1
00:00:00,080 --> 00:00:02,960
Speaker 1: If you love iPhone, you'll love Apple Card. It's the

2
00:00:03,040 --> 00:00:06,920
Speaker 1: credit card designed for iPhone. It gives you unlimited daily

3
00:00:07,040 --> 00:00:10,000
Speaker 1: cash back that can earn four point four zero percent

4
00:00:10,160 --> 00:00:12,960
Speaker 1: annual percentage yield. When you open a high Yield savings

5
00:00:13,000 --> 00:00:16,280
Speaker 1: account through Apple Card, apply for Applecard in the wallet

6
00:00:16,280 --> 00:00:19,520
Speaker 1: app subject to credit approval. Savings is available to Apple

7
00:00:19,560 --> 00:00:22,800
Speaker 1: Card owners subject to eligibility. Apple Card and Savings by

8
00:00:22,840 --> 00:00:26,120
Speaker 1: Goldman Sachs Bank USA, Salt Lake City Branch Member FDIC

9
00:00:26,520 --> 00:00:29,280
Speaker 1: terms and more at applecard dot com. When you pop

10
00:00:29,320 --> 00:00:31,240
Speaker 1: a piece of cheese into your mouth, you're probably not

11
00:00:31,360 --> 00:00:34,280
Speaker 1: thinking about the environmental impact. But the people in the

12
00:00:34,360 --> 00:00:37,680
Speaker 1: dairy industry are. That's why they're working hard every day

13
00:00:37,720 --> 00:00:40,760
Speaker 1: to find new ways to reduce waste, conserve natural resources,

14
00:00:40,800 --> 00:00:44,400
Speaker 1: and drive down greenhouse gas emissions. How is US Dairy

15
00:00:44,400 --> 00:00:48,520
Speaker 1: tackling greenhouse gases? Many farms use anaerobic digesters to turn

16
00:00:48,560 --> 00:00:53,080
Speaker 1: the methane from manure into renewable energy that can power farms, towns,

17
00:00:53,120 --> 00:00:57,240
Speaker 1: and electric cars. Visit us dairy dot COM's Last Sustainability

18
00:00:57,280 --> 00:00:58,000
Speaker 1: to learn more.

19
00:00:58,800 --> 00:01:01,320
Speaker 2: This is Jonathan Strickland from tech Stuff. Do you have

20
00:01:01,360 --> 00:01:03,920
Speaker 2: a smart TV or a dumb screen? That does more

21
00:01:03,960 --> 00:01:07,000
Speaker 2: fighting with the Internet than streaming. It's time to stream,

22
00:01:07,080 --> 00:01:08,880
Speaker 2: play and surf the way you were meant to, with

23
00:01:08,920 --> 00:01:12,480
Speaker 2: a powerful boost from the Skyworth Leaps Spore from Jelfa Solutions,

24
00:01:12,640 --> 00:01:15,680
Speaker 2: two generations ahead of the leading streaming devices. The Skyworth

25
00:01:15,800 --> 00:01:18,759
Speaker 2: leibst Spot streams in four K, comes with free Google

26
00:01:18,800 --> 00:01:21,440
Speaker 2: TV and has access to plenty of apps and content.

27
00:01:21,760 --> 00:01:24,280
Speaker 2: Save five dollars off each device now with code tech

28
00:01:24,319 --> 00:01:28,679
Speaker 2: stuff at Jelfa Solutions dot com dj E l FA

29
00:01:28,760 --> 00:01:31,319
Speaker 2: solutions dot com.

30
00:01:31,480 --> 00:01:35,000
Speaker 3: There are children, friends, and families walking, riding on passing

31
00:01:35,040 --> 00:01:37,400
Speaker 3: the roads every day. Remember they're real people with loved

32
00:01:37,440 --> 00:01:39,640
Speaker 3: ones who need them to get home safely. Protect our

33
00:01:39,680 --> 00:01:43,200
Speaker 3: cyclists and pedestrians because they're people too, Go safely. California

34
00:01:43,240 --> 00:01:45,520
Speaker 3: from the California Office of Traffic Safety and Caltrans.

35
00:01:54,080 --> 00:01:57,160
Speaker 1: Hey, Jory, if you could only eat one flavor of

36
00:01:57,200 --> 00:02:00,840
Speaker 1: ice cream for the rest of your life, be chocolate

37
00:02:01,120 --> 00:02:01,760
Speaker 1: or vanilla?

38
00:02:02,000 --> 00:02:04,600
Speaker 4: Ooh do I have to choose? Can I do like

39
00:02:04,640 --> 00:02:07,040
Speaker 4: a quantum superposition of the tooth flavors?

40
00:02:07,160 --> 00:02:10,000
Speaker 1: No, you are not a quantum hoohe, So you can

41
00:02:10,120 --> 00:02:13,000
Speaker 1: only be in vanilla or chocolate. States.

42
00:02:13,080 --> 00:02:15,639
Speaker 4: It's a classic dilemma of classical physics.

43
00:02:15,240 --> 00:02:18,200
Speaker 1: Is it is? And so does your wave function collapse

44
00:02:18,240 --> 00:02:19,720
Speaker 1: to vanilla or chocolate?

45
00:02:19,840 --> 00:02:22,080
Speaker 4: Obviously vanilla my favorite flavor.

46
00:02:22,440 --> 00:02:24,720
Speaker 1: Are you telling me for real you'd give up chocolate

47
00:02:24,720 --> 00:02:26,079
Speaker 1: ice cream forever?

48
00:02:26,400 --> 00:02:28,760
Speaker 4: What if I break the loss of physics? Can I

49
00:02:28,840 --> 00:02:30,040
Speaker 4: do something like a swirl?

50
00:02:30,160 --> 00:02:31,760
Speaker 1: Then you go to physics jail whether they don't have

51
00:02:31,800 --> 00:02:33,080
Speaker 1: either flavor of ice cream?

52
00:02:33,200 --> 00:02:36,560
Speaker 4: They have swirls in physics jail, not even for my

53
00:02:36,639 --> 00:02:37,120
Speaker 4: last meal.

54
00:02:37,200 --> 00:02:39,760
Speaker 1: All they have in physics jail is physics homework problems.

55
00:02:39,800 --> 00:02:42,520
Speaker 4: That seems a little inhumane, the ice cream part, not

56
00:02:42,560 --> 00:02:59,799
Speaker 4: the homework part. I am hore Ham, a cartoonist and

57
00:03:00,080 --> 00:03:01,480
Speaker 4: creator of PhD comics.

58
00:03:01,840 --> 00:03:04,639
Speaker 1: I'm Daniel. I'm a particle physicist and a professor at

59
00:03:04,720 --> 00:03:07,960
Speaker 1: UC Irvine, and I choose the chocolate ice cream in

60
00:03:08,200 --> 00:03:10,560
Speaker 1: one hundred out of one hundred multiverses.

61
00:03:12,320 --> 00:03:13,840
Speaker 4: Big fan of chocolate, Huh.

62
00:03:13,600 --> 00:03:16,560
Speaker 1: There's just no comparison. I mean, chocolate is delicious, but

63
00:03:16,639 --> 00:03:19,799
Speaker 1: chocolate ice cream, it just elevates it beyond understanding.

64
00:03:20,120 --> 00:03:22,040
Speaker 4: Now, I think, I guess My question is when you

65
00:03:22,040 --> 00:03:23,880
Speaker 4: say chocolate iking for the rest of your life, do

66
00:03:23,880 --> 00:03:26,680
Speaker 4: you mean like you only get to eat chocolate ice

67
00:03:26,680 --> 00:03:30,240
Speaker 4: cream for all your meals or is this like only

68
00:03:30,280 --> 00:03:30,840
Speaker 4: for desserts.

69
00:03:30,880 --> 00:03:33,080
Speaker 1: Sometimes I think even I would get tired of chocolate

70
00:03:33,120 --> 00:03:36,360
Speaker 1: ice cream if I ate nothing but that breakfast, lunch,

71
00:03:36,600 --> 00:03:39,280
Speaker 1: and dinner, eventually it would get Although you know this

72
00:03:39,440 --> 00:03:42,080
Speaker 1: milk chocolate ice cream is dark chocolate ice cream. There's

73
00:03:42,200 --> 00:03:44,600
Speaker 1: chocolate and salt. There are lots of variations there.

74
00:03:44,600 --> 00:03:46,760
Speaker 4: But that's what I was going to ask, like what

75
00:03:46,880 --> 00:03:49,440
Speaker 4: kind of chocolate. There's so many the flavors to choose from.

76
00:03:49,520 --> 00:03:51,800
Speaker 1: Yeah, and chocolate from all around the world. You know

77
00:03:51,840 --> 00:03:55,080
Speaker 1: Madagascar chocolate, and then it's whale and chocolate. They're all

78
00:03:55,120 --> 00:03:56,000
Speaker 1: subtly different.

79
00:03:56,160 --> 00:03:59,080
Speaker 4: And it was your stand on like chips like chunks

80
00:03:59,120 --> 00:04:00,000
Speaker 4: of chocolate in your eyes.

81
00:04:00,440 --> 00:04:02,960
Speaker 1: Honestly, I think that ruins the texture. You know, a

82
00:04:03,000 --> 00:04:05,520
Speaker 1: frozen blob. It's like chewing on a pebble, Like nobody

83
00:04:05,520 --> 00:04:06,160
Speaker 1: wants to eat.

84
00:04:06,080 --> 00:04:09,880
Speaker 4: Rocks, right right right, So you're you're against some chocolate

85
00:04:09,960 --> 00:04:10,360
Speaker 4: ice cream.

86
00:04:10,400 --> 00:04:14,360
Speaker 1: I'm saying chocolate chunks ruined the chocolate ice cream experience.

87
00:04:14,600 --> 00:04:16,560
Speaker 1: Let's just have pure ice cream and not chunks.

88
00:04:16,640 --> 00:04:18,760
Speaker 4: But then now you got to define a size limit,

89
00:04:18,839 --> 00:04:22,040
Speaker 4: like what size limit of chocolate particle? Are you willing

90
00:04:22,080 --> 00:04:22,640
Speaker 4: to tolerate?

91
00:04:23,839 --> 00:04:27,560
Speaker 1: Chocolate? Ice cream is fundamental, man, It's not composite. It's

92
00:04:27,600 --> 00:04:30,479
Speaker 1: so important to the universe. There's a chocolate ice cream

93
00:04:30,520 --> 00:04:33,160
Speaker 1: field that permeates the whole universe.

94
00:04:33,320 --> 00:04:35,279
Speaker 4: Icee, I see, But I mean, I'm sure there's this

95
00:04:35,440 --> 00:04:38,640
Speaker 4: sizet of chocolate particle that would you fly under your radar?

96
00:04:38,800 --> 00:04:41,000
Speaker 1: Yeah, you know, I think this calls for more experiments,

97
00:04:41,080 --> 00:04:44,080
Speaker 1: for sure. And I actually did a little Twitter experiment myself.

98
00:04:44,200 --> 00:04:47,440
Speaker 1: I was wondering if our supporters sided with the obviously

99
00:04:47,440 --> 00:04:50,760
Speaker 1: correct me on the chocolate camp or the obviously incorrect

100
00:04:50,800 --> 00:04:53,280
Speaker 1: you on the vanilla camp. So I went out into

101
00:04:53,279 --> 00:04:56,200
Speaker 1: a little pole to ask people chocolate versus vanilla?

102
00:04:56,360 --> 00:04:57,880
Speaker 4: But did you say chocolate vanilla? What?

103
00:04:58,080 --> 00:05:01,599
Speaker 1: I didn't? I just said chocolate versus vanilla? Important science question.

104
00:05:02,560 --> 00:05:06,160
Speaker 4: Yeah, sounds like an ill designed experiment. I would expect

105
00:05:06,160 --> 00:05:07,080
Speaker 4: more from a scientist.

106
00:05:07,279 --> 00:05:09,040
Speaker 1: Well, I didn't want to be over specific. I wanted

107
00:05:09,080 --> 00:05:12,640
Speaker 1: to sample, you know, people's general vibe about these flavors.

108
00:05:12,640 --> 00:05:14,040
Speaker 4: The word chocolate and vanilla.

109
00:05:14,560 --> 00:05:16,960
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. It wasn't a question of like which one

110
00:05:17,000 --> 00:05:20,680
Speaker 1: you prefer to spell, obviously, It's about the flavor and anyway,

111
00:05:21,120 --> 00:05:23,960
Speaker 1: the Internet came down on my side, Chocolate fifty eight

112
00:05:24,000 --> 00:05:26,280
Speaker 1: percent to vanilla forty two percent.

113
00:05:26,520 --> 00:05:29,359
Speaker 4: Wow, that's that's relatively close. I would say, don't you

114
00:05:29,400 --> 00:05:31,520
Speaker 4: think I actually was surprised. I thought chocolate was going

115
00:05:31,600 --> 00:05:33,480
Speaker 4: to blow vanilla out of the water a little bit more.

116
00:05:33,520 --> 00:05:34,760
Speaker 4: Here you go, there you go.

117
00:05:34,839 --> 00:05:36,919
Speaker 1: Hey, you know I'll take a twenty point differential.

118
00:05:37,720 --> 00:05:39,960
Speaker 4: Well, we all know that whatever the internet thinks is

119
00:05:40,000 --> 00:05:41,919
Speaker 4: the best choice for anything.

120
00:05:42,160 --> 00:05:45,400
Speaker 1: Well, I would say whatever our listeners thing is definitely

121
00:05:45,640 --> 00:05:47,320
Speaker 1: you know, sampling the truth of the universe.

122
00:05:47,560 --> 00:05:49,720
Speaker 4: I see, did you have everyone sign a little like

123
00:05:49,800 --> 00:05:53,280
Speaker 4: waiver to testify that their listeners? This is getting more

124
00:05:53,320 --> 00:05:54,880
Speaker 4: unscientific by the moment, by the way.

125
00:05:54,960 --> 00:05:56,880
Speaker 1: They all follow us on Twitter. Why would somebody follow

126
00:05:56,920 --> 00:05:59,279
Speaker 1: us on Twitter and not listen to the podcast? That

127
00:05:59,440 --> 00:05:59,800
Speaker 1: just makes me.

128
00:05:59,760 --> 00:06:03,920
Speaker 4: Nose exactly if they're already listening to us in our podcast,

129
00:06:03,960 --> 00:06:04,920
Speaker 4: why would they follow us.

130
00:06:04,880 --> 00:06:08,599
Speaker 1: On Twitter for important science questions like chocolate versus vanilla?

131
00:06:08,760 --> 00:06:10,760
Speaker 1: The chance to weigh in on the ultimate debate in

132
00:06:10,800 --> 00:06:11,320
Speaker 1: the universe.

133
00:06:11,400 --> 00:06:13,400
Speaker 4: Well, I guess if you'd like to go with the majority,

134
00:06:13,680 --> 00:06:16,599
Speaker 4: you know, the mainstream, I guess that's your thing.

135
00:06:16,640 --> 00:06:18,720
Speaker 1: Right, Vanilla is definitely not the boring middle of the

136
00:06:18,800 --> 00:06:19,359
Speaker 1: road choice.

137
00:06:19,400 --> 00:06:19,680
Speaker 4: For sure.

138
00:06:19,800 --> 00:06:21,760
Speaker 1: Vanilla is the rebel choice.

139
00:06:22,080 --> 00:06:26,080
Speaker 4: Yeah, it's the in the minority choice. But anyways, welcome

140
00:06:26,080 --> 00:06:28,880
Speaker 4: to our podcast Daniel and Jore Explain the Universe, a

141
00:06:28,960 --> 00:06:31,000
Speaker 4: production of iHeartRadio.

142
00:06:30,400 --> 00:06:33,520
Speaker 1: In which we appreciate all of the flavors of the universe,

143
00:06:33,800 --> 00:06:36,839
Speaker 1: the quantum, the classical, the things that make sense, the

144
00:06:36,920 --> 00:06:39,520
Speaker 1: things that don't make sense. We blend them all together

145
00:06:39,680 --> 00:06:42,920
Speaker 1: into chunks so tiny and so smooth that you can

146
00:06:42,960 --> 00:06:46,760
Speaker 1: appreciate them without having to chew on any intellectual pebbles.

147
00:06:46,839 --> 00:06:49,400
Speaker 4: That's right, because it is a delicious universe, full of

148
00:06:49,440 --> 00:06:53,160
Speaker 4: amazing textures and flavors and temperatures of treats. And so

149
00:06:53,200 --> 00:06:54,720
Speaker 4: there's a lot to talk about and a lot to

150
00:06:54,839 --> 00:06:56,000
Speaker 4: try to explain to everyone.

151
00:06:56,120 --> 00:06:58,680
Speaker 1: And there's a wonderful and long history of trying to

152
00:06:58,800 --> 00:07:01,720
Speaker 1: understand the universe, of looking at the stuff around us,

153
00:07:01,760 --> 00:07:04,760
Speaker 1: seeing if it makes sense, breaking into smaller pieces and

154
00:07:04,800 --> 00:07:08,080
Speaker 1: seeing those pieces make sense, digging in even deeper to

155
00:07:08,200 --> 00:07:11,960
Speaker 1: smaller and smaller pieces, until eventually we get to stuff

156
00:07:12,000 --> 00:07:15,880
Speaker 1: that seems to follow weird and different rules, rules that

157
00:07:15,960 --> 00:07:17,520
Speaker 1: surprise and confuse us.

158
00:07:17,600 --> 00:07:20,480
Speaker 4: The universe is full of rules, interesting rules that are

159
00:07:20,560 --> 00:07:24,840
Speaker 4: sometimes helpful, like Newton's laws or general relativity by Einstein.

160
00:07:24,920 --> 00:07:26,960
Speaker 4: But sometimes there are rules that kind of doesn't quite

161
00:07:27,120 --> 00:07:29,480
Speaker 4: make a lot of sense, at least to a human.

162
00:07:29,280 --> 00:07:32,760
Speaker 1: Because our tendency is to think about things in terms

163
00:07:32,760 --> 00:07:35,440
Speaker 1: of the things we know. When we discover a new object,

164
00:07:35,480 --> 00:07:37,160
Speaker 1: we think, Oh, maybe it's a little bit like a

165
00:07:37,200 --> 00:07:39,080
Speaker 1: grain of sand, or maybe it's a little bit like

166
00:07:39,080 --> 00:07:41,760
Speaker 1: a basketball. Can I apply the rules of waves to

167
00:07:41,840 --> 00:07:44,400
Speaker 1: this thing? Can I apply what I know about bananas

168
00:07:44,440 --> 00:07:47,800
Speaker 1: to this new discovery? So when we unearth quantum particles,

169
00:07:47,800 --> 00:07:49,840
Speaker 1: our first guess is to think, oh, these are like

170
00:07:49,880 --> 00:07:53,280
Speaker 1: tiny little dots that follow the rules of classical physics.

171
00:07:53,320 --> 00:07:55,800
Speaker 1: Maybe they move through space, they have velocity and position,

172
00:07:56,000 --> 00:07:59,200
Speaker 1: they're just super duper tiny. But what we've discovered is

173
00:07:59,200 --> 00:08:02,239
Speaker 1: that they are not like anything we have ever seen before.

174
00:08:02,320 --> 00:08:05,760
Speaker 1: They're not tiny little dots of sand, just like baseballs,

175
00:08:05,760 --> 00:08:08,720
Speaker 1: but much much smaller. They're not even just like waves.

176
00:08:09,000 --> 00:08:12,040
Speaker 1: There's something else, something weird, that follows a new set

177
00:08:12,080 --> 00:08:14,720
Speaker 1: of rules that we have to discover and savor.

178
00:08:14,840 --> 00:08:16,800
Speaker 4: Yeah. I feel like whenever we start to talk about

179
00:08:16,840 --> 00:08:19,440
Speaker 4: things that don't make sense, it probably means that we're

180
00:08:19,440 --> 00:08:22,480
Speaker 4: going to the quantum realm and we're going to talk

181
00:08:22,520 --> 00:08:23,400
Speaker 4: about quantum things.

182
00:08:23,440 --> 00:08:26,040
Speaker 1: Yeah, but this is our experience every time we extrapolate

183
00:08:26,120 --> 00:08:29,559
Speaker 1: from our intuitive experience, from our understanding of the world

184
00:08:29,600 --> 00:08:32,160
Speaker 1: around us, not just the tiny and the quantum, but

185
00:08:32,200 --> 00:08:35,160
Speaker 1: also the very very big. Right, thinking about the universe

186
00:08:35,160 --> 00:08:37,720
Speaker 1: as a whole, and maybe having an edge or having

187
00:08:37,720 --> 00:08:41,160
Speaker 1: a beginning, all those things defy our understanding because they're

188
00:08:41,200 --> 00:08:43,400
Speaker 1: not part of our experience, so we don't have like

189
00:08:43,400 --> 00:08:47,760
Speaker 1: a natural vocabulary a way of thinking about them that's comfortable. Instead,

190
00:08:47,800 --> 00:08:50,680
Speaker 1: we have to rely on mathematics to bridge us into

191
00:08:50,720 --> 00:08:53,720
Speaker 1: a new language, a new way of thinking about the world.

192
00:08:53,880 --> 00:08:55,240
Speaker 4: Yeah, but I guess it's part of that is I

193
00:08:55,280 --> 00:08:57,920
Speaker 4: wonder if it's just like the context in which we

194
00:08:58,120 --> 00:09:00,800
Speaker 4: came up in as a species, like our size, that

195
00:09:00,840 --> 00:09:03,760
Speaker 4: we just happened to evolve into, Like if we were

196
00:09:03,960 --> 00:09:07,400
Speaker 4: much much tinier as a living thing, you know, maybe

197
00:09:07,440 --> 00:09:10,800
Speaker 4: the quantum rules of the universe would make more sense

198
00:09:10,840 --> 00:09:12,960
Speaker 4: than the classical rules of the universe.

199
00:09:13,080 --> 00:09:15,520
Speaker 1: I think that's probably true, And one day we might

200
00:09:15,559 --> 00:09:19,839
Speaker 1: meet like microscopic aliens whose scientists of all finding quantum

201
00:09:19,840 --> 00:09:22,880
Speaker 1: mechanics to be totally intuitive and classical physics to be

202
00:09:23,120 --> 00:09:26,080
Speaker 1: very very weird. Of course, they wouldn't call it classical physics.

203
00:09:26,120 --> 00:09:29,200
Speaker 1: They would call it like, you know, huge physics or something.

204
00:09:29,400 --> 00:09:31,440
Speaker 1: They would think it's very strange that if you take

205
00:09:31,600 --> 00:09:34,719
Speaker 1: ten to the twenty nine quantum particles, they somehow come

206
00:09:34,760 --> 00:09:37,000
Speaker 1: together to act like one big particle.

207
00:09:37,559 --> 00:09:40,040
Speaker 4: That's an interesting question. I wonder, like, what's the smallest

208
00:09:40,600 --> 00:09:43,319
Speaker 4: living sentient thing you can have? Like can you make

209
00:09:43,559 --> 00:09:46,760
Speaker 4: a being out of straight up a few quarks, you

210
00:09:46,840 --> 00:09:48,920
Speaker 4: know what I mean? Or the strings inside of quarks.

211
00:09:48,920 --> 00:09:52,319
Speaker 1: It's a really fun question. And Max Tegmark, who's a

212
00:09:52,320 --> 00:09:55,920
Speaker 1: physicist in MIT, has this really fun paper about where

213
00:09:56,080 --> 00:09:58,680
Speaker 1: consciousness comes from, and he thinks it's actually a state

214
00:09:58,800 --> 00:10:00,720
Speaker 1: of matter. We're going to dig into it in a

215
00:10:00,760 --> 00:10:03,680
Speaker 1: future podcast episode. But it might be that everything in

216
00:10:03,720 --> 00:10:07,160
Speaker 1: the universe is aware and that even small combinations of

217
00:10:07,200 --> 00:10:11,679
Speaker 1: objects can somehow do calculations and maybe even be conscious.

218
00:10:11,960 --> 00:10:16,000
Speaker 4: Dude, they have to smoke some special things in order

219
00:10:16,080 --> 00:10:17,240
Speaker 4: to get into that topic.

220
00:10:17,720 --> 00:10:19,239
Speaker 1: Banan appeals, for sure.

221
00:10:19,240 --> 00:10:23,000
Speaker 4: Well, the quantum universe is full of interesting and weird rules,

222
00:10:23,000 --> 00:10:25,400
Speaker 4: sometimes rules that don't seem to make sense, or that

223
00:10:25,520 --> 00:10:26,959
Speaker 4: even seem kind of fair.

224
00:10:26,800 --> 00:10:29,840
Speaker 1: And as we explore the quantum universe, we discover these rules.

225
00:10:29,880 --> 00:10:31,959
Speaker 1: A lot of the time these rules are just descriptive.

226
00:10:32,000 --> 00:10:35,120
Speaker 1: They just describe what we see. They don't always fundamentally

227
00:10:35,200 --> 00:10:38,280
Speaker 1: explain it. But sometimes we can actually find a reason

228
00:10:38,360 --> 00:10:40,320
Speaker 1: for it. So that's sort of the strategy is like,

229
00:10:40,440 --> 00:10:42,640
Speaker 1: look out in the universe, see what's going on, see

230
00:10:42,640 --> 00:10:45,439
Speaker 1: what's not going on, so we can understand what the

231
00:10:45,520 --> 00:10:47,760
Speaker 1: dos and don'ts of are the particle world, and then

232
00:10:47,760 --> 00:10:50,680
Speaker 1: try to extract from that some fundamental reason why the

233
00:10:50,760 --> 00:10:53,520
Speaker 1: universe is this way and not some other way.

234
00:10:53,720 --> 00:10:55,920
Speaker 4: So to the other podcast, we'll be tackling the question

235
00:11:01,120 --> 00:11:05,959
Speaker 4: why can't two fermions be in the same quantum state. Now,

236
00:11:06,000 --> 00:11:07,800
Speaker 4: first of all, Daniel, let me just say that I'm

237
00:11:07,800 --> 00:11:10,640
Speaker 4: glad you're on board with the phrase the quantum realm.

238
00:11:10,679 --> 00:11:13,440
Speaker 4: Have you sold out to the Marvel corporate machine yet?

239
00:11:13,679 --> 00:11:16,320
Speaker 1: Chiching, No, it's true. I have the new ant Man

240
00:11:16,360 --> 00:11:18,160
Speaker 1: movie on the brain. Can't wait to see it.

241
00:11:18,240 --> 00:11:21,160
Speaker 4: Oh really, you're excited even though they're jumping into the

242
00:11:21,200 --> 00:11:23,760
Speaker 4: quantum realm and finding all kinds of things inside of it.

243
00:11:24,360 --> 00:11:26,560
Speaker 1: Yeah. Absolutely, I like those movies. I mean they are

244
00:11:26,679 --> 00:11:30,000
Speaker 1: scientifically mostly nonsense, but they also don't take themselves too

245
00:11:30,040 --> 00:11:32,720
Speaker 1: seriously and they have fun with it, and I think

246
00:11:32,760 --> 00:11:36,040
Speaker 1: they're really creative. The first couple had some really beautiful

247
00:11:36,160 --> 00:11:38,720
Speaker 1: visuals of like what the quantum realm might look like,

248
00:11:38,960 --> 00:11:41,280
Speaker 1: what it might be like to visit the quantum realm.

249
00:11:41,600 --> 00:11:42,720
Speaker 1: So I think they're a lot of fun.

250
00:11:42,840 --> 00:11:44,720
Speaker 4: Oh wow, I feel like you are getting paid by

251
00:11:44,760 --> 00:11:45,480
Speaker 4: Marvel Radio.

252
00:11:46,640 --> 00:11:48,960
Speaker 1: You're like, is this the Daniel? I know what I

253
00:11:49,040 --> 00:11:50,720
Speaker 1: know science.

254
00:11:51,080 --> 00:11:53,600
Speaker 4: You like the random use of the word quantum.

255
00:11:53,720 --> 00:11:56,040
Speaker 1: No, I don't only like hard science fiction. I dislike

256
00:11:56,160 --> 00:11:58,600
Speaker 1: hard science fiction that gets it wrong. You know, if

257
00:11:58,640 --> 00:12:00,760
Speaker 1: you want to pretend to be serious about your science

258
00:12:00,960 --> 00:12:02,600
Speaker 1: and then you get it wrong, then you get the

259
00:12:02,640 --> 00:12:04,120
Speaker 1: merits from me. But if you're going to make fun

260
00:12:04,160 --> 00:12:05,880
Speaker 1: of yourself along the way and just have a good time,

261
00:12:06,160 --> 00:12:07,319
Speaker 1: then let's go for it.

262
00:12:07,520 --> 00:12:09,760
Speaker 4: Well, in this case, we're asking a kind of an

263
00:12:09,800 --> 00:12:13,160
Speaker 4: interesting question here about the quantum nature of things, that

264
00:12:13,200 --> 00:12:16,760
Speaker 4: why can't two fermions be in the same quantum state? Now,

265
00:12:16,800 --> 00:12:19,040
Speaker 4: I imagine this is maybe not a question most people

266
00:12:19,640 --> 00:12:20,520
Speaker 4: have thought about before.

267
00:12:20,640 --> 00:12:23,760
Speaker 1: This is something people run into in high school chemistry

268
00:12:23,760 --> 00:12:26,920
Speaker 1: when they're like learning about electrons and electron orbitals. But

269
00:12:27,000 --> 00:12:30,840
Speaker 1: it's a really deep and important concept in particle physics

270
00:12:30,880 --> 00:12:33,600
Speaker 1: theory that relates to like how particles operate, what it

271
00:12:33,600 --> 00:12:36,160
Speaker 1: means for particles to be identical, what it means to

272
00:12:36,240 --> 00:12:39,480
Speaker 1: like swap particles from one state to another. Turns out

273
00:12:39,480 --> 00:12:42,880
Speaker 1: to be a really deep and important concept in particle physics,

274
00:12:42,880 --> 00:12:45,079
Speaker 1: and something a couple of listeners wanted to know more about.

275
00:12:45,080 --> 00:12:47,760
Speaker 1: How does it actually work and why does it happen.

276
00:12:47,880 --> 00:12:50,000
Speaker 4: Maybe it'll be the plot of the next ant Men movie.

277
00:12:50,040 --> 00:12:51,760
Speaker 1: You can't have two ant Men in the same place

278
00:12:51,800 --> 00:12:52,480
Speaker 1: at the same time.

279
00:12:52,920 --> 00:12:56,080
Speaker 4: Yeah, one. I think they have multiple ones in this

280
00:12:56,280 --> 00:13:00,719
Speaker 4: latest movie. So maybe the plot line is toast, or.

281
00:13:00,640 --> 00:13:02,520
Speaker 1: Maybe it just means ant Man is a boson and

282
00:13:02,559 --> 00:13:03,679
Speaker 1: not a fermion.

283
00:13:03,960 --> 00:13:06,040
Speaker 4: Or maybe he's an antiparticle.

284
00:13:10,920 --> 00:13:12,960
Speaker 1: I wasped right into that was usual.

285
00:13:13,000 --> 00:13:14,720
Speaker 4: We were wondering how many people out there had thought

286
00:13:14,760 --> 00:13:18,880
Speaker 4: about this rule that applies to fermions or electrons, and so,

287
00:13:18,960 --> 00:13:22,080
Speaker 4: as usual, Danny went out there to ask the internet, right.

288
00:13:22,200 --> 00:13:25,520
Speaker 1: That's right. Thank you very much to everybody who participates

289
00:13:25,520 --> 00:13:27,320
Speaker 1: for this segment of the podcast, and if you would

290
00:13:27,320 --> 00:13:30,800
Speaker 1: like to share your thoughts for our education and entertainment.

291
00:13:30,880 --> 00:13:33,680
Speaker 1: Please don't be shy. Write to us two questions at

292
00:13:33,760 --> 00:13:35,480
Speaker 1: Danielandjorge dot com.

293
00:13:35,520 --> 00:13:37,440
Speaker 4: So think about it for a second. Do you know

294
00:13:37,880 --> 00:13:41,839
Speaker 4: why two fermions can't be in the same quantum state.

295
00:13:42,760 --> 00:13:43,880
Speaker 4: Here's what people have to say.

296
00:13:44,160 --> 00:13:47,880
Speaker 5: I'm not sure of the terminology. I think there is

297
00:13:47,920 --> 00:13:51,800
Speaker 5: an exclusion principle something that says that they can't occupy

298
00:13:51,920 --> 00:13:54,920
Speaker 5: the same state or same space. I don't know if

299
00:13:54,920 --> 00:13:57,680
Speaker 5: it's called the Paul exclusion principle. I'm not sure.

300
00:13:58,160 --> 00:14:01,320
Speaker 6: So I think the fermions are the for scaring ones.

301
00:14:02,440 --> 00:14:05,520
Speaker 6: Why can't they be in the same quantum state? Or

302
00:14:05,600 --> 00:14:08,880
Speaker 6: maybe they're all entangled with each other and so they

303
00:14:08,880 --> 00:14:11,480
Speaker 6: all have to have like opposing states of some sort.

304
00:14:11,760 --> 00:14:15,320
Speaker 5: I am merely guessing that two fermions cannot have the

305
00:14:15,320 --> 00:14:18,800
Speaker 5: same quantum state because they have different properties.

306
00:14:19,080 --> 00:14:21,760
Speaker 3: Well, maybe because they have the same charges, and then

307
00:14:22,120 --> 00:14:26,120
Speaker 3: they need to find a more stable spot to be

308
00:14:26,240 --> 00:14:28,600
Speaker 3: related to some other opposite charge particle.

309
00:14:28,800 --> 00:14:31,360
Speaker 4: I think it's about balance to fermines cannot be in

310
00:14:31,400 --> 00:14:34,080
Speaker 4: the same quantic state for the same reason that a

311
00:14:34,120 --> 00:14:37,560
Speaker 4: magnet cannot have the same pole in both sites.

312
00:14:38,160 --> 00:14:42,600
Speaker 7: I'm a bit fuzzy on what fermions are. But if

313
00:14:42,640 --> 00:14:46,840
Speaker 7: they can't be in the same quantum state, I think

314
00:14:47,160 --> 00:14:49,360
Speaker 7: it might be to do with the fact that it's

315
00:14:49,600 --> 00:14:53,520
Speaker 7: kind of like magnets, where you need in order for

316
00:14:53,560 --> 00:14:55,760
Speaker 7: them to be magnetic, you have to have one pole

317
00:14:56,080 --> 00:14:58,640
Speaker 7: opposite to the other, something similar like that, where they

318
00:14:59,040 --> 00:15:01,280
Speaker 7: one needs to spin off, one needs to spin down.

319
00:15:01,920 --> 00:15:04,600
Speaker 4: All right, A lot of fun answers here. Nobody mentioned

320
00:15:04,800 --> 00:15:05,400
Speaker 4: Paul Rudd.

321
00:15:06,840 --> 00:15:08,960
Speaker 1: Nobody else out there is a shill for Marvel, like.

322
00:15:08,960 --> 00:15:12,120
Speaker 4: I am, hey, yeah, apparently you keep bringing it up.

323
00:15:13,680 --> 00:15:16,200
Speaker 1: You rather, Paul Rudd, I want in.

324
00:15:16,200 --> 00:15:18,320
Speaker 4: On this, By the way, if you have a hookup

325
00:15:18,440 --> 00:15:20,280
Speaker 4: with Marvel, I'm totally in.

326
00:15:20,480 --> 00:15:22,880
Speaker 1: All right, sounds good. No, these answers are pretty good.

327
00:15:22,960 --> 00:15:24,600
Speaker 1: They're sort of all over the place. I was a

328
00:15:24,600 --> 00:15:27,200
Speaker 1: little surprised. I thought we'd hear more mentions of the

329
00:15:27,200 --> 00:15:30,480
Speaker 1: poly exclusion principle. More people need to take or remember

330
00:15:30,520 --> 00:15:31,600
Speaker 1: their high school chemistry.

331
00:15:32,000 --> 00:15:34,200
Speaker 4: You mean you were expecting more people to mention the

332
00:15:34,240 --> 00:15:35,440
Speaker 4: poly exclusion principle.

333
00:15:35,560 --> 00:15:38,440
Speaker 1: Yeah, absolutely, I thought it was something people knew pretty well.

334
00:15:38,480 --> 00:15:41,560
Speaker 1: I mean, I remember suffering through it in high school chemistry.

335
00:15:41,760 --> 00:15:43,320
Speaker 1: I imagine a lot of other people have.

336
00:15:43,600 --> 00:15:46,360
Speaker 4: Well, let's step into it, Daniel. What is the paly

337
00:15:46,520 --> 00:15:49,720
Speaker 4: exclusion principle and how does it apply to quantum states

338
00:15:49,760 --> 00:15:50,600
Speaker 4: and fermions.

339
00:15:50,680 --> 00:15:53,840
Speaker 1: So the poly exclusion principle basically just says that you

340
00:15:53,960 --> 00:15:57,640
Speaker 1: cannot have two fermions in the same quantum state. Right,

341
00:15:57,640 --> 00:16:00,720
Speaker 1: It's basically a statement of the problem. Worse, it references

342
00:16:00,760 --> 00:16:04,640
Speaker 1: these particles fermions, named after Enrico Fermi. But these are

343
00:16:04,640 --> 00:16:07,840
Speaker 1: the particles that make up matter. So quarks and electrons

344
00:16:08,240 --> 00:16:11,640
Speaker 1: are fermions, and this is why, for example, you can't

345
00:16:11,680 --> 00:16:15,160
Speaker 1: have two electrons in the same state around a hydrogen atom.

346
00:16:15,200 --> 00:16:17,440
Speaker 1: The poly exclusion principle forbids it.

347
00:16:18,000 --> 00:16:20,160
Speaker 4: Okay, So let me go back a little bit. So

348
00:16:20,200 --> 00:16:22,880
Speaker 4: a fermion, it's what do you call the matter particles? Right?

349
00:16:22,960 --> 00:16:25,800
Speaker 1: Yeah, we have two different kinds of particles in the

350
00:16:25,800 --> 00:16:27,840
Speaker 1: standard model. We have the particles that make up matter,

351
00:16:27,920 --> 00:16:30,720
Speaker 1: so the electron, the quarks, for example, and out of

352
00:16:30,760 --> 00:16:33,480
Speaker 1: that you can build protons and neutrons from which you

353
00:16:33,480 --> 00:16:36,520
Speaker 1: can make the nucleus. Add electrons, you get atoms. Buying

354
00:16:36,520 --> 00:16:39,640
Speaker 1: them all together you get molecules. We're basically built out

355
00:16:39,640 --> 00:16:42,760
Speaker 1: of those things. There are also other particles These are

356
00:16:42,760 --> 00:16:46,000
Speaker 1: the force particles. The particles like the photon that binds

357
00:16:46,040 --> 00:16:48,920
Speaker 1: the electron to the nucleus and the wn the z

358
00:16:49,120 --> 00:16:51,680
Speaker 1: bosons for the weak force, and the gluons for the

359
00:16:51,760 --> 00:16:55,400
Speaker 1: strong force. These particles are the force particles. There's an

360
00:16:55,440 --> 00:16:58,920
Speaker 1: interesting difference between these two kinds of particles. The first

361
00:16:58,960 --> 00:17:01,240
Speaker 1: one the fermions. You can never have two of them

362
00:17:01,240 --> 00:17:03,400
Speaker 1: in the same state. Two electrons can never be in

363
00:17:03,400 --> 00:17:06,320
Speaker 1: the same state. But the other group, the force carrying particles,

364
00:17:06,560 --> 00:17:09,440
Speaker 1: these bosons, there's no limit, Like you can have two

365
00:17:09,480 --> 00:17:12,400
Speaker 1: photons in the same state, ten photons in the same state,

366
00:17:12,560 --> 00:17:15,240
Speaker 1: a million photons all piled on top of each other.

367
00:17:15,840 --> 00:17:18,400
Speaker 1: So fermions can never be in the same state. Those

368
00:17:18,400 --> 00:17:21,280
Speaker 1: are the matter particles, and bosons can be in the

369
00:17:21,320 --> 00:17:23,440
Speaker 1: same state. That's this weird division.

370
00:17:23,920 --> 00:17:26,359
Speaker 4: Okay, Now, let's maybe defline for people what is a

371
00:17:26,480 --> 00:17:29,080
Speaker 4: quantum state, Like what does it mean to have a

372
00:17:29,119 --> 00:17:31,080
Speaker 4: state and what can those states be?

373
00:17:31,280 --> 00:17:33,600
Speaker 1: So what can quantum particles do well? They can like

374
00:17:33,760 --> 00:17:36,280
Speaker 1: be in some location. They can also have a certain

375
00:17:36,280 --> 00:17:38,960
Speaker 1: amount of energy. They can have a certain kind of spin,

376
00:17:39,240 --> 00:17:41,399
Speaker 1: like some of these particles can have spin up or

377
00:17:41,480 --> 00:17:45,640
Speaker 1: spin down or other various weird kinds of spin. So basically,

378
00:17:45,720 --> 00:17:50,000
Speaker 1: anything that describes the particle is part of its quantum state.

379
00:17:50,000 --> 00:17:53,400
Speaker 1: A quantum state is just a description of the particle.

380
00:17:53,080 --> 00:17:56,640
Speaker 4: Like I mean, like, where is it and what's it doing? Yeah, exactly,

381
00:17:56,760 --> 00:17:57,560
Speaker 4: that's what a state is.

382
00:17:57,680 --> 00:17:59,640
Speaker 1: M m. The way you might describe like a classical

383
00:17:59,680 --> 00:18:02,920
Speaker 1: object by saying where is it, how fast is it going,

384
00:18:02,960 --> 00:18:06,320
Speaker 1: what is it location in velocity, it describes the classical object.

385
00:18:06,560 --> 00:18:09,280
Speaker 1: A quantum state is just a description of the quantum particle.

386
00:18:09,440 --> 00:18:11,440
Speaker 4: Like the state of a baseball might be like it's

387
00:18:11,480 --> 00:18:14,639
Speaker 4: over here, it's moving in this direction, and it's also

388
00:18:14,760 --> 00:18:18,200
Speaker 4: spinning in place, and maybe also like its temperature. Would

389
00:18:18,240 --> 00:18:20,240
Speaker 4: that be kind of like what you need to describe

390
00:18:20,280 --> 00:18:20,760
Speaker 4: a baseball?

391
00:18:20,880 --> 00:18:23,200
Speaker 1: Mm hmm. Imagine, for example, we live in the simulation

392
00:18:23,440 --> 00:18:26,800
Speaker 1: and you are the programmer of the simulation. What details

393
00:18:26,800 --> 00:18:29,919
Speaker 1: do you need to keep track of to run your simulation.

394
00:18:30,320 --> 00:18:33,000
Speaker 1: That's the quantum state of a particle.

395
00:18:33,240 --> 00:18:35,000
Speaker 4: I see. Well, I'm not sure how many people out

396
00:18:35,040 --> 00:18:38,240
Speaker 4: there know how to program, but I think maybe it's

397
00:18:38,240 --> 00:18:41,080
Speaker 4: sort of like a list that identifies everything that we

398
00:18:41,200 --> 00:18:44,160
Speaker 4: know about a particle. That's kind of what you're saying, right,

399
00:18:44,200 --> 00:18:47,320
Speaker 4: And so for small particles, that list is not like

400
00:18:47,359 --> 00:18:49,440
Speaker 4: an infinite list, right, Like it's a list of maybe

401
00:18:49,560 --> 00:18:50,959
Speaker 4: like five things exactly.

402
00:18:51,040 --> 00:18:53,200
Speaker 1: It depends a little bit on where that particle is.

403
00:18:53,640 --> 00:18:56,560
Speaker 1: An electron in free space doesn't have energy levels the

404
00:18:56,600 --> 00:18:59,000
Speaker 1: way an electron around a hydrogen atom does.

405
00:18:59,359 --> 00:19:01,800
Speaker 4: Wait, what depends on the situation. So like, if I

406
00:19:02,000 --> 00:19:04,160
Speaker 4: just have a particle out there in space by itself,

407
00:19:04,440 --> 00:19:06,679
Speaker 4: what are its quantum state variables?

408
00:19:06,760 --> 00:19:09,480
Speaker 1: A particle just out there in space with like no potential,

409
00:19:09,560 --> 00:19:13,000
Speaker 1: no forces on anything, a free particle, then the quantum

410
00:19:13,040 --> 00:19:14,960
Speaker 1: states are just the location and the.

411
00:19:14,960 --> 00:19:17,360
Speaker 4: Energy and the energy what do you mean by energy.

412
00:19:17,119 --> 00:19:19,159
Speaker 1: Well, it's velocity, right, it's.

413
00:19:19,080 --> 00:19:21,680
Speaker 4: Kinetic energy m And it's spin as well.

414
00:19:21,760 --> 00:19:24,399
Speaker 1: Yes, absolutely, and it's spin. But remember out there in

415
00:19:24,440 --> 00:19:27,920
Speaker 1: free space, the kinetic energy can have any value. Electrons

416
00:19:28,000 --> 00:19:31,640
Speaker 1: are quantized into energy levels around a hydrogen atom because

417
00:19:31,640 --> 00:19:35,640
Speaker 1: they're confined. The quantization only comes from the confinement. Electrons

418
00:19:35,680 --> 00:19:38,320
Speaker 1: out in free space don't have like energy levels, whereas

419
00:19:38,320 --> 00:19:41,240
Speaker 1: electrons around the hydrogen atom, for example, do, So there's

420
00:19:41,240 --> 00:19:44,000
Speaker 1: an important distinction there about the quantum state of these

421
00:19:44,040 --> 00:19:46,560
Speaker 1: particles or in free space, you would just say the

422
00:19:46,680 --> 00:19:49,800
Speaker 1: energy around the hydrogenom you would say the energy.

423
00:19:49,560 --> 00:19:51,800
Speaker 4: Level, but when it's out in space you also count

424
00:19:51,880 --> 00:19:53,800
Speaker 4: like the spin of it too, Right, are there any

425
00:19:53,840 --> 00:19:56,560
Speaker 4: other quantum variables? I guess each kind of particle has

426
00:19:56,600 --> 00:19:58,520
Speaker 4: different kind of variables attached to it.

427
00:19:58,600 --> 00:20:01,359
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. And electrons and have two different kinds of spin,

428
00:20:01,440 --> 00:20:04,159
Speaker 1: spin up and spin down. Photons can have three different

429
00:20:04,240 --> 00:20:07,439
Speaker 1: kinds of spin. The Higgs boson doesn't have any spin

430
00:20:07,560 --> 00:20:09,399
Speaker 1: at all, So it depends a little bit on a

431
00:20:09,520 --> 00:20:11,879
Speaker 1: kind of particle and also the situation that it's in.

432
00:20:12,000 --> 00:20:14,800
Speaker 4: Okay, So now the rule here is that no two

433
00:20:14,840 --> 00:20:18,159
Speaker 4: particles can have the same quantum state. Now what does

434
00:20:18,200 --> 00:20:20,200
Speaker 4: that mean for like particles out there in the open

435
00:20:20,280 --> 00:20:24,000
Speaker 4: floating around space? Like that means that no two electrons

436
00:20:24,080 --> 00:20:26,440
Speaker 4: can be in the same spot with the same velocity

437
00:20:26,480 --> 00:20:27,200
Speaker 4: and the same spin.

438
00:20:27,400 --> 00:20:29,760
Speaker 1: So the rule is not that no two particles can

439
00:20:29,800 --> 00:20:32,120
Speaker 1: be in the same state, but no two fermions. Number.

440
00:20:32,200 --> 00:20:34,920
Speaker 1: Half of the particles we call them fermions, they can't

441
00:20:34,960 --> 00:20:37,120
Speaker 1: be in the same state. The other half we call

442
00:20:37,160 --> 00:20:39,720
Speaker 1: them bosons. They have no problem being in the same state.

443
00:20:40,119 --> 00:20:42,800
Speaker 1: So electrons and quarks, they can't pile up on top

444
00:20:42,840 --> 00:20:45,000
Speaker 1: of each other in the same state, whereas photons can.

445
00:20:45,200 --> 00:20:47,080
Speaker 1: So your question is, like, what happens out there in

446
00:20:47,119 --> 00:20:49,800
Speaker 1: empty space? Well, yeah, two electrons cannot be in the

447
00:20:49,840 --> 00:20:51,800
Speaker 1: same state, meaning they can't be in the same location

448
00:20:51,960 --> 00:20:54,600
Speaker 1: with the same spin and the same energy. That's just

449
00:20:54,680 --> 00:20:55,400
Speaker 1: not possible.

450
00:20:55,480 --> 00:20:57,800
Speaker 4: Well that's interesting, Like that just seems to be like

451
00:20:57,840 --> 00:21:01,080
Speaker 4: the rule the universe has, right, Like that's something that

452
00:21:01,160 --> 00:21:04,280
Speaker 4: you think can't happen. But I guess as anyone actually

453
00:21:04,359 --> 00:21:06,359
Speaker 4: tried to see if you can fit to electrons in

454
00:21:06,400 --> 00:21:06,960
Speaker 4: the same spot.

455
00:21:07,200 --> 00:21:10,280
Speaker 1: Oh yeah, the universe tries to do it all the time. Remember,

456
00:21:10,280 --> 00:21:13,000
Speaker 1: the universe likes to have things relax down to the

457
00:21:13,040 --> 00:21:16,080
Speaker 1: lowest energy that's really what forces are. Forces are things

458
00:21:16,119 --> 00:21:19,320
Speaker 1: that push things down to lower energy configurations. So think

459
00:21:19,320 --> 00:21:22,840
Speaker 1: about what happens when you put electrons around an atom, right,

460
00:21:22,880 --> 00:21:24,880
Speaker 1: the first one goes down to the lowest energy level,

461
00:21:24,920 --> 00:21:26,960
Speaker 1: and then the second one can't go down to the

462
00:21:26,960 --> 00:21:29,919
Speaker 1: lowest energy level because that's filled. Right, It's sort of

463
00:21:29,960 --> 00:21:32,080
Speaker 1: like play and connect. For you put one piece in,

464
00:21:32,119 --> 00:21:35,040
Speaker 1: the next one can't slot into that lowest level anymore.

465
00:21:35,160 --> 00:21:36,680
Speaker 1: It has to go to energy level two.

466
00:21:36,880 --> 00:21:39,320
Speaker 4: I guess I'm trying to understand, Like this rule on

467
00:21:39,440 --> 00:21:42,840
Speaker 4: the free space situation first, and then maybe we can

468
00:21:42,840 --> 00:21:46,639
Speaker 4: get into the going around an atom situation after that,

469
00:21:46,800 --> 00:21:50,120
Speaker 4: because like electrons, for example, don't have a volume to them, right,

470
00:21:50,200 --> 00:21:52,639
Speaker 4: they don't have a solidness to them. So technically, like

471
00:21:52,720 --> 00:21:55,680
Speaker 4: you could have an electron on top of another electron,

472
00:21:55,800 --> 00:21:58,119
Speaker 4: but you're saying the universe somehow, for some reason, doesn't

473
00:21:58,160 --> 00:21:58,359
Speaker 4: like that.

474
00:21:58,560 --> 00:22:00,560
Speaker 1: Yeah, Well, I think the free space example is a

475
00:22:00,600 --> 00:22:03,680
Speaker 1: little artificial because you bring two electrons together, they will

476
00:22:03,720 --> 00:22:05,639
Speaker 1: have a force between them. They will try to repel

477
00:22:05,680 --> 00:22:08,320
Speaker 1: each other, so they're no longer free electrons, right, So

478
00:22:08,400 --> 00:22:11,560
Speaker 1: that example is a little bit artificial. I think. You know,

479
00:22:11,600 --> 00:22:14,840
Speaker 1: out in space, the universe does try to compress electrons

480
00:22:14,920 --> 00:22:17,639
Speaker 1: down into tiny dots. We'll talk later about what happens.

481
00:22:17,640 --> 00:22:21,400
Speaker 1: For example, in white dwarfs. White dwarfs don't collapse into

482
00:22:21,440 --> 00:22:25,160
Speaker 1: black holes because the electrons resist being put on top

483
00:22:25,200 --> 00:22:27,199
Speaker 1: of each other, and the forces are strong enough to

484
00:22:27,240 --> 00:22:30,240
Speaker 1: overcome this electrostatic repulsion. But they're not strong enough to

485
00:22:30,240 --> 00:22:33,800
Speaker 1: overcome this quantum resistance to electrons being on top of

486
00:22:33,840 --> 00:22:36,200
Speaker 1: each other. But it's not exactly out in free space,

487
00:22:36,280 --> 00:22:38,520
Speaker 1: because again, you know, electrons on top of each other

488
00:22:38,520 --> 00:22:41,360
Speaker 1: there are pushing away against each other. There is potential

489
00:22:41,440 --> 00:22:42,320
Speaker 1: energy there.

490
00:22:42,160 --> 00:22:45,040
Speaker 4: I guess. I mean, then, let's talk about two electrons

491
00:22:45,080 --> 00:22:47,320
Speaker 4: out there in free space. And I know they repel

492
00:22:47,359 --> 00:22:49,920
Speaker 4: each other by the electromagnetic force because they're both the

493
00:22:49,960 --> 00:22:52,679
Speaker 4: same charge. But let's say you managed to overcome that.

494
00:22:52,760 --> 00:22:55,800
Speaker 4: You're saying, like, there's something else pushing these two electrons

495
00:22:55,840 --> 00:22:57,600
Speaker 4: from being on top of each other.

496
00:22:57,840 --> 00:23:00,480
Speaker 1: Yes, exactly. The universe will not allow you to do that,

497
00:23:00,520 --> 00:23:02,679
Speaker 1: will not allow you to put two electrons right on

498
00:23:02,720 --> 00:23:05,400
Speaker 1: top of each other because of this weird exclusion principle.

499
00:23:05,520 --> 00:23:08,760
Speaker 1: And again, two photons and no problem even two W bosons,

500
00:23:08,800 --> 00:23:11,000
Speaker 1: which do have a charge, right, so they would resist

501
00:23:11,000 --> 00:23:15,679
Speaker 1: each other. Two W bosons no problem to electrons problem.

502
00:23:15,680 --> 00:23:18,800
Speaker 4: Interesting, Okay, so you can put two photons into each other,

503
00:23:18,840 --> 00:23:21,560
Speaker 4: and you can't put two W bosons on top of

504
00:23:21,560 --> 00:23:24,680
Speaker 4: each other, even though like the W boson, they have mass, right,

505
00:23:24,720 --> 00:23:26,760
Speaker 4: So even things with substance can exist on top of

506
00:23:26,800 --> 00:23:29,800
Speaker 4: each other. But somehow electrons that's a no go.

507
00:23:30,200 --> 00:23:31,160
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly.

508
00:23:31,400 --> 00:23:32,600
Speaker 4: And is there a reason why.

509
00:23:32,680 --> 00:23:35,560
Speaker 1: There's definitely a reason why, and it's connected to the

510
00:23:35,600 --> 00:23:39,320
Speaker 1: particle's spin. Electrons have spinned one half and photons and

511
00:23:39,440 --> 00:23:42,280
Speaker 1: ws and zs have spin one, and so there's a

512
00:23:42,320 --> 00:23:44,840
Speaker 1: fun and subtle reason for why that means they can't

513
00:23:44,840 --> 00:23:45,760
Speaker 1: be on top of each other.

514
00:23:45,800 --> 00:23:49,359
Speaker 4: All right, Well, let's spin into that answer and figure

515
00:23:49,400 --> 00:23:52,320
Speaker 4: out where exactly this rule comes from. Man, how does

516
00:23:52,320 --> 00:23:55,200
Speaker 4: it impact the rest of the universe. But first, let's

517
00:23:55,200 --> 00:23:56,159
Speaker 4: take a quick break.

518
00:24:00,480 --> 00:24:03,399
Speaker 1: With big wireless providers, what you see is never what

519
00:24:03,520 --> 00:24:06,200
Speaker 1: you get. Somewhere between the store and your first month's bill,

520
00:24:06,280 --> 00:24:09,320
Speaker 1: the price you thoughts you were paying magically skyrockets. With

521
00:24:09,440 --> 00:24:12,840
Speaker 1: mint Mobile, You'll never have to worry about gotcha's ever again.

522
00:24:12,920 --> 00:24:15,159
Speaker 1: When Mint Mobile says fifteen dollars a month for a

523
00:24:15,200 --> 00:24:18,000
Speaker 1: three month plan, they really mean it. I've used mint

524
00:24:18,040 --> 00:24:20,520
Speaker 1: Mobile and the call quality is always so crisp and

525
00:24:20,560 --> 00:24:23,000
Speaker 1: so clear. I can recommend it to you. So say

526
00:24:23,040 --> 00:24:26,280
Speaker 1: bye bye to your overpriced wireless plans, jaw dropping monthly

527
00:24:26,320 --> 00:24:29,439
Speaker 1: bills and unexpected overages. You can use your own phone

528
00:24:29,480 --> 00:24:32,000
Speaker 1: with any mint Mobile plan and bring your phone number

529
00:24:32,119 --> 00:24:35,400
Speaker 1: along with your existing contacts. So dit your overpriced wireless

530
00:24:35,400 --> 00:24:37,720
Speaker 1: with mint Mobiles deal and get three months a premium

531
00:24:37,840 --> 00:24:40,280
Speaker 1: wireless service for fifteen bucks a month. To get this

532
00:24:40,320 --> 00:24:42,719
Speaker 1: new customer offer, and your new three month premium wireless

533
00:24:42,760 --> 00:24:44,760
Speaker 1: plan for just fifteen bucks a month. Go to mintmobile

534
00:24:44,800 --> 00:24:48,280
Speaker 1: dot com slash universe. That's mintmobile dot com slash universe.

535
00:24:48,320 --> 00:24:50,280
Speaker 1: Cut your wireless bill to fifteen bucks a month. At

536
00:24:50,320 --> 00:24:53,440
Speaker 1: mintmobile dot com slash Universe. Forty five dollars upfront payment

537
00:24:53,480 --> 00:24:56,159
Speaker 1: required equivalent to fifteen dollars per month new customers on

538
00:24:56,240 --> 00:24:59,080
Speaker 1: first three month plan only. Speeds slower about forty gigabytes

539
00:24:59,080 --> 00:25:02,359
Speaker 1: on unlimited Plantional taxes, fees and restrictions apply. Seement Mobile

540
00:25:02,400 --> 00:25:03,080
Speaker 1: for details.

541
00:25:03,240 --> 00:25:06,280
Speaker 8: AI might be the most important new computer technology ever.

542
00:25:06,520 --> 00:25:09,760
Speaker 8: It's storming every industry and literally billions of dollars are

543
00:25:09,760 --> 00:25:14,000
Speaker 8: being invested, so buckle up. The problem is that AI

544
00:25:14,119 --> 00:25:16,960
Speaker 8: needs a lot of speed and processing power. So how

545
00:25:16,960 --> 00:25:20,120
Speaker 8: do you compete without cost spiraling out of control. It's

546
00:25:20,160 --> 00:25:22,480
Speaker 8: time to upgrade to the next generation of the cloud.

547
00:25:22,800 --> 00:25:27,960
Speaker 8: Oracle Cloud Infrastructure or OCI. OCI is a single platform

548
00:25:28,000 --> 00:25:32,879
Speaker 8: for your infrastructure, database, application development, and AI needs. OCI

549
00:25:33,040 --> 00:25:35,440
Speaker 8: has four to eight times the bandwidth of other clouds,

550
00:25:35,760 --> 00:25:39,359
Speaker 8: offers one consistent price instead of variable regional pricing, and

551
00:25:39,400 --> 00:25:42,520
Speaker 8: of course nobody does data better than Oracle. So now

552
00:25:42,560 --> 00:25:44,760
Speaker 8: you can train your AI models at twice the speed

553
00:25:44,960 --> 00:25:47,280
Speaker 8: and less than half the cost of other clouds. If

554
00:25:47,320 --> 00:25:49,520
Speaker 8: you want to do more and spend less, like Uber

555
00:25:49,680 --> 00:25:52,320
Speaker 8: eight by eight and Data Bricks Mosaic, take a free

556
00:25:52,320 --> 00:25:56,240
Speaker 8: test drive of Oci at Oracle dot com slash strategic.

557
00:25:56,560 --> 00:26:00,119
Speaker 8: That's Oracle dot com slash Strategic Oracle dot com dot

558
00:26:00,160 --> 00:26:01,800
Speaker 8: com slash strategic.

559
00:26:02,080 --> 00:26:04,960
Speaker 1: If you love iPhone, you'll love Apple Card. It's the

560
00:26:05,080 --> 00:26:08,919
Speaker 1: credit card designed for iPhone. It gives you unlimited daily

561
00:26:09,040 --> 00:26:12,040
Speaker 1: cash back that can earn four point four zero percent

562
00:26:12,160 --> 00:26:14,960
Speaker 1: annual percentage yield. When you open a high yield savings

563
00:26:15,000 --> 00:26:17,840
Speaker 1: account through Apple Card, apply for Apple Card in the

564
00:26:17,920 --> 00:26:21,159
Speaker 1: wallet app, subject to credit approval. Savings is available to

565
00:26:21,240 --> 00:26:24,680
Speaker 1: Apple Card owners subject to eligibility. Apple Card and Savings

566
00:26:24,680 --> 00:26:27,560
Speaker 1: by Goldman Sachs Bank USA, Salt Lake City Branch Member,

567
00:26:27,680 --> 00:26:31,040
Speaker 1: FDIC terms and more at applecard dot com. When you

568
00:26:31,080 --> 00:26:33,080
Speaker 1: pop a piece of cheese into your mouth or enjoy

569
00:26:33,119 --> 00:26:36,359
Speaker 1: a rich spoonful of Greek yogurt, you're probably not thinking

570
00:26:36,440 --> 00:26:39,960
Speaker 1: about the environmental impact of each and every bite, but

571
00:26:40,040 --> 00:26:42,720
Speaker 1: the people in the dairy industry are. US Dairy has

572
00:26:42,720 --> 00:26:47,160
Speaker 1: set themselves some ambitious sustainability goals, including being greenhouse gas

573
00:26:47,200 --> 00:26:50,000
Speaker 1: neutral by twenty fifty. That's why they're working hard every

574
00:26:50,080 --> 00:26:53,160
Speaker 1: day to find new ways to reduce waste, conserve natural resources,

575
00:26:53,200 --> 00:26:56,720
Speaker 1: and drive down greenhouse gas emissions. Take water, for example,

576
00:26:56,800 --> 00:26:59,800
Speaker 1: most dairy farms reuse water up to four times. The

577
00:26:59,840 --> 00:27:03,160
Speaker 1: same water cools the milk, cleans equipment, washes the barn,

578
00:27:03,280 --> 00:27:06,960
Speaker 1: and irrigates the crops. How is US Dairy tackling greenhouse gases.

579
00:27:07,040 --> 00:27:10,040
Speaker 1: Many farms use anaerobic digestors that turn the methane from

580
00:27:10,040 --> 00:27:13,439
Speaker 1: maneuver into renewable energy that can power farms, towns, and

581
00:27:13,480 --> 00:27:15,720
Speaker 1: electric cars. So the next time you grab a slice

582
00:27:15,720 --> 00:27:17,600
Speaker 1: of pizza or lick an ice cream cone, know that

583
00:27:17,680 --> 00:27:20,359
Speaker 1: dairy farmers and processors around the country are using the

584
00:27:20,440 --> 00:27:24,200
Speaker 1: latest practices and innovations to provide the nutrient dense dairy

585
00:27:24,200 --> 00:27:27,200
Speaker 1: products we love with less of an impact. Visit usdairy

586
00:27:27,240 --> 00:27:29,480
Speaker 1: dot com slash sustainability to learn more.

587
00:27:37,960 --> 00:27:41,080
Speaker 4: All right, we're talking about the intricate rules of the

588
00:27:41,200 --> 00:27:44,640
Speaker 4: quantum universe, and one of those rules is that two

589
00:27:44,760 --> 00:27:47,359
Speaker 4: fermions can't be in the same quantum state at the

590
00:27:47,359 --> 00:27:50,800
Speaker 4: same time. Somehow, the universe has a problem with two

591
00:27:51,800 --> 00:27:55,560
Speaker 4: fermions to matter particles somehow, I guess, I don't know,

592
00:27:55,600 --> 00:27:57,240
Speaker 4: being in sync, being in the same place at the

593
00:27:57,280 --> 00:27:59,280
Speaker 4: same time, and being totally identical.

594
00:27:59,400 --> 00:28:03,000
Speaker 1: Yeah exactly. It has an issue with fermions. Having essentially

595
00:28:03,040 --> 00:28:07,919
Speaker 1: the identical setup is not allowed. It's like one per slot,

596
00:28:08,040 --> 00:28:09,679
Speaker 1: you already filled your slot. You got to go to

597
00:28:09,720 --> 00:28:11,760
Speaker 1: the next slot. You got to find another way to be.

598
00:28:12,200 --> 00:28:15,280
Speaker 4: I guess for the the idea of too electrons out

599
00:28:15,280 --> 00:28:17,720
Speaker 4: in space, like, it's probably, first of all, very hard

600
00:28:17,720 --> 00:28:20,199
Speaker 4: for two electrons to be in exactly the same space,

601
00:28:20,440 --> 00:28:23,880
Speaker 4: but it seems like the universe just resists two electrons

602
00:28:23,920 --> 00:28:25,600
Speaker 4: being really close to each other.

603
00:28:25,440 --> 00:28:27,879
Speaker 1: Even Yeah, if you have some volume out there and

604
00:28:27,920 --> 00:28:31,000
Speaker 1: then a bunch of electrons, then the universe likes each

605
00:28:31,040 --> 00:28:33,560
Speaker 1: electron to be like in its own little volume, you know,

606
00:28:33,600 --> 00:28:36,239
Speaker 1: like V over N something like that, and so it

607
00:28:36,320 --> 00:28:39,520
Speaker 1: resists electrons overlapping too much.

608
00:28:39,920 --> 00:28:43,320
Speaker 4: Oh, so the rule is more like it can be

609
00:28:43,360 --> 00:28:45,760
Speaker 4: in the same state, but also like the universe doesn't

610
00:28:45,800 --> 00:28:48,320
Speaker 4: even like for the states to be close to each other.

611
00:28:48,520 --> 00:28:51,520
Speaker 1: Yeah exactly, because remember, electrons have like a wavelength, and

612
00:28:51,560 --> 00:28:54,560
Speaker 1: so as those wavelengths start to overlap, then the universe

613
00:28:54,640 --> 00:28:57,280
Speaker 1: resists it. Technically, if you keep squeezing it, lets me

614
00:28:57,280 --> 00:28:59,960
Speaker 1: get closer and closer and closer, but fundamentally it resists

615
00:29:00,040 --> 00:29:01,760
Speaker 1: I'm being right on top of each other.

616
00:29:01,920 --> 00:29:05,640
Speaker 4: Okay, so the innert has this problem for emeons apparently,

617
00:29:05,680 --> 00:29:08,800
Speaker 4: and the weight it kind of comes into effect that

618
00:29:08,840 --> 00:29:12,040
Speaker 4: affects most people is as you were saying, when electrons

619
00:29:12,800 --> 00:29:16,240
Speaker 4: start to orbit around the nuclei of atoms, right.

620
00:29:16,120 --> 00:29:18,560
Speaker 1: M hmm, exactly, and this has a huge effect on

621
00:29:18,600 --> 00:29:21,160
Speaker 1: basically all of matter. Right. It's the reason that we

622
00:29:21,200 --> 00:29:23,640
Speaker 1: have energy levels in atoms. It's the reason why we

623
00:29:23,680 --> 00:29:26,280
Speaker 1: have the periodic table. It's the reason why atoms behave

624
00:29:26,360 --> 00:29:28,680
Speaker 1: the way they do. The universe would be totally different

625
00:29:29,040 --> 00:29:31,440
Speaker 1: if electrons could all like slot down to the lowest

626
00:29:31,520 --> 00:29:34,880
Speaker 1: energy level. Now what I said earlier wasn't exactly correct.

627
00:29:34,880 --> 00:29:37,040
Speaker 1: It was one little nuance, which is you can't have

628
00:29:37,160 --> 00:29:40,640
Speaker 1: two electrons per energy level because they can have different spins.

629
00:29:40,800 --> 00:29:43,520
Speaker 1: But the electrons have to be in different states. So

630
00:29:43,560 --> 00:29:46,920
Speaker 1: you can have like one electron around hydrogenam no problem.

631
00:29:47,040 --> 00:29:49,200
Speaker 1: For helium. You have two electrons, so they can both

632
00:29:49,280 --> 00:29:51,400
Speaker 1: be in the lowest energy level, but they have to

633
00:29:51,440 --> 00:29:54,400
Speaker 1: have different spins because they can't be in the same state.

634
00:29:54,560 --> 00:29:56,840
Speaker 1: Then when you go to lithium, you have another electron.

635
00:29:56,960 --> 00:29:59,080
Speaker 1: It can't fit in the lowest energy level. There's already

636
00:29:59,080 --> 00:30:01,440
Speaker 1: two electrons in there, one spin up, one spin down.

637
00:30:01,640 --> 00:30:04,400
Speaker 1: There's no other way to separate the electrons. There's no

638
00:30:04,440 --> 00:30:07,320
Speaker 1: other label to distinguish it. So it has to go

639
00:30:07,440 --> 00:30:10,280
Speaker 1: in the next energy level, goes in the second energy level,

640
00:30:10,320 --> 00:30:13,080
Speaker 1: so that electron has more energy than the lowest level.

641
00:30:13,160 --> 00:30:15,000
Speaker 4: Well, I guess I just wonder how many people out

642
00:30:15,000 --> 00:30:17,920
Speaker 4: there are familiar with this idea of energy levels in

643
00:30:18,400 --> 00:30:23,080
Speaker 4: electrons orbiting the nuclei of atoms. Maybe can you connect

644
00:30:23,080 --> 00:30:26,760
Speaker 4: for us this idea of like, okay, two electrons out

645
00:30:26,800 --> 00:30:28,959
Speaker 4: in space can be in the same quantum state. They

646
00:30:29,000 --> 00:30:31,480
Speaker 4: can to being on top of each other. But now

647
00:30:31,840 --> 00:30:34,520
Speaker 4: you know, if they're orbiting around the nucleus of an atom,

648
00:30:34,560 --> 00:30:37,080
Speaker 4: I feel like there's a bunch of space there. Why

649
00:30:37,120 --> 00:30:40,160
Speaker 4: can't they kind of orbit at the same time. What

650
00:30:40,200 --> 00:30:41,840
Speaker 4: does this mean about the energy levels?

651
00:30:42,000 --> 00:30:44,240
Speaker 1: Well, if you have an electron and it's around a nucleus,

652
00:30:44,280 --> 00:30:47,360
Speaker 1: you've already confined it to a very small space, right,

653
00:30:47,400 --> 00:30:49,920
Speaker 1: And so in order to have two electrons basically being

654
00:30:49,960 --> 00:30:51,400
Speaker 1: on top of each other, from the point of view

655
00:30:51,400 --> 00:30:53,120
Speaker 1: of the universe, those two electrons are on top of

656
00:30:53,120 --> 00:30:55,640
Speaker 1: each other. If they're orbiting the same nucleus, they have

657
00:30:55,760 --> 00:30:58,200
Speaker 1: to have some way to distinguish between themselves so they're

658
00:30:58,240 --> 00:31:00,000
Speaker 1: not in the same state. As that means having differ

659
00:31:00,040 --> 00:31:03,800
Speaker 1: from spin or having different energy. And around an atom,

660
00:31:03,840 --> 00:31:06,280
Speaker 1: you can't just have any arbitrary energy out in a

661
00:31:06,320 --> 00:31:08,440
Speaker 1: free space. An electron can have any energy at once.

662
00:31:08,560 --> 00:31:11,440
Speaker 1: When an electron is captured by a nucleus, when it's

663
00:31:11,480 --> 00:31:14,320
Speaker 1: in some quantum state that's settled into the potential around

664
00:31:14,360 --> 00:31:17,320
Speaker 1: a nucleus, then it has certain energy levels it can

665
00:31:17,360 --> 00:31:20,120
Speaker 1: be in that quantization. The fact you have an energy

666
00:31:20,200 --> 00:31:23,560
Speaker 1: ladder rather than a full continuous spectrum comes from capturing

667
00:31:23,600 --> 00:31:27,400
Speaker 1: the electron. It's the confinement that produces those energy levels.

668
00:31:27,760 --> 00:31:29,520
Speaker 1: And so now instead of like being able to have

669
00:31:29,560 --> 00:31:32,520
Speaker 1: two electrons with slightly different energy, now the electrons have

670
00:31:32,720 --> 00:31:36,640
Speaker 1: like discrete options energy level one, energy level two, energy

671
00:31:36,680 --> 00:31:39,640
Speaker 1: level seven. You can't have energy like one point two

672
00:31:39,720 --> 00:31:42,400
Speaker 1: around the atom. It's not a solution to the Shirdinger equation,

673
00:31:42,680 --> 00:31:42,840
Speaker 1: is it.

674
00:31:42,880 --> 00:31:44,840
Speaker 4: I wonder if it's a little bit like the Earth

675
00:31:45,040 --> 00:31:47,640
Speaker 4: orbiting the Sun, like you know, if Earth is out

676
00:31:47,640 --> 00:31:49,360
Speaker 4: there in space. It can go as fast as it

677
00:31:49,400 --> 00:31:51,680
Speaker 4: wants in any direction at once. But if you're sort

678
00:31:51,720 --> 00:31:55,120
Speaker 4: of requiring the Earth to go around the Sun and

679
00:31:56,080 --> 00:31:59,000
Speaker 4: do it forever in a consistent way, there's only so

680
00:31:59,120 --> 00:32:02,080
Speaker 4: many velocity it can have, and it's only so many

681
00:32:02,160 --> 00:32:03,280
Speaker 4: energy levels it can have.

682
00:32:03,440 --> 00:32:05,800
Speaker 1: Well, but gravity isn't quantized to our knowledge that we

683
00:32:05,840 --> 00:32:08,800
Speaker 1: think maybe eventually we will quantize gravity. So the Earth

684
00:32:08,800 --> 00:32:11,600
Speaker 1: could exist at any radius around the Sun. It just

685
00:32:11,600 --> 00:32:13,960
Speaker 1: has to have the right velocity. And so there is

686
00:32:14,000 --> 00:32:17,320
Speaker 1: an infinite number of potential orbits for the Earth, whereas

687
00:32:17,360 --> 00:32:20,760
Speaker 1: for a quantum object it really is different. It's determined

688
00:32:20,760 --> 00:32:23,600
Speaker 1: by the shortening your equation, and there just are quantized

689
00:32:23,640 --> 00:32:24,560
Speaker 1: solutions to that.

690
00:32:25,280 --> 00:32:29,280
Speaker 4: Okay, so now we've applied the rule to electrons orbiting

691
00:32:29,280 --> 00:32:32,520
Speaker 4: in nuclei, and that tells you that two fermions can't

692
00:32:32,640 --> 00:32:35,520
Speaker 4: orbit at the same level unless they have a different spin.

693
00:32:36,200 --> 00:32:38,520
Speaker 4: Exactly why why is that? What does the spin do

694
00:32:38,720 --> 00:32:41,360
Speaker 4: that lets them occupy the same orbit?

695
00:32:41,520 --> 00:32:43,520
Speaker 1: So the key thing is that they have to have

696
00:32:43,720 --> 00:32:46,600
Speaker 1: different quantum states, and the spin is part of that

697
00:32:46,720 --> 00:32:49,000
Speaker 1: quantum state. It's like one of the labels. So when

698
00:32:49,040 --> 00:32:51,520
Speaker 1: you have electrons around an atom, you have four of

699
00:32:51,560 --> 00:32:54,800
Speaker 1: these labels. You have N, which tells you the energy level,

700
00:32:54,840 --> 00:32:57,280
Speaker 1: you have L which tells you like the sub level

701
00:32:57,480 --> 00:32:59,600
Speaker 1: that you're in, M, which tells you which of those

702
00:32:59,720 --> 00:33:02,040
Speaker 1: l's in. And then finally the spin And so the

703
00:33:02,080 --> 00:33:04,920
Speaker 1: spin plays two rolls. One is like, it's another quality

704
00:33:04,960 --> 00:33:07,360
Speaker 1: that the electron can have that lets it distinguish itself

705
00:33:07,400 --> 00:33:10,920
Speaker 1: from something else. But also the electron having spin one

706
00:33:10,960 --> 00:33:15,120
Speaker 1: half is the reason why electrons cannot do this. Photons

707
00:33:15,160 --> 00:33:17,400
Speaker 1: have spin one which is why they can pile on

708
00:33:17,440 --> 00:33:20,080
Speaker 1: top of each other, and electrons have spin one half,

709
00:33:20,120 --> 00:33:22,760
Speaker 1: which is why they cannot pile on top of each other.

710
00:33:23,040 --> 00:33:25,760
Speaker 1: It all comes down to these particles spin.

711
00:33:28,000 --> 00:33:30,640
Speaker 4: Well before we spin that way. I guess maybe it

712
00:33:30,720 --> 00:33:33,000
Speaker 4: tells a little bit about what would happen if we

713
00:33:33,080 --> 00:33:35,880
Speaker 4: didn't have this rule, Like if we didn't have the

714
00:33:35,920 --> 00:33:39,520
Speaker 4: poly exclusion principle, what would happen to like electron orbitals

715
00:33:39,560 --> 00:33:42,560
Speaker 4: and atoms and the things the molecules in our body.

716
00:33:42,720 --> 00:33:44,560
Speaker 1: So if we didn't have this, then electrons would all

717
00:33:44,600 --> 00:33:46,960
Speaker 1: relax down to the lowest state. They would all be

718
00:33:47,080 --> 00:33:49,800
Speaker 1: in the lowest energy level, because that's what the universe

719
00:33:49,880 --> 00:33:51,480
Speaker 1: likes to do. It likes to spread energy out. It

720
00:33:51,520 --> 00:33:54,520
Speaker 1: doesn't like to have little dense depositions of energy. So,

721
00:33:54,560 --> 00:33:57,000
Speaker 1: for example, if you zap an electron and you give

722
00:33:57,040 --> 00:33:59,560
Speaker 1: it extra energy, so it jumps up the ladder to like,

723
00:33:59,600 --> 00:34:02,000
Speaker 1: you know, energy level ten, and you just wait a

724
00:34:02,000 --> 00:34:04,400
Speaker 1: few moments, then it will radiate a way that energy

725
00:34:04,440 --> 00:34:07,160
Speaker 1: and relax back down. So everything likes to sort of

726
00:34:07,200 --> 00:34:10,120
Speaker 1: flow downhill to the lowest energy levels. And if you

727
00:34:10,200 --> 00:34:13,160
Speaker 1: didn't have the poly exclusion principle, they would all just

728
00:34:13,280 --> 00:34:15,919
Speaker 1: pile up at the lowest energy level, and that would

729
00:34:15,960 --> 00:34:19,080
Speaker 1: make a big difference. For like, the size of these atoms.

730
00:34:19,640 --> 00:34:21,839
Speaker 1: You know, the size of the atom is determined by

731
00:34:21,920 --> 00:34:24,960
Speaker 1: the electron orbitals, and they get bigger and bigger and

732
00:34:25,000 --> 00:34:28,480
Speaker 1: bigger as you get more and more electrons. Goals for example,

733
00:34:28,520 --> 00:34:31,520
Speaker 1: has like you know, dozens of electrons, and so it's

734
00:34:31,640 --> 00:34:35,759
Speaker 1: much larger than hydrogen. Hydrogen just has one electron, and

735
00:34:35,800 --> 00:34:38,040
Speaker 1: so like, the very structure of matter depends on the

736
00:34:38,080 --> 00:34:41,000
Speaker 1: volume of these atoms. If somebody like turned off the

737
00:34:41,000 --> 00:34:44,200
Speaker 1: poly exclusion principle, we would all collapse to be much much.

738
00:34:44,040 --> 00:34:47,399
Speaker 4: Smaller, you mean, we would all go into the quantit realm, Like.

739
00:34:47,680 --> 00:34:50,279
Speaker 1: Man, no, we'd all be about the size of a

740
00:34:50,360 --> 00:34:54,239
Speaker 1: chocolate chip, I think. But also it would change chemistry, right,

741
00:34:54,239 --> 00:34:57,360
Speaker 1: The way that atoms bond together depends on these orbitals,

742
00:34:57,440 --> 00:35:00,120
Speaker 1: the way that they interact, all their properties, like how

743
00:35:00,160 --> 00:35:03,480
Speaker 1: they're metallic or how they glow, the energy they can absorb.

744
00:35:03,600 --> 00:35:06,359
Speaker 1: All this stuff depends on the poly exclusion principle, And

745
00:35:06,440 --> 00:35:09,520
Speaker 1: so the whole universe would be totally different if electrons

746
00:35:09,560 --> 00:35:11,280
Speaker 1: could pile up at the lowest levels.

747
00:35:11,960 --> 00:35:13,520
Speaker 4: Okay, I think I see what you're saying. Like, if

748
00:35:13,560 --> 00:35:16,839
Speaker 4: I just have the nucleus of an atom without any electrons,

749
00:35:17,560 --> 00:35:20,440
Speaker 4: just sitting there, and I threw an electron into it,

750
00:35:20,440 --> 00:35:23,439
Speaker 4: it would kind of snap into a certain orbit or

751
00:35:23,560 --> 00:35:26,440
Speaker 4: kind of place or some sort of you know, cloud

752
00:35:26,520 --> 00:35:30,120
Speaker 4: or function around that nucleus. Now, if I threw another electron,

753
00:35:30,400 --> 00:35:33,160
Speaker 4: if it didn't have the polyexclusion principle, it would also

754
00:35:33,239 --> 00:35:36,680
Speaker 4: fall into that lowest kind of orbit. But because you

755
00:35:36,680 --> 00:35:39,719
Speaker 4: have the exclusion principle, the electron can't like get that

756
00:35:39,800 --> 00:35:42,720
Speaker 4: close to the nucleus, and so it kind of forms

757
00:35:42,760 --> 00:35:46,080
Speaker 4: another kind of orbit that is kind of maybe bigger,

758
00:35:46,160 --> 00:35:48,520
Speaker 4: you mean, maybe bigger and more fragile too.

759
00:35:48,680 --> 00:35:51,720
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. Then that controls the volume of the atom,

760
00:35:51,760 --> 00:35:54,600
Speaker 1: but also controls how these things operate, you know, how

761
00:35:54,600 --> 00:35:58,000
Speaker 1: they build themselves into crystals, and then how electrons can

762
00:35:58,080 --> 00:36:01,359
Speaker 1: flow through those crystals. Like why are metals conductors because

763
00:36:01,360 --> 00:36:03,920
Speaker 1: they have a bunch of electrons in this conduction band

764
00:36:04,120 --> 00:36:06,320
Speaker 1: they're forced to be up there, and they're higher energy

765
00:36:06,400 --> 00:36:11,080
Speaker 1: level bands flowing around semiconductors for the same reason. So

766
00:36:11,120 --> 00:36:14,520
Speaker 1: the reason we have all these complex structures and complex behavior,

767
00:36:14,600 --> 00:36:18,440
Speaker 1: the periodic table and all that interesting chemistry comes from

768
00:36:18,520 --> 00:36:22,960
Speaker 1: electron orbitals, which only are interesting because electrons populate them,

769
00:36:23,080 --> 00:36:25,160
Speaker 1: and they only do that because of the pal the

770
00:36:25,239 --> 00:36:27,920
Speaker 1: exclusion principle. Otherwise they would always just be in the

771
00:36:27,920 --> 00:36:28,959
Speaker 1: lowest energy level.

772
00:36:29,480 --> 00:36:31,560
Speaker 4: Interesting. Now that we know what it is, let's maybe

773
00:36:31,560 --> 00:36:34,000
Speaker 4: dig into the reason. Why Why does this have an

774
00:36:34,040 --> 00:36:37,000
Speaker 4: issue with two fermions being on top of each other,

775
00:36:37,160 --> 00:36:38,759
Speaker 4: Like it doesn't seem to have a problem with some

776
00:36:38,800 --> 00:36:41,680
Speaker 4: of the other particles like the Higgs boson, or photons

777
00:36:41,760 --> 00:36:45,440
Speaker 4: or w particles being ontop of each other. Why does

778
00:36:45,480 --> 00:36:48,480
Speaker 4: it have this bias against electrons?

779
00:36:50,120 --> 00:36:52,040
Speaker 1: Don't be so negative about it, you know, maybe you

780
00:36:52,040 --> 00:36:54,319
Speaker 1: could think about it like a special property you know,

781
00:36:54,360 --> 00:36:56,719
Speaker 1: the electrons can like stand on top of each other

782
00:36:56,920 --> 00:37:00,319
Speaker 1: to achieve things electrons could otherwise never do. Right, It's

783
00:37:00,360 --> 00:37:02,200
Speaker 1: like an ability instead of a bias.

784
00:37:02,440 --> 00:37:04,719
Speaker 4: And I feel like the word exclusion is never good.

785
00:37:05,480 --> 00:37:07,400
Speaker 1: That's true, everyone.

786
00:37:07,120 --> 00:37:08,920
Speaker 4: Should be as inclusive as possible.

787
00:37:09,000 --> 00:37:11,239
Speaker 1: Well, the issue really does have to do with the

788
00:37:11,320 --> 00:37:14,919
Speaker 1: quantum nature of these things. So fermions, electrons, and even

789
00:37:14,920 --> 00:37:17,360
Speaker 1: protons which are built out of quarks. These things have

790
00:37:17,400 --> 00:37:21,359
Speaker 1: a really weird property that we've never seen in classical physics,

791
00:37:21,600 --> 00:37:23,480
Speaker 1: and it has to do with what happens when you

792
00:37:23,600 --> 00:37:26,640
Speaker 1: swap two of them. So imagine just you have two particles,

793
00:37:26,719 --> 00:37:30,480
Speaker 1: particle one in particle two, and maybe they're in different states.

794
00:37:30,640 --> 00:37:33,680
Speaker 1: You call one state A, one state B. Doesn't really matter. Now,

795
00:37:33,719 --> 00:37:36,160
Speaker 1: imagine what happens if you swap them. Right, you take

796
00:37:36,239 --> 00:37:38,600
Speaker 1: particle one, which used to be in state A, and

797
00:37:38,640 --> 00:37:40,960
Speaker 1: I say, now you're in state B. In particle two,

798
00:37:41,000 --> 00:37:42,520
Speaker 1: which used to be in state BING, you say, now

799
00:37:42,520 --> 00:37:45,480
Speaker 1: you're in state A, all right, And so you have

800
00:37:45,520 --> 00:37:47,920
Speaker 1: two particles and you sort of swap their arrangements. The

801
00:37:48,040 --> 00:37:51,359
Speaker 1: universe says, and quantum mechanics says that when you do that,

802
00:37:51,800 --> 00:37:54,640
Speaker 1: the wave function that describes what happens and tells you

803
00:37:54,640 --> 00:37:57,440
Speaker 1: what's allowed. That wave function gets a negative sign, and

804
00:37:57,480 --> 00:38:00,480
Speaker 1: that doesn't happen for bosons. For bosons, the way function

805
00:38:00,560 --> 00:38:03,240
Speaker 1: doesn't get a negative sign, and that has really really

806
00:38:03,239 --> 00:38:04,520
Speaker 1: important consequences.

807
00:38:04,680 --> 00:38:07,480
Speaker 4: I think you're talking about like a mathematical operation, or

808
00:38:07,520 --> 00:38:10,520
Speaker 4: are you talking about like if I physically take two

809
00:38:10,520 --> 00:38:14,160
Speaker 4: particles and I swapped their states mathematically, the sign of

810
00:38:14,239 --> 00:38:17,880
Speaker 4: the whole of the two particles somehow gets a negative.

811
00:38:18,000 --> 00:38:19,600
Speaker 1: Is that kind of what you think, Yeah, we're talking

812
00:38:19,600 --> 00:38:22,160
Speaker 1: about the wave function, which is like the thing that

813
00:38:22,239 --> 00:38:25,280
Speaker 1: determines what happens. Right. Remember, you take the wave function

814
00:38:25,400 --> 00:38:27,640
Speaker 1: and you square it, and that tells you the probability

815
00:38:27,680 --> 00:38:30,600
Speaker 1: of various things happening. If you're talking about like Schrotinger's cat,

816
00:38:30,760 --> 00:38:32,719
Speaker 1: there's a wave function for it to be alive and

817
00:38:32,719 --> 00:38:34,640
Speaker 1: a wave function for it to be dead. Those are

818
00:38:34,680 --> 00:38:38,120
Speaker 1: two different possible outcomes, And the way that you discover

819
00:38:38,480 --> 00:38:40,480
Speaker 1: the probability of one versus the other is you take

820
00:38:40,520 --> 00:38:42,640
Speaker 1: the wave function for that outcome and you square it.

821
00:38:43,040 --> 00:38:43,760
Speaker 1: That's the rule.

822
00:38:43,920 --> 00:38:47,200
Speaker 4: Now, a wave function is is like a mathematical concept

823
00:38:47,320 --> 00:38:51,399
Speaker 4: or construct that describes what something is doing or going

824
00:38:51,440 --> 00:38:51,719
Speaker 4: to do.

825
00:38:51,880 --> 00:38:53,920
Speaker 1: Yeah, it's the solution to the shortening equation.

826
00:38:54,239 --> 00:38:55,000
Speaker 4: That doesn't help me.

827
00:38:55,320 --> 00:38:57,399
Speaker 1: We don't really know what the wave function is. It's

828
00:38:57,440 --> 00:39:01,759
Speaker 1: problematic philosophically, like it's a part of ourlations. We use

829
00:39:01,800 --> 00:39:04,520
Speaker 1: it to make predictions. Nobody really knows, like is the

830
00:39:04,520 --> 00:39:06,880
Speaker 1: wave function a real thing out there in the universe

831
00:39:06,960 --> 00:39:09,200
Speaker 1: or is it just sort of like something in our heads.

832
00:39:09,280 --> 00:39:12,320
Speaker 1: That's an intermediate step that we're using. But it definitely

833
00:39:12,320 --> 00:39:14,160
Speaker 1: seems to be important, and it's part of the way

834
00:39:14,200 --> 00:39:15,720
Speaker 1: we think about quantum physics.

835
00:39:15,920 --> 00:39:17,759
Speaker 4: Like maybe if you have a baseball and you're throwing

836
00:39:17,800 --> 00:39:20,960
Speaker 4: a baseball, you might describe it using a vector, like

837
00:39:21,280 --> 00:39:24,400
Speaker 4: a vector from here from the picture to the baseball

838
00:39:24,440 --> 00:39:27,319
Speaker 4: that describes the ball. Wave function is kind of like

839
00:39:27,400 --> 00:39:29,439
Speaker 4: that for quantum particles.

840
00:39:29,160 --> 00:39:31,960
Speaker 1: Right, yeah, exactly. And the wave function is weird because

841
00:39:31,960 --> 00:39:34,680
Speaker 1: it can also be negative, and it can also be

842
00:39:34,800 --> 00:39:38,839
Speaker 1: like complex, right, it can have imaginary numbers like one

843
00:39:38,880 --> 00:39:41,319
Speaker 1: plus two I. Right. The wave function is really weird.

844
00:39:41,360 --> 00:39:44,239
Speaker 1: It's not physical in that way. But the interesting thing

845
00:39:44,320 --> 00:39:46,960
Speaker 1: is that that all goes away usually when you use

846
00:39:47,000 --> 00:39:48,920
Speaker 1: the wave function to make a prediction, because you square

847
00:39:48,920 --> 00:39:50,960
Speaker 1: it and the imaginary parts go away. And the negative

848
00:39:50,960 --> 00:39:53,640
Speaker 1: signs go away. Nobody really cares about the wave function

849
00:39:53,719 --> 00:39:56,719
Speaker 1: being negative usually, but in this one particular case it

850
00:39:56,760 --> 00:39:59,760
Speaker 1: turns out to be weirdly really important because what happens

851
00:39:59,760 --> 00:40:01,840
Speaker 1: if you you have two fermions which are identical, like

852
00:40:01,880 --> 00:40:05,040
Speaker 1: two electrons, and they're in exactly the same state. Maybe

853
00:40:05,040 --> 00:40:07,000
Speaker 1: they're both around a hydrogen atom, and they're in the

854
00:40:07,000 --> 00:40:09,120
Speaker 1: same energy level and they have all the same spin.

855
00:40:09,320 --> 00:40:13,040
Speaker 1: Right now, what happens, Well, take those two particles particle one,

856
00:40:13,080 --> 00:40:16,480
Speaker 1: particle two. They're indistinguishable, right, They're in the same state,

857
00:40:16,840 --> 00:40:19,600
Speaker 1: and you swap them, right, swap them from one to

858
00:40:19,640 --> 00:40:22,120
Speaker 1: the other. Now, really that has no effect because you

859
00:40:22,120 --> 00:40:25,440
Speaker 1: had two identical particles in the same state, you swap them,

860
00:40:25,480 --> 00:40:28,439
Speaker 1: nothing should change. But the universe says if you do that,

861
00:40:28,840 --> 00:40:31,080
Speaker 1: you get a negative sign for the wave function.

862
00:40:31,280 --> 00:40:33,840
Speaker 4: You mean, swap them, like pick them up and change

863
00:40:33,840 --> 00:40:36,279
Speaker 4: their you know, like move them around, like swap their

864
00:40:36,320 --> 00:40:37,759
Speaker 4: positions or swap them.

865
00:40:37,840 --> 00:40:41,440
Speaker 1: Hypothetically, like ask what would the wave function be if

866
00:40:41,480 --> 00:40:43,680
Speaker 1: this particle was over here and that particle was over there.

867
00:40:43,800 --> 00:40:46,799
Speaker 1: Don't actually do it, you just say, like, hypothetically, what

868
00:40:46,840 --> 00:40:48,560
Speaker 1: would the wave function be if you have them in

869
00:40:48,600 --> 00:40:49,680
Speaker 1: the opposite.

870
00:40:49,320 --> 00:40:51,279
Speaker 4: Configuration, but they're the same configuration.

871
00:40:51,400 --> 00:40:53,120
Speaker 1: Well, they're in the same state, but one of them

872
00:40:53,160 --> 00:40:54,960
Speaker 1: has this label one. You know, one of them is

873
00:40:54,960 --> 00:40:56,839
Speaker 1: particle one and one of them is particle two. Though

874
00:40:56,840 --> 00:40:59,080
Speaker 1: they're in the same state, so you can't really distinguish them,

875
00:40:59,200 --> 00:41:01,840
Speaker 1: right inticle, They have the same orbit, the same spin,

876
00:41:01,960 --> 00:41:04,200
Speaker 1: everything is the same, and if you swap them as

877
00:41:04,280 --> 00:41:07,080
Speaker 1: you're imagining, nothing changes because they're the same particle in

878
00:41:07,120 --> 00:41:09,319
Speaker 1: the same state, so it should be the same. But

879
00:41:09,360 --> 00:41:11,799
Speaker 1: the universe says, well, the wave function has to get

880
00:41:11,800 --> 00:41:14,359
Speaker 1: a negative sign if you do this for fermions. So

881
00:41:14,440 --> 00:41:17,319
Speaker 1: the only way to satisfy both of those requirements to say, well,

882
00:41:17,360 --> 00:41:19,200
Speaker 1: it has to be the same if you swap them,

883
00:41:19,320 --> 00:41:21,239
Speaker 1: and it has to get a negative sign if you

884
00:41:21,280 --> 00:41:23,520
Speaker 1: swap them, is for the wave function to be zero.

885
00:41:24,040 --> 00:41:26,279
Speaker 1: So if the wave function is zero, then when you

886
00:41:26,320 --> 00:41:29,040
Speaker 1: swap it, zero is negative. Zero. It's the only number

887
00:41:29,040 --> 00:41:31,799
Speaker 1: that is its own negative, and so from that you

888
00:41:31,840 --> 00:41:34,760
Speaker 1: can conclude that this is impossible. The universe just doesn't

889
00:41:34,760 --> 00:41:37,279
Speaker 1: do this. The wave function for two fermions being in

890
00:41:37,320 --> 00:41:40,080
Speaker 1: the same state is always zero. That way it can

891
00:41:40,080 --> 00:41:44,000
Speaker 1: satisfy both rules that swapping two identical particles, doesn't change anything,

892
00:41:44,400 --> 00:41:46,720
Speaker 1: and that the wave function gets a negative sign.

893
00:41:46,880 --> 00:41:48,680
Speaker 4: And you were saying earlier that this is because of

894
00:41:48,719 --> 00:41:52,520
Speaker 4: their spin, Like if because they have a certain spin

895
00:41:53,200 --> 00:41:55,520
Speaker 4: when you try to do this swapping, then some weird

896
00:41:55,560 --> 00:41:56,320
Speaker 4: things happen.

897
00:41:56,200 --> 00:41:59,439
Speaker 1: Exactly because this doesn't happen for particles of a different spin,

898
00:41:59,520 --> 00:42:02,879
Speaker 1: like with folkons. Not an issue photons, the universe says, yeah,

899
00:42:02,880 --> 00:42:04,759
Speaker 1: if you have two photons in the same state and

900
00:42:04,800 --> 00:42:07,560
Speaker 1: you swap them, you don't get a negative sign. It

901
00:42:07,640 --> 00:42:10,680
Speaker 1: only happens for fermions. And it's that negative sign that

902
00:42:10,760 --> 00:42:13,720
Speaker 1: makes this impossible. It's a negative sign, which is why

903
00:42:13,760 --> 00:42:16,840
Speaker 1: fermions can't be in the same state and bosons the

904
00:42:16,960 --> 00:42:20,080
Speaker 1: universe doesn't have a problem with, and it just operates

905
00:42:20,120 --> 00:42:23,239
Speaker 1: differently on bosons than it does on fermions. Then you

906
00:42:23,320 --> 00:42:26,120
Speaker 1: might ask, well, like where does that negative sign come from?

907
00:42:26,160 --> 00:42:28,719
Speaker 1: Why do fermions get a negative sign when you swap them.

908
00:42:28,760 --> 00:42:31,640
Speaker 1: That's weird, right, Like why should you get a negative sign.

909
00:42:31,680 --> 00:42:35,280
Speaker 1: You're just swapping two identical particles, it's basically the same setup.

910
00:42:35,480 --> 00:42:38,120
Speaker 1: Why would you expect the wave function to be the opposite?

911
00:42:38,320 --> 00:42:41,080
Speaker 1: And this is the weird thing that these quantum fermions

912
00:42:41,080 --> 00:42:44,400
Speaker 1: can do that classical particles can't do. There's like no

913
00:42:44,640 --> 00:42:49,000
Speaker 1: classical analog to this. There's no example in the natural

914
00:42:49,000 --> 00:42:51,640
Speaker 1: world that you can think about with baseballs or coffee

915
00:42:51,640 --> 00:42:54,759
Speaker 1: cups that is like this. It's most closely connected to

916
00:42:55,440 --> 00:42:57,880
Speaker 1: rotating things. Like if you take your coffee cup and

917
00:42:57,920 --> 00:43:00,719
Speaker 1: you spin it around three hundred and sixty degree, it's

918
00:43:00,760 --> 00:43:03,160
Speaker 1: the same coffee cup. That makes sense, right, And the

919
00:43:03,160 --> 00:43:05,640
Speaker 1: same thing is true for photons. If you take photons

920
00:43:05,640 --> 00:43:07,720
Speaker 1: and you rotate them by three hundred and sixty degrees,

921
00:43:07,760 --> 00:43:11,399
Speaker 1: you get the same photon. Electrons don't do that. Electrons,

922
00:43:11,680 --> 00:43:14,000
Speaker 1: if you rotate them by three hundred and sixty degrees,

923
00:43:14,120 --> 00:43:17,719
Speaker 1: you get the negative wavefunction then the original electron. So

924
00:43:17,760 --> 00:43:21,480
Speaker 1: there's something weird and different about fermions that picks up

925
00:43:21,480 --> 00:43:24,400
Speaker 1: this extra negative sign that's very different from anything we

926
00:43:24,480 --> 00:43:25,320
Speaker 1: know about before.

927
00:43:25,520 --> 00:43:27,520
Speaker 4: And you said it has to do with the quantum spin,

928
00:43:27,600 --> 00:43:30,640
Speaker 4: but I guess don't some of the fermions have no spin,

929
00:43:30,800 --> 00:43:34,560
Speaker 4: or do all fermions All of these matter particles have spin,

930
00:43:34,760 --> 00:43:36,600
Speaker 4: and do they have the same spin, And that's why

931
00:43:37,160 --> 00:43:39,040
Speaker 4: they have this rule against them.

932
00:43:39,120 --> 00:43:41,680
Speaker 1: Exactly all fermions have the same spin. They all have

933
00:43:41,760 --> 00:43:44,320
Speaker 1: spin one half, and that's sort of what it means

934
00:43:44,320 --> 00:43:46,200
Speaker 1: to be a fermion. I mean, some people say, no,

935
00:43:46,360 --> 00:43:49,200
Speaker 1: fermions are things that do this that don't overlap with

936
00:43:49,239 --> 00:43:52,360
Speaker 1: each other. They follow the polyexclusion principle, and it's because

937
00:43:52,400 --> 00:43:55,239
Speaker 1: they have spin one half. Other people say, no, fermions

938
00:43:55,480 --> 00:43:58,200
Speaker 1: are all particles that have spin one half. But it's

939
00:43:58,239 --> 00:44:01,640
Speaker 1: the spin one half that makes them do this, And

940
00:44:01,719 --> 00:44:03,960
Speaker 1: it's too mathematical to explain, but if you like dig

941
00:44:03,960 --> 00:44:06,440
Speaker 1: into the quantum field theory, this comes out of that

942
00:44:06,520 --> 00:44:09,160
Speaker 1: mathematics of the quantum field theory. The particles that have

943
00:44:09,360 --> 00:44:12,600
Speaker 1: fields that have spin one half, when you rotate them,

944
00:44:12,600 --> 00:44:14,960
Speaker 1: you get this extra minus sign, or when you swap them,

945
00:44:15,120 --> 00:44:17,400
Speaker 1: you get this extra minus sign. It's called the spin

946
00:44:17,480 --> 00:44:21,279
Speaker 1: statistics theorem. And that's fundamentally where this comes from. So

947
00:44:21,320 --> 00:44:24,560
Speaker 1: it's the one half spin nature of these particles that

948
00:44:24,719 --> 00:44:26,839
Speaker 1: means that they can't pile up on top of each other,

949
00:44:27,080 --> 00:44:30,160
Speaker 1: whereas particles with spin one or spin two could totally

950
00:44:30,200 --> 00:44:32,080
Speaker 1: pile up on top of each other and be in

951
00:44:32,120 --> 00:44:33,840
Speaker 1: the same quantum state no problem.

952
00:44:34,120 --> 00:44:37,000
Speaker 4: Or I'm getting the sense that maybe you gave them

953
00:44:37,200 --> 00:44:39,359
Speaker 4: spin one half because they can't be in the same

954
00:44:39,400 --> 00:44:41,399
Speaker 4: place at the same time. You know what I mean,

955
00:44:41,440 --> 00:44:45,560
Speaker 4: Like like which game fur is the chicken or the egg?

956
00:44:45,920 --> 00:44:47,920
Speaker 4: The spin or the exclusion principle.

957
00:44:48,080 --> 00:44:51,120
Speaker 1: Oh, that's a great question. Actually, this is how electron

958
00:44:51,160 --> 00:44:52,319
Speaker 1: spin was discovered.

959
00:44:52,360 --> 00:44:53,040
Speaker 4: That's what I mean.

960
00:44:53,280 --> 00:44:56,799
Speaker 1: Yes, no, absolutely, this is why spin was invented to

961
00:44:56,960 --> 00:45:00,839
Speaker 1: explain this, right, And the story is actually really fun.

962
00:45:00,880 --> 00:45:03,839
Speaker 1: People were looking at electron orbitals back in the early days,

963
00:45:03,880 --> 00:45:07,200
Speaker 1: like nineteen thirties and trying to understand why the electrons

964
00:45:07,200 --> 00:45:09,399
Speaker 1: filled up the orbitals the way they did, and they

965
00:45:09,400 --> 00:45:11,840
Speaker 1: had this idea of the exclusion principle, but they didn't

966
00:45:11,920 --> 00:45:14,600
Speaker 1: understand like why you could have two electrons in the

967
00:45:14,640 --> 00:45:17,439
Speaker 1: lowest level what's going on? And in the next level,

968
00:45:17,440 --> 00:45:19,600
Speaker 1: why could you have eight instead of four? There was

969
00:45:19,640 --> 00:45:23,239
Speaker 1: this weird factor of two that nobody could explain, and

970
00:45:23,320 --> 00:45:25,759
Speaker 1: Paully wrote a letter to some other physicists about it,

971
00:45:25,800 --> 00:45:29,960
Speaker 1: and he said that electrons have a two valuedness, not

972
00:45:30,239 --> 00:45:34,120
Speaker 1: describable classically. He just meant like they have some physical

973
00:45:34,160 --> 00:45:37,000
Speaker 1: property that has two options, like an up and a down,

974
00:45:37,080 --> 00:45:39,239
Speaker 1: or a zero and a one, or you know, a

975
00:45:39,360 --> 00:45:42,080
Speaker 1: switch that you could flip there's something else about the

976
00:45:42,120 --> 00:45:45,000
Speaker 1: electrons that let them distinguish each other, so you can

977
00:45:45,080 --> 00:45:47,879
Speaker 1: have two of them in the lowest energy level. That's

978
00:45:47,920 --> 00:45:50,840
Speaker 1: how we discovered that electrons actually do have spin.

979
00:45:51,000 --> 00:45:54,680
Speaker 4: Or at least you called spin, because you quite have

980
00:45:54,800 --> 00:45:57,960
Speaker 4: another name for it, right to explain this phenomenon.

981
00:45:57,480 --> 00:46:01,000
Speaker 1: Exactly, And it was two young Dutch physicists, gou Smidt

982
00:46:01,080 --> 00:46:03,799
Speaker 1: and Uhlenbeck, who read this letter from Pauline and they

983
00:46:03,840 --> 00:46:06,880
Speaker 1: were like, oh, wait, maybe electrons are spinning. So they

984
00:46:06,880 --> 00:46:09,040
Speaker 1: did a bunch of calculations and they're like, ooh, electrons

985
00:46:09,040 --> 00:46:11,160
Speaker 1: are spinning. This is really awesome, and they wrote this

986
00:46:11,239 --> 00:46:13,319
Speaker 1: paper and they sent it off and then they showed

987
00:46:13,320 --> 00:46:15,960
Speaker 1: it to another famous Dutch physicist, Lorenz, and Lorenz was like,

988
00:46:16,360 --> 00:46:19,680
Speaker 1: y'all are totally wrong. Electrons can't spin. Their surfaces will

989
00:46:19,760 --> 00:46:21,680
Speaker 1: be moving faster than the speed of light. So then

990
00:46:21,680 --> 00:46:23,800
Speaker 1: they realized, oh my gosh, our paper was wrong, and

991
00:46:23,840 --> 00:46:25,399
Speaker 1: they tried to retract it, but it was too late.

992
00:46:25,440 --> 00:46:29,120
Speaker 1: It had already been published. And then it turns out

993
00:46:29,160 --> 00:46:31,799
Speaker 1: that electrons do spin, but not in the way that

994
00:46:31,840 --> 00:46:35,479
Speaker 1: they expected. They have this weird property quantum spin, which

995
00:46:35,480 --> 00:46:37,680
Speaker 1: is not spin in the same way that like a

996
00:46:37,719 --> 00:46:41,520
Speaker 1: baseball spins, it's some other weird kind of angular momentum.

997
00:46:41,560 --> 00:46:43,759
Speaker 1: So the history of like the discovery of electron spin

998
00:46:43,800 --> 00:46:44,520
Speaker 1: is pretty funny.

999
00:46:45,280 --> 00:46:49,520
Speaker 4: Man, particle physicists are pretty catty? Is that where short

1000
00:46:49,560 --> 00:46:50,760
Speaker 4: Anger's cat came from?

1001
00:46:51,400 --> 00:46:53,760
Speaker 1: Exactly what? I love This story of two guys inventing

1002
00:46:53,840 --> 00:46:56,239
Speaker 1: spin for the wrong reasons, trying to retract it and

1003
00:46:56,320 --> 00:46:59,560
Speaker 1: then ended up being right, sort of accidentally interesting.

1004
00:46:59,600 --> 00:47:01,800
Speaker 4: All right, Well, the universe us to have this rule,

1005
00:47:02,200 --> 00:47:04,640
Speaker 4: and it seems to be embedded in some of the

1006
00:47:04,800 --> 00:47:08,800
Speaker 4: mathematics that maybe makes the universe works. Let's talk about

1007
00:47:08,840 --> 00:47:12,640
Speaker 4: that thorny philosophical question and also some of the consequences

1008
00:47:12,680 --> 00:47:16,080
Speaker 4: of this poly exclusion principle on the rest of the universe.

1009
00:47:16,520 --> 00:47:18,320
Speaker 4: But first, let's take another quick break.

1010
00:47:22,480 --> 00:47:24,280
Speaker 1: When you pop a piece of cheese into your mouth,

1011
00:47:24,360 --> 00:47:27,520
Speaker 1: or enjoy a rich spoonful of Greek yogurt, you're probably

1012
00:47:27,560 --> 00:47:31,600
Speaker 1: not thinking about the environmental impact of each and every bite.

1013
00:47:31,640 --> 00:47:34,240
Speaker 1: But the people in the dairy industry are us. Dairy

1014
00:47:34,280 --> 00:47:38,600
Speaker 1: has set themselves some ambitious sustainability goals, including being greenhouse

1015
00:47:38,600 --> 00:47:41,200
Speaker 1: gas neutral by twenty to fifty. That's why they're working

1016
00:47:41,200 --> 00:47:43,560
Speaker 1: hard every day to find new ways to reduce waste,

1017
00:47:43,640 --> 00:47:47,839
Speaker 1: conserve natural resources, and drive down greenhouse gas emissions. Take water,

1018
00:47:47,880 --> 00:47:50,959
Speaker 1: for example, most dairy farms reuse water up to four

1019
00:47:51,040 --> 00:47:54,479
Speaker 1: times the same water cools the milk, cleans equipment, washes

1020
00:47:54,520 --> 00:47:57,360
Speaker 1: the barn, and irrigates the crops. How is US dairy

1021
00:47:57,360 --> 00:48:00,880
Speaker 1: tackling greenhouse gases? Many farms use anaerob big digestors that

1022
00:48:00,920 --> 00:48:03,879
Speaker 1: turn the methane from maneuver into renewable energy that can

1023
00:48:03,920 --> 00:48:06,719
Speaker 1: power farms, towns, and electric cars. So the next time

1024
00:48:06,760 --> 00:48:08,520
Speaker 1: you grab a slice of pizza or lick an ice

1025
00:48:08,520 --> 00:48:11,239
Speaker 1: cream cone, know that dairy farmers and processors around the

1026
00:48:11,239 --> 00:48:14,680
Speaker 1: country are using the latest practices and innovations to provide

1027
00:48:14,680 --> 00:48:17,480
Speaker 1: the nutrient dense dairy products we love with less of

1028
00:48:17,520 --> 00:48:20,640
Speaker 1: an impact. Visit us dairy dot com slash sustainability to

1029
00:48:20,719 --> 00:48:21,240
Speaker 1: learn more.

1030
00:48:22,280 --> 00:48:25,680
Speaker 3: There are chiltern friends and families walking, riding on paths

1031
00:48:25,719 --> 00:48:28,200
Speaker 3: and roads every day. Remember they're real people with loved

1032
00:48:28,239 --> 00:48:30,440
Speaker 3: ones who need them to get home safely. Protect our

1033
00:48:30,440 --> 00:48:34,000
Speaker 3: cyclists and pedestrians because they're people too, Go safely. California

1034
00:48:34,000 --> 00:48:36,840
Speaker 3: from the California Office of Traffic Safety and Caltrans.

1035
00:48:36,400 --> 00:48:39,200
Speaker 9: Time is a luxury for us, especially if you're a mom.

1036
00:48:39,440 --> 00:48:42,360
Speaker 9: That's why we need a skincare routine that's easy, fast,

1037
00:48:42,480 --> 00:48:45,600
Speaker 9: and gives us results. Plus, one of your products had

1038
00:48:45,640 --> 00:48:49,480
Speaker 9: thousands of five star reviews. We're natural and affordable. Well

1039
00:48:49,640 --> 00:48:53,319
Speaker 9: say hello to din Beauty. Dime Beauty is clean, high

1040
00:48:53,440 --> 00:48:56,520
Speaker 9: end skincare that is affordable and it really works. Not

1041
00:48:56,600 --> 00:48:59,480
Speaker 9: sure where to start? I highly recommend the work system.

1042
00:48:59,719 --> 00:49:03,040
Speaker 9: It's everything you need in one powerful package. Take out

1043
00:49:03,040 --> 00:49:05,440
Speaker 9: the guest work with a proven routine that includes a

1044
00:49:05,480 --> 00:49:09,960
Speaker 9: gentle yet effective cleanser, a super skintner, two incredible serums,

1045
00:49:10,040 --> 00:49:14,000
Speaker 9: and two luxurious moisturizers. See what everyone is raving about.

1046
00:49:14,160 --> 00:49:17,279
Speaker 9: From serum sets to the always sold out retinol alternative

1047
00:49:17,320 --> 00:49:21,000
Speaker 9: TBT cream, you'll find your perfect skincare match. Dime has

1048
00:49:21,040 --> 00:49:24,200
Speaker 9: over two million happy customers and their product reviews are

1049
00:49:24,280 --> 00:49:28,600
Speaker 9: literally five stars. Love your skin again. Go to dimebautyco

1050
00:49:28,719 --> 00:49:31,600
Speaker 9: dot com for twenty percent off with code get Dime.

1051
00:49:31,920 --> 00:49:35,640
Speaker 9: That's Dime Beautyco dot com. Code get Dime for twenty

1052
00:49:35,680 --> 00:49:36,320
Speaker 9: percent off.

1053
00:49:36,480 --> 00:49:39,640
Speaker 10: It is Ryan Seacrest here. There was a recent social

1054
00:49:39,719 --> 00:49:41,960
Speaker 10: media trend which consisted of flying on a plane with

1055
00:49:42,040 --> 00:49:45,200
Speaker 10: no music no movies, no entertainment. But a better trend

1056
00:49:45,239 --> 00:49:47,759
Speaker 10: would be going to chumpback Casino dot com. It's like

1057
00:49:47,800 --> 00:49:50,239
Speaker 10: having a mini social casino in your pocket. Chump A

1058
00:49:50,280 --> 00:49:53,439
Speaker 10: Casino has over one hundred online casino style games, all

1059
00:49:53,560 --> 00:49:56,200
Speaker 10: absolutely free. It's the most fun you can have online

1060
00:49:56,239 --> 00:49:58,440
Speaker 10: and on a plane. So grab your free welcome bonus

1061
00:49:58,440 --> 00:50:01,320
Speaker 10: now at chumpacasino dot com sponsored by chump A Casino.

1062
00:50:01,440 --> 00:50:05,160
Speaker 10: No purchase necessary. VGW group void. We're prohibited by Law

1063
00:50:05,239 --> 00:50:07,200
Speaker 10: eighteen plus. Terms and conditions apply.

1064
00:50:15,760 --> 00:50:18,040
Speaker 4: All right, we're talking about the question of why can't

1065
00:50:18,120 --> 00:50:21,680
Speaker 4: two fermions be in the same quantum state? And what

1066
00:50:21,719 --> 00:50:24,120
Speaker 4: this means is that no to electrons or no, two

1067
00:50:24,200 --> 00:50:26,440
Speaker 4: quarks can be kind of on top of each other,

1068
00:50:26,800 --> 00:50:29,760
Speaker 4: not out there in free space and not orbiting around

1069
00:50:29,800 --> 00:50:33,600
Speaker 4: an atom, which is what gives us the wonderful chemistry

1070
00:50:33,640 --> 00:50:35,960
Speaker 4: that makes us who we are. And we talked a

1071
00:50:35,960 --> 00:50:39,520
Speaker 4: little bit about that. The reason that two fermions or

1072
00:50:39,520 --> 00:50:42,040
Speaker 4: two electrons or two quarks can't do this is because

1073
00:50:42,320 --> 00:50:45,279
Speaker 4: it messes up the math. Now, my question is, like,

1074
00:50:45,520 --> 00:50:48,719
Speaker 4: does that mean that the universe is mathematical? Like does

1075
00:50:48,760 --> 00:50:51,360
Speaker 4: the universe care about math? Like why does the universe

1076
00:50:51,400 --> 00:50:53,760
Speaker 4: care about math, Like if I were at the universe,

1077
00:50:53,800 --> 00:50:56,040
Speaker 4: I'd be like, I'm the universe. I don't care about math.

1078
00:50:56,160 --> 00:50:57,880
Speaker 4: Two plus two equals five. Why not?

1079
00:50:59,560 --> 00:51:03,120
Speaker 1: We know, but it seems like the universe does follow

1080
00:51:03,160 --> 00:51:06,680
Speaker 1: mathematical laws, and the universe is self consistent, right, the

1081
00:51:06,760 --> 00:51:09,040
Speaker 1: universe doesn't have like two things going on at the

1082
00:51:09,080 --> 00:51:12,160
Speaker 1: same time or things that contradict each other. So it

1083
00:51:12,239 --> 00:51:14,040
Speaker 1: might just be that you can have lots of different

1084
00:51:14,080 --> 00:51:16,200
Speaker 1: universes out there, but only the ones that are self

1085
00:51:16,239 --> 00:51:19,400
Speaker 1: consistent that follow mathematical laws are the ones where you have,

1086
00:51:19,600 --> 00:51:22,520
Speaker 1: like people evolved with brains that to make sense of

1087
00:51:22,520 --> 00:51:26,359
Speaker 1: these things and study them. So we don't really understand it,

1088
00:51:26,400 --> 00:51:29,920
Speaker 1: but our universe does seem to follow mathematical laws, and

1089
00:51:29,960 --> 00:51:32,840
Speaker 1: when you find a mathematical principle, it seems to manifest

1090
00:51:32,920 --> 00:51:36,200
Speaker 1: itself in nature. Right. What we're talking about are the

1091
00:51:36,280 --> 00:51:39,200
Speaker 1: laws of how quantum feels operate, how they wiggle, how

1092
00:51:39,200 --> 00:51:42,440
Speaker 1: they transfer energy between them, the rules that they follow,

1093
00:51:42,960 --> 00:51:46,440
Speaker 1: and those rules seem to have like consequences way down

1094
00:51:46,480 --> 00:51:50,760
Speaker 1: the line that affect us and ice cream and stars.

1095
00:51:51,120 --> 00:51:53,480
Speaker 4: I guess what's kind of weird is that I'm sure

1096
00:51:53,640 --> 00:51:58,759
Speaker 4: math has a bunch of other rules it likes to do,

1097
00:51:58,840 --> 00:52:01,480
Speaker 4: it doesn't like to do. Maybe not all of them

1098
00:52:01,600 --> 00:52:05,160
Speaker 4: are represented in a physical thing, right, Like not all

1099
00:52:05,160 --> 00:52:08,520
Speaker 4: of them have a physical manifestation of those principles. But

1100
00:52:08,560 --> 00:52:10,759
Speaker 4: this is a case where you know, you have something

1101
00:52:10,800 --> 00:52:14,600
Speaker 4: that doesn't work in the math, and it actually has

1102
00:52:14,760 --> 00:52:19,839
Speaker 4: like a physical, a tangible, you know, solid representation of

1103
00:52:19,880 --> 00:52:20,279
Speaker 4: that math.

1104
00:52:20,360 --> 00:52:23,080
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. It's certainly true that there are more sort

1105
00:52:23,120 --> 00:52:27,200
Speaker 1: of mental universes in mathematics than exist in the physical universe.

1106
00:52:27,280 --> 00:52:29,600
Speaker 1: Like you could dream up all sorts of universes that

1107
00:52:29,680 --> 00:52:32,239
Speaker 1: don't exist out there. But once you think about just

1108
00:52:32,360 --> 00:52:35,359
Speaker 1: our universe, if you think about the mathematical laws that

1109
00:52:35,440 --> 00:52:39,759
Speaker 1: describe it, the universe basically does everything that the math allows.

1110
00:52:39,800 --> 00:52:42,160
Speaker 1: Like if it's possible for an electron to radiate a

1111
00:52:42,160 --> 00:52:45,520
Speaker 1: photon or you know, a Higgs boson or something, it will.

1112
00:52:45,880 --> 00:52:49,000
Speaker 1: So the universe does everything that's mathematically allowed. And so

1113
00:52:49,040 --> 00:52:52,160
Speaker 1: if something is mathematically forbidden, if something doesn't happen, it's

1114
00:52:52,160 --> 00:52:55,799
Speaker 1: probably because it's mathematically forbidden. That's like one way that

1115
00:52:55,840 --> 00:52:58,160
Speaker 1: we figure out what the rules are. We look and

1116
00:52:58,160 --> 00:53:00,520
Speaker 1: we say, hmm, how come you want and don't just

1117
00:53:00,600 --> 00:53:03,640
Speaker 1: turn into electrons sometimes what's going on there? And it

1118
00:53:03,680 --> 00:53:07,080
Speaker 1: turns out there's a mathematical rule that describes why that

1119
00:53:07,160 --> 00:53:11,040
Speaker 1: can't happen. It often reveals some like underlying physical principle,

1120
00:53:11,160 --> 00:53:13,520
Speaker 1: And so that's why it's so fun to find these rules,

1121
00:53:13,520 --> 00:53:16,080
Speaker 1: describe them mathematically, and then step back and think, why

1122
00:53:16,160 --> 00:53:18,480
Speaker 1: is the universe this way? Would it be possible to

1123
00:53:18,480 --> 00:53:21,120
Speaker 1: have a universe without this rule or is this rule

1124
00:53:21,239 --> 00:53:23,759
Speaker 1: necessary for the universe to like make sense at all?

1125
00:53:24,840 --> 00:53:27,160
Speaker 4: Well, I guess what's weird too, is that, you know, like,

1126
00:53:27,320 --> 00:53:29,120
Speaker 4: I'd be fine if if the universe had this rule

1127
00:53:29,120 --> 00:53:31,200
Speaker 4: that said, oh no, you can't have the two electrons

1128
00:53:31,280 --> 00:53:32,879
Speaker 4: kind of on the same spot at the same time,

1129
00:53:32,920 --> 00:53:35,760
Speaker 4: and be like, okay, fine, that never happens. But it's

1130
00:53:35,800 --> 00:53:39,799
Speaker 4: almost like the universe resists even getting close to that possibility.

1131
00:53:40,200 --> 00:53:42,359
Speaker 4: Like if you take as we were talking about earlier,

1132
00:53:42,400 --> 00:53:44,520
Speaker 4: if you take two electrons and you try to squish

1133
00:53:44,600 --> 00:53:48,320
Speaker 4: them together and you can overcome the electromagnetic force that

1134
00:53:48,400 --> 00:53:52,520
Speaker 4: repels them, there's another force almost in the universe that

1135
00:53:52,719 --> 00:53:55,640
Speaker 4: kind of resists that squishing them together. Right, It's like

1136
00:53:55,680 --> 00:53:57,680
Speaker 4: the universe is like kind of freaking out a little

1137
00:53:57,680 --> 00:54:01,560
Speaker 4: bit like, ah, you're getting close to an illogical inconsistency.

1138
00:54:02,120 --> 00:54:03,440
Speaker 4: Keep those two things away.

1139
00:54:03,360 --> 00:54:06,000
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. And some listeners have written in to ask

1140
00:54:06,040 --> 00:54:09,320
Speaker 1: about that. They're like, what's the mechanism of that? Which

1141
00:54:09,360 --> 00:54:12,400
Speaker 1: of the forces is the thing that keeps the electrons

1142
00:54:12,440 --> 00:54:14,680
Speaker 1: from being on top of each other? Because they imagine

1143
00:54:14,719 --> 00:54:17,000
Speaker 1: that like otherwise they would, And so in order to

1144
00:54:17,080 --> 00:54:19,920
Speaker 1: like change the direction of electron or something, you need

1145
00:54:19,960 --> 00:54:22,400
Speaker 1: to have some force that operates there. And if you

1146
00:54:22,440 --> 00:54:24,480
Speaker 1: try to read about it, it's a little bit confusing

1147
00:54:24,680 --> 00:54:27,840
Speaker 1: because there is a description of this, like Fermi pressure

1148
00:54:28,000 --> 00:54:30,480
Speaker 1: or this effective force that describes it. But if you

1149
00:54:30,480 --> 00:54:33,280
Speaker 1: think about forces in terms of like the fundamental forces,

1150
00:54:33,280 --> 00:54:36,480
Speaker 1: you know, the weak force, a strong force, the electromagnetic force,

1151
00:54:36,640 --> 00:54:39,040
Speaker 1: this is like an emergent force. This is something that

1152
00:54:39,080 --> 00:54:42,040
Speaker 1: comes out of observing these things and trying to describe

1153
00:54:42,040 --> 00:54:44,319
Speaker 1: the energy levels that they fall into and that they

1154
00:54:44,719 --> 00:54:48,040
Speaker 1: don't fall into. Really, there's no force that's doing this.

1155
00:54:48,160 --> 00:54:51,080
Speaker 1: It's just something the universe doesn't do. Like an electron

1156
00:54:51,200 --> 00:54:53,279
Speaker 1: just can't go there, you know, it's just like not

1157
00:54:53,360 --> 00:54:55,239
Speaker 1: an option for the electron.

1158
00:54:55,480 --> 00:54:57,799
Speaker 4: So is there like some sort of force pushing these

1159
00:54:57,840 --> 00:55:00,560
Speaker 4: two things apart? That is working kind of on behalf

1160
00:55:00,600 --> 00:55:03,000
Speaker 4: of the Fermi exclusion principle. Is there that you think

1161
00:55:03,080 --> 00:55:05,960
Speaker 4: or is it more sort of like a quantum probability

1162
00:55:06,080 --> 00:55:08,600
Speaker 4: or improbability that keeps the two things apart.

1163
00:55:08,719 --> 00:55:10,880
Speaker 1: It's not a fundamental force, but they're sort of like

1164
00:55:10,920 --> 00:55:13,680
Speaker 1: an effective force. I mean, think about like having a

1165
00:55:13,719 --> 00:55:16,919
Speaker 1: bunch of electrons and trying to squeeze them down into

1166
00:55:16,960 --> 00:55:20,120
Speaker 1: the same place. Well, what's really going on is that

1167
00:55:20,160 --> 00:55:23,160
Speaker 1: you can't have the electrons in the same state, and

1168
00:55:23,239 --> 00:55:27,040
Speaker 1: so the electrons resist that by having different energies, you know,

1169
00:55:27,080 --> 00:55:29,200
Speaker 1: the same way that like electrons around a nucleus will

1170
00:55:29,239 --> 00:55:31,560
Speaker 1: fill up the ladder of energies, so some of them

1171
00:55:31,600 --> 00:55:34,280
Speaker 1: have more energy than otherwise. Right, you're trying to squeeze

1172
00:55:34,280 --> 00:55:37,520
Speaker 1: a bunch of electrons down to a tiny little blob.

1173
00:55:37,640 --> 00:55:39,640
Speaker 1: They will resist it because some of them will have

1174
00:55:39,800 --> 00:55:44,040
Speaker 1: higher energy than otherwise, because they're forced into it, forced

1175
00:55:44,040 --> 00:55:46,720
Speaker 1: to stay in those higher energy states because of the ladder.

1176
00:55:46,960 --> 00:55:49,759
Speaker 1: And effectively that means that they are pushing back if

1177
00:55:49,800 --> 00:55:52,320
Speaker 1: they have more energy. They're like bouncing off the walls

1178
00:55:52,360 --> 00:55:55,960
Speaker 1: of your box with more momentum. They're pushing on that box,

1179
00:55:56,480 --> 00:55:58,640
Speaker 1: and so the fact that the electrons can't all go

1180
00:55:58,760 --> 00:56:01,160
Speaker 1: to the lowest state means to have more energy, which

1181
00:56:01,239 --> 00:56:04,239
Speaker 1: means effectively they're pushing back on you as you try

1182
00:56:04,280 --> 00:56:07,839
Speaker 1: to squeeze them down. So that's like an effective pressure, right.

1183
00:56:07,880 --> 00:56:10,279
Speaker 1: It's not like the electrons are pushing against each other

1184
00:56:10,400 --> 00:56:12,920
Speaker 1: or like there's a force between the electron and the

1185
00:56:12,960 --> 00:56:15,520
Speaker 1: walls of your box. But as you try to squeeze

1186
00:56:15,520 --> 00:56:19,160
Speaker 1: electrons down, you'll notice this effective pressure that wouldn't happen

1187
00:56:19,200 --> 00:56:21,000
Speaker 1: if you did the same thing with photons.

1188
00:56:21,360 --> 00:56:23,880
Speaker 4: Oh, I see what you're saying. It's more like if

1189
00:56:23,960 --> 00:56:26,560
Speaker 4: you try to get an electron to collapse to the

1190
00:56:26,680 --> 00:56:31,319
Speaker 4: lowest possible, for example, orbit around in a nucleus, but

1191
00:56:31,360 --> 00:56:35,400
Speaker 4: there's already an electron there. It's not like the electron

1192
00:56:35,480 --> 00:56:37,680
Speaker 4: pushes back against you to try to collapse it. It's

1193
00:56:37,719 --> 00:56:40,960
Speaker 4: just that the electron doesn't give up. It's the energy

1194
00:56:40,960 --> 00:56:42,920
Speaker 4: that it has. Yeah, Like in order to squeeze it

1195
00:56:42,960 --> 00:56:45,480
Speaker 4: down to the lowest it needs to give up that energy.

1196
00:56:45,760 --> 00:56:48,080
Speaker 4: But because it can, it like the electron hold onto

1197
00:56:48,080 --> 00:56:51,160
Speaker 4: that energy. And that's basically the same as like pushing

1198
00:56:51,200 --> 00:56:52,120
Speaker 4: back against.

1199
00:56:51,760 --> 00:56:54,399
Speaker 1: You exactly, And that's the mechanism for it to push back,

1200
00:56:54,640 --> 00:56:57,600
Speaker 1: and we actually see that happen out there in the universe.

1201
00:56:58,160 --> 00:57:01,720
Speaker 1: And for example, white dwarfs are these really really dense

1202
00:57:01,840 --> 00:57:04,800
Speaker 1: blobs of super hot metal. If they're left over. For

1203
00:57:04,840 --> 00:57:07,000
Speaker 1: at the end point of a star, a star has

1204
00:57:07,000 --> 00:57:09,400
Speaker 1: done all the burning that it can and it's blown

1205
00:57:09,440 --> 00:57:12,520
Speaker 1: up maybe and left behind its core. They're just sitting there,

1206
00:57:12,719 --> 00:57:16,040
Speaker 1: hot and glowing and eventually cooling down. These things are

1207
00:57:16,040 --> 00:57:19,520
Speaker 1: incredibly dense and the gravity is very very strong. So

1208
00:57:19,560 --> 00:57:21,360
Speaker 1: you might wonder, like, why doesn't the white dwarf collapse

1209
00:57:21,400 --> 00:57:23,120
Speaker 1: into a black hole? The thing that keeps a star

1210
00:57:23,280 --> 00:57:25,360
Speaker 1: from collapsing into a black hole is that it still

1211
00:57:25,400 --> 00:57:27,800
Speaker 1: has fusion happening. It's like radiating out energy, it's like

1212
00:57:27,840 --> 00:57:30,600
Speaker 1: blowing up. But a white dwarf isn't doing that anymore,

1213
00:57:30,640 --> 00:57:33,280
Speaker 1: so it's just like a blob of mass. Why isn't

1214
00:57:33,280 --> 00:57:36,040
Speaker 1: it collapsing into a black hole? And the answer is

1215
00:57:36,160 --> 00:57:40,240
Speaker 1: electron degeneracy. These electrons resist getting pushed on top of

1216
00:57:40,280 --> 00:57:42,680
Speaker 1: each other, and they prevent this thing from turning into

1217
00:57:42,720 --> 00:57:45,080
Speaker 1: a black hole. They're like one of the last barriers

1218
00:57:45,120 --> 00:57:47,200
Speaker 1: of defense against gravitational collapse.

1219
00:57:47,360 --> 00:57:49,360
Speaker 4: Well it's pretty cool. Would you say white dwarfs are

1220
00:57:49,360 --> 00:57:52,280
Speaker 4: pretty awesome? Are they more awesome than chocolate dwarfs?

1221
00:57:52,600 --> 00:57:54,800
Speaker 1: I think the fate of the universe is for all

1222
00:57:54,800 --> 00:57:57,880
Speaker 1: the white dwarfs to cool down and become black dwarfs,

1223
00:57:58,200 --> 00:58:01,520
Speaker 1: which means black dwarfs are cooler than white dwarfs, just

1224
00:58:01,560 --> 00:58:03,080
Speaker 1: like chocolate is cooler than vanilla.

1225
00:58:03,240 --> 00:58:05,600
Speaker 4: Well, sure, if you leave, I screapout, nobody wants. Nobody's

1226
00:58:05,600 --> 00:58:07,800
Speaker 4: gonna want to eat that ice cream eventually.

1227
00:58:08,040 --> 00:58:10,200
Speaker 1: But you know, if you add more mass to this

1228
00:58:10,280 --> 00:58:12,960
Speaker 1: white dwarf so the gravity gets stronger, you can actually

1229
00:58:13,000 --> 00:58:16,680
Speaker 1: overcome this electron degeneracy pressure. And what happens is not

1230
00:58:16,720 --> 00:58:18,760
Speaker 1: that the electrons give up and then like pile on

1231
00:58:18,800 --> 00:58:20,960
Speaker 1: top of each other. They're just not allowed to do that.

1232
00:58:21,000 --> 00:58:24,480
Speaker 1: What happens is the electrons combined with the protons to

1233
00:58:24,600 --> 00:58:27,560
Speaker 1: turn into neutrons, so they give up and become not

1234
00:58:27,720 --> 00:58:30,880
Speaker 1: electrons anymore, and then you can get things a little

1235
00:58:30,920 --> 00:58:31,520
Speaker 1: bit denser.

1236
00:58:31,800 --> 00:58:34,919
Speaker 4: Mmm. You mean at some point like they just become

1237
00:58:34,960 --> 00:58:36,960
Speaker 4: pure energy and then they squeeze together.

1238
00:58:37,040 --> 00:58:39,560
Speaker 1: Yeah, Well, the proton and the electron together can do

1239
00:58:39,640 --> 00:58:42,920
Speaker 1: like a reverse beta decay and become a neutron, and

1240
00:58:43,000 --> 00:58:45,320
Speaker 1: then you have a neutron star, which is just a

1241
00:58:45,400 --> 00:58:49,200
Speaker 1: big blob of neutrons, and those neutrons get squeezed together

1242
00:58:49,200 --> 00:58:52,880
Speaker 1: by gravity, and the neutrons are also fermions. One of

1243
00:58:52,920 --> 00:58:56,320
Speaker 1: the fascinating things about fermions is it's not just fundamental particles.

1244
00:58:56,520 --> 00:58:59,680
Speaker 1: You can put quirks together in various arrangements to make fermions.

1245
00:58:59,840 --> 00:59:03,120
Speaker 1: Like the proton is a fermion, the neutron is a fermion,

1246
00:59:03,520 --> 00:59:06,520
Speaker 1: and then the neutrons are resisting also because they are

1247
00:59:06,560 --> 00:59:10,600
Speaker 1: also fermions. The reason a neutron star doesn't collapse is

1248
00:59:10,720 --> 00:59:14,520
Speaker 1: because of the neutron degeneracy pressure. The same principle that

1249
00:59:14,600 --> 00:59:16,840
Speaker 1: kept the white dwarf alive is now keeping the neutron

1250
00:59:16,920 --> 00:59:19,480
Speaker 1: star from becoming a black hole. But then as you

1251
00:59:19,560 --> 00:59:22,280
Speaker 1: add more and more mass to that neutron star gets

1252
00:59:22,360 --> 00:59:26,000
Speaker 1: denser and denser, and eventually even the neutrons degeneracy pressure

1253
00:59:26,120 --> 00:59:29,920
Speaker 1: is overcome. But again not by the neutrons violating this

1254
00:59:30,080 --> 00:59:33,280
Speaker 1: rule of the universe. Instead, they just turn into something else.

1255
00:59:33,800 --> 00:59:36,320
Speaker 1: We've talked about the heart of neutron stars before. Nobody

1256
00:59:36,320 --> 00:59:39,080
Speaker 1: really knows what's going on, but it's not neutrons anymore.

1257
00:59:39,080 --> 00:59:41,880
Speaker 1: It's something else. Crazy that's happening. And to understand how

1258
00:59:41,920 --> 00:59:43,960
Speaker 1: you can keep adding mass and a black hole conform

1259
00:59:44,000 --> 00:59:46,080
Speaker 1: at the heart of it would require like a theory

1260
00:59:46,120 --> 00:59:48,640
Speaker 1: of quantum gravity that we just don't even have yet.

1261
00:59:49,440 --> 00:59:52,240
Speaker 4: You mean, like, we have this exclusion principle, this rule

1262
00:59:52,280 --> 00:59:55,200
Speaker 4: about the universe that says you can't squish two framons together.

1263
00:59:55,600 --> 00:59:57,800
Speaker 4: But at some point, if you try harder, you can

1264
00:59:57,880 --> 01:00:01,040
Speaker 4: sort of bypass this rule because suddenly the things you're

1265
01:00:01,040 --> 01:00:04,280
Speaker 4: trying to squeeh together are no longer electrons or neutrons.

1266
01:00:04,320 --> 01:00:07,840
Speaker 4: They just kind of become pure energy or pure quantum potential,

1267
01:00:07,960 --> 01:00:09,120
Speaker 4: and then they become something else.

1268
01:00:09,200 --> 01:00:11,200
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly, And we see those examples in all sorts

1269
01:00:11,200 --> 01:00:13,400
Speaker 1: of situations, like even when it's not at the heart

1270
01:00:13,440 --> 01:00:17,560
Speaker 1: of a neutron star. Super Conductivity works this way. Electrons

1271
01:00:17,600 --> 01:00:19,880
Speaker 1: are fermions, right, they can't be in the same state.

1272
01:00:20,160 --> 01:00:22,360
Speaker 1: But if you get two electrons together and you sort

1273
01:00:22,360 --> 01:00:25,360
Speaker 1: of tie them up together into a single quantum object,

1274
01:00:25,560 --> 01:00:28,360
Speaker 1: they become a boson. There are two spin one half

1275
01:00:28,400 --> 01:00:31,280
Speaker 1: states combined to a spin one state, and it's called

1276
01:00:31,280 --> 01:00:34,880
Speaker 1: a Cooper pair, and it's a key to super conductivity

1277
01:00:35,080 --> 01:00:37,680
Speaker 1: because now these electrons can like flow and slide in

1278
01:00:37,720 --> 01:00:41,280
Speaker 1: the way that bosons can in lower energy states and

1279
01:00:41,440 --> 01:00:44,240
Speaker 1: make things move more quickly. So we can see fermions

1280
01:00:44,320 --> 01:00:47,880
Speaker 1: like exploiting this loophole by becoming bosons, by pairing up.

1281
01:00:48,320 --> 01:00:50,520
Speaker 1: So yeah, absolutely, you can avoid this rule of the

1282
01:00:50,600 --> 01:00:53,640
Speaker 1: universe by squeezing things down or tying things together.

1283
01:00:54,520 --> 01:00:56,960
Speaker 4: I think what you're saying is that the universe has principles,

1284
01:00:57,000 --> 01:00:59,320
Speaker 4: but if you put enough pressure on it, it totally

1285
01:00:59,400 --> 01:01:00,880
Speaker 4: throws out those principles out the door.

1286
01:01:02,440 --> 01:01:04,959
Speaker 1: Exactly. Even if I've agreed to eat chocolate ice cream

1287
01:01:05,000 --> 01:01:07,400
Speaker 1: for the rest of my life, I might sneak a

1288
01:01:07,440 --> 01:01:11,280
Speaker 1: sample of vanilla sometimes just for variety under enough pressure

1289
01:01:11,840 --> 01:01:13,760
Speaker 1: pressure at the heart of a neutron star.

1290
01:01:15,240 --> 01:01:17,640
Speaker 4: Only then we eat vanilla ice cream.

1291
01:01:18,200 --> 01:01:20,800
Speaker 1: No, I love vanilla. Did you know that vanilla beans

1292
01:01:20,840 --> 01:01:24,040
Speaker 1: are actually more expensive pound for pound than gold.

1293
01:01:24,160 --> 01:01:26,400
Speaker 4: I didn't know that, but it doesn't surprise me because

1294
01:01:26,440 --> 01:01:29,680
Speaker 4: vanilla is the best. I'll eat vanilla anytime over a goal.

1295
01:01:31,040 --> 01:01:34,120
Speaker 4: All right, Well, it sounds like the universe has these

1296
01:01:34,160 --> 01:01:38,640
Speaker 4: strange rules about it, although under enough pressure or are

1297
01:01:38,680 --> 01:01:41,720
Speaker 4: there certain circumstances, it seems to throughout these or it

1298
01:01:41,760 --> 01:01:45,240
Speaker 4: finds loopholes around these principles, but that it's thanks to

1299
01:01:45,280 --> 01:01:48,480
Speaker 4: these principles that we have things like chemistry and we

1300
01:01:48,560 --> 01:01:51,520
Speaker 4: have chemiccry the way it is, and so without these rules,

1301
01:01:51,520 --> 01:01:53,640
Speaker 4: we wouldn't be here talking about these rules.

1302
01:01:53,760 --> 01:01:57,200
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. It's the reason we even have a delicious

1303
01:01:57,240 --> 01:01:59,600
Speaker 1: dilemma between chocolate and vanilla, which.

1304
01:01:59,440 --> 01:02:01,760
Speaker 4: I still think you can solve by just having a swirl.

1305
01:02:02,360 --> 01:02:03,840
Speaker 1: That's the loophole, that's.

1306
01:02:03,760 --> 01:02:07,000
Speaker 4: Right, Yeah, transform it into something else, rocky road. It's

1307
01:02:07,040 --> 01:02:10,880
Speaker 4: called rocky rost for it already. You spin it, spin

1308
01:02:10,960 --> 01:02:13,320
Speaker 4: it in a different way. All right. Well, we hope

1309
01:02:13,360 --> 01:02:16,600
Speaker 4: you enjoyed that. Thanks for joining us, See you next time.

1310
01:02:24,480 --> 01:02:27,280
Speaker 1: Thanks for listening, and remember that Daniel and Jorge Explain

1311
01:02:27,360 --> 01:02:30,600
Speaker 1: the Universe is a production of iHeart Radio. For more

1312
01:02:30,680 --> 01:02:35,280
Speaker 1: podcasts from iHeart Radio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts,

1313
01:02:35,440 --> 01:02:49,360
Speaker 1: or wherever you listen to your favorite shows. When you

1314
01:02:49,400 --> 01:02:51,440
Speaker 1: pop a piece of cheese into your mouth, you're probably

1315
01:02:51,480 --> 01:02:54,560
Speaker 1: not thinking about the environmental impact. But the people in

1316
01:02:54,600 --> 01:02:57,720
Speaker 1: the dairy industry are. That's why they're working hard every

1317
01:02:57,800 --> 01:03:00,240
Speaker 1: day to find new ways to reduce waste, consc serve

1318
01:03:00,320 --> 01:03:04,360
Speaker 1: natural resources, and drive down greenhouse gas emissions. House US

1319
01:03:04,440 --> 01:03:08,640
Speaker 1: dairy tackling greenhouse gases. Many farms use anaerobic digestors to

1320
01:03:08,680 --> 01:03:12,040
Speaker 1: turn the methane from manure into renewable energy that can

1321
01:03:12,080 --> 01:03:15,840
Speaker 1: power farms, towns, and electric cars. Visit you as dairy

1322
01:03:15,880 --> 01:03:18,360
Speaker 1: dot COM's Last Sustainability to learn more.

1323
01:03:19,920 --> 01:03:23,360
Speaker 3: There are children, friends, and families walking riding on pass

1324
01:03:23,400 --> 01:03:25,880
Speaker 3: and roads every day. Remember they're real people with loved

1325
01:03:25,880 --> 01:03:28,080
Speaker 3: ones who need them to get home safely. Protect our

1326
01:03:28,080 --> 01:03:31,640
Speaker 3: cyclists and pedestrians because they're people too. Go safely, California.

1327
01:03:31,680 --> 01:03:34,480
Speaker 3: From the California Office of Traffic Safety and Caltrans.

1328
01:03:34,040 --> 01:03:37,800
Speaker 11: I'm Victoria Cash. Thanks for calling the Lucky Land hotline.

1329
01:03:37,880 --> 01:03:40,240
Speaker 11: If you feel like you do the same thing every day,

1330
01:03:40,520 --> 01:03:43,480
Speaker 11: press one. If you're ready to have some serious fun

1331
01:03:43,680 --> 01:03:46,960
Speaker 11: for the chance to redeem some serious prizes, press too.

1332
01:03:47,800 --> 01:03:50,320
Speaker 11: We heard you loud and clear. So go to Lucky

1333
01:03:50,400 --> 01:03:53,480
Speaker 11: landslots dot com right now and play over one hundred

1334
01:03:53,560 --> 01:03:58,120
Speaker 11: social casino style games for free. Get Lucky today at

1335
01:03:58,200 --> 01:04:01,040
Speaker 11: Lucky landslots dot Com. No purchase necessary.

1336
01:04:01,120 --> 01:04:03,840
Speaker 6: VGW group void were prohibited by Law eighteen plus. Terms

1337
01:04:03,840 --> 01:04:04,640
Speaker 6: of conditions applied