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Speaker 1: Welcome to tech Stuff, a production from my Heart Radio.

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Speaker 1: Hey there, and welcome to tech Stuff. I'm your host,

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Speaker 1: Jonathan Strickland. I'm an executive producer with iHeart Radio and

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Speaker 1: how the tech are you. It's time for a classic episode,

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Speaker 1: and we're going to continue where we left off last

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Speaker 1: week in last week's classic episode about the Industrial Revolution.

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Speaker 1: This is part two of three. This episode originally published

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Speaker 1: on November two thousand and fifteen. Fortunately, unlike a lot

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Speaker 1: of my topics I cover on tech Stuff, the Industrial

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Speaker 1: Revolution has not changed significantly in the last seven years.

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Speaker 1: So let's sit back and listen. Now. In that last episode,

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Speaker 1: I focused mainly on the textile industry because it's a

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Speaker 1: great illustration of how quickly things changed just within a

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Speaker 1: few decades and went from something that used to be

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Speaker 1: a specialized skill among we vers that would do you know,

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Speaker 1: maybe a couple would work together, but that would be it,

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Speaker 1: and it would be something that would be produced on

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Speaker 1: a very small scale, to a full blown industry which

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Speaker 1: would end up employing thousands of people. Now, in this

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Speaker 1: week's episode, we're gonna look more closely at how iron

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Speaker 1: shaped the Industrial Revolution and how innovations and inventions in

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Speaker 1: the iron industry really changed things, and it's it's fascinating

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Speaker 1: and also kind of complicated. Now, first of all, iron

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Speaker 1: is the second most common metal in the Earth's crust.

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Speaker 1: The most common would be aluminum. But we would never

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Speaker 1: really use chemically pure iron, you know, the fe stuff

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Speaker 1: to build anything of any significance. And that's because of

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Speaker 1: a couple of things. See, pure iron is really malleable,

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Speaker 1: so that it means it's really easy to shape, so

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Speaker 1: that's good. And you can even cut pure iron using

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Speaker 1: something like a knife. If you've got a hunk of

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Speaker 1: chemically pure iron, you can cut through it. It does

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Speaker 1: take some effort, it's not like it's gonna slice through

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Speaker 1: like butta, but you can do it. You can use

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Speaker 1: a hammer to beat pure iron into sheets, or you

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Speaker 1: can even draw it into wires. And it's great stuff.

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Speaker 1: I mean, it conducts heat, it conducts electricity. It's also

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Speaker 1: really easy to magnetize, so it's got a lot of uses.

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Speaker 1: But it isn't strong or hard enough in order to

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Speaker 1: use for building structures like bridges or buildings or canals

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Speaker 1: or or even common tools. It's not strong enough to

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Speaker 1: to do that. It will end up bending too too much.

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Speaker 1: So all of that is kind of a moot point

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Speaker 1: because there's something else about iron that gives it a

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Speaker 1: huge drawback. We don't see much pure iron because it's

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Speaker 1: got a habit of getting really familiar with oxygen. Oxygen

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Speaker 1: corrodes iron, particularly in moist conditions, so that causes a

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Speaker 1: chemical reaction in which pure iron forms an iron oxide

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Speaker 1: that we call rust. So that's essentially what's happening, is

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Speaker 1: this chemical reaction with iron and oxygen creates this iron

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Speaker 1: oxide of rust that we don't really want. You know,

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Speaker 1: there's always about you know, you have to scrub down

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Speaker 1: the rust and get rid of it, or else it

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Speaker 1: just continues to corrode. Well, because iron reacts so readily

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Speaker 1: to oxygen, we don't mind iron in its pure form.

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Speaker 1: In fact, we just we don't find it because it

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Speaker 1: oxidizes so quickly. Instead, we mine iron oxides that are

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Speaker 1: locked inside various types of ore, including hematite, which is

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Speaker 1: the most plentiful ore that contains iron, limonite or limonite,

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Speaker 1: depending on how you want to pronounce it, sometimes called

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Speaker 1: bog iron, and magnetite, which is also known as loadstone,

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Speaker 1: among others. There are a few other versions of iron

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Speaker 1: ore as well. Not all ores contain the same percentage

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Speaker 1: of iron by volume, and we mine iron both in

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Speaker 1: underground mines and in surface mining. It all depends upon

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Speaker 1: where you are and where the iron deposits happened to be. Now,

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Speaker 1: the iron ore in Britain, because that again is where

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Speaker 1: the Industrial Revolution began, had really high concentrations of sulfur

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Speaker 1: and phosphorus, and both of those things will make iron

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Speaker 1: brittle if you don't get rid of them. So until

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Speaker 1: the Industrial Revolution, iron masters hadn't really quite worked out

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Speaker 1: how to do that on an efficient basis. For that reason,

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Speaker 1: British iron was often used in very cheap items like nails. Now,

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Speaker 1: this was also a little tricky because iron making iron

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Speaker 1: required a lot of labor, a lot of backbreaking hard work,

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Speaker 1: and that drove up the price of the final product.

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Speaker 1: So Britain was starting to supplement its own iron supplies

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Speaker 1: by importing about half of all the iron it was

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Speaker 1: using from Sweden. The iron from Sweden did not have

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Speaker 1: the high concentrateations of sulfur or phosphorus, so it wasn't

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Speaker 1: as problematic, and Britain just couldn't produce enough of its

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Speaker 1: own despite ample supplies of iron ore. Now, once we

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Speaker 1: get hold of iron ore, we have to smelt it.

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Speaker 1: That's in order for us to get to the iron

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Speaker 1: that's inside of it. Now, this involves heating the ore

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Speaker 1: up to the melting point of iron. We also use

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Speaker 1: fuels that will produce chemicals that can bond with the

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Speaker 1: iron during this process, which changes iron's physical characteristics. We're

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Speaker 1: talking chemical reactions here, and what we're really doing is

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Speaker 1: creating iron alloys. And an alloy is a mixture that

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Speaker 1: has a metal with something else. Sometimes it's another metal,

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Speaker 1: sometimes it's a different substance. But these are chemical mixtures

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Speaker 1: that have their own features that are different from the

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Speaker 1: features of the individual elements or or ingredients in that mixture,

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Speaker 1: so you're getting something new. The main ingredient we mix

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Speaker 1: with iron to produce useful material is carbon, and if

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Speaker 1: you get the mix of carbon to iron just right,

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Speaker 1: you produce steel. Steel is an iron alloy that has

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Speaker 1: around two or less carbon in it. Other types of

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Speaker 1: iron hab between two to four of carbon in the alloy,

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Speaker 1: and mixing other metals or substances will create different types

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Speaker 1: of steel or iron. So how do you mix carbon

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Speaker 1: into the iron? What exactly are you doing here is

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Speaker 1: there's some sort of powder that you're pouring in. Well,

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Speaker 1: one way is by using a carbon rich fuel as

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Speaker 1: the means of heating up your iron to melt it

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Speaker 1: in the first place. So if you're using something a

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Speaker 1: fuel that has a lot of carbon in it, then

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Speaker 1: some of that carbon gets transferred into the iron as

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Speaker 1: it melts. Charcoal is a great example, and iron masters

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Speaker 1: in Britain and really all over Europe relied very heavily

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Speaker 1: on charcoal for centuries when smelting iron ore. But if

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Speaker 1: you remember from our last episode, I talked about a

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Speaker 1: man named Abraham Darby who came up with an alternative

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Speaker 1: to charcoal, and it was coke. Now, coke is a

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Speaker 1: fuel product you make by baking coal in an airless

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Speaker 1: oven or furnace at a really high temperature, and at

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Speaker 1: that high temperature, some of the coal begins to ash.

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Speaker 1: That ash will end up melding with the the coal

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Speaker 1: itself and it converts into this other fuel called coke,

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Speaker 1: which is once it cools down, grayish in color and

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Speaker 1: has a very porous structure. When you burn coke, it

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Speaker 1: creates carbon monoxide, among other things, which is important in

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Speaker 1: this process of creating iron useful iron. But why would

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Speaker 1: anyone worry about switching from charcoal to coke in the

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Speaker 1: first place. I mean, charcoal is pretty simple. You just

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Speaker 1: have to burn wood to make charcoal. Uh. And in fact,

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Speaker 1: this is where the problem would come in. In order

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Speaker 1: to fuel a single iron works for one year, it

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Speaker 1: would take two acres of forest to supply enough charcoal

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Speaker 1: for operations. So for one iron works, you would need

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Speaker 1: two hundred acres of woods. And keep in mind that

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Speaker 1: once you've gone through that that two acres of forests

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Speaker 1: in a year, you're not gonna be able to use

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Speaker 1: those same two hundred acres the next year because it's

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Speaker 1: going to take time for that forest to grow back.

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Speaker 1: So we saw a steady decrease in the forests of

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Speaker 1: Britain during this time period. At this time, iron works

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Speaker 1: were mostly located in forests because it was cheaper to

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Speaker 1: ship the iron ore and iron from the iron works

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Speaker 1: or to the iron works, and from the iron works

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Speaker 1: then it was to ship charcoal around, so they located

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Speaker 1: the iron works near the fuel, not the iron ore,

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Speaker 1: which seems counterintuitive at first, but eventually the growth of

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Speaker 1: the iron industry and the fact that more and more

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Speaker 1: people were building ships during this time period for England

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Speaker 1: meant that England was using up more wood than it

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Speaker 1: could replenish, So charcoal became more expensive because forests were

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Speaker 1: being chopped down, wood was becoming a scarce commodity comparatively

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Speaker 1: speaking compared to how it had been in previous centuries,

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Speaker 1: so it became really expensive to use forests just to

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Speaker 1: generate charcoal. So an alternative fuel was definitely needed to

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Speaker 1: make British iron and actual commodity. Now, some iron masters

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Speaker 1: tried using coal as fuel, but burning coal produces sulfur,

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Speaker 1: and that sulfur would react to the melted iron ore

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Speaker 1: and produce an iron that was too brittle to be

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Speaker 1: of much use. Coke, however, didn't produce nearly as much

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Speaker 1: sulfur when burned, and the carbon monoxide coke produces wind

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Speaker 1: burn would mix with the melted iron ore to create

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Speaker 1: useful iron. And if you listen to that last episode,

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Speaker 1: you heard that Abraham Darby had developed a process for

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Speaker 1: making pig iron by using coke as the fuel while

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Speaker 1: smelting iron ore, but his approach wasn't adopted by the

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Speaker 1: iron industry during his lifetime. There are a couple of

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Speaker 1: reasons for that that, you know, the iron industry didn't

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Speaker 1: immediately swap to using coke instead of charcoal. One of

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Speaker 1: those reasons is that Darby pretty much kept his process

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Speaker 1: a secret and only told his son, Abraham Darby the second,

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Speaker 1: how to do it. At the time, anyone wanted to,

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Speaker 1: you know, get an advantage over their competitors, what they

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Speaker 1: did was they kept their methods secret. Some people would

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Speaker 1: choose to patent ideas to protect them. Others decided that

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Speaker 1: patents were bad because if you if you file a patent,

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Speaker 1: the information on how you do something becomes public knowledge

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Speaker 1: and eventually passes into the public domain. So other than

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Speaker 1: patent of process, some people would try and keep it

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Speaker 1: a secret. That's what Derby did. But the other reason

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Speaker 1: is that Darby didn't live to a very ripe old age.

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Speaker 1: He actually had a really long illness and died at

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Speaker 1: age thirty eight in seventeen seventeen. Now, his grandson, Abraham

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Speaker 1: Derby the third would build the first iron bridge in

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Speaker 1: the late seventeen seventies. But the Derby's method was really

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Speaker 1: only good for creating a particular type of iron called

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Speaker 1: cast iron. And I'll talk more about what cast iron

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Speaker 1: is in just a minute. But first, let's talk about

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Speaker 1: the smelting process. All right. So let's say you've got

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Speaker 1: yourself an iron furnace. Typically we would talk about a

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Speaker 1: blast furnace. Blast furnaces are really giant cylinders. We're talking

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Speaker 1: some of them being around thirty to forty ft tall

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Speaker 1: and twenty to thirty ft square at the base, often

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Speaker 1: built into the side of a hill. So that way, uh,

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Speaker 1: in order to bring materials to the blast furnace, which

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Speaker 1: you would deposit in the top of the furnace, you

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Speaker 1: would climb the hill as opposed to putting scaffolding up

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Speaker 1: or a long ramp or however you would you know,

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Speaker 1: be able to have an access point to get to

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Speaker 1: the top of the furnace. Now, if you want to

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Speaker 1: imagine what these things look like, they did like a

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Speaker 1: look like a tapering cylinder. So the top is a

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Speaker 1: bit narrower than the bottom. Uh. The topmost portion of

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Speaker 1: the cylinder is called the shaft, and that's where you

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Speaker 1: would feed the fuel, the iron ore and some other

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Speaker 1: materials called flux, which is typically limestone. The purpose of

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Speaker 1: the flux is to absorb some of the other elements

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Speaker 1: inside the iron ore that you don't want corrupting your iron.

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Speaker 1: You don't want it to mix with the iron so

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Speaker 1: that it makes it have properties that you weren't intending.

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Speaker 1: So you've got your your flux, your fuel in this

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Speaker 1: case coke or charcoal, and then the iron ore itself.

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Speaker 1: You would put all that down the shaft. If you

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Speaker 1: look down the cylinder, then the next section is called

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Speaker 1: the bosch. This is a roughly circular chamber where uh

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Speaker 1: it gets incredibly hot. And below the bosch, at the

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Speaker 1: base of the blast furnace was the hearth or crucible,

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Speaker 1: and that's where the molten iron would accumulate before being

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Speaker 1: drawn off by the iron master. Drawn off just means

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Speaker 1: essentially drained from the furnace chamber. So this was actually

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Speaker 1: a pretty complicated process. Uh. In fact, they were called

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Speaker 1: blast furnaces because you would blow large drafts of air

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Speaker 1: into the furnace and what we're called blasts. The earliest

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Speaker 1: blast furnaces were cold air furnaces, meaning that the the

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Speaker 1: air being blown into the furnace had not been preheated

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Speaker 1: in any way. The air would typically be forced through

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Speaker 1: an entry point that's down the cylinder. It's not at

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Speaker 1: the top, so you're not blowing air down into a chimney. Rather,

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Speaker 1: you would have an entry point inside the furnace and

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Speaker 1: air would come in there towards the bottom. You want

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Speaker 1: it near the bottom to fan the flames, and that

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Speaker 1: would allow you to keep the fire burning at the

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Speaker 1: right temperature. And you would do this with an enormous

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Speaker 1: set of bellows. So you've probably seen bellows. These are

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Speaker 1: the devices made to actually blow air into a an area,

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Speaker 1: usually some form of furnace or fire that would provide

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Speaker 1: the blasts of air. And in the early Industrial Revolution

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Speaker 1: they were powered by a water wheel. And when I

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Speaker 1: say an enormous pair of bellows, I mean we're talking

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Speaker 1: a big, big piece of machinery. They would be more

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Speaker 1: than twenty ft long and four or five ft wide,

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Speaker 1: So these were huge and would create very powerful blasts

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Speaker 1: of air. Now, later iron masters would actually rely upon

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Speaker 1: steam engines to power a blower for the furnace. But

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Speaker 1: we'll talk more about steam engines towards the end of

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Speaker 1: this episode. So if you wanted to start up in ironworks,

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Speaker 1: you've just you've just decided to get into the business,

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Speaker 1: and you're an eighteenth century England then what you would

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Speaker 1: need to do is build your blast furnace in a

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Speaker 1: in a good location, get all the stuff ready, like

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Speaker 1: the bellows and everything all prepared, and then you would

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Speaker 1: need to get your furnace up to the right temperature

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Speaker 1: before you actually started to add iron ore. Uh. You

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Speaker 1: would do this in a process that was called blowing in.

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Speaker 1: Now that involved bringing a large amount of fuel into

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Speaker 1: the furnace, whether it's charcoal or coke or whatever. You

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Speaker 1: would have to ignite the fuel and allow it to

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Speaker 1: gradually heat the furnace over about a week's worth of time,

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Speaker 1: and once it was up to the proper temperature, you

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Speaker 1: could finally get started with iron working. And when you're

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Speaker 1: ready to smell iron, you feed the fuel, flux and

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Speaker 1: iron ore into the top of the furnace. You're essentially

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Speaker 1: dumping things down this this cylinder, this chimney. Now, as

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Speaker 1: those materials fall through the length of the furnace, they

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Speaker 1: begin to heat up. There's a lot of very hot

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Speaker 1: gases that are rising up through this cylinder, and the

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Speaker 1: material passes through those hot gases, getting hot before they

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Speaker 1: even get toward the hearts the crucible. The fuel begins

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Speaker 1: to burn and the iron starts to heat up to

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Speaker 1: melting temperature. The iron ore reacts with the charcoal or

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Speaker 1: the coke, and that absorbs the oxygen in the iron

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Speaker 1: oxide that was locked away inside the iron ore. Now

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Speaker 1: this is a process called reduction, and what you're left

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Speaker 1: with is liquid iron and slag. Slag is actually not

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Speaker 1: that hard to get rid of. You would think that

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Speaker 1: this is a big, messy, slushy liquid that's molten hot,

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Speaker 1: but in fact, liquid iron is very heavy and slag

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Speaker 1: would float to the top, so you'd have the liquid

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Speaker 1: iron underneath and the slag on top. When you are

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Speaker 1: ready to draw off the molten iron, you would open

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Speaker 1: up a tap hole located in the heart level of

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Speaker 1: the blast furnace, so towards the base of this cylinder.

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Speaker 1: And typically these taps also had a little gate on them,

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Speaker 1: and the gate would go up and down, and by

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Speaker 1: setting the gate at the right height, you can allow

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Speaker 1: the molten iron to pass through and it would hold

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Speaker 1: back the slag. So that way you just get the

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Speaker 1: molten iron and the slag is left behind, because again

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Speaker 1: the slag is floating at the top of this molten material.

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Speaker 1: We'll be back with more about the Industrial Revolution after

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Speaker 1: this quick break, so that molten iron would then run

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Speaker 1: through a channel a trench essentially, and branch off into

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Speaker 1: smaller channels on either side that acted as molds. So

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Speaker 1: imagine that you've dug into some sand, uh some some

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Speaker 1: some shapes for ingots, and you draw off this molten iron.

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Speaker 1: It flows down a large channel and then splits off

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Speaker 1: into these smaller channels that are inget molds. Essentially, that

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Speaker 1: cooling iron would solidify into the ingots, and those ingots

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Speaker 1: were called pigs and the iron is referred to as

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Speaker 1: pig iron. And you might wonder, well, where did this

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Speaker 1: name come from? Why is it pig iron? Is it

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Speaker 1: dirty iron? What? What's the deal? Well, the reason for

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Speaker 1: the name is that iron workers thought that the the

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Speaker 1: little channels leading away from the central channel were similar

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Speaker 1: to suckling piglets that were feeding from a sow. That

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Speaker 1: the idea that these little splits, these channels were like piglets.

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Speaker 1: And that's why it's called pig iron. I am not

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Speaker 1: making that up. Pig iron is sort of a transitional

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Speaker 1: point for usable iron. By the way, it's stronger than

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Speaker 1: pure iron by about a hundred times, but it's still

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Speaker 1: too weak to be of practical use for certain certain

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Speaker 1: purposes like that, you can use it for tools and stuff,

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Speaker 1: but you typically would use pig iron again by reheating

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Speaker 1: it and doing something else with it. Now, the next

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Speaker 1: basic type of iron after pig iron is cast iron,

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Speaker 1: which is really not that different from pig iron. Uh.

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Speaker 1: It's the stuff that the Darbies were making in their

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Speaker 1: iron works. It has the same high carbon content around

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Speaker 1: three to four percent as pig iron does. Now, there

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Speaker 1: a lot of examples of stuff made from cast iron.

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Speaker 1: Cast Iron skillets are probably my favorite version of something

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Speaker 1: made from this material. And you would typically make a

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Speaker 1: cast iron object by pouring the iron into a mold

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Speaker 1: and allowing it to cool in that shape. And the

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Speaker 1: reason you would want to do that is because cast

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Speaker 1: iron is hard and it's brittle, which makes it very

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Speaker 1: difficult to shape even when you heat it up. So

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Speaker 1: if you pour the molten material into a mold so

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Speaker 1: that it takes whatever shape you want and let it cool,

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Speaker 1: you're in good shape. But if you let it cool

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Speaker 1: at all and then you try and work with it,

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Speaker 1: it tends to break, It tends to resist being being shaped,

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Speaker 1: so it's not terribly useful. In that case. Um. So

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Speaker 1: that's why it's called cast iron. It's best used if

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Speaker 1: you cast it into molds. Cast iron, by the way,

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Speaker 1: is also prone to rust, which made it less useful

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Speaker 1: for material that was constantly exposed to the elements or

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Speaker 1: was in damp areas. Now the next type of iron

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Speaker 1: is wrought iron. To you are o U g HT

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Speaker 1: wrought iron like a wrought iron fence. We produce wrought

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Speaker 1: iron by taking pig iron and heating it up again

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Speaker 1: in a different type of iron works called a finery.

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Speaker 1: Now you'd heat the pig iron up to the liquid

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Speaker 1: point and mix it with other slag materials, which lowers

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Speaker 1: the carbon content. By introducing non carbon material you create

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Speaker 1: a new alloy and the overall percentage of carbon is reduced.

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Speaker 1: As a result, wrought iron is easier to work with

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Speaker 1: than cast iron, and it's not as susceptible to rusting.

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Speaker 1: Wrought iron ended up becoming the most important type of

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Speaker 1: iron in the Industrial Revolution until people finally figured out

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Speaker 1: how to make steel on a consistent and large scale basis.

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Speaker 1: So wrought iron ended up being really the king of

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Speaker 1: iron once people were able to do it on a

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Speaker 1: large enough and consistent enough basis. So what's the big

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Speaker 1: deal with steel? I mean, why wasn't Why wasn't steel

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Speaker 1: the material of choice? Well, steel is just another alloy

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Speaker 1: of iron. First of all, it's not like it's a

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Speaker 1: totally different material. It's an alloy. It has less carbon

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Speaker 1: in it than other types of iron, like I mentioned before,

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Speaker 1: less than two and sometimes has other materials mixed in

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Speaker 1: to create the steel. Different types of steel used different

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Speaker 1: materials mixed in with the iron, and it gives it

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Speaker 1: various properties. People have been making steel in small amounts

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Speaker 1: for centuries. It's not like it was brand new in

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Speaker 1: the Industrial Revolution. But it was a laborious process and

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Speaker 1: it was easy to mess up. You could make errors

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Speaker 1: that would produce iron rather than steel. For a long time,

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Speaker 1: people weren't entirely uh certain of the what was causing

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Speaker 1: the output to be steel versus iron. Sometimes they just thought, oh, well,

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Speaker 1: this was a good batch of iron, or not realizing

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Speaker 1: that the process they were using, or the materials they were,

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Speaker 1: the fuel they were using, the materials they were mixing

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Speaker 1: with it, we're actually making a huge difference. It took

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Speaker 1: a long time of experimentation to figure out the right approach.

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Speaker 1: One man who improved steel making techniques was Benjamin Huntsman,

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Speaker 1: who opened a steel plant in Sheffield, England, in seventeen forty.

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Speaker 1: His steel was kind of controversial actually at the time.

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Speaker 1: His fellow countrymen considered the steel to be too hard

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Speaker 1: to be useful. These were people called cutlers, who would

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Speaker 1: take the steel produced by someone like Huntsman and then

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Speaker 1: try and shape it into useful tools, often cutting tools.

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Speaker 1: That was the main use of steel for a really

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Speaker 1: long time. But the cutlers said, no, the steel is

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Speaker 1: too hard, it's not any good. However, Huntsman began to

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Speaker 1: form relationships with cutlers who were in Europe, not in England,

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Speaker 1: so in mainland Europe, and they began to rely heavily

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Speaker 1: on his steel and he started to do a lot

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Speaker 1: of business. Well. England at the time was incredibly protective

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Speaker 1: of its various industries. They wanted to preserve their dominance

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Speaker 1: in as many areas as possible, including textiles and iron

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Speaker 1: and uh and later on steam power. So because of that,

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Speaker 1: the cutlers in England began to reconsider their feelings about

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Speaker 1: the difficulty of working with Huntsman Steele, so they began

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Speaker 1: to use it as well. Now Huntsman tried to keep

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Speaker 1: his methods a secret. He was one of those people

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Speaker 1: who decided never to patent his processes because he wanted

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Speaker 1: to try and maintain full control over them. However, one

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Speaker 1: of his competitors named Samuel Walker, found out how Huntsman

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Speaker 1: was making his steel and began to copy him. According

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Speaker 1: to report, Walker's work was never quite as good as Huntsman's,

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Speaker 1: but his steel was also sought after, and so soon

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Speaker 1: this technique of making steel began to spread outward and

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00:25:13,359 --> 00:25:17,560
Speaker 1: more iron workers began to experiment making steel, but at

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00:25:17,560 --> 00:25:20,359
Speaker 1: this stage they were still making it in fairly small amounts.

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Speaker 1: By the seventeen seventies, the iron industry in Britain was booming.

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Speaker 1: Coke was the fuel of choice by this point, so

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00:25:30,520 --> 00:25:34,400
Speaker 1: this was decades after Darby had first started using coke

405
00:25:34,480 --> 00:25:37,600
Speaker 1: as fuel, and by the seventeen seventies now everybody was

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00:25:37,640 --> 00:25:41,280
Speaker 1: really onto this and many iron works were in production

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Speaker 1: at the time. In Plymouth, a man named Henry Court

408
00:25:45,800 --> 00:25:49,520
Speaker 1: bought a small iron works just outside the city and

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Speaker 1: began to experiment with new methods of producing wrought iron,

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Speaker 1: and his experiments led to what was called the puddling process.

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Speaker 1: Now This approach a little tricky to explain, particularly without

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Speaker 1: the use of visual aids. It involved heating refined iron

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Speaker 1: in a furnace. So you would first have to take

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Speaker 1: iron ore and smelt it through one of the processes

415
00:26:12,119 --> 00:26:15,920
Speaker 1: that talked about earlier, and then the refined iron you

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00:26:15,920 --> 00:26:18,760
Speaker 1: would get from that process would be used as the

417
00:26:18,840 --> 00:26:22,280
Speaker 1: main ingredient for this new process. So you would take

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Speaker 1: this refined iron uh and put it in a furnace

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00:26:25,600 --> 00:26:29,880
Speaker 1: and mix it with some iron oxides on purpose and

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Speaker 1: stir the molten material using these very long rods. And

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Speaker 1: the rods had hooks on the end. And we're called

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Speaker 1: either puddling bars or rabble rebbels. So I guess like

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Speaker 1: the hamburglar. He says, rabble rabble right. Well, anyway, they

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Speaker 1: were called rebbels. You would have a worker hold one

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Speaker 1: of these long bars. Uh. They would sometimes be called rabblers.

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Speaker 1: This is not a joke. They really were uh. And

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Speaker 1: of course you couldn't put them inside the furnace they

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Speaker 1: would burn up and die. So what they would do

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Speaker 1: is they use these working doors that were built into

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00:27:07,960 --> 00:27:10,399
Speaker 1: the sides of the furnace that would allow you to

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Speaker 1: pass a rod through the door. Into the furnace itself

432
00:27:14,640 --> 00:27:17,280
Speaker 1: so that you could stir the molten material from a

433
00:27:17,320 --> 00:27:22,120
Speaker 1: safe distance UH and the rattlers would stir this mixture

434
00:27:23,240 --> 00:27:28,040
Speaker 1: as they would continue to blast air at the mixture,

435
00:27:28,440 --> 00:27:30,879
Speaker 1: and that would allow oxygen to react with the iron

436
00:27:30,920 --> 00:27:34,800
Speaker 1: oxides in the molten material, and impurities would form slag

437
00:27:35,000 --> 00:27:36,919
Speaker 1: that again would float on top of the iron or

438
00:27:36,960 --> 00:27:40,399
Speaker 1: would vaporize into gases that could be vented out of

439
00:27:40,480 --> 00:27:44,879
Speaker 1: the top of the furnace. During this process, carbon would

440
00:27:44,880 --> 00:27:48,239
Speaker 1: begin to burn off in the iron, and as the

441
00:27:48,280 --> 00:27:54,120
Speaker 1: carbon burns off, the melting temperature of the iron increases. So,

442
00:27:54,160 --> 00:27:57,760
Speaker 1: in other words, in order to keep that iron molten,

443
00:27:58,320 --> 00:28:00,840
Speaker 1: you would have to increase the temperature in the furnace.

444
00:28:01,040 --> 00:28:04,119
Speaker 1: And this is because the impurities that the carbon in

445
00:28:04,119 --> 00:28:07,720
Speaker 1: this case is getting burnt off, and the melting point

446
00:28:07,760 --> 00:28:11,840
Speaker 1: for pure carbon is higher than the melting point of

447
00:28:12,119 --> 00:28:14,840
Speaker 1: or not pure carbon, but pure iron. The melting point

448
00:28:14,840 --> 00:28:18,359
Speaker 1: of pure iron is higher than it would be with

449
00:28:18,440 --> 00:28:21,760
Speaker 1: an iron carbon mix. So that meant that you had

450
00:28:21,840 --> 00:28:24,320
Speaker 1: to continue to increase the temperature in the furnace. You

451
00:28:24,359 --> 00:28:27,360
Speaker 1: would have to add more fuel to make the temperature

452
00:28:27,400 --> 00:28:30,840
Speaker 1: go higher, and you would continue to do this process

453
00:28:30,920 --> 00:28:34,320
Speaker 1: until you've burned off enough carbon so that the mixture

454
00:28:34,359 --> 00:28:39,719
Speaker 1: itself begins to change. It uh in in puddling terms,

455
00:28:39,800 --> 00:28:44,239
Speaker 1: it comes to nature. Now that means that the the

456
00:28:44,280 --> 00:28:48,000
Speaker 1: iron itself has very different qualities, and by change, I

457
00:28:48,000 --> 00:28:51,240
Speaker 1: mean it stops being a molten liquid instead becomes kind

458
00:28:51,240 --> 00:28:56,840
Speaker 1: of a spongy mass of iron. So it's still shapeable,

459
00:28:57,320 --> 00:29:01,920
Speaker 1: it's still very you know soft compare too solid iron,

460
00:29:02,400 --> 00:29:05,200
Speaker 1: but it's no longer in liquid form. And it's at

461
00:29:05,240 --> 00:29:07,520
Speaker 1: that point that the rabblers would have to hook the

462
00:29:07,600 --> 00:29:12,320
Speaker 1: masks using the rabbles or the puddling bars, and once hooked,

463
00:29:12,320 --> 00:29:15,480
Speaker 1: they then have to pull out these masses, these these

464
00:29:15,520 --> 00:29:21,640
Speaker 1: puddles or puddle balls rather of iron, which were incredibly heavy.

465
00:29:21,680 --> 00:29:25,960
Speaker 1: We're talking like eighty pounds or more. And they would

466
00:29:25,960 --> 00:29:29,640
Speaker 1: grab the stuff with the bar, pull it out of

467
00:29:29,680 --> 00:29:34,000
Speaker 1: the furnace and then take the puddle balls. They're still

468
00:29:34,080 --> 00:29:39,200
Speaker 1: incredibly hot to some massive hammers. Now, originally those hammers

469
00:29:39,240 --> 00:29:44,640
Speaker 1: were manually wielded by people who were known as shinglers um,

470
00:29:44,640 --> 00:29:47,760
Speaker 1: but eventually they would be used with the water and

471
00:29:47,800 --> 00:29:52,000
Speaker 1: steam powered hammers instead of manual labor, which was good

472
00:29:52,040 --> 00:29:55,320
Speaker 1: because being a shingler was it was it was a

473
00:29:55,320 --> 00:29:58,480
Speaker 1: specialized skill, but it also usually meant you didn't live

474
00:29:58,600 --> 00:30:02,960
Speaker 1: very long. You had a very strenuous, difficult job with

475
00:30:03,160 --> 00:30:08,320
Speaker 1: a high degree of danger to it. So the process

476
00:30:08,360 --> 00:30:11,440
Speaker 1: of hammering the puddle balls would put them into a

477
00:30:11,480 --> 00:30:14,720
Speaker 1: shape that resembled roof shingles, which is where the process

478
00:30:14,800 --> 00:30:18,160
Speaker 1: kind of got its name is shingling. And you would

479
00:30:18,160 --> 00:30:20,960
Speaker 1: do shingling not just to get the iron into a

480
00:30:21,000 --> 00:30:24,320
Speaker 1: new shape. It was actually meant to hammer out slag

481
00:30:24,480 --> 00:30:28,440
Speaker 1: and other impurities, and also to hammer out cracks that

482
00:30:28,480 --> 00:30:32,959
Speaker 1: were inside the mass. So slamming a hammer against this

483
00:30:33,040 --> 00:30:36,320
Speaker 1: puddle ball would create uh, you know, smushed the iron

484
00:30:36,320 --> 00:30:40,600
Speaker 1: together so that that cracks would be would be completely

485
00:30:40,680 --> 00:30:45,400
Speaker 1: sealed and once heated, or once shingled rather, you would

486
00:30:45,440 --> 00:30:49,040
Speaker 1: then heat the iron again until it was malleable and

487
00:30:49,080 --> 00:30:52,040
Speaker 1: then roll it out into bars of wrought iron or

488
00:30:52,120 --> 00:30:56,400
Speaker 1: sometimes in the poles of iron. Uh. Quartz process sped

489
00:30:56,480 --> 00:31:00,440
Speaker 1: up the production of of making wrought iron consider toerably,

490
00:31:00,520 --> 00:31:04,959
Speaker 1: and he patented the approach in the seventeen eighties. So

491
00:31:05,040 --> 00:31:08,320
Speaker 1: by Courts time, iron was beginning to become the material

492
00:31:08,520 --> 00:31:13,480
Speaker 1: of choice for tools and for industrial machines, largely replacing wood,

493
00:31:13,480 --> 00:31:17,040
Speaker 1: which had previously been the material of choice. So if

494
00:31:17,040 --> 00:31:22,520
Speaker 1: you look at machines previous before, before like seventeen seventeen,

495
00:31:23,200 --> 00:31:27,000
Speaker 1: you know, really seeing a lot of wood uh components.

496
00:31:27,840 --> 00:31:30,080
Speaker 1: You know, even gears and things often would be made

497
00:31:30,080 --> 00:31:33,520
Speaker 1: of wood rather than iron. Some cast iron was being

498
00:31:33,640 --> 00:31:37,800
Speaker 1: used in gears and some other uh parts of machinery,

499
00:31:37,840 --> 00:31:42,440
Speaker 1: but wood was largely the main material, with stone being

500
00:31:42,600 --> 00:31:45,080
Speaker 1: used for foundations and things like that, for things like

501
00:31:45,200 --> 00:31:49,240
Speaker 1: mills and that sort of stuff. But now by courts time,

502
00:31:49,320 --> 00:31:54,160
Speaker 1: iron has become the really important material for tools, industrial machines.

503
00:31:54,560 --> 00:31:57,360
Speaker 1: It's uh, it's really taking off. And looking at the

504
00:31:57,360 --> 00:31:59,840
Speaker 1: amount of iron produced in England during these decades of

505
00:31:59,840 --> 00:32:03,520
Speaker 1: the Industrial Revolution, you can see how these improvements in

506
00:32:03,560 --> 00:32:08,320
Speaker 1: technology really made a huge impact. So here's an example.

507
00:32:08,400 --> 00:32:11,800
Speaker 1: Just before the era of the Industrial Revolution, in seventeen forty,

508
00:32:12,520 --> 00:32:16,440
Speaker 1: Britain was producing about seventeen thousand tons of pig iron

509
00:32:16,520 --> 00:32:20,280
Speaker 1: per year. By seventy eight that Amountain had increased to

510
00:32:20,360 --> 00:32:25,680
Speaker 1: nearly seventy thousand tons, So seventeen thousand to seventy thousand,

511
00:32:26,320 --> 00:32:30,600
Speaker 1: and by seventeen ninety six, you know, it's not even

512
00:32:30,880 --> 00:32:34,280
Speaker 1: a full decade later it was producing more than a

513
00:32:34,360 --> 00:32:37,440
Speaker 1: hundred twenty five thousand tons of pig iron and that

514
00:32:37,520 --> 00:32:41,000
Speaker 1: number would just continue to grow over the next century.

515
00:32:41,040 --> 00:32:43,680
Speaker 1: So by the mid nineteenth century you're talking an enormous

516
00:32:43,720 --> 00:32:46,120
Speaker 1: amount of iron being produced out of out of Britain,

517
00:32:47,440 --> 00:32:50,720
Speaker 1: and it was being used in construction to make bridges

518
00:32:50,880 --> 00:32:56,400
Speaker 1: and tunnels and iron rails. So the rails actually predated

519
00:32:56,440 --> 00:33:00,880
Speaker 1: locomotives and trains. The rail system was men to allow

520
00:33:01,040 --> 00:33:05,640
Speaker 1: carts to pass easily over land. Uh special cards would

521
00:33:05,760 --> 00:33:09,600
Speaker 1: be pulled by horses or other animals, and it would

522
00:33:09,640 --> 00:33:12,040
Speaker 1: be a while before the first steam powered train would

523
00:33:12,040 --> 00:33:14,240
Speaker 1: pull carts along rails, but the rail system in general

524
00:33:14,280 --> 00:33:18,440
Speaker 1: made it much easier to transport goods over land. Meanwhile,

525
00:33:18,960 --> 00:33:22,320
Speaker 1: there was also a lot of work in creating transportation

526
00:33:22,440 --> 00:33:26,960
Speaker 1: lanes over water. As I mentioned in the last episode,

527
00:33:27,920 --> 00:33:31,240
Speaker 1: Britain was really well positioned for the Industrial Revolution for

528
00:33:31,280 --> 00:33:33,040
Speaker 1: a lot of reasons, and one of them is that

529
00:33:33,080 --> 00:33:36,440
Speaker 1: it has a lot of port cities. So shipping was

530
00:33:36,640 --> 00:33:41,760
Speaker 1: a big part of British industry. But within the countries

531
00:33:42,240 --> 00:33:46,120
Speaker 1: of Britain, within England and Wales and Scotland in particular,

532
00:33:46,560 --> 00:33:49,959
Speaker 1: it was really important to try and ship various materials

533
00:33:50,000 --> 00:33:54,920
Speaker 1: between cities, and that meant creating special waterways, including canals,

534
00:33:55,400 --> 00:34:00,200
Speaker 1: to connect rivers together that otherwise wouldn't easily meet. So

535
00:34:00,240 --> 00:34:03,480
Speaker 1: there were a lot of canals, but one really impressive

536
00:34:03,600 --> 00:34:08,239
Speaker 1: iron structure was the Potka Sulta Aqueduct, also known as

537
00:34:08,440 --> 00:34:12,440
Speaker 1: the Stream in the Sky. Now that name is Welsh,

538
00:34:12,560 --> 00:34:15,399
Speaker 1: if you could not guess before, and that means I've

539
00:34:15,480 --> 00:34:19,680
Speaker 1: probably butchered the pronunciation, as the Welsh believed language is

540
00:34:19,719 --> 00:34:22,440
Speaker 1: something no one should ever be able to actually speak.

541
00:34:23,000 --> 00:34:28,759
Speaker 1: But this aqueduct was a raised waterway that allowed this

542
00:34:28,920 --> 00:34:35,040
Speaker 1: canal to cross over a valley. Now, the goal here

543
00:34:35,160 --> 00:34:37,960
Speaker 1: was to have a canal connecting two different rivers together,

544
00:34:39,080 --> 00:34:43,200
Speaker 1: but there was a valley in the way, and how

545
00:34:43,239 --> 00:34:47,319
Speaker 1: would you get the water to cross over the valley.

546
00:34:47,840 --> 00:34:50,760
Speaker 1: You could build a series of locks which would allow

547
00:34:50,800 --> 00:34:54,799
Speaker 1: you to very slowly lower or raise a barge in

548
00:34:54,840 --> 00:34:58,239
Speaker 1: a series of stepped approaches, But that takes a lot

549
00:34:58,239 --> 00:35:00,560
Speaker 1: of time. It's not terribly afici and if you want

550
00:35:00,560 --> 00:35:05,360
Speaker 1: to get a lot done so Instead, there was a

551
00:35:05,400 --> 00:35:09,759
Speaker 1: guy named Thomas Telford who proposed this raised aqueduct that

552
00:35:09,800 --> 00:35:13,680
Speaker 1: would bypass the valley entirely by going over it. So

553
00:35:13,800 --> 00:35:18,359
Speaker 1: essentially you're looking at a big iron trough and that

554
00:35:18,440 --> 00:35:23,760
Speaker 1: holds all the water. Use arch stone pillars to support

555
00:35:23,760 --> 00:35:27,400
Speaker 1: the trough, and you can see pictures of this or

556
00:35:27,520 --> 00:35:31,800
Speaker 1: video even of this particular aqueduct, and it is pretty

557
00:35:31,840 --> 00:35:35,240
Speaker 1: amazing to look at. So a barge could float down

558
00:35:35,280 --> 00:35:38,760
Speaker 1: the canal and over the aqueduct without having to descend

559
00:35:38,880 --> 00:35:42,040
Speaker 1: into the valley, and this saved a lot of time. Now,

560
00:35:42,080 --> 00:35:45,040
Speaker 1: Telford's original design was met with a lot of skepticism,

561
00:35:45,320 --> 00:35:47,919
Speaker 1: but he was allowed to build it and it ended

562
00:35:48,000 --> 00:35:51,719
Speaker 1: up working out just fine. So it was a big

563
00:35:51,760 --> 00:35:54,799
Speaker 1: success in the Industrial Revolution and really proved how far

564
00:35:54,960 --> 00:35:58,440
Speaker 1: the the industry had come as far as iron production

565
00:35:58,560 --> 00:36:02,560
Speaker 1: and making sure it is reliable and safe. And it

566
00:36:02,680 --> 00:36:08,440
Speaker 1: also added a lot of confidence to areas like architecture

567
00:36:08,880 --> 00:36:12,120
Speaker 1: for everything from bridge building to tunnels and stuff like that.

568
00:36:12,800 --> 00:36:16,520
Speaker 1: We will continue our story about the Industrial Revolution after

569
00:36:16,560 --> 00:36:28,720
Speaker 1: we take this break for some ads, it wasn't until

570
00:36:28,840 --> 00:36:33,120
Speaker 1: eighteen fifty six that the steel industry really took off.

571
00:36:33,160 --> 00:36:36,080
Speaker 1: That's when a man named Henry Bessemer came up with

572
00:36:36,120 --> 00:36:40,200
Speaker 1: a method to produce steel in large amounts. So before

573
00:36:40,239 --> 00:36:43,759
Speaker 1: the most reliable processes would only produce small amounts of

574
00:36:43,800 --> 00:36:47,400
Speaker 1: steel over time, which made steel difficult to produce in

575
00:36:47,600 --> 00:36:49,840
Speaker 1: quantities large enough for it to meet demand, and it

576
00:36:49,920 --> 00:36:52,480
Speaker 1: also meant that the price was really high. But Bessemer

577
00:36:52,600 --> 00:36:56,319
Speaker 1: came up with a lot of improvements. So Bessemer's father

578
00:36:57,160 --> 00:37:01,000
Speaker 1: was an engineer, and Bestmer himself took after his dad.

579
00:37:01,080 --> 00:37:04,839
Speaker 1: He was largely self educated and learned about engineering by

580
00:37:04,840 --> 00:37:08,319
Speaker 1: observing his father's work and doing his own experiments. He

581
00:37:08,480 --> 00:37:12,480
Speaker 1: generated an enormous fortune before ever getting into the steel

582
00:37:12,560 --> 00:37:15,760
Speaker 1: business by producing a type of powder that was used

583
00:37:15,760 --> 00:37:19,439
Speaker 1: in gold paints, and at the time, gold paints were

584
00:37:19,440 --> 00:37:22,600
Speaker 1: in really high demand in Britain and in Europe. So

585
00:37:22,640 --> 00:37:24,759
Speaker 1: he made a fortune off that and then used that

586
00:37:24,800 --> 00:37:27,640
Speaker 1: to fund his other experiments. He also created a machine

587
00:37:27,719 --> 00:37:31,200
Speaker 1: designed to crush sugarcane, but it was in the steel

588
00:37:31,280 --> 00:37:35,399
Speaker 1: industry that he became a legend. So Bessemer was trying

589
00:37:35,400 --> 00:37:38,319
Speaker 1: to create a harder type of iron, and it was

590
00:37:38,400 --> 00:37:41,960
Speaker 1: all out of necessity. It's kind of a funny story.

591
00:37:42,160 --> 00:37:45,080
Speaker 1: He had developed a type of artillery shell and he

592
00:37:45,160 --> 00:37:48,239
Speaker 1: was trying to sell it to the French, but the

593
00:37:48,280 --> 00:37:51,240
Speaker 1: French were looking at his his artillery shell, and they said,

594
00:37:51,560 --> 00:37:55,239
Speaker 1: we can't take this because our cannons are made out

595
00:37:55,280 --> 00:37:57,759
Speaker 1: of cast iron and they wouldn't be strong enough to

596
00:37:57,840 --> 00:38:03,239
Speaker 1: fire this artillery shell without exploding, which in war would

597
00:38:03,320 --> 00:38:08,880
Speaker 1: be not an incredibly effective tactic. So Bessemer decided that

598
00:38:08,920 --> 00:38:11,840
Speaker 1: the best way to solve this problem would be to

599
00:38:11,880 --> 00:38:15,400
Speaker 1: create a stronger type of iron so that the French

600
00:38:15,440 --> 00:38:18,600
Speaker 1: could make their cannons out of that, and then he

601
00:38:18,640 --> 00:38:22,000
Speaker 1: could sell the shells he had created to them. So

602
00:38:22,040 --> 00:38:24,560
Speaker 1: it was a roundabout way of doing things, but ended

603
00:38:24,640 --> 00:38:27,720
Speaker 1: up working out pretty well. So Bessemer started by using

604
00:38:27,719 --> 00:38:30,320
Speaker 1: a blast furnace much like the one I've already described

605
00:38:30,360 --> 00:38:34,000
Speaker 1: earlier in this episode. As he experimented, he found that

606
00:38:34,120 --> 00:38:37,080
Speaker 1: oxygen in the furnace would remove some of the carbon

607
00:38:37,320 --> 00:38:40,120
Speaker 1: from the pig iron that he was using. Inside the furnace,

608
00:38:40,760 --> 00:38:44,160
Speaker 1: Blowing air through the purified iron caused it to heat

609
00:38:44,239 --> 00:38:47,680
Speaker 1: up more, and the oxygen was heating up the remaining

610
00:38:47,719 --> 00:38:51,719
Speaker 1: carbon inside the the melted iron as well as silicon,

611
00:38:52,800 --> 00:38:56,279
Speaker 1: and this made the resulting molten material easy to pour,

612
00:38:56,800 --> 00:39:00,400
Speaker 1: and the process became known as the Bessemer process. The

613
00:39:00,440 --> 00:39:03,400
Speaker 1: result was that you would get these slag free ingots

614
00:39:03,400 --> 00:39:07,400
Speaker 1: of metal. Combining this approach with a discovery from another

615
00:39:07,480 --> 00:39:12,520
Speaker 1: engineer named Robert Forrester Mushnitt, Bessemer could use an iron

616
00:39:12,600 --> 00:39:17,680
Speaker 1: manganese alloy to remove extra oxygen from the decarborized iron,

617
00:39:18,560 --> 00:39:21,160
Speaker 1: and this is what allowed him to create steel. Now,

618
00:39:21,200 --> 00:39:24,280
Speaker 1: Bessemer hit a snag when he discovered his process really

619
00:39:24,320 --> 00:39:28,879
Speaker 1: only worked if he used phosphorus free iron ore. So

620
00:39:29,000 --> 00:39:32,440
Speaker 1: if you remember I mentioned, materials like phosphorus and sulfur

621
00:39:32,719 --> 00:39:36,200
Speaker 1: turn iron brittle, so it becomes less useful, it'll shear off.

622
00:39:37,440 --> 00:39:42,040
Speaker 1: And Bessemer was just by chance using iron ore that

623
00:39:42,120 --> 00:39:46,799
Speaker 1: didn't have a high phosphorus content. So when he was

624
00:39:46,920 --> 00:39:50,279
Speaker 1: doing his experiments, everything was coming out great. But then

625
00:39:50,360 --> 00:39:54,320
Speaker 1: when iron workers at large began to try his very process,

626
00:39:54,400 --> 00:39:57,640
Speaker 1: they started getting very different results because much of that

627
00:39:57,719 --> 00:40:01,759
Speaker 1: iron ore in Britain contained phosph us. Bessemer found the

628
00:40:01,760 --> 00:40:05,440
Speaker 1: source of iron ore in northwestern England that was free

629
00:40:05,440 --> 00:40:09,520
Speaker 1: of phosphorus, but that solution wasn't ideal because it meant

630
00:40:09,560 --> 00:40:11,440
Speaker 1: that you had to get all your iron ore from

631
00:40:11,520 --> 00:40:16,600
Speaker 1: one place. Now, another improvement in eighteen seventy seven made

632
00:40:16,680 --> 00:40:20,600
Speaker 1: Bessemer's approach more useful. There was a another person named

633
00:40:20,640 --> 00:40:25,040
Speaker 1: Sydney Gilchrist Thomas who created a furnace lining that removed

634
00:40:25,200 --> 00:40:28,040
Speaker 1: phosphorus from the iron ore as it was heating up,

635
00:40:28,800 --> 00:40:31,560
Speaker 1: which meant that iron workers didn't have to rely exclusively

636
00:40:31,600 --> 00:40:35,359
Speaker 1: on that phosphorus free iron ore from Northwest England. The

637
00:40:35,520 --> 00:40:40,719
Speaker 1: end product of this process was called mild steel. Now

638
00:40:40,760 --> 00:40:43,239
Speaker 1: it's called mild steel because it was different from the

639
00:40:43,280 --> 00:40:46,919
Speaker 1: steel produced by the earlier methods, the kind that that

640
00:40:47,640 --> 00:40:52,880
Speaker 1: court was known for, because it didn't it wasn't it

641
00:40:52,920 --> 00:40:56,760
Speaker 1: wasn't as hard, it wasn't only useful for cutting tools,

642
00:40:56,760 --> 00:40:59,239
Speaker 1: which is pretty much what all the hard steel was

643
00:40:59,360 --> 00:41:02,240
Speaker 1: used for in earlier versions. It was easier to work

644
00:41:02,480 --> 00:41:07,600
Speaker 1: and became the material of choice for applications like girders, rods, wires, rivets,

645
00:41:07,600 --> 00:41:12,080
Speaker 1: and other uses. So while iron had replaced wood earlier,

646
00:41:12,200 --> 00:41:16,120
Speaker 1: now steele was beginning to replace iron. In the late

647
00:41:16,160 --> 00:41:19,440
Speaker 1: eighteen sixties, there was a new process called the open

648
00:41:19,560 --> 00:41:24,040
Speaker 1: hearth process that rivaled the Bessemer approach. Now, this technique

649
00:41:24,040 --> 00:41:28,120
Speaker 1: was created by a German engineer living in England and

650
00:41:28,200 --> 00:41:32,319
Speaker 1: his name was William Siemens. Siemens found a way to

651
00:41:32,480 --> 00:41:36,080
Speaker 1: use the waist heat generated by a furnace to feed

652
00:41:36,160 --> 00:41:40,800
Speaker 1: back into the furnace itself to increase the temperature inside

653
00:41:40,840 --> 00:41:43,160
Speaker 1: the furnace. So what you would do is that you

654
00:41:43,160 --> 00:41:45,239
Speaker 1: would have this hot air being given off by the

655
00:41:45,280 --> 00:41:48,680
Speaker 1: furnace and he would pump that air back into the

656
00:41:48,719 --> 00:41:52,279
Speaker 1: furnace using that same pathway, which meant that the air

657
00:41:52,320 --> 00:41:55,719
Speaker 1: being blasted into the furnace was already preheated, so it

658
00:41:55,760 --> 00:41:57,920
Speaker 1: was no longer the cold air blast. This is a

659
00:41:57,960 --> 00:42:01,880
Speaker 1: hot air blast that in turn made the flame temperature

660
00:42:01,960 --> 00:42:05,680
Speaker 1: hotter and using a combination of pig iron and scrap

661
00:42:05,760 --> 00:42:09,440
Speaker 1: wrought iron, iron workers could use this technique to produce

662
00:42:09,600 --> 00:42:13,400
Speaker 1: steel quickly. William Siemens would go on to invent the

663
00:42:13,440 --> 00:42:17,800
Speaker 1: electric furnace in eighteen seventy nine, which provided another enormous

664
00:42:17,840 --> 00:42:21,480
Speaker 1: boost to the steel industry in England. He also worked

665
00:42:21,520 --> 00:42:25,279
Speaker 1: in electric telegraphy and in lighting, so this is also

666
00:42:25,320 --> 00:42:29,319
Speaker 1: the era where people are experimenting with those technologies. Uh.

667
00:42:29,520 --> 00:42:32,719
Speaker 1: William Siemens and Henry Bessemer both were knighted for their

668
00:42:32,760 --> 00:42:37,040
Speaker 1: contributions to Britain, so that was very interesting because William Siemens,

669
00:42:37,080 --> 00:42:41,040
Speaker 1: obviously he was German born, but became an English citizen

670
00:42:41,200 --> 00:42:45,000
Speaker 1: and became a knight, and Bessemer was a self taught

671
00:42:45,040 --> 00:42:48,399
Speaker 1: man who became a knight. So very interesting that both

672
00:42:48,400 --> 00:42:51,520
Speaker 1: of them were able to create such important contributions to

673
00:42:51,560 --> 00:42:55,680
Speaker 1: the entire nation. Stay tuned for the exciting conclusion of

674
00:42:55,760 --> 00:43:08,359
Speaker 1: this tex Stuff classic episode right after we take this break. Now,

675
00:43:08,400 --> 00:43:11,360
Speaker 1: both the best simer process and the open hearth process

676
00:43:11,440 --> 00:43:14,520
Speaker 1: significantly reduced the amount of time it took to convert

677
00:43:14,560 --> 00:43:18,720
Speaker 1: iron into steel, and that created a new industry in Britain.

678
00:43:19,239 --> 00:43:22,560
Speaker 1: Before long, steel replaced iron and all those applications, just

679
00:43:22,600 --> 00:43:25,000
Speaker 1: as iron had replaced wood back in the eighteenth century.

680
00:43:25,400 --> 00:43:27,840
Speaker 1: But now we've got to backtrack a little bit to

681
00:43:27,920 --> 00:43:31,239
Speaker 1: talk about steam engines. So all that's going on with

682
00:43:31,280 --> 00:43:34,839
Speaker 1: the iron and steel industry from the seventeen forties up

683
00:43:34,920 --> 00:43:39,719
Speaker 1: until the late eighteen hundreds, but steam engines actually go

684
00:43:39,840 --> 00:43:44,560
Speaker 1: back before the Industrial Revolution. Now, in October two thirteen,

685
00:43:45,239 --> 00:43:47,799
Speaker 1: tech Stuff did a full episode about steam engines and

686
00:43:47,840 --> 00:43:50,120
Speaker 1: how they work. So I'll try to be brief because

687
00:43:50,160 --> 00:43:52,360
Speaker 1: you can always go back and listen to that episode

688
00:43:52,760 --> 00:43:56,040
Speaker 1: for a more detailed account of how steam engines came

689
00:43:56,040 --> 00:44:00,840
Speaker 1: about and the developments over time. But here's a submarine.

690
00:44:01,320 --> 00:44:03,879
Speaker 1: First of all, we've known about steam for quite some time.

691
00:44:03,920 --> 00:44:07,000
Speaker 1: The ancient Greeks were aware of steam's ability to do work,

692
00:44:07,440 --> 00:44:10,280
Speaker 1: but it wasn't really until the Industrial Revolution that anyone

693
00:44:10,440 --> 00:44:14,080
Speaker 1: made real practical steam engines. And part of the reason

694
00:44:14,160 --> 00:44:17,799
Speaker 1: for that is that steam is incredibly dangerous. Not only

695
00:44:17,840 --> 00:44:21,680
Speaker 1: can it be hot enough to cause devastating burns, but

696
00:44:21,840 --> 00:44:23,640
Speaker 1: if you want it to do useful work, you have

697
00:44:23,680 --> 00:44:26,640
Speaker 1: to put it under pressure, and that means you have

698
00:44:26,760 --> 00:44:29,760
Speaker 1: to have materials strong enough to deal with that pressure

699
00:44:29,760 --> 00:44:33,880
Speaker 1: to contain the steam without failing, because if there is

700
00:44:33,920 --> 00:44:38,200
Speaker 1: a failure, your device is going to fly apart, and

701
00:44:38,239 --> 00:44:41,880
Speaker 1: what you've really created is a steam powered bomb, not

702
00:44:42,160 --> 00:44:46,600
Speaker 1: entirely useful for industry. So it took a long time

703
00:44:47,400 --> 00:44:50,600
Speaker 1: for engineers to figure out ways to harness steam in

704
00:44:50,640 --> 00:44:54,600
Speaker 1: a way that wasn't inherently dangerous every time you used it.

705
00:44:55,360 --> 00:44:58,000
Speaker 1: The development of the early steam engines actually predates the

706
00:44:58,000 --> 00:45:04,200
Speaker 1: Industrial Revolution. In sixt a guy named Thomas Savory patented

707
00:45:04,239 --> 00:45:08,439
Speaker 1: a device meant to draw water from mines using steam,

708
00:45:08,480 --> 00:45:12,080
Speaker 1: and it would allow mining operations to continue. It worked

709
00:45:12,080 --> 00:45:15,360
Speaker 1: on the principle of vacuum power, so the device would

710
00:45:15,400 --> 00:45:18,000
Speaker 1: fill a chamber with steam. You would have a boiler.

711
00:45:18,760 --> 00:45:22,640
Speaker 1: So you've got essentially a pot filled with water, and

712
00:45:22,719 --> 00:45:26,400
Speaker 1: you put heat to the pot. The water begins to

713
00:45:26,400 --> 00:45:29,680
Speaker 1: boil and gives off steam. Uh, there's a pipe leading

714
00:45:29,719 --> 00:45:32,640
Speaker 1: from the pot to a chamber, so the chamber fills

715
00:45:32,719 --> 00:45:36,680
Speaker 1: up with steam until you've got a nice amount of

716
00:45:36,719 --> 00:45:39,960
Speaker 1: steam built up inside that chamber. You would then cut

717
00:45:39,960 --> 00:45:45,160
Speaker 1: off the pathway between the chamber and the boiler. There

718
00:45:45,160 --> 00:45:49,000
Speaker 1: would be another line leading from the chamber down into

719
00:45:49,040 --> 00:45:52,160
Speaker 1: a mine, and the end of the line would be

720
00:45:52,280 --> 00:45:57,120
Speaker 1: under the water level. As the steam cools, it condenses,

721
00:45:57,600 --> 00:46:01,479
Speaker 1: and when it condenses, it's taking up less space, which

722
00:46:01,520 --> 00:46:06,240
Speaker 1: is creating a vacuum that's negative pressure. So this vacuum

723
00:46:06,320 --> 00:46:10,040
Speaker 1: would start to pull the water from the pipe. You know,

724
00:46:10,080 --> 00:46:12,719
Speaker 1: the water that's in the mine that there's an end

725
00:46:12,719 --> 00:46:14,640
Speaker 1: of a pipe that's underneath that water level, would pull

726
00:46:14,680 --> 00:46:19,560
Speaker 1: water up the length of that pipe into the chamber. Now,

727
00:46:19,600 --> 00:46:23,239
Speaker 1: once you've got a chamber filled with water, you have

728
00:46:23,280 --> 00:46:25,200
Speaker 1: to get rid of that water, and often the way

729
00:46:25,239 --> 00:46:27,640
Speaker 1: they would do that is they would close off the

730
00:46:27,719 --> 00:46:30,560
Speaker 1: pathway down the pipe that goes down into the mine

731
00:46:31,480 --> 00:46:35,399
Speaker 1: and heat it up and then expel the water with

732
00:46:35,800 --> 00:46:40,320
Speaker 1: using steam power. Sometimes they would go upwards of eighty feet,

733
00:46:40,719 --> 00:46:44,080
Speaker 1: or sometimes it would explode. Even if it worked properly,

734
00:46:44,920 --> 00:46:50,960
Speaker 1: the invention had pretty tough limitations. It was really limited

735
00:46:50,960 --> 00:46:53,680
Speaker 1: to shallow depths. You couldn't go very deep with this

736
00:46:53,760 --> 00:46:57,400
Speaker 1: because the vacuum power wasn't strong enough to pull water

737
00:46:57,600 --> 00:47:02,520
Speaker 1: up more than a few or so comparatively speaking to

738
00:47:02,640 --> 00:47:06,799
Speaker 1: other types of pumps. Then alone came a guy named

739
00:47:06,800 --> 00:47:10,760
Speaker 1: Thomas Newcomen who would come up with a significant improvement

740
00:47:10,840 --> 00:47:16,319
Speaker 1: over savories approach, and he used a steam powered water pump. Now,

741
00:47:16,320 --> 00:47:20,840
Speaker 1: the best way to imagine this is imagine a giant seesaw. Alright,

742
00:47:21,000 --> 00:47:25,160
Speaker 1: one end of the seesaw is weighted down, so it's

743
00:47:25,719 --> 00:47:30,040
Speaker 1: naturally in the down position at any given time. That's

744
00:47:30,080 --> 00:47:32,759
Speaker 1: the pump end. That's the end that is attached by

745
00:47:32,800 --> 00:47:36,800
Speaker 1: a chain to a pump that is designed to pull

746
00:47:36,920 --> 00:47:40,840
Speaker 1: water up from underground. The other end of the pump,

747
00:47:41,320 --> 00:47:43,640
Speaker 1: which is up in the air, is attached by a

748
00:47:43,719 --> 00:47:47,719
Speaker 1: chain to a steam piston inside a cylinder. So you've

749
00:47:47,760 --> 00:47:50,520
Speaker 1: got a cylinder and a piston. The piston is in

750
00:47:50,560 --> 00:47:54,239
Speaker 1: the up position. It's dangling from the chain that's on

751
00:47:54,400 --> 00:47:59,560
Speaker 1: the upper part of the seesaw. Now Newcomman's invention would

752
00:47:59,600 --> 00:48:02,080
Speaker 1: fill the cylinder with steam. Again, you would have a

753
00:48:02,080 --> 00:48:06,360
Speaker 1: boiler that would boil water generate steam. Steam would fill

754
00:48:06,520 --> 00:48:10,840
Speaker 1: this cylinder up, and then you would cool the cylinder

755
00:48:10,960 --> 00:48:14,160
Speaker 1: cylinder down, which would cause the steam to condense, creating

756
00:48:14,160 --> 00:48:17,560
Speaker 1: a vacuum, and that vacuum would pull on the piston.

757
00:48:18,160 --> 00:48:22,440
Speaker 1: So you have a pulling force that would pull on

758
00:48:22,520 --> 00:48:25,360
Speaker 1: the upper end of the seesaw, pulling it down, making

759
00:48:25,400 --> 00:48:27,960
Speaker 1: the lower end of the seesaw go up and pump

760
00:48:28,080 --> 00:48:33,760
Speaker 1: water out of the mine. So again it's using steam

761
00:48:33,800 --> 00:48:36,719
Speaker 1: as a vacuum source, not as a pushing source. It

762
00:48:36,800 --> 00:48:39,440
Speaker 1: was never used to push in those early steam engines,

763
00:48:39,480 --> 00:48:42,480
Speaker 1: only to pull, and that was largely because the materials

764
00:48:42,520 --> 00:48:45,560
Speaker 1: being used to create the cylinders and boilers weren't strong

765
00:48:45,680 --> 00:48:48,520
Speaker 1: enough to hold steam under greater pressures. So it was

766
00:48:48,600 --> 00:48:50,759
Speaker 1: just too dangerous to create a steam engine that you

767
00:48:50,920 --> 00:48:54,000
Speaker 1: steam as a pushing power. At that time, it made

768
00:48:54,000 --> 00:48:57,279
Speaker 1: way more sense to create the pulling power because it

769
00:48:57,360 --> 00:49:01,279
Speaker 1: was much less dangerous. Now new Cummins invention worked, but

770
00:49:01,360 --> 00:49:05,080
Speaker 1: it was inefficient, and that's largely because it required you

771
00:49:05,120 --> 00:49:08,319
Speaker 1: to heat the cylinder that has the piston in it.

772
00:49:08,440 --> 00:49:09,840
Speaker 1: You have to heat it up and then you have

773
00:49:09,920 --> 00:49:11,640
Speaker 1: to cool it down, and you have to heat it

774
00:49:11,719 --> 00:49:14,359
Speaker 1: up and cool it down over and over again, which

775
00:49:14,400 --> 00:49:16,280
Speaker 1: meant that you had to expend a lot of extra

776
00:49:16,480 --> 00:49:19,520
Speaker 1: energy just to get the cylinder at the right temperature

777
00:49:19,520 --> 00:49:22,440
Speaker 1: each time. And it also meant that heating it up

778
00:49:22,440 --> 00:49:24,600
Speaker 1: and cooling it down would create a lot of stress

779
00:49:24,680 --> 00:49:27,840
Speaker 1: on the material, so you'd have to replace the cylinder

780
00:49:27,920 --> 00:49:32,040
Speaker 1: fairly regularly, because if you kept doing it indefinitely, it

781
00:49:32,040 --> 00:49:35,640
Speaker 1: would become too weak to operate safely. But that all

782
00:49:35,719 --> 00:49:40,280
Speaker 1: changed when a fellow named James Watt came around. James

783
00:49:40,360 --> 00:49:44,680
Speaker 1: Watt invented a device called a condenser in seventeen sixty five.

784
00:49:45,840 --> 00:49:48,759
Speaker 1: So the condenser was a pretty simple idea. It was

785
00:49:48,760 --> 00:49:52,920
Speaker 1: a separate chamber that allowed steam to condense, and by

786
00:49:53,080 --> 00:49:56,160
Speaker 1: creating a separate chamber, you didn't have to change the

787
00:49:56,200 --> 00:49:58,840
Speaker 1: temperature of the cylinder anymore. You just kept the cylinder

788
00:49:58,880 --> 00:50:01,080
Speaker 1: at a high temperature. You didn't have to lower it

789
00:50:01,120 --> 00:50:04,960
Speaker 1: at all because once the steam was created in the cylinder,

790
00:50:05,000 --> 00:50:08,799
Speaker 1: it could pass into the condenser chamber, cool down and

791
00:50:08,840 --> 00:50:13,200
Speaker 1: create that vacuum poll. So this was a huge improvement

792
00:50:13,280 --> 00:50:16,879
Speaker 1: on the efficiency of the newcoming engine. So what really

793
00:50:16,920 --> 00:50:20,320
Speaker 1: made a big contribution here, now, late in his career,

794
00:50:21,120 --> 00:50:23,359
Speaker 1: what would make something else that he was even more

795
00:50:23,400 --> 00:50:26,080
Speaker 1: proud of. He thought that this was his most important

796
00:50:26,120 --> 00:50:30,320
Speaker 1: invention out of everything he did. It was a solid

797
00:50:30,360 --> 00:50:33,440
Speaker 1: mechanism that allowed the up and down motion of the

798
00:50:33,480 --> 00:50:37,040
Speaker 1: piston to translate into the arc motion of that see

799
00:50:37,040 --> 00:50:41,600
Speaker 1: saw pump I was talking about. Now, As I mentioned,

800
00:50:41,640 --> 00:50:44,640
Speaker 1: earlier models used a chain to connect the pump to

801
00:50:44,680 --> 00:50:48,399
Speaker 1: the piston. And there's a limitation right there, right because

802
00:50:48,440 --> 00:50:50,560
Speaker 1: if you have a chain, you can only pull. You

803
00:50:50,600 --> 00:50:53,799
Speaker 1: can't push a chain or a rope. If you try

804
00:50:53,840 --> 00:50:57,120
Speaker 1: and do that, you don't get any useful work out

805
00:50:57,160 --> 00:51:02,120
Speaker 1: of that. But by the late seventeen hundreds, you could

806
00:51:02,120 --> 00:51:06,120
Speaker 1: actually create materials strong enough to contain steam under a

807
00:51:06,200 --> 00:51:11,280
Speaker 1: decent amount of pressure. So what created this solid mechanism

808
00:51:11,320 --> 00:51:14,400
Speaker 1: instead of a chain that would connect the end of

809
00:51:14,440 --> 00:51:17,719
Speaker 1: a of a of a pump, you know, the the

810
00:51:17,800 --> 00:51:19,960
Speaker 1: working in not the not the pumping end, but the

811
00:51:20,000 --> 00:51:24,200
Speaker 1: other end to the piston. And because it was solid,

812
00:51:24,400 --> 00:51:27,959
Speaker 1: it could push or pull, and the up and down

813
00:51:27,960 --> 00:51:31,200
Speaker 1: motion of the piston was translated into this arc motion

814
00:51:31,480 --> 00:51:35,799
Speaker 1: of the pump going see sawing back and forth, and

815
00:51:36,040 --> 00:51:38,600
Speaker 1: that meant that you could actually use the piston to

816
00:51:38,760 --> 00:51:43,480
Speaker 1: push and to pull. So by pumping steam into the cylinder,

817
00:51:44,080 --> 00:51:46,640
Speaker 1: you could push the piston up, and by allowing the

818
00:51:46,680 --> 00:51:49,360
Speaker 1: steam to condense, you could pull the piston back down.

819
00:51:50,160 --> 00:51:53,680
Speaker 1: That meant you created a double acting piston. And this

820
00:51:53,880 --> 00:51:56,200
Speaker 1: meant that you could make a steam engine much more

821
00:51:56,200 --> 00:51:59,600
Speaker 1: efficient because it could work in both directions. Now, the

822
00:51:59,640 --> 00:52:03,600
Speaker 1: steam engine had an enormous impact on both the textile

823
00:52:03,880 --> 00:52:06,719
Speaker 1: and the iron industries, so that's kind of why I

824
00:52:06,840 --> 00:52:10,520
Speaker 1: put it here at this point to talk about how

825
00:52:10,520 --> 00:52:12,920
Speaker 1: it affected the other two industries I've already covered in

826
00:52:12,960 --> 00:52:17,400
Speaker 1: this series. So factories began to use steam power in

827
00:52:17,480 --> 00:52:20,440
Speaker 1: place of water wheels, or in addition to water wheels.

828
00:52:20,800 --> 00:52:23,320
Speaker 1: Steam power freed up factories from having to be placed

829
00:52:23,320 --> 00:52:26,600
Speaker 1: alongside a river. You could actually put a factory anywhere

830
00:52:26,840 --> 00:52:31,280
Speaker 1: by creating steam engines to provide the power for whatever

831
00:52:31,320 --> 00:52:34,080
Speaker 1: it was you were doing. So there were steam powered

832
00:52:34,160 --> 00:52:38,280
Speaker 1: looms and textile mills, and steam powered blowers and iron works,

833
00:52:38,280 --> 00:52:40,840
Speaker 1: so you didn't have to have the river to provide

834
00:52:40,840 --> 00:52:43,840
Speaker 1: the water wheel power or You could even use a

835
00:52:43,840 --> 00:52:47,880
Speaker 1: steam engine to pull water to continuously supply the water

836
00:52:47,920 --> 00:52:52,839
Speaker 1: wheel with enough water to turn and provide the mechanical

837
00:52:52,880 --> 00:52:56,000
Speaker 1: power that you needed. So there were combinations as well.

838
00:52:56,920 --> 00:53:00,680
Speaker 1: Harnessing steam made these industries more efficient, and that led

839
00:53:00,719 --> 00:53:04,239
Speaker 1: to lower prices on goods, and it also increased a

840
00:53:04,360 --> 00:53:08,160
Speaker 1: need for workers. You began to be able to produce more,

841
00:53:08,200 --> 00:53:10,320
Speaker 1: but you needed more people to work on the stuff

842
00:53:10,360 --> 00:53:13,000
Speaker 1: you were doing. And that was great news for the

843
00:53:13,000 --> 00:53:15,880
Speaker 1: population of Britain because the population was growing and there

844
00:53:15,880 --> 00:53:18,680
Speaker 1: weren't enough jobs to go around otherwise. So this was

845
00:53:18,760 --> 00:53:23,320
Speaker 1: creating a demand for jobs um and there were plenty

846
00:53:23,320 --> 00:53:26,200
Speaker 1: of people to fill those jobs. And the Industrial Revolution

847
00:53:26,239 --> 00:53:28,920
Speaker 1: was producing something besides just iron and cloth. It was

848
00:53:29,000 --> 00:53:33,600
Speaker 1: producing the working class. Now that kind of leads me

849
00:53:33,640 --> 00:53:36,120
Speaker 1: to the conclusion of this episode. There's a lot we

850
00:53:36,120 --> 00:53:39,480
Speaker 1: could talk about with steam, obviously, including the development of

851
00:53:39,480 --> 00:53:42,759
Speaker 1: the locomotive and steamships, but I'm going to save that

852
00:53:42,840 --> 00:53:45,920
Speaker 1: for the final episode. So I'm going to conclude the

853
00:53:45,960 --> 00:53:49,080
Speaker 1: series on the Industrial Revolution with the next one, and

854
00:53:49,120 --> 00:53:52,880
Speaker 1: we'll look at how transportation was changing, including those steamships

855
00:53:52,880 --> 00:53:55,680
Speaker 1: and locomotives. We'll talk about some of the conflicts that

856
00:53:55,719 --> 00:53:59,640
Speaker 1: were going on around the same span of time, So

857
00:53:59,760 --> 00:54:03,319
Speaker 1: that includes the American Revolution that took place during the

858
00:54:03,360 --> 00:54:07,360
Speaker 1: Industrial Revolution in England, as well as the Napoleonic Wars

859
00:54:07,800 --> 00:54:11,239
Speaker 1: and the American Civil War, and there were other conflicts

860
00:54:11,280 --> 00:54:13,759
Speaker 1: as well, so that was a big part of what

861
00:54:13,800 --> 00:54:17,960
Speaker 1: was driving innovation as well. It became necessity for the

862
00:54:18,000 --> 00:54:22,920
Speaker 1: war efforts to create iron and steel products more efficiently

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Speaker 1: and as well as textiles and other elements as well.

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Speaker 1: So that's gonna be part of the discussion in the

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Speaker 1: next episode. I hope you enjoyed that classic episode of

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Speaker 1: tech Stuff. Next week we will wrap up this three

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Speaker 1: part series and uh in the meantime, if you have

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Speaker 1: suggestions for topics I should cover in future episodes of

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Speaker 1: tech Stuff, whether it's a look back on big historical

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Speaker 1: trends in tech or something that's cutting edge and brand new.

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Speaker 1: You can do that in a couple of different ways.

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Speaker 1: One is to download the I Heart radio app. It

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Speaker 1: over to tech Stuff using the little search bar. You'll

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Speaker 1: me know what you would like on on the show,

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Speaker 1: or if you would prefer an alternative. You can always

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Speaker 1: handle for the show is text Stuff hs W and

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Speaker 1: I'll talk to you again really soon. Tech Stuff is

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