the day. I only eat at night, So you know,

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Speaker 1: I can do physics all day long on an empty stomach.

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Speaker 1: But I think that people reach for these analogies because

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Speaker 1: they're trying to explain something weird and unfamiliar in terms

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Speaker 1: of something that's familiar. And in the end, that's what

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Speaker 1: physics is, right. We explain the unknown in terms of

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Speaker 1: the known. So when you see something weird and new,

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Speaker 1: you try to say that reminds me of and then

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Speaker 1: you look for something familiar around you, like whatever you're

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Speaker 1: having for lunch. Yeah, and most people here seem to

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Speaker 1: have an idea that neutron stars are really hot and

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Speaker 1: dance and compressed. A lot of the answers were sort

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Speaker 1: of sort of people describing a pretty intense environment inside

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Speaker 1: of a neutron star. Yes, exactly, And that's what get

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Speaker 1: physicists excited, right, because we think it's a situation unlike

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Speaker 1: any other in the universe, one that's very hard, if

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Speaker 1: not impossible, to read create in our laboratory, and yet

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Speaker 1: there it sits out there, actually doing its thing. And

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Speaker 1: if we could know what was going on inside those

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Speaker 1: neutron stars, we would have the answers to lots of

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Speaker 1: questions about crazy conditions that we're curious about. You know,

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Speaker 1: what happens when you squeeze these particles really close to

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Speaker 1: each other, because remember that at the heart of a

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Speaker 1: neutron star, these things are dominated by the strong force

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Speaker 1: battling it out with gravity, and these are two forces

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Speaker 1: that we do not understand very well. Of all of

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Speaker 1: the fundamental forces in the universe. We understand the weak

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Speaker 1: force and electromagnetism the best. We understand the strong force

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Speaker 1: and gravity the worst. And so to get to see

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Speaker 1: them fight it out helps us understand both of them.

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Speaker 1: The strong mystery. Break it down for the audience here,

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Speaker 1: what is exactly a neutron star. So a neutron star

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Speaker 1: is one of the most amazing and weird objects in

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Speaker 1: the universe, and it's also left over from one of

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Speaker 1: the most dramatic kinds of events we have in the universe,

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Speaker 1: which is a supernova. So you know, you start with

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Speaker 1: a normal star which burns, and they have the typical

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Speaker 1: battle between pressure from gravity squeezing in and fusion and

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Speaker 1: radiation pushing out, and it burns for millions or billions

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Speaker 1: of years, depending on its size, and at some point

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Speaker 1: the core of it gets so heavy because it's fused

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Speaker 1: all of these lighter elements and heavier elements carbon neon, oxygen.

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Speaker 1: You work your way up the periodic table. At some

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Speaker 1: point the core gets so heavy that gravity wins and

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Speaker 1: the thing collapses. You get this shock wave that rushes

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Speaker 1: in towards the heart of the star and then bounces

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Speaker 1: back and comes out, and you get a supernova, and

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Speaker 1: that blows out most of the stuff from the star.

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Speaker 1: You know, huge amount of energy comes out in neutrinos

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Speaker 1: and in photons and then just massive the stuff of

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Speaker 1: the star. But it leaves behind this very very dense core.

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Speaker 1: And so that's what the neutron star is. It's the

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Speaker 1: remnant of a supernova from a super giant star. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: that's something that I think, I know we've talked about before,

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Speaker 1: but it's still pretty cool because I don't think a

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Speaker 1: lot of people suld have realized that a supernova. You know,

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Speaker 1: we think that maybe it's like an explosion or something

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Speaker 1: reacts and explodes, but it's actually like what happens when

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Speaker 1: stars and suns collapse. It's actually like the collapse of

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Speaker 1: a star, and it's that collapse that kind of causes

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Speaker 1: the big explosion. Yeah, you have the supersonic shock wave

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Speaker 1: of traveling inwards and then traveling outwards, right it bounces

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Speaker 1: back and explodes, and so it's a lot like you know,

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Speaker 1: the way a fusion bomb works where we talked about

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Speaker 1: laser fusion recently on the podcast, where you have this

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Speaker 1: symmetric implosion which creates very fast runaway fusion which then

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Speaker 1: triggers an explosion, right, and so it's really a dramatic end.

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Speaker 1: It's incredible also the time scales, because these stars burned

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Speaker 1: for millions or billions of years happily in almost a

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Speaker 1: steady state, and then the end comes very quickly. You know,

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Speaker 1: you think of cosmic objects having long time scales. You

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Speaker 1: should do everything slowly, but when it dies, it dies

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Speaker 1: very quickly, and it leaves behind these little remnants, these

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Speaker 1: neutron stars, and they're super small, you know. These things

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Speaker 1: have a radius of like ten to twenty kilometers, you know,

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Speaker 1: so again we're talking about astrophysical objects. You used to

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Speaker 1: thinking about like millions of kilometers. These things are billions

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Speaker 1: of light years away, but we're talking about things like

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Speaker 1: the size of Manhattan or Los Angeles, and yet they're

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Speaker 1: super massive, like they still have the mass of an

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Speaker 1: entire sun, like our sun. So these things of a

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Speaker 1: mass of like one to maybe three masses of our

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Speaker 1: Sun compressed into a tiny little space. Yeah, that's how

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Speaker 1: That's exactly why I feel when I visit Manhattan actually

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Speaker 1: super dance and compressing and hot as well. But what's

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Speaker 1: interesting too is that, first of all, not every star

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Speaker 1: goes supernova, and not every supernova turns into a neutron star. Right,

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Speaker 1: that's right. The final fate of the star is determined

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Speaker 1: almost entirely by how massive it was when it was born.

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Speaker 1: If it has a mass between like ten and twenty

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Speaker 1: or twenty five times the mass of our Sun, then

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Speaker 1: it will go supernova and then go neutron star. If

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Speaker 1: it has more mass than that, it'll go supernova, but

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Speaker 1: it'll leave a black hole at the center instead of

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Speaker 1: a neutron star. So if you have enough mass, then

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Speaker 1: you can overcome even the strength of the neutron star

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Speaker 1: and collapse it even further to a black hole. So

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Speaker 1: gravity wins there if you add more mass. If you don't,

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Speaker 1: if you had less mass, like less than ten times

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Speaker 1: the mass of the Sun, then you don't get a supernova,

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Speaker 1: and you get what's going to happen to our Sun,

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Speaker 1: which is is just gonna leave behind the original core,

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Speaker 1: which would be a white dwarf. So then for a

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Speaker 1: neutron star, you start with a regular star that's about

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Speaker 1: ten to twenty five times the mass of our sun.

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Speaker 1: He's supernova that most of it I guess blows out

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Speaker 1: in the supernova, but some of it, like one to

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Speaker 1: three masses of our Sun, stays in the middle in

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Speaker 1: this super duper dense state that I guess had its

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Speaker 1: origin when the star collapse, right exactly, So you take

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Speaker 1: the core of the star and you squeeze it down

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Speaker 1: to this tiny little dot, this neutron star. So it's

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Speaker 1: like a white dwarf that's been compressed by a supernova.

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Speaker 1: And it's fascinating to me because it's like the last

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Speaker 1: step before a black hole. You know, gravity is a

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Speaker 1: runaway effect. If you only had gravity and no other

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Speaker 1: forces in the universe, everything would eventually just collapse to

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Speaker 1: a black hole to be nothing to stop it, because

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Speaker 1: gravity just pull stuff in and it gets dense here

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Speaker 1: and denser, and the denser gets the stronger it is,

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Speaker 1: and then the stronger it is, the denser gets etcetera, etcetera.

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Speaker 1: So the way to avoid becoming a black hole is

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Speaker 1: to have something pushed back against gravity. So a star

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Speaker 1: doesn't collapse into a black hole while it's burning because

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Speaker 1: the fusion provides pressure outwards. The Earth doesn't collapse into

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Speaker 1: a black hole right now because all that dirt has

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Speaker 1: structural integrity. As the mass gets stronger and stronger, you

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Speaker 1: need stronger forces to resist it, and eventually it just

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Speaker 1: gives up and becomes a black hole. And a neutron

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Speaker 1: star is like the last line of defense against gravity.

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Speaker 1: It's like the densest thing in the universe that's not

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Speaker 1: a black hole, right, Like, if you squeeze it a

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Speaker 1: little bit more, you would get a black hole. But

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Speaker 1: if you stop squeezing it or adding more mass right

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Speaker 1: before it turns into black hole, then that's what you get.

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Speaker 1: You get a neutron star exactly. And so it's this

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Speaker 1: object which has enough strength to resist the incredible mass

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Speaker 1: and the incredible gravity that it does have, but if

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Speaker 1: you added a little bit more, yeah, it would collapse

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Speaker 1: into a black hole. And so it's really the perfect

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Speaker 1: way to understand this balance between the strong fo and

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Speaker 1: the quantum mechanics that's resistant collapse and the gravitational pressure

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Speaker 1: that's squeezing down on it. So like how many plates

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Speaker 1: of pasta would you have to throw in to turn

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Speaker 1: a neutron star into a black hole. It's a great question.

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Speaker 1: We don't know actually, what is the maximum mass of

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Speaker 1: a neutron star. Biggest ones we've seen are like two

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Speaker 1: and a half up to maybe three times the mass

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Speaker 1: of the sun. There's some speculative observations for larger ones,

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Speaker 1: but we think it's probably impossible to have anything much

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Speaker 1: more than three times the mass of the Sun. Well,

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Speaker 1: that was kind of my next question, which is, you know,

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Speaker 1: have we actually seen these things or are they like

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Speaker 1: sort of like black holes that were sort of theoretical

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Speaker 1: for a long time. We have seen these things, so

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Speaker 1: they are not easy to see. These things don't have

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Speaker 1: fusion inside of them, so they're not glowing very very brightly.

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Speaker 1: Most neutron stars are kind of dim, right, They just

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Speaker 1: sit there and they're cooling gradually, though you know, they

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Speaker 1: can get bigger if something else comes behind, like dumps

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Speaker 1: a huge load of pasta on them. So they're hard

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Speaker 1: to see unless they're like in a binary system. So

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Speaker 1: for example, there's another star nearby and they're strong gravity

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Speaker 1: is affecting that star. So if you see like a

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Speaker 1: normal star and then nothing nearby it, then you can say, oh,

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Speaker 1: there must be something there because of its gravity. You

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Speaker 1: can argue about whether it's a black hole or a

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Speaker 1: neutron star based on its mass. So it's one way

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Speaker 1: to know that they are there. You can also see

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Speaker 1: them directly if they are pulsars. So a neutron stars

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Speaker 1: is heavy, heavy object. It's also spinning really really fast,

428
00:21:27,800 --> 00:21:31,320
Speaker 1: right because remember, angular momentum is conserved. If you take

429
00:21:31,359 --> 00:21:34,480
Speaker 1: an object which was big and spinning and compress it,

430
00:21:34,480 --> 00:21:36,320
Speaker 1: it's still gonna be spinning, and now it's going to

431
00:21:36,400 --> 00:21:38,840
Speaker 1: spin much much faster in order to have the same

432
00:21:38,880 --> 00:21:42,640
Speaker 1: angular momentum. So sometimes these neutron stars spin super fast,

433
00:21:42,840 --> 00:21:46,800
Speaker 1: and they also sometimes shoot out energy from their polls,

434
00:21:46,960 --> 00:21:50,399
Speaker 1: and if there's a misalignment between where they're shooting energy

435
00:21:50,400 --> 00:21:53,240
Speaker 1: out and the spin axis, then this beam that they

436
00:21:53,240 --> 00:21:56,080
Speaker 1: shoot out sort of sweeps across the universe, and if

437
00:21:56,119 --> 00:21:58,320
Speaker 1: it passes Earth, then we see it. And that's what

438
00:21:58,359 --> 00:22:01,879
Speaker 1: a pulsar is. So some action of neutron stars we

439
00:22:01,880 --> 00:22:04,880
Speaker 1: can see because they are pulsars and they're pointed right

440
00:22:05,080 --> 00:22:07,760
Speaker 1: in the exact direction where we can see them. But

441
00:22:07,920 --> 00:22:11,320
Speaker 1: most neutron stars we cannot observe directly, right, because we

442
00:22:11,600 --> 00:22:14,000
Speaker 1: call them stars, but they're really not sort of shining

443
00:22:14,119 --> 00:22:17,040
Speaker 1: in the bright night sky unless, like you said, they

444
00:22:17,080 --> 00:22:20,080
Speaker 1: somehow have this spin and the somehows shooting a beam

445
00:22:20,119 --> 00:22:23,120
Speaker 1: in a particular direction, which is what pulsars are. Yeah,

446
00:22:23,400 --> 00:22:25,520
Speaker 1: you can argue about exactly what is a star and

447
00:22:25,560 --> 00:22:27,920
Speaker 1: whether these count. You know, there's sort of the endpoint

448
00:22:28,000 --> 00:22:30,280
Speaker 1: of the life of a star. You definitely wouldn't call

449
00:22:30,320 --> 00:22:32,840
Speaker 1: a black hole a star, right, even though it's also

450
00:22:32,880 --> 00:22:34,920
Speaker 1: the endpoint of the life of a star. So these

451
00:22:34,920 --> 00:22:37,440
Speaker 1: things do emit some light, and so the one way

452
00:22:37,480 --> 00:22:39,480
Speaker 1: to see them is if there are pulsars. Another way

453
00:22:39,480 --> 00:22:43,040
Speaker 1: to see them is to see X rays from their surface.

454
00:22:43,320 --> 00:22:46,000
Speaker 1: So they don't glow in the visible light, but sometimes

455
00:22:46,160 --> 00:22:48,960
Speaker 1: X rays leak out of their surface. If there's like

456
00:22:49,000 --> 00:22:51,600
Speaker 1: a crack in the surface of the neutron star or

457
00:22:51,640 --> 00:22:54,200
Speaker 1: like a hot spot, it can emit some X rays.

458
00:22:54,600 --> 00:22:57,080
Speaker 1: And we have X ray telescopes that are able to

459
00:22:57,200 --> 00:23:01,200
Speaker 1: see those X rays see of photons from these distant stars,

460
00:23:01,560 --> 00:23:03,840
Speaker 1: and that can help us see that a neutron star

461
00:23:04,040 --> 00:23:06,720
Speaker 1: is there. So we think there's like a billion of

462
00:23:06,760 --> 00:23:10,080
Speaker 1: these things floating out there. In our galaxy, but most

463
00:23:10,119 --> 00:23:12,760
Speaker 1: of them are basically invisible to us. Yeah. I was

464
00:23:12,760 --> 00:23:15,159
Speaker 1: gonna ask next whether we have a picture of a

465
00:23:15,200 --> 00:23:17,199
Speaker 1: neutron star, but actually then I realized we don't really

466
00:23:17,240 --> 00:23:20,159
Speaker 1: have a picture of anything outside of the Solar system, right, Like,

467
00:23:20,200 --> 00:23:22,640
Speaker 1: we don't really have a full on picture of any

468
00:23:22,680 --> 00:23:24,560
Speaker 1: star out there in the universe. We just know them

469
00:23:24,560 --> 00:23:27,000
Speaker 1: as pinpoints. That's interesting. I mean, we certainly have a

470
00:23:27,040 --> 00:23:29,840
Speaker 1: picture of them, right Even a pin point is a picture.

471
00:23:30,160 --> 00:23:32,399
Speaker 1: It's light from the star. So yeah, I guess we

472
00:23:32,440 --> 00:23:34,800
Speaker 1: do have some, you know, pictures of these stars, but

473
00:23:35,080 --> 00:23:37,359
Speaker 1: not in a lot of great resolution, certainly not the

474
00:23:37,400 --> 00:23:39,600
Speaker 1: way we can look at our own son, for example.

475
00:23:39,680 --> 00:23:42,480
Speaker 1: But yeah, we don't have pictures of these neutron stars

476
00:23:42,520 --> 00:23:44,359
Speaker 1: at all. In most of the cases, all we have

477
00:23:44,480 --> 00:23:47,000
Speaker 1: is like a stream of X rays, so like a

478
00:23:47,080 --> 00:23:49,120
Speaker 1: time series when we say, oh, we saw some X rays,

479
00:23:49,119 --> 00:23:51,000
Speaker 1: Oh we didn't see anymore. Now we saw some more,

480
00:23:51,080 --> 00:23:53,719
Speaker 1: because the entire neutron star doesn't admit X rays, just

481
00:23:54,000 --> 00:23:56,480
Speaker 1: little cracks and hot spots on the surface, and so

482
00:23:56,560 --> 00:23:58,600
Speaker 1: sometimes the hot spot will be like around the back

483
00:23:58,600 --> 00:24:00,560
Speaker 1: of the neutron star, and sometimes will be on the

484
00:24:00,560 --> 00:24:02,719
Speaker 1: front of the neutron star. So you can learn a

485
00:24:02,720 --> 00:24:05,760
Speaker 1: lot about the neutron star from these X rays. Yeah,

486
00:24:05,760 --> 00:24:07,679
Speaker 1: and maybe it'll let you see inside of him like

487
00:24:07,760 --> 00:24:11,040
Speaker 1: regular X rays. And so let's get into more amazing

488
00:24:11,080 --> 00:24:13,680
Speaker 1: facts about neutron stars and also talk about what could

489
00:24:13,680 --> 00:24:16,560
Speaker 1: be going on inside of him. But first let's take

490
00:24:16,600 --> 00:24:32,320
Speaker 1: a quick break. We're talking about neutron stars and what's

491
00:24:32,359 --> 00:24:35,800
Speaker 1: going on inside of them. I'm guessing it's non neutral things.

492
00:24:36,000 --> 00:24:37,720
Speaker 1: If we have a whole episode about them, Well, there's

493
00:24:37,720 --> 00:24:40,560
Speaker 1: definitely a lot of neutrons inside there. It's hard to imagine,

494
00:24:40,600 --> 00:24:43,960
Speaker 1: like and to really conceptualize what this stuff is that's

495
00:24:44,000 --> 00:24:47,040
Speaker 1: inside a neutron star because you've taken normal matter and

496
00:24:47,080 --> 00:24:51,040
Speaker 1: you've squeezed it down to incredible densities. You know, this stuff,

497
00:24:51,040 --> 00:24:55,440
Speaker 1: whatever it is, is a hundred trillion times denser than

498
00:24:55,520 --> 00:24:58,040
Speaker 1: anything we have on Earth. You know, you think you

499
00:24:58,240 --> 00:25:00,919
Speaker 1: ate a heavy lunch, that's nothing compared to like a

500
00:25:01,000 --> 00:25:04,040
Speaker 1: spoonful of neutron star. Yeah, Like, how much is a

501
00:25:04,160 --> 00:25:06,880
Speaker 1: spoonful of a neutron star weight? Well, here on Earth

502
00:25:06,880 --> 00:25:11,800
Speaker 1: they would weigh three billion tons just one table spoon

503
00:25:11,960 --> 00:25:14,240
Speaker 1: of neutron star material. Of course, if you had it

504
00:25:14,280 --> 00:25:17,280
Speaker 1: here on Earth, it would explode because it's under great pressure.

505
00:25:17,560 --> 00:25:20,080
Speaker 1: But you know, just to sort of like conceptualize how

506
00:25:20,160 --> 00:25:23,120
Speaker 1: dense it is when it's in its location, it's a

507
00:25:23,160 --> 00:25:26,200
Speaker 1: crazy amount of mass. It would explode in your mouth.

508
00:25:26,240 --> 00:25:30,200
Speaker 1: I guess like a flavor explosion, like a flavor explosion exactly.

509
00:25:30,240 --> 00:25:32,879
Speaker 1: They should have like a summer drink called Neutron Star,

510
00:25:33,040 --> 00:25:37,119
Speaker 1: you know, added to our online store. I was thinking

511
00:25:37,119 --> 00:25:42,400
Speaker 1: like a seven eleven crossover episode. You know, you mean

512
00:25:42,440 --> 00:25:44,960
Speaker 1: like an icy kind of like a slushy. Yeah, a

513
00:25:45,000 --> 00:25:47,359
Speaker 1: Neutron Star slurpy. You know. My daughter went in to

514
00:25:47,440 --> 00:25:49,320
Speaker 1: get a slurpy recently and she came back with one.

515
00:25:49,400 --> 00:25:51,520
Speaker 1: I said what flavor is it? And she said blue?

516
00:25:52,080 --> 00:25:54,919
Speaker 1: And I was like, blue is not a flavor and

517
00:25:54,960 --> 00:25:56,600
Speaker 1: she said, well, the guy asked me what flavor I

518
00:25:56,600 --> 00:25:58,040
Speaker 1: wanted and I said blue, and this is what he

519
00:25:58,080 --> 00:26:01,560
Speaker 1: gave me. That's thought. She was going to say, all

520
00:26:01,600 --> 00:26:03,840
Speaker 1: of them, don't know what you're supposed to do mixing

521
00:26:03,880 --> 00:26:06,120
Speaker 1: them all up. I don't know. Then we'll get gray,

522
00:26:06,240 --> 00:26:08,600
Speaker 1: won't you. Nobody wants to get a gray slushy, and

523
00:26:08,680 --> 00:26:12,080
Speaker 1: I think it comes out chocolate chocolate color. That sounds delicious.

524
00:26:12,440 --> 00:26:14,920
Speaker 1: Maybe it's like neutron star chocolate. But anyways, back to

525
00:26:15,040 --> 00:26:17,000
Speaker 1: neutron stars, I guess the question is what would it

526
00:26:17,080 --> 00:26:19,360
Speaker 1: look like if I'm sitting in front of a neutron star.

527
00:26:19,520 --> 00:26:20,920
Speaker 1: I know we want to get into it, but like

528
00:26:20,960 --> 00:26:22,960
Speaker 1: if I was sitting outside of it and it's like,

529
00:26:23,080 --> 00:26:25,159
Speaker 1: you know, a few light year or a half of

530
00:26:25,200 --> 00:26:28,040
Speaker 1: a U from a neutron star, what would I be seen?

531
00:26:28,280 --> 00:26:29,840
Speaker 1: So if you're close enough to you know, this thing

532
00:26:30,000 --> 00:26:32,159
Speaker 1: is hot, so it's going to miss some light and

533
00:26:32,200 --> 00:26:34,520
Speaker 1: you're also gonna see hot spots from its surface. But

534
00:26:34,680 --> 00:26:36,720
Speaker 1: one thing about a neutron star is that the gravity

535
00:26:36,880 --> 00:26:39,800
Speaker 1: is so strong and near the neutron star that it

536
00:26:39,920 --> 00:26:42,359
Speaker 1: distorts the space around it, sort of the way a

537
00:26:42,400 --> 00:26:44,680
Speaker 1: black hole does. We're used to thinking about this for

538
00:26:44,800 --> 00:26:46,560
Speaker 1: black holes. You know that if you're in front of

539
00:26:46,640 --> 00:26:49,440
Speaker 1: a black hole, you're looking at the event horizon. You're

540
00:26:49,480 --> 00:26:52,120
Speaker 1: not only seeing the part of the event horizon that's

541
00:26:52,200 --> 00:26:54,280
Speaker 1: on your side of it. You can also see around

542
00:26:54,320 --> 00:26:57,560
Speaker 1: the back of the black hole because photons emitted near

543
00:26:57,680 --> 00:27:00,320
Speaker 1: there would be bent by the curvature of ace and

544
00:27:00,400 --> 00:27:03,040
Speaker 1: come to your eyeballs. The same thing is true around

545
00:27:03,119 --> 00:27:06,879
Speaker 1: neutron stars because they are so incredibly dense. Right, the

546
00:27:06,920 --> 00:27:09,840
Speaker 1: gravitational field at the surface of a neutron star is

547
00:27:09,920 --> 00:27:15,040
Speaker 1: two hundred billion times stronger than the gravitational forces on

548
00:27:15,119 --> 00:27:17,000
Speaker 1: the surface of the Earth. So if you're looking at

549
00:27:17,000 --> 00:27:18,960
Speaker 1: a neutron star, you can not only see the front

550
00:27:19,000 --> 00:27:20,879
Speaker 1: of it, you can also see the back of it

551
00:27:21,080 --> 00:27:24,160
Speaker 1: at the same time. So if you're on a neutron star,

552
00:27:24,200 --> 00:27:26,480
Speaker 1: you would wait two hundred billion times more than you

553
00:27:26,600 --> 00:27:29,000
Speaker 1: do now. Yeah, so start working out so I can

554
00:27:29,640 --> 00:27:31,200
Speaker 1: I can stand up, is that what you mean? Or

555
00:27:31,240 --> 00:27:33,880
Speaker 1: so I can lose weight so you can survive. Man,

556
00:27:34,080 --> 00:27:36,480
Speaker 1: that thing would tear you to shreds. Not only is

557
00:27:36,520 --> 00:27:39,080
Speaker 1: the force of gravity very very strong, but it varies

558
00:27:39,280 --> 00:27:41,880
Speaker 1: very quickly, you know, and so you get tidal forces.

559
00:27:42,040 --> 00:27:44,320
Speaker 1: The difference between the gravitational force on your head and

560
00:27:44,400 --> 00:27:47,800
Speaker 1: on your shoulders would be very strong enough to rip

561
00:27:47,920 --> 00:27:51,280
Speaker 1: your head off of your shoulders. So I wouldn't recommend

562
00:27:51,400 --> 00:27:53,520
Speaker 1: a trip to a neutron star. Would there be a

563
00:27:53,600 --> 00:27:56,639
Speaker 1: spectification point like in a black hole? Yeah, well, before

564
00:27:56,720 --> 00:27:58,720
Speaker 1: you got to the surface of the neutron star, you

565
00:27:58,760 --> 00:28:01,119
Speaker 1: would be torn apart because the title forces would be

566
00:28:01,240 --> 00:28:03,720
Speaker 1: very very strong. Remember, this thing only has the mass

567
00:28:03,760 --> 00:28:06,200
Speaker 1: of the Sun right so far away. It has the

568
00:28:06,280 --> 00:28:09,280
Speaker 1: same gravitational force as the Sun, but you can get

569
00:28:09,400 --> 00:28:11,800
Speaker 1: much much closer to all of that mass because it's

570
00:28:11,800 --> 00:28:15,280
Speaker 1: compressed down to just like you know, ten or twenty kilometers,

571
00:28:15,520 --> 00:28:17,680
Speaker 1: whereas our Sun is huge. So if you're on the

572
00:28:17,760 --> 00:28:20,639
Speaker 1: surface of our Sun, you're very far away from the

573
00:28:20,680 --> 00:28:23,520
Speaker 1: gravitational center of mass, whereas if you're in the surface

574
00:28:23,560 --> 00:28:25,960
Speaker 1: of the neutron star, you're only ten kilometers from an

575
00:28:26,119 --> 00:28:29,679
Speaker 1: entire star's worth of mass. That's why the gravitational forces

576
00:28:29,720 --> 00:28:32,520
Speaker 1: are so much stronger for the same amount of mass,

577
00:28:32,560 --> 00:28:34,720
Speaker 1: because you can get closer to it. So you and

578
00:28:34,880 --> 00:28:38,160
Speaker 1: the spaghetti head for lunch would turn into spaghetti exactly.

579
00:28:38,200 --> 00:28:40,360
Speaker 1: You would be postified. Right. Well, I guess the big

580
00:28:40,600 --> 00:28:42,720
Speaker 1: good question now is why is it even called the

581
00:28:42,760 --> 00:28:45,400
Speaker 1: neutron star? Like is it full of neutrons basically? And

582
00:28:45,480 --> 00:28:47,320
Speaker 1: how did a regular sun, which is what it was

583
00:28:47,440 --> 00:28:50,240
Speaker 1: before it's supernova and collapse into a neutron star is

584
00:28:50,280 --> 00:28:52,240
Speaker 1: made out of all kinds of stuff, right, like iron

585
00:28:52,440 --> 00:28:56,160
Speaker 1: and all kinds of complex elements and electrons and protons,

586
00:28:56,320 --> 00:28:59,440
Speaker 1: But now it seems to have collapsed into something that

587
00:28:59,560 --> 00:29:02,040
Speaker 1: you now call a neutron star. So is that everything

588
00:29:02,120 --> 00:29:06,000
Speaker 1: just turned into neutrons or what? Yeah, everything turns into neutrons. Right.

589
00:29:06,080 --> 00:29:09,360
Speaker 1: You have your atom which has neutrons, protons, and electrons

590
00:29:09,400 --> 00:29:11,480
Speaker 1: in it, right, Well, what happens if you squeeze that

591
00:29:11,640 --> 00:29:14,760
Speaker 1: down really really far, if you really push a bunch

592
00:29:14,800 --> 00:29:16,840
Speaker 1: of that stuff together, Well, if you get the electron

593
00:29:16,920 --> 00:29:19,920
Speaker 1: and the proton close enough to each other, well, you know,

594
00:29:20,080 --> 00:29:22,720
Speaker 1: they have opposite charges and so they actually kind of

595
00:29:22,840 --> 00:29:25,160
Speaker 1: like to hang out together. So if you squeeze them

596
00:29:25,240 --> 00:29:29,200
Speaker 1: down enough, the proton captures the electron, the electron gets

597
00:29:29,280 --> 00:29:32,280
Speaker 1: like eaten by the proton, and that converts it into

598
00:29:32,360 --> 00:29:36,480
Speaker 1: a neutron. It's exactly the opposite process of neutron decay

599
00:29:36,880 --> 00:29:39,200
Speaker 1: that we talked about recently on the podcast, where a

600
00:29:39,280 --> 00:29:42,800
Speaker 1: neutron turns into a proton and electron. This is the

601
00:29:42,920 --> 00:29:45,800
Speaker 1: reverse process. So you put enough energy into it, you

602
00:29:45,880 --> 00:29:48,680
Speaker 1: can reverse basically anything that happens in the universe. And

603
00:29:48,840 --> 00:29:51,120
Speaker 1: so this is what happens. If you squeeze down matter,

604
00:29:51,400 --> 00:29:54,800
Speaker 1: all the protons and electrons emerge and become neutrons. So

605
00:29:55,000 --> 00:29:57,920
Speaker 1: usually electrons and protons are attracted to each other, but

606
00:29:58,040 --> 00:30:01,239
Speaker 1: they don't get together and merge. Right, what's keeping them apart? Well,

607
00:30:01,280 --> 00:30:03,640
Speaker 1: what's keeping them apart usually is that the electron is

608
00:30:03,680 --> 00:30:05,840
Speaker 1: in a stable state, just the way, for example, the

609
00:30:05,920 --> 00:30:08,120
Speaker 1: Earth is in a stable state around the Sun. The

610
00:30:08,200 --> 00:30:10,520
Speaker 1: Earth and the Sun attract each other. There's gravity there. Right,

611
00:30:10,600 --> 00:30:13,160
Speaker 1: Why doesn't the Earth collapse into the Sun. Because it

612
00:30:13,160 --> 00:30:15,760
Speaker 1: has enough energy to resist that, right, it can stay

613
00:30:15,800 --> 00:30:17,960
Speaker 1: in a stable orbit. And so you shouldn't be thinking

614
00:30:18,000 --> 00:30:21,600
Speaker 1: about electrons as orbiting protons. But they have enough energy,

615
00:30:21,640 --> 00:30:24,560
Speaker 1: they have a minimum energy in their stable solution to

616
00:30:24,680 --> 00:30:28,760
Speaker 1: avoid collapsing into the proton. And so here you're overcoming that, right,

617
00:30:28,880 --> 00:30:32,680
Speaker 1: you are like squeezing the electron down. You're applying external pressure.

618
00:30:32,760 --> 00:30:35,520
Speaker 1: And so that's why an electron doesn't collapse into the proton,

619
00:30:35,600 --> 00:30:37,720
Speaker 1: because it has enough energy to avoid it. But that's

620
00:30:37,760 --> 00:30:39,920
Speaker 1: if it's by itself. If you squeeze on if you

621
00:30:40,000 --> 00:30:41,960
Speaker 1: push on it from the outside, if you can find

622
00:30:42,040 --> 00:30:45,360
Speaker 1: it to a location the size of the proton, then

623
00:30:45,400 --> 00:30:48,400
Speaker 1: it gets captured by the proton. And then what happens

624
00:30:48,480 --> 00:30:51,400
Speaker 1: The proton eats the electron. Right, Because the proton is

625
00:30:51,440 --> 00:30:53,719
Speaker 1: made out of three quarks and a neutron is made

626
00:30:53,760 --> 00:30:56,160
Speaker 1: out of three quarks. So then does the electron just

627
00:30:56,240 --> 00:30:59,440
Speaker 1: sort of like flip one of the corks or or something. Yeah,

628
00:30:59,600 --> 00:31:02,680
Speaker 1: that's exactly what happens. Remember, a proton is two up

629
00:31:02,720 --> 00:31:06,240
Speaker 1: corks and a down and a neutron is two down

630
00:31:06,360 --> 00:31:08,920
Speaker 1: corks and an up. So what happens when an electron

631
00:31:09,200 --> 00:31:11,680
Speaker 1: is captured is that you're converting one of those up

632
00:31:11,760 --> 00:31:14,240
Speaker 1: corks into a down cork, and so that converts the

633
00:31:14,280 --> 00:31:18,120
Speaker 1: proton into a neutron. There's also one more step because

634
00:31:18,200 --> 00:31:20,640
Speaker 1: you can't just delete electrons from the universe, so you

635
00:31:20,720 --> 00:31:24,760
Speaker 1: also need to create an electron neutrino. Interesting, So it's

636
00:31:24,800 --> 00:31:28,880
Speaker 1: like the proton eats the electrons and then then they

637
00:31:28,960 --> 00:31:31,600
Speaker 1: become neutral. And then what happens to all of these neutrinos,

638
00:31:31,680 --> 00:31:33,760
Speaker 1: It just gets spit out into space. Yeah, they get

639
00:31:33,800 --> 00:31:37,000
Speaker 1: spit out into space because neutrinos mostly see stuff in

640
00:31:37,040 --> 00:31:40,760
Speaker 1: the universe as transparent, right, they hardly interact with anything.

641
00:31:40,880 --> 00:31:43,360
Speaker 1: They can go through a light year of lead without interacting,

642
00:31:43,800 --> 00:31:46,720
Speaker 1: and so mostly they just get shot out while it's collapsing. Remember,

643
00:31:46,760 --> 00:31:50,320
Speaker 1: supernova is the process that produces these neutron stars. Emit

644
00:31:50,560 --> 00:31:55,360
Speaker 1: most of their energy via neutrinos, right, something like of

645
00:31:55,440 --> 00:31:58,240
Speaker 1: the energy of a supernova is not emitted visually, not

646
00:31:58,400 --> 00:32:00,720
Speaker 1: in the optical, not via photo tons at all, but

647
00:32:00,920 --> 00:32:02,760
Speaker 1: via new trinos. And so this is part of the

648
00:32:02,800 --> 00:32:07,400
Speaker 1: process that creates all of those neutrinos when the supernova happens. Yeah,

649
00:32:07,480 --> 00:32:11,360
Speaker 1: supernovas are known to be silent, but deadly silent and invisible.

650
00:32:11,440 --> 00:32:13,600
Speaker 1: Supernovas are incredible because you can see them in with

651
00:32:13,720 --> 00:32:16,040
Speaker 1: a naked eye, right, that's how bright they are. All

652
00:32:16,080 --> 00:32:18,560
Speaker 1: of a sudden, a star becomes as bright as the

653
00:32:18,840 --> 00:32:22,360
Speaker 1: entire galaxy. And that's just the visible light we're talking about.

654
00:32:22,640 --> 00:32:25,400
Speaker 1: It turns out there's a hundred times more energy in

655
00:32:25,480 --> 00:32:28,280
Speaker 1: the new trinos. But a whole fun podcast episode about

656
00:32:28,320 --> 00:32:32,120
Speaker 1: how supernovas can be seen first in new trinos with

657
00:32:32,200 --> 00:32:34,920
Speaker 1: our new trino telescopes. And so this is part of

658
00:32:34,960 --> 00:32:38,520
Speaker 1: the process. Creating those neutron stars means making neutrons, which

659
00:32:38,520 --> 00:32:41,400
Speaker 1: also requires you to make the new trinos because you've

660
00:32:41,400 --> 00:32:44,000
Speaker 1: got to balance the books of particle physics in the end. Right,

661
00:32:44,080 --> 00:32:46,720
Speaker 1: So they're calling neutron stars, but actually not all of

662
00:32:46,800 --> 00:32:50,400
Speaker 1: it inside our neutrons, and so maybe can maybe step

663
00:32:50,480 --> 00:32:53,720
Speaker 1: us through a little bit, like asked, the supernova is collapsing,

664
00:32:53,760 --> 00:32:56,720
Speaker 1: and as things are getting squeezed together, like what's happening

665
00:32:56,760 --> 00:32:59,640
Speaker 1: to all those atoms of the bigger elements. They're just

666
00:32:59,680 --> 00:33:03,560
Speaker 1: getting broken up and squeezed together or they just explode.

667
00:33:03,760 --> 00:33:05,720
Speaker 1: What's going on? So some of them get broken up,

668
00:33:05,720 --> 00:33:07,840
Speaker 1: and depends on where they end up. So we'll learn

669
00:33:07,880 --> 00:33:09,680
Speaker 1: about it as we step through the layers of the

670
00:33:09,760 --> 00:33:12,720
Speaker 1: neutron star. But near the outside of the neutron star,

671
00:33:12,800 --> 00:33:15,400
Speaker 1: for example, the atoms don't get broken up. You get

672
00:33:15,440 --> 00:33:19,280
Speaker 1: atomic nuclei still, for example, so the outer crust of

673
00:33:19,320 --> 00:33:22,640
Speaker 1: a neutron star is atomic nuclei. You can have helium there,

674
00:33:22,640 --> 00:33:24,840
Speaker 1: you can have carbon, you can have oxygen, this kind

675
00:33:24,880 --> 00:33:27,160
Speaker 1: of stuff. It's only as you get deeper in that

676
00:33:27,320 --> 00:33:31,040
Speaker 1: these nuclei get squished together so far that the separation

677
00:33:31,120 --> 00:33:33,760
Speaker 1: between the nuclei breakdown, and then you just get like

678
00:33:33,840 --> 00:33:36,280
Speaker 1: a sea of neutrons, or maybe a sea of corks,

679
00:33:36,400 --> 00:33:38,920
Speaker 1: or maybe even weirder stuff. And so you can't really

680
00:33:38,960 --> 00:33:42,600
Speaker 1: think about it as like lead or iron or carbon

681
00:33:42,720 --> 00:33:46,120
Speaker 1: anymore because it's gotten broken up into its constituent bits

682
00:33:46,920 --> 00:33:48,960
Speaker 1: that's at the very center. But you're saying that the

683
00:33:49,080 --> 00:33:51,480
Speaker 1: crust of a neutron star you could get you just

684
00:33:51,600 --> 00:33:53,600
Speaker 1: have regular stuff. Then, yeah, at the crust you just

685
00:33:53,720 --> 00:33:55,640
Speaker 1: have regular stuff, like you might be able to like

686
00:33:55,720 --> 00:33:57,600
Speaker 1: stand on it maybe or is it all sort of

687
00:33:57,760 --> 00:34:00,280
Speaker 1: like in a liquid or gas form. So there is

688
00:34:00,280 --> 00:34:02,720
Speaker 1: an atmosphere of a neutron star. Actually there's like a

689
00:34:02,840 --> 00:34:08,440
Speaker 1: gaseous atmosphere, but it's micrometers thick, like micrometers. So this

690
00:34:08,600 --> 00:34:11,200
Speaker 1: thing is like ten kilometers or fifteen kilometers wide, and

691
00:34:11,239 --> 00:34:14,720
Speaker 1: it has an atmosphere and that's like micrometers of gas

692
00:34:15,200 --> 00:34:18,759
Speaker 1: just above the surface. And then the surface itself is hard,

693
00:34:18,920 --> 00:34:22,279
Speaker 1: it's like brittle, it's like a crunchy, right, and it's

694
00:34:22,360 --> 00:34:25,359
Speaker 1: made of atomic nuclei. So these are things that used

695
00:34:25,360 --> 00:34:28,520
Speaker 1: to be part of the star, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, whatever,

696
00:34:28,760 --> 00:34:32,000
Speaker 1: and now it's crystallized into this like lattice on the

697
00:34:32,120 --> 00:34:34,839
Speaker 1: outside of the star, which is very very smooth because

698
00:34:34,880 --> 00:34:37,600
Speaker 1: the gravity is so strong that you basically can't form

699
00:34:37,640 --> 00:34:40,680
Speaker 1: any hills. So they think that like the maximum elevation

700
00:34:40,800 --> 00:34:42,719
Speaker 1: on the surface of a neutron star might be like

701
00:34:42,880 --> 00:34:45,880
Speaker 1: one millimeter, or gravity like pulls it back down. So

702
00:34:46,560 --> 00:34:48,800
Speaker 1: if you're standing next to a neutron star. What you

703
00:34:48,840 --> 00:34:52,880
Speaker 1: would see is a basically a big, shiny smooth ball, right,

704
00:34:53,360 --> 00:34:56,680
Speaker 1: made out of some of these heavier elements, almost perfectly

705
00:34:56,760 --> 00:35:00,759
Speaker 1: shiny smooth ball. Really incredible how spherical this thing will be,

706
00:35:01,000 --> 00:35:03,640
Speaker 1: But there will be some exceptions because the crust is brittle.

707
00:35:04,000 --> 00:35:07,520
Speaker 1: The crust can crack, right, it's under incredible pressure gravity

708
00:35:07,640 --> 00:35:10,200
Speaker 1: squeezing it down, and sometimes you get like a little

709
00:35:10,200 --> 00:35:12,040
Speaker 1: bit of a weakness, and so you can get like

710
00:35:12,120 --> 00:35:14,560
Speaker 1: a star quake because you've got a crack in this

711
00:35:14,800 --> 00:35:17,000
Speaker 1: crust and things like a just a little bit, and

712
00:35:17,040 --> 00:35:19,400
Speaker 1: that's when, for example, X rays can leak out. So

713
00:35:19,480 --> 00:35:21,640
Speaker 1: the reason you get X rays is from these hotspots,

714
00:35:21,680 --> 00:35:24,840
Speaker 1: which can cause these little neutron star quakes on the surface.

715
00:35:25,640 --> 00:35:28,040
Speaker 1: But what if it's spinning, wouldn't it also kind of

716
00:35:28,200 --> 00:35:30,400
Speaker 1: give it a weird shape, right, It is spinning, and

717
00:35:30,440 --> 00:35:33,359
Speaker 1: so that changes it from a spherical a little bit, right,

718
00:35:33,360 --> 00:35:37,319
Speaker 1: But it's also very very compact gravitationally, how far something

719
00:35:37,360 --> 00:35:40,600
Speaker 1: goes from sphericals a balance between how fast it's spinning

720
00:35:40,640 --> 00:35:43,160
Speaker 1: and also how strong the gravity is. So we've never

721
00:35:43,239 --> 00:35:44,960
Speaker 1: seen one of these things. But you're right, it wouldn't

722
00:35:44,960 --> 00:35:48,600
Speaker 1: be perfectly spherical, though it still would be very very smooth.

723
00:35:48,840 --> 00:35:51,239
Speaker 1: All right, So I'm standing on top of a neutron star.

724
00:35:51,440 --> 00:35:54,200
Speaker 1: I wait, two hundred billion times more than I normally do.

725
00:35:54,560 --> 00:35:56,480
Speaker 1: And so I take a pick ax and I cracked

726
00:35:56,480 --> 00:35:58,799
Speaker 1: the surface. What do I see inside? So you gotta

727
00:35:58,840 --> 00:36:00,879
Speaker 1: dig a little bit wet. So inside the neutron star

728
00:36:01,040 --> 00:36:02,759
Speaker 1: is a little bit more crust. You've got to dig

729
00:36:02,840 --> 00:36:05,040
Speaker 1: a little bit into it before you get to sort

730
00:36:05,080 --> 00:36:07,680
Speaker 1: of like the next layer. And we're not sure, of course,

731
00:36:07,680 --> 00:36:09,680
Speaker 1: about any of this. A lot of this is speculation.

732
00:36:09,760 --> 00:36:12,640
Speaker 1: These are models that we've developed based on our calculations

733
00:36:12,719 --> 00:36:15,600
Speaker 1: from our understanding of the strong force and gravity, etcetera.

734
00:36:15,719 --> 00:36:18,239
Speaker 1: But we think that this outer crust is like three

735
00:36:18,360 --> 00:36:21,359
Speaker 1: hundred to five hundred meters thick. Once you penetrate through

736
00:36:21,400 --> 00:36:24,480
Speaker 1: the crust, then these elements are no longer able to

737
00:36:24,560 --> 00:36:28,360
Speaker 1: hold onto themselves, right, They're squeezed together by pressure, and

738
00:36:28,440 --> 00:36:31,880
Speaker 1: so you get this like soup of neutrons that we

739
00:36:31,960 --> 00:36:34,200
Speaker 1: think are just sort of like floating around there where

740
00:36:34,239 --> 00:36:36,840
Speaker 1: the atoms themselves are getting broken up, so they're no

741
00:36:36,960 --> 00:36:40,640
Speaker 1: longer really like have their identity as an element. I see,

742
00:36:40,680 --> 00:36:42,880
Speaker 1: so on the shell you still had the heavier elements

743
00:36:42,960 --> 00:36:45,600
Speaker 1: like lead and carbon, but then now they're being squeezed

744
00:36:45,600 --> 00:36:48,799
Speaker 1: together so much they what they like, they just break

745
00:36:48,840 --> 00:36:51,960
Speaker 1: apart the nuclei or they merged together. They do both.

746
00:36:52,000 --> 00:36:54,080
Speaker 1: They sort of varies. As you go in near the

747
00:36:54,200 --> 00:36:57,160
Speaker 1: outer layers of this part. They first merged together because

748
00:36:57,200 --> 00:37:00,280
Speaker 1: they're getting squeezed together, and so you have weird fusion happening.

749
00:37:00,360 --> 00:37:03,440
Speaker 1: You have like weird heavy elements that couldn't exist in

750
00:37:03,680 --> 00:37:06,640
Speaker 1: other situations, you know, that wouldn't be stable out there

751
00:37:06,719 --> 00:37:09,760
Speaker 1: on their own in the universe. But under this crazy pressure,

752
00:37:10,000 --> 00:37:12,759
Speaker 1: we think you can form like ridiculously heavy elements, you know,

753
00:37:13,080 --> 00:37:15,680
Speaker 1: things with huge numbers of neutrons on them. As you

754
00:37:15,760 --> 00:37:18,640
Speaker 1: go further and further in, things become more and more

755
00:37:18,760 --> 00:37:21,160
Speaker 1: neutron e Right. It's not pure neutrons. You still have

756
00:37:21,320 --> 00:37:24,759
Speaker 1: some protons and some electrons. Not every single proton and

757
00:37:24,840 --> 00:37:27,920
Speaker 1: electron has been converted into a neutron. But as you

758
00:37:28,000 --> 00:37:30,880
Speaker 1: go inwards you have like a higher and higher fraction

759
00:37:31,040 --> 00:37:33,920
Speaker 1: of neutrons m Because I guess as you squeeze this

760
00:37:33,920 --> 00:37:36,239
Speaker 1: stuff together, that's what it all ends up as, right,

761
00:37:36,480 --> 00:37:38,880
Speaker 1: just play neutrons because all of the electrons, and the

762
00:37:38,920 --> 00:37:42,320
Speaker 1: protons eat each other exactly, and we think that overall

763
00:37:42,440 --> 00:37:44,400
Speaker 1: there's gonna be a charge balance. So there is a

764
00:37:44,520 --> 00:37:47,640
Speaker 1: proton for every electron, and so you squeeze it hard

765
00:37:47,719 --> 00:37:50,200
Speaker 1: enough and they'll find each other eventually. But so as

766
00:37:50,239 --> 00:37:51,719
Speaker 1: you go deeper and deeper, and you get like a

767
00:37:51,800 --> 00:37:55,400
Speaker 1: higher and higher fraction of neutrons, and then what happens

768
00:37:55,400 --> 00:37:57,479
Speaker 1: as you go in deeper. As we go in deeper

769
00:37:57,600 --> 00:37:59,840
Speaker 1: is where the real mystery is, right, and so you

770
00:38:00,080 --> 00:38:03,120
Speaker 1: have this inner core where we don't really know what's

771
00:38:03,160 --> 00:38:06,240
Speaker 1: going on, Like we think maybe there's some super fluid

772
00:38:06,320 --> 00:38:09,319
Speaker 1: neutron matter there, Like we think that maybe under these

773
00:38:09,360 --> 00:38:12,600
Speaker 1: conditions and neutrons just like slide around past each other

774
00:38:12,719 --> 00:38:14,799
Speaker 1: and have all this weird chemistry. This is a lot

775
00:38:14,840 --> 00:38:17,200
Speaker 1: of where the question marks are. You might wonder, like, well,

776
00:38:17,280 --> 00:38:19,719
Speaker 1: why is it a question mark? Can't we just take

777
00:38:20,040 --> 00:38:22,560
Speaker 1: the laws of physics that we have gravity and the

778
00:38:22,680 --> 00:38:25,600
Speaker 1: strong force and do the calculations and say what does

779
00:38:25,640 --> 00:38:28,239
Speaker 1: it predict? It's not always so easy, right to say

780
00:38:28,480 --> 00:38:30,920
Speaker 1: I know what the laws are, what's going to happen.

781
00:38:31,280 --> 00:38:33,400
Speaker 1: We can't even do that for lots of situations. You know,

782
00:38:33,480 --> 00:38:36,120
Speaker 1: if you just gave me quantum mechanics and a baseball

783
00:38:36,160 --> 00:38:39,160
Speaker 1: and said, here's ten to the twenty nine particles, what

784
00:38:39,320 --> 00:38:41,560
Speaker 1: do they do next? It would be very very hard

785
00:38:41,640 --> 00:38:44,719
Speaker 1: for me to come up with like parabolic motion. It's

786
00:38:44,760 --> 00:38:47,480
Speaker 1: not easy always to go from the underlying laws to

787
00:38:47,680 --> 00:38:50,800
Speaker 1: predicting what's going to happen on the macroscopic scale, and

788
00:38:51,040 --> 00:38:54,440
Speaker 1: especially when things are very very strong, when the forces

789
00:38:54,440 --> 00:38:57,560
Speaker 1: are very powerful. Here you have gravity, which is unusually

790
00:38:57,640 --> 00:39:00,320
Speaker 1: powerful because it's so dense, and you have this strong

791
00:39:00,440 --> 00:39:04,040
Speaker 1: force doing its thing with very short distances. These things

792
00:39:04,080 --> 00:39:07,359
Speaker 1: are exchanging incredible numbers of gluons. So we just don't

793
00:39:07,400 --> 00:39:10,600
Speaker 1: know how to do that calculation. Even if the laws

794
00:39:10,640 --> 00:39:12,839
Speaker 1: that we have, the ideas that we have about what's

795
00:39:12,920 --> 00:39:15,880
Speaker 1: fundamentally guiding it are true, we don't know how to

796
00:39:15,960 --> 00:39:19,280
Speaker 1: take those and predict in great detail what's going on inside.

797
00:39:20,080 --> 00:39:23,000
Speaker 1: It just gets too crazy. It just gets too crazy er.

798
00:39:23,040 --> 00:39:25,320
Speaker 1: It's too many things to keep track of. So we've tried,

799
00:39:25,480 --> 00:39:27,920
Speaker 1: and we have a few ideas. People make approximations this

800
00:39:28,000 --> 00:39:30,680
Speaker 1: way or approximations that way to say maybe it's like this,

801
00:39:30,920 --> 00:39:34,400
Speaker 1: or maybe this equation will work. But everybody's reaching past

802
00:39:34,520 --> 00:39:36,560
Speaker 1: the edge of what they really know. So there's a

803
00:39:36,600 --> 00:39:39,840
Speaker 1: bunch of speculative ideas and they're all really different, and

804
00:39:39,920 --> 00:39:42,160
Speaker 1: they're all totally different from each other, and so we'd

805
00:39:42,239 --> 00:39:44,399
Speaker 1: love to see it. We'd love to understand what's going

806
00:39:44,480 --> 00:39:46,399
Speaker 1: on there, because it would tell us, oh, this idea

807
00:39:46,480 --> 00:39:49,080
Speaker 1: is correct, or actually, none of your ideas are correct,

808
00:39:49,120 --> 00:39:51,960
Speaker 1: and something totally weird and unexpected happens. So that's what

809
00:39:52,040 --> 00:39:54,479
Speaker 1: we're trying to do. Unfortunately, of course, we can't see

810
00:39:54,640 --> 00:39:56,800
Speaker 1: the inside of the neutron star. We have to just

811
00:39:56,880 --> 00:39:58,920
Speaker 1: try to guess what's going on based on what we

812
00:39:59,080 --> 00:40:01,800
Speaker 1: can see from outside. All right, well, let's get to

813
00:40:01,880 --> 00:40:04,800
Speaker 1: the core of this mystery and think about what exciting

814
00:40:04,960 --> 00:40:08,120
Speaker 1: and maybe delicious things could be inside at the core

815
00:40:08,280 --> 00:40:11,200
Speaker 1: of neutron stars. But first let's take another quick break.

816
00:40:24,000 --> 00:40:26,560
Speaker 1: All right, we're talking about neutron stars and what is

817
00:40:26,640 --> 00:40:29,080
Speaker 1: inside of him, and I'm sort of getting the picture, Daniel, Dad,

818
00:40:29,239 --> 00:40:32,080
Speaker 1: inside of a neutron star are not necessarily neutrons. There

819
00:40:32,080 --> 00:40:34,000
Speaker 1: seems to be a lot of other stuff. They should

820
00:40:34,000 --> 00:40:39,040
Speaker 1: be called mostly neutron stars. Neutron star, yeah, or neutrinas stars. Well,

821
00:40:39,040 --> 00:40:41,239
Speaker 1: all the neutrinos have left the building. Right, they took

822
00:40:41,280 --> 00:40:43,719
Speaker 1: their little weak forces and they ran away. I see

823
00:40:43,880 --> 00:40:46,319
Speaker 1: there are no Italians in the room anymore. You're free

824
00:40:46,360 --> 00:40:49,680
Speaker 1: to make whatever pasta you want. All the rules are

825
00:40:49,760 --> 00:40:52,480
Speaker 1: out the window. How a d is the inside of

826
00:40:52,520 --> 00:40:55,440
Speaker 1: a neutron star? So we correct the heart surface of

827
00:40:55,480 --> 00:40:58,399
Speaker 1: a neutron star. We dug in a little bit. When

828
00:40:58,520 --> 00:41:01,120
Speaker 1: you get this soup of electrons, the neutrons maybe like

829
00:41:01,239 --> 00:41:04,560
Speaker 1: super deeper heavy atoms, but eventually those break down as

830
00:41:04,640 --> 00:41:06,960
Speaker 1: you go deeper and deeper into the neutron start to

831
00:41:07,320 --> 00:41:11,120
Speaker 1: you get basically just neutrons, right, like a sea of neutrons.

832
00:41:11,160 --> 00:41:13,279
Speaker 1: But then what happens as you go even further in,

833
00:41:13,560 --> 00:41:16,319
Speaker 1: So we don't know what those neutrons do, and that's

834
00:41:16,360 --> 00:41:18,360
Speaker 1: fundamentally the question, Like if you have a bunch of

835
00:41:18,440 --> 00:41:22,319
Speaker 1: neutrons and you squeeze them into these incredibly dense situations,

836
00:41:22,800 --> 00:41:26,600
Speaker 1: what do they do? Do they form a super fluid

837
00:41:26,840 --> 00:41:29,440
Speaker 1: or do they do something else? Something weird? But you're

838
00:41:29,440 --> 00:41:32,400
Speaker 1: still calling them neutrons because like, inside of a neutrons

839
00:41:32,440 --> 00:41:34,960
Speaker 1: are three quarks. But so you're saying at this point,

840
00:41:35,080 --> 00:41:38,359
Speaker 1: like each triplet of quarks is still held together. They're

841
00:41:38,440 --> 00:41:42,040
Speaker 1: just interacting with other triplets of neutrons, or have the

842
00:41:42,280 --> 00:41:44,640
Speaker 1: corks sort of even broken out of that. That's one

843
00:41:44,680 --> 00:41:47,000
Speaker 1: of the options, right, Do the neutrons stay together and

844
00:41:47,160 --> 00:41:51,359
Speaker 1: form weird shapes, weird emergence structures, or do they break down?

845
00:41:51,560 --> 00:41:54,279
Speaker 1: And really we should be talking about cork matter, you know,

846
00:41:54,360 --> 00:41:57,399
Speaker 1: and cork gluon plasmas. That's one of the options that's

847
00:41:57,480 --> 00:41:59,800
Speaker 1: on the table. But to me, it's a great example

848
00:42:00,400 --> 00:42:02,800
Speaker 1: of some of the deepest mysteries at the heart of

849
00:42:02,920 --> 00:42:06,160
Speaker 1: our understanding of the universe, you know, like what emerges.

850
00:42:06,840 --> 00:42:09,560
Speaker 1: You can take the basic rules of physics, and incredible

851
00:42:09,560 --> 00:42:13,120
Speaker 1: structures emerge, you know, atoms and ice cream and galaxies,

852
00:42:13,360 --> 00:42:17,120
Speaker 1: all these things sort of emerge from the underlying complexity.

853
00:42:17,320 --> 00:42:20,040
Speaker 1: And it's exciting to see a situation where we just

854
00:42:20,160 --> 00:42:22,560
Speaker 1: don't know what will emerge. You put the neutrons in

855
00:42:22,600 --> 00:42:25,359
Speaker 1: this situation, maybe they'll just be a crazy, chaotic soup,

856
00:42:25,600 --> 00:42:28,759
Speaker 1: but maybe new structures will form, right, And so people

857
00:42:28,800 --> 00:42:31,520
Speaker 1: have exciting ideas for what kind of weird structures might

858
00:42:31,680 --> 00:42:35,359
Speaker 1: form from neutrons in these configurations, right, because, as you said,

859
00:42:35,400 --> 00:42:37,919
Speaker 1: I think at this point it's so crazy and so dance.

860
00:42:37,960 --> 00:42:41,319
Speaker 1: There's only two forces involved. The gravity that's keeping them

861
00:42:41,600 --> 00:42:43,640
Speaker 1: all in and keeping them attracted to each other, and

862
00:42:43,719 --> 00:42:47,440
Speaker 1: also the strong force, which is what bringing in the

863
00:42:47,560 --> 00:42:50,520
Speaker 1: courts together, help holding the courts together, or what does

864
00:42:50,560 --> 00:42:52,960
Speaker 1: this strong force do? Does a strong force repel? Also

865
00:42:53,160 --> 00:42:55,440
Speaker 1: here it just attracts, right. The strong force is really

866
00:42:55,520 --> 00:42:58,920
Speaker 1: really weird and has a very strange behavior with distance,

867
00:42:59,000 --> 00:43:02,200
Speaker 1: but under short distance and will attract quarks and gluons

868
00:43:02,239 --> 00:43:05,120
Speaker 1: to each other. And we think of protons and neutrons

869
00:43:05,200 --> 00:43:07,960
Speaker 1: as sort of like balanced in the strong force, that

870
00:43:08,080 --> 00:43:10,400
Speaker 1: all the quarks are bound together into this state that

871
00:43:10,480 --> 00:43:14,400
Speaker 1: has overall no strong charge, no color. But that's not

872
00:43:14,600 --> 00:43:17,640
Speaker 1: really true. If you get close up enough to a proton.

873
00:43:17,840 --> 00:43:19,960
Speaker 1: If you get close up enough to a proton, then

874
00:43:20,000 --> 00:43:22,520
Speaker 1: you'll be like closer to part of it then to

875
00:43:22,600 --> 00:43:25,120
Speaker 1: the backside of it, and so you'll still feel a

876
00:43:25,239 --> 00:43:28,200
Speaker 1: little bit of that effective color, right, And so if

877
00:43:28,239 --> 00:43:30,920
Speaker 1: you get close up enough to a proton with your corks,

878
00:43:31,200 --> 00:43:33,760
Speaker 1: then your corks will start talking to the quarks inside

879
00:43:33,800 --> 00:43:37,240
Speaker 1: that proton. And that's for example, why a nucleus holds together.

880
00:43:37,520 --> 00:43:40,000
Speaker 1: Remember a nucleus is filled with protons and neutrons, is

881
00:43:40,080 --> 00:43:43,360
Speaker 1: only positive electric charges there, Why doesn't it blow apart

882
00:43:43,440 --> 00:43:46,920
Speaker 1: Because the quarks inside the protons and neutrons are talking

883
00:43:47,000 --> 00:43:49,680
Speaker 1: to each other. They're making it sticky. And so inside

884
00:43:49,719 --> 00:43:53,000
Speaker 1: a neutron star, the strong forces pulling these things together

885
00:43:53,160 --> 00:43:55,319
Speaker 1: the same way gravity is. Right, So you have all

886
00:43:55,360 --> 00:43:59,440
Speaker 1: these neutrons, then these triplets of corks held together by gravity,

887
00:43:59,560 --> 00:44:01,560
Speaker 1: and you're saying that they can sort of form matter

888
00:44:01,719 --> 00:44:04,920
Speaker 1: like they can you know, arrange themselves in special, maybe

889
00:44:05,280 --> 00:44:07,600
Speaker 1: delicious ways. Yeah, well, we don't know for sure, but

890
00:44:07,760 --> 00:44:10,879
Speaker 1: we have done supercomputer studies where we simulate these things.

891
00:44:10,960 --> 00:44:12,719
Speaker 1: We put in the laws of nature and we just

892
00:44:12,800 --> 00:44:15,840
Speaker 1: see sort of what happens, and interesting stuff does seem

893
00:44:15,880 --> 00:44:19,560
Speaker 1: to emerge. After like two hundred and fifty computer years

894
00:44:19,760 --> 00:44:23,800
Speaker 1: of calculations, they see these weird blobs form, and so

895
00:44:24,000 --> 00:44:26,960
Speaker 1: as things get denser, they form these sort of semi

896
00:44:27,160 --> 00:44:30,600
Speaker 1: spherical blobs of matter where things sort of like clumped

897
00:44:30,640 --> 00:44:34,200
Speaker 1: together into these huge blobs of neutrons with a few

898
00:44:34,280 --> 00:44:37,480
Speaker 1: protons mixed in. And so they called these things Nioki

899
00:44:37,719 --> 00:44:41,080
Speaker 1: might be Italian, you know, potato blobs that people enjoy

900
00:44:41,080 --> 00:44:42,719
Speaker 1: eating for lunch. I guess it's sort of like if

901
00:44:42,719 --> 00:44:46,400
Speaker 1: you take a whole bunch of carbon and atoms, loose atoms,

902
00:44:46,440 --> 00:44:48,520
Speaker 1: and you squeeze them together enough at some point they'll

903
00:44:48,719 --> 00:44:51,640
Speaker 1: sort of form into a diamond or some sort of shape. Right.

904
00:44:51,719 --> 00:44:53,799
Speaker 1: That's kind of what's happening here, is that you're taking

905
00:44:53,880 --> 00:44:56,239
Speaker 1: these neutrons and you're squeezing them so much they kind

906
00:44:56,280 --> 00:44:58,920
Speaker 1: of lock into these shapes. Yeah, and so instead of

907
00:44:59,000 --> 00:45:02,400
Speaker 1: having like a sleet ocean where everything is just mixed together,

908
00:45:02,840 --> 00:45:05,640
Speaker 1: they form a blobs of a certain size. Right, They

909
00:45:05,760 --> 00:45:07,880
Speaker 1: like distinguished themselves say, oh, we'd like to have this

910
00:45:08,120 --> 00:45:10,799
Speaker 1: many neutrons into a blob with a few protons mixed

911
00:45:10,880 --> 00:45:13,720
Speaker 1: in would have the same thing over there. So instead

912
00:45:13,760 --> 00:45:16,600
Speaker 1: of being like totally indeterminate, they seem to want to

913
00:45:16,680 --> 00:45:19,760
Speaker 1: form these structures. Right. And if you squeeze even further

914
00:45:20,000 --> 00:45:23,000
Speaker 1: than these blobs form these long rods. They like come

915
00:45:23,080 --> 00:45:25,840
Speaker 1: together to make these long rods, which looks sort of

916
00:45:25,920 --> 00:45:27,920
Speaker 1: like spaghetti. Well, I mean, they could look like a

917
00:45:28,000 --> 00:45:35,200
Speaker 1: lot of things, bread sticks, steel bars, but we're we're

918
00:45:35,640 --> 00:45:37,800
Speaker 1: you're you're staying with the pasta analogy. They sort of

919
00:45:37,800 --> 00:45:40,080
Speaker 1: look like spaghetti. I didn't name any of these things.

920
00:45:40,200 --> 00:45:42,160
Speaker 1: I'm just enjoying saying them but yeah, they could have

921
00:45:42,239 --> 00:45:44,600
Speaker 1: called them, you know, twizzlers or bread sticks or whatever.

922
00:45:44,680 --> 00:45:46,799
Speaker 1: But they look sort of like spaghetti, and they form

923
00:45:46,880 --> 00:45:49,680
Speaker 1: these long rods. They're parallel, right. Don't think of spaghetti

924
00:45:49,800 --> 00:45:52,200
Speaker 1: like a big mess on your plate. Think of spaghetti

925
00:45:52,239 --> 00:45:54,319
Speaker 1: sort of the way it comes in the package from

926
00:45:54,360 --> 00:45:57,359
Speaker 1: the store. They're all these rods in parallel with each other.

927
00:45:57,520 --> 00:46:00,520
Speaker 1: So they call this nuclear pasta, right, right, And so

928
00:46:00,719 --> 00:46:03,480
Speaker 1: they kept going, and all the other shapes that neutrons

929
00:46:03,520 --> 00:46:06,000
Speaker 1: can form have sort of a pasta analogy. Right. Yeah,

930
00:46:06,040 --> 00:46:08,520
Speaker 1: you keep going, you keep squeezing this stuff down, and

931
00:46:08,640 --> 00:46:11,320
Speaker 1: they think, or they predict from these calculations that the

932
00:46:11,360 --> 00:46:14,360
Speaker 1: spaghetti will merge together to form sheets. So then you

933
00:46:14,480 --> 00:46:18,560
Speaker 1: have nuclear lasagna, these like layers of this weird kind

934
00:46:18,640 --> 00:46:21,960
Speaker 1: of matter that's mostly neutrons with a few protons in it.

935
00:46:22,120 --> 00:46:25,680
Speaker 1: And it's very very strong stuff. In their calculations, this

936
00:46:25,719 --> 00:46:28,600
Speaker 1: stuff has incredible strength. It's like very hard to break

937
00:46:28,719 --> 00:46:31,680
Speaker 1: it apart. It might be some of the strongest stuff

938
00:46:31,880 --> 00:46:35,200
Speaker 1: in the universe. You mean, these lasagna sheets of neutrons,

939
00:46:35,239 --> 00:46:37,880
Speaker 1: and these Lasagna sheets of neutrons, they're not just like

940
00:46:38,239 --> 00:46:41,080
Speaker 1: forming and then breaking up and then reforming it's not

941
00:46:41,160 --> 00:46:43,879
Speaker 1: like a crazy gas or a plasma. Right. These things

942
00:46:43,960 --> 00:46:47,120
Speaker 1: are like very very strong sheets of a weird kind

943
00:46:47,200 --> 00:46:49,920
Speaker 1: of matter. Right. It's not like a solid or liquid

944
00:46:50,280 --> 00:46:53,920
Speaker 1: or exactly like a crystal made out of almost all neutrons. Right,

945
00:46:54,040 --> 00:46:56,759
Speaker 1: it's not like a regular lattice of atoms like the

946
00:46:56,800 --> 00:46:58,960
Speaker 1: way we think of like a piece of steel. Right.

947
00:46:59,040 --> 00:47:00,919
Speaker 1: And you're saying some of those strongest stuff in universe

948
00:47:00,960 --> 00:47:04,760
Speaker 1: because it's it's basically surviving these intense and crazy pressures

949
00:47:04,800 --> 00:47:06,560
Speaker 1: inside of the neutron star. But I guess if you

950
00:47:06,600 --> 00:47:08,879
Speaker 1: took it out of the neutron star, which is blow up, Yeah,

951
00:47:08,920 --> 00:47:11,280
Speaker 1: it would probably blow up. We don't know, right, Maybe

952
00:47:11,360 --> 00:47:14,319
Speaker 1: it's strong enough it will hold itself together. Right, Because,

953
00:47:14,360 --> 00:47:18,200
Speaker 1: for example, diamonds are formed under very crazy conditions, but

954
00:47:18,520 --> 00:47:20,279
Speaker 1: then they're stable, so you pull them out from the

955
00:47:20,320 --> 00:47:22,440
Speaker 1: heart of the Earth where they were made, they don't explode.

956
00:47:22,600 --> 00:47:25,320
Speaker 1: So maybe nuclear pasta doesn't explode. We just don't know.

957
00:47:25,600 --> 00:47:28,200
Speaker 1: But if you keep squeezing this stuff together, you squeeze

958
00:47:28,200 --> 00:47:32,120
Speaker 1: the Lasagna sheets together, it forms this thing called anti spaghetti,

959
00:47:32,360 --> 00:47:34,800
Speaker 1: which is like a blob of matter with holes in it,

960
00:47:34,920 --> 00:47:38,879
Speaker 1: like long, thin spaghetti holes sort of like drilled through it. Wait,

961
00:47:39,000 --> 00:47:42,480
Speaker 1: what kind of like pant pasta like Swiss cheese. More

962
00:47:42,520 --> 00:47:44,880
Speaker 1: like Swiss cheese, Yeah, than penna pasta, right, more like

963
00:47:44,920 --> 00:47:47,480
Speaker 1: parmiers Maybe should say parmesan or what's in the Italian

964
00:47:47,560 --> 00:47:49,760
Speaker 1: cheese with holds in it. But those holes are bubbles

965
00:47:49,840 --> 00:47:52,520
Speaker 1: right here. We're talking about holes that are like long tubes.

966
00:47:52,800 --> 00:47:55,480
Speaker 1: So it's like wormholes through a block of parmesan. It's

967
00:47:55,520 --> 00:47:58,759
Speaker 1: more like a clump of bucatinia then perhaps, yeah, like

968
00:47:58,800 --> 00:48:01,520
Speaker 1: a clumb of bukatina. Any They called it anti spaghetti

969
00:48:01,560 --> 00:48:04,279
Speaker 1: because it's like take the spaghetti state and flip it

970
00:48:04,360 --> 00:48:06,839
Speaker 1: so that everything that was matter is now a hole

971
00:48:06,960 --> 00:48:09,000
Speaker 1: and everything that was a whole is now matter. So

972
00:48:09,120 --> 00:48:12,040
Speaker 1: if you add spaghetti and anti spaghetti together, you get,

973
00:48:12,200 --> 00:48:14,239
Speaker 1: you know, like a complete block of matter. You get

974
00:48:14,239 --> 00:48:17,920
Speaker 1: anti pasta. You annihilate your stomach, and that's not even

975
00:48:18,000 --> 00:48:19,600
Speaker 1: like the core of the neutron star. Like if you

976
00:48:19,680 --> 00:48:22,520
Speaker 1: go further in then things start to even this pasta

977
00:48:22,600 --> 00:48:25,200
Speaker 1: can't survive. Yeah, so they think that this pasta is

978
00:48:25,280 --> 00:48:27,879
Speaker 1: maybe like a layer that's like a hundred meters thick,

979
00:48:28,080 --> 00:48:30,840
Speaker 1: and as you go even deeper, you know, we're in

980
00:48:30,840 --> 00:48:33,920
Speaker 1: a huge question mark territory. But some people speculate that

981
00:48:33,960 --> 00:48:37,239
Speaker 1: you might get a quark gluon plasma or something else,

982
00:48:37,280 --> 00:48:40,440
Speaker 1: this stuff called cork matter, or as you suggested earlier,

983
00:48:40,760 --> 00:48:42,560
Speaker 1: you no longer really can think about this stuff in

984
00:48:42,719 --> 00:48:45,880
Speaker 1: terms of neutrons and protons anymore, because everything is just

985
00:48:45,960 --> 00:48:48,880
Speaker 1: interacting with everything else. If it's a high enough energy,

986
00:48:48,920 --> 00:48:51,719
Speaker 1: if the high enough temperature, that doesn't really matter that

987
00:48:51,800 --> 00:48:53,920
Speaker 1: you used to call vs three quarks and neutron and

988
00:48:54,000 --> 00:48:56,600
Speaker 1: those three quarks of proton. Now they're all talking to

989
00:48:56,680 --> 00:48:58,360
Speaker 1: each other, so it's just like a big sea of

990
00:48:58,480 --> 00:49:02,000
Speaker 1: quarks and gluons. I thought at the center you would

991
00:49:02,000 --> 00:49:06,000
Speaker 1: find Daniel going, how this taste the same? That's all

992
00:49:06,080 --> 00:49:08,480
Speaker 1: the same stuff. I bet a bite of nuclear lasagna

993
00:49:08,520 --> 00:49:12,719
Speaker 1: and nuclear anti spaghetti tastes just about the same. The

994
00:49:12,840 --> 00:49:15,800
Speaker 1: pats on how the I guess quark glulon sauce coats

995
00:49:15,880 --> 00:49:18,200
Speaker 1: the shapes now. But I think what you're saying is

996
00:49:18,239 --> 00:49:20,600
Speaker 1: that you get to a point where it doesn't make

997
00:49:20,680 --> 00:49:25,000
Speaker 1: sense to call things uh neutron, because like the separation

998
00:49:25,080 --> 00:49:27,279
Speaker 1: between a triple of quarks and a triple of corks

999
00:49:27,320 --> 00:49:30,200
Speaker 1: here is sort of gone. Like you basically crack open

1000
00:49:30,320 --> 00:49:33,080
Speaker 1: those neutrons and it's just a soup of of the

1001
00:49:33,160 --> 00:49:35,960
Speaker 1: what's inside. Yeah, and that's the possibility, right. It might

1002
00:49:36,120 --> 00:49:39,040
Speaker 1: be that the conditions are intense enough to create that,

1003
00:49:39,239 --> 00:49:42,200
Speaker 1: but we're not sure, right, it might be that instead,

1004
00:49:42,320 --> 00:49:45,319
Speaker 1: other things happen. So there are other possibilities on the list.

1005
00:49:45,520 --> 00:49:47,840
Speaker 1: Some people think you might form weird, strange kinds of

1006
00:49:47,920 --> 00:49:52,200
Speaker 1: matter inside things like hyperon matter or kaon matter. These

1007
00:49:52,239 --> 00:49:55,360
Speaker 1: are other versions of nucleons. But instead of having just

1008
00:49:55,560 --> 00:49:58,240
Speaker 1: up quirks and down quirks, now you have strange quirks

1009
00:49:58,280 --> 00:50:01,279
Speaker 1: as well, just ing And then I guess you can

1010
00:50:01,480 --> 00:50:05,600
Speaker 1: break things down further because corks are fundamental particles in

1011
00:50:05,640 --> 00:50:08,600
Speaker 1: the universe, right, or could you maybe squeeze them down

1012
00:50:08,760 --> 00:50:11,320
Speaker 1: to like just pure energy. Well, we don't know the

1013
00:50:11,400 --> 00:50:14,279
Speaker 1: corks are fundamental, right, They are as fundamental as we

1014
00:50:14,440 --> 00:50:17,680
Speaker 1: have discovered. We don't know that there's anything inside of cork,

1015
00:50:17,760 --> 00:50:19,680
Speaker 1: but we have lots of hints that suggests that they

1016
00:50:19,719 --> 00:50:23,400
Speaker 1: shouldn't be fundamental. They are all these unexplained patterns among

1017
00:50:23,560 --> 00:50:26,160
Speaker 1: the corks, the kind of patterns you see when they're

1018
00:50:26,200 --> 00:50:29,560
Speaker 1: made out of something smaller, something more fundamental, like we

1019
00:50:29,600 --> 00:50:32,360
Speaker 1: saw patterns in the periodic table. Those were clues that

1020
00:50:32,480 --> 00:50:34,799
Speaker 1: atoms were actually made of smaller building blocks you could

1021
00:50:34,840 --> 00:50:37,440
Speaker 1: arrange in lots of different ways. We see similar patterns

1022
00:50:37,520 --> 00:50:40,239
Speaker 1: in the corks that suggests that they should probably be

1023
00:50:40,440 --> 00:50:42,800
Speaker 1: made of something smaller, but we've never seen it. So

1024
00:50:42,920 --> 00:50:45,400
Speaker 1: it's possible that the heart of neutron stars, you go

1025
00:50:45,560 --> 00:50:48,719
Speaker 1: beyond cork gluon plasma, and you can even go inside

1026
00:50:48,760 --> 00:50:51,560
Speaker 1: the corks, and maybe the things inside corks break open

1027
00:50:51,600 --> 00:50:54,120
Speaker 1: and talk to each other. We just don't know, all right,

1028
00:50:54,239 --> 00:50:56,600
Speaker 1: So then, uh, I guess what's inside when nintron star?

1029
00:50:56,719 --> 00:51:00,120
Speaker 1: The answer is we're not quite sure. I mean, defly

1030
00:51:00,200 --> 00:51:02,600
Speaker 1: you had neutrons there, but maybe at the core you

1031
00:51:02,680 --> 00:51:05,680
Speaker 1: get to something that is not even neutrons, or maybe

1032
00:51:05,760 --> 00:51:08,480
Speaker 1: even quarts, is what you're saying. Yeah, we just don't know.

1033
00:51:08,600 --> 00:51:11,239
Speaker 1: It's a big question mark, and lots of different calculations

1034
00:51:11,360 --> 00:51:14,960
Speaker 1: lead to different predictions, which is confusing and also exciting

1035
00:51:15,160 --> 00:51:18,840
Speaker 1: because it means that we can learn something about the universe. Unfortunately,

1036
00:51:18,920 --> 00:51:21,759
Speaker 1: we can't see the inside of neutron stars directly. Right

1037
00:51:21,840 --> 00:51:24,399
Speaker 1: Even if you were near a neutron star, how would

1038
00:51:24,400 --> 00:51:26,759
Speaker 1: you see what's going on inside it. We have the

1039
00:51:26,800 --> 00:51:29,680
Speaker 1: same question with our own star. We don't really understand

1040
00:51:29,960 --> 00:51:32,560
Speaker 1: all the plasmac currens inside the Sun and why it

1041
00:51:32,680 --> 00:51:35,839
Speaker 1: creates this magnetic field which flips every eleven years because

1042
00:51:35,880 --> 00:51:37,600
Speaker 1: we can't go inside it. We can only look at

1043
00:51:37,640 --> 00:51:40,240
Speaker 1: it from the outside. Well, these are even dimmer objects

1044
00:51:40,480 --> 00:51:43,880
Speaker 1: much further away, so they're even harder to study. But

1045
00:51:44,000 --> 00:51:46,080
Speaker 1: you know, we can use our X ray telescopes to

1046
00:51:46,239 --> 00:51:49,840
Speaker 1: look for these photons from these cracks on the surface

1047
00:51:49,880 --> 00:51:51,719
Speaker 1: of the neutron star, and those can give us a

1048
00:51:51,760 --> 00:51:54,160
Speaker 1: lot of clues. They tell us something about the mass

1049
00:51:54,320 --> 00:51:56,759
Speaker 1: and the radius of the neutron star, and we think

1050
00:51:56,840 --> 00:51:59,120
Speaker 1: that knowing the mass and radius the neutron star will

1051
00:51:59,160 --> 00:52:01,279
Speaker 1: help us try to figure out what's going on at

1052
00:52:01,320 --> 00:52:03,719
Speaker 1: the core of it. Because you're building this neutron star

1053
00:52:03,840 --> 00:52:06,000
Speaker 1: out of different kinds of stuff, So one idea for

1054
00:52:06,080 --> 00:52:07,920
Speaker 1: what's of the heart of a neutron star will give

1055
00:52:07,920 --> 00:52:10,560
Speaker 1: you different predictions for the masses and the radio you

1056
00:52:10,640 --> 00:52:13,480
Speaker 1: see than another idea. M I guess the problem is that,

1057
00:52:13,640 --> 00:52:16,040
Speaker 1: like in our son, the one we have here, we

1058
00:52:16,080 --> 00:52:19,040
Speaker 1: can sort of look in using our equations because things

1059
00:52:19,080 --> 00:52:21,880
Speaker 1: aren't that extreme yet, Like the regular laws of physics

1060
00:52:21,960 --> 00:52:23,880
Speaker 1: still work. But you know, with a neutron star, you

1061
00:52:23,920 --> 00:52:26,719
Speaker 1: start of getting up to that point where things start

1062
00:52:26,800 --> 00:52:28,719
Speaker 1: to get a little crazy, right, Like you're sort of

1063
00:52:28,719 --> 00:52:30,719
Speaker 1: starting to get into black hole territory where you don't

1064
00:52:30,719 --> 00:52:32,839
Speaker 1: even know if your loss of physics are the same. Yeah,

1065
00:52:32,880 --> 00:52:34,920
Speaker 1: we don't know if these hold. And you know, one

1066
00:52:34,960 --> 00:52:37,400
Speaker 1: of the guiding equations of these things is called the

1067
00:52:37,560 --> 00:52:40,600
Speaker 1: Tulman open hyber Molcov equation, which is the thing that

1068
00:52:40,719 --> 00:52:44,960
Speaker 1: constrains the structure of a spherically symmetric object that's homogeneous.

1069
00:52:44,960 --> 00:52:48,080
Speaker 1: It's all one kind of material which is in gravitational equilibrium.

1070
00:52:48,239 --> 00:52:50,120
Speaker 1: So that's like the simplest model we have for a

1071
00:52:50,160 --> 00:52:53,279
Speaker 1: neutron star, and it makes all sorts of predictions. And

1072
00:52:53,400 --> 00:52:55,400
Speaker 1: some of those predictions are, for example, that there's a

1073
00:52:55,440 --> 00:52:57,800
Speaker 1: connection between the mass and the radius of a neutron

1074
00:52:57,880 --> 00:52:59,840
Speaker 1: star that if you fix the mass of it, that

1075
00:53:00,000 --> 00:53:02,680
Speaker 1: also determines the radius. But when we look out into

1076
00:53:02,719 --> 00:53:05,520
Speaker 1: the universe, does neutron stars don't seem to be following

1077
00:53:05,600 --> 00:53:08,279
Speaker 1: that rule, Like we see some neutron stars that are

1078
00:53:08,320 --> 00:53:10,759
Speaker 1: twenty five kilometers hy that have the mass of one

1079
00:53:10,800 --> 00:53:12,839
Speaker 1: point four times the mass of the Sun and other

1080
00:53:12,920 --> 00:53:15,040
Speaker 1: ones that are the massive two point one times the

1081
00:53:15,080 --> 00:53:17,520
Speaker 1: mass of the Sun at the same radius, so they

1082
00:53:17,600 --> 00:53:20,520
Speaker 1: break these rules, which, as you say, suggest that these

1083
00:53:20,600 --> 00:53:22,840
Speaker 1: rules aren't complete, right, that something about what's going on

1084
00:53:22,920 --> 00:53:25,600
Speaker 1: inside the neutron star is different from what we imagine,

1085
00:53:25,640 --> 00:53:28,480
Speaker 1: from what our rules can currently predict, Which might mean

1086
00:53:28,840 --> 00:53:31,080
Speaker 1: that it's like a new complex way that these rules

1087
00:53:31,120 --> 00:53:34,160
Speaker 1: interact and new structures emerge. Or it might mean that

1088
00:53:34,200 --> 00:53:36,400
Speaker 1: there is some new physics, something else going on, a

1089
00:53:36,480 --> 00:53:40,360
Speaker 1: new force, something inside corks, something weird we haven't even imagined,

1090
00:53:40,480 --> 00:53:42,279
Speaker 1: but I guess on like a black hole, like it

1091
00:53:42,440 --> 00:53:44,600
Speaker 1: is maybe possible for us to one day get to

1092
00:53:44,760 --> 00:53:47,560
Speaker 1: a neutron star and maybe actually sort of like touch

1093
00:53:47,640 --> 00:53:50,800
Speaker 1: it and maybe even send probes into it. Do you

1094
00:53:50,840 --> 00:53:54,120
Speaker 1: think it certainly is possible? Right? We can't even land

1095
00:53:54,160 --> 00:53:56,440
Speaker 1: probes on the surface of Venus right now that lasts

1096
00:53:56,520 --> 00:53:59,680
Speaker 1: more than like nineties seconds without getting crushed, And Venus

1097
00:53:59,800 --> 00:54:01,040
Speaker 1: is the like, you know, a day on the beach

1098
00:54:01,120 --> 00:54:03,560
Speaker 1: compared to the surface of a neutron star. But yeah,

1099
00:54:03,800 --> 00:54:05,160
Speaker 1: you know, if you have a lot of faith in

1100
00:54:05,239 --> 00:54:08,960
Speaker 1: our engineers and our pasta engineers, our pasta engineers maybe

1101
00:54:09,000 --> 00:54:11,320
Speaker 1: they can imagine a way to drill into a neutron

1102
00:54:11,440 --> 00:54:15,000
Speaker 1: star and see it. Yeah, it's not technically forbidden, it's

1103
00:54:15,120 --> 00:54:17,920
Speaker 1: just very very difficult. Yeah, and they are out there,

1104
00:54:17,960 --> 00:54:20,480
Speaker 1: and neutron stars just like black holes, and they have

1105
00:54:20,800 --> 00:54:23,440
Speaker 1: lots of interesting secrets inside of them, right they do.

1106
00:54:23,960 --> 00:54:26,520
Speaker 1: If we could know today what's going on inside a

1107
00:54:26,560 --> 00:54:29,440
Speaker 1: neutron star, it would tell us so much about gravity

1108
00:54:29,680 --> 00:54:32,640
Speaker 1: and the strong force, and also just like what our

1109
00:54:32,840 --> 00:54:35,520
Speaker 1: universe can do. Remember that the part of the universe

1110
00:54:35,600 --> 00:54:38,960
Speaker 1: we experience, this liquid, the solid, the gases, is just

1111
00:54:39,120 --> 00:54:42,360
Speaker 1: a tiny, tiny slice of what the universe is capable of.

1112
00:54:42,880 --> 00:54:45,520
Speaker 1: We don't really observe most of what the universe can do.

1113
00:54:45,760 --> 00:54:48,400
Speaker 1: So I would love to let the universe show its colors,

1114
00:54:48,480 --> 00:54:50,839
Speaker 1: you know, like go crazy in the kitchen universe, make

1115
00:54:50,920 --> 00:54:53,080
Speaker 1: us some weird pasta. I want to see what you

1116
00:54:53,160 --> 00:54:55,160
Speaker 1: can cook up. Yeah, it's almost like they're kind of

1117
00:54:55,239 --> 00:54:58,680
Speaker 1: little lab experiments, right, or like they're like little labs,

1118
00:54:58,719 --> 00:55:00,600
Speaker 1: Like you want to know what happens when you crushed

1119
00:55:00,640 --> 00:55:03,160
Speaker 1: two quarts together. You know, that's what's happening inside of

1120
00:55:03,200 --> 00:55:04,680
Speaker 1: a neutron star. So if you want to know what

1121
00:55:04,840 --> 00:55:09,720
Speaker 1: happens go observe neutron stars. Yea, go observe neutron stars exactly.

1122
00:55:09,880 --> 00:55:12,440
Speaker 1: I wish we could. But it's wonderful that these experiments

1123
00:55:12,480 --> 00:55:15,440
Speaker 1: are happening, right Like, we can't create these things ourselves,

1124
00:55:15,600 --> 00:55:18,160
Speaker 1: but it's fantastic that the universe has arranged for them

1125
00:55:18,239 --> 00:55:21,239
Speaker 1: to happen so that we can study them. Unfortunately, they're

1126
00:55:21,520 --> 00:55:23,960
Speaker 1: very difficult to approach and very very far away, so

1127
00:55:24,160 --> 00:55:26,879
Speaker 1: there are some stumbling blocks there. But maybe one day

1128
00:55:26,960 --> 00:55:28,799
Speaker 1: we'll be able to visit them, or we'll just get

1129
00:55:28,880 --> 00:55:31,919
Speaker 1: more clever about observing them from the outside and using

1130
00:55:31,960 --> 00:55:35,600
Speaker 1: that information to infer what's going on inside. Maybe it

1131
00:55:35,600 --> 00:55:38,440
Speaker 1: will be the Italians to do it, since there are

1132
00:55:38,480 --> 00:55:40,719
Speaker 1: the experts that's right, Maybe to be so offended by

1133
00:55:40,800 --> 00:55:43,560
Speaker 1: these models of anti spaghetti that they will be motivated

1134
00:55:43,600 --> 00:55:45,640
Speaker 1: to figure this out. And then your kids will be like, no,

1135
00:55:45,760 --> 00:55:48,959
Speaker 1: I don't like that kind of pusta, not for me, thanks.

1136
00:55:49,080 --> 00:55:52,680
Speaker 1: I want blue pasta. I want all the pastas squished together.

1137
00:55:52,960 --> 00:55:54,680
Speaker 1: Next to you going to tell me that different colors

1138
00:55:54,719 --> 00:55:58,200
Speaker 1: of pasta change the flavor, Well, depen's how they get

1139
00:55:58,239 --> 00:56:02,640
Speaker 1: their color, but they do change. Do you really want

1140
00:56:02,640 --> 00:56:04,719
Speaker 1: to spend another hour talking about this. Have you never

1141
00:56:04,840 --> 00:56:08,880
Speaker 1: had squitting pasta or vegetable pasta? All right, that's a

1142
00:56:09,000 --> 00:56:12,919
Speaker 1: topic for our spinoff pasta podcast. Daniel and Jorge argue

1143
00:56:12,920 --> 00:56:16,680
Speaker 1: about food. Daniel and Jorge eat the Universe. Well, I

1144
00:56:16,760 --> 00:56:19,880
Speaker 1: hope you enjoyed that discussion, and it's certainly made me

1145
00:56:19,920 --> 00:56:21,759
Speaker 1: a little bit hungry. I need to go have lunch now,

1146
00:56:22,080 --> 00:56:32,160
Speaker 1: So thanks for joining us, see you next time. Thanks

1147
00:56:32,200 --> 00:56:34,800
Speaker 1: for listening, and remember that Daniel and Jorge explained. The

1148
00:56:34,920 --> 00:56:37,960
Speaker 1: Universe is a production of I Heart Radio. For more

1149
00:56:38,120 --> 00:56:41,440
Speaker 1: podcast from my heart Radio, visit the i heart Radio app,

1150
00:56:41,719 --> 00:56:50,960
Speaker 1: Apple Podcasts, or wherever you listen to your favorite shows. Yeah,