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Speaker 1: Welcome to Stuff You Missed in History Class, a production

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Speaker 1: of I Heart Radio. Hello, and welcome to the podcast.

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Speaker 1: I'm Tracy V. Wilson and I'm Holly Fry. We have

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Speaker 1: done various episodes related to the environment on the show before,

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Speaker 1: so things like the Donora smog and the Cuyahoga River

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Speaker 1: fires and the London smog of n two. We talked

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Speaker 1: about extinctions in our episode on endlings, and about invasive species,

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Speaker 1: and our episode on Australia's rabbit proof Fence, and then

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Speaker 1: in more recent times in our episode on Kutzoo that

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Speaker 1: came out not too long ago. While all of these

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Speaker 1: topics are related to the environment and humans and industries

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Speaker 1: impacts on the environment, none of it's really about climate.

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Speaker 1: I don't know that we've ever talked about the climate, uh,

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Speaker 1: in terms of the current climate crisis. We've talked about

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Speaker 1: things like the year without a Summer, which was a

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Speaker 1: climactic phenomenon. Yeah, and we've talked about ways different scientists

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Speaker 1: have measured various aspects of the climate a little bit. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: some of that has come up in Unearthed. Yeah, not

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Speaker 1: climate itself specifically, Yeah, and the warming of the climate

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Speaker 1: in particular, which is an ongoing emergency, obviously, so today

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Speaker 1: we are going to remedy that. We're going to talk about.

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Speaker 1: Eunice Newton Foot and in eighteen fifty six she became

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Speaker 1: the first person to make a connection between the Earth's

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Speaker 1: temperature and the concentration of carbon dioxide gas in the atmosphere.

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Speaker 1: That credit, though, usually goes to John Tendall, who made

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Speaker 1: the same connection a few years later. Eunice Newton was

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Speaker 1: born in Goshen, Connecticut, on July eighteen nineteen, and she

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Speaker 1: was baptized on September twenty nine of that year. Her

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Speaker 1: father's name was Ice Newton, Jr. Which is a delightful

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Speaker 1: coincidence considering Eunice's path in life, and her mother's name

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Speaker 1: was Thursday, and Eunice was the eleventh of their twelve children.

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Speaker 1: Isaac not a scientist or a philosopher, but a farmer,

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Speaker 1: and although he seems to have been very successful at this,

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Speaker 1: he also liked to invest in various business ventures, and

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Speaker 1: these did not always work out, and by the time

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Speaker 1: he died in eighteen thirty five, he was deeply in debt.

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Speaker 1: Sometime after Unice was born, but well before her father's death,

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Speaker 1: the family moved to East Bloomfield, New York, and that's

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Speaker 1: where Eunice's parents would live for the rest of their lives.

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Speaker 1: And really beyond that, we just don't know much about

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Speaker 1: her early life, except that in eighteen thirty six, when

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Speaker 1: she was about seventeen, she enrolled at Troy Female Seminary

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Speaker 1: that later became known as the Emma Willard School after

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Speaker 1: its founder. It's possible that Unice left journals, correspondence, or

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Speaker 1: other personal accounts of her time in Troy or other

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Speaker 1: times in her life, but if she did, they have

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Speaker 1: not been brought to light. So we don't really know

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Speaker 1: much more about her time at the seminary than we

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Speaker 1: do about her earlier life. But there are a couple

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Speaker 1: of conclusions that we can draw. One is that her

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Speaker 1: education there would have had a really strong foundation in science,

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Speaker 1: and that's something that wasn't really typical for a women's

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Speaker 1: school at the time. Emma Willard corresponded and collaborated with

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Speaker 1: Amice Eaton, who was co founder of the Renseller School

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Speaker 1: that's now Rinseller Polytechnic Institute that was about seven miles

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Speaker 1: or eleven kilometers away from Troy. Eaton was a natural

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Speaker 1: scientist and an educational reformer, and his reforms included a

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Speaker 1: focus on learning by doing rather than focusing on memorization.

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Speaker 1: So Willard's curriculum for the Women's Seminary incorporated a lot

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Speaker 1: of these ideas. So Unice would not only have attended

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Speaker 1: lecturers on the scientists, she also would have learned about

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Speaker 1: designing and conducting speriments as part of scientific study. It's

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Speaker 1: also possible that Eunice's time at the seminary influenced a

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Speaker 1: connection that would happen later in her life. Eunice was

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Speaker 1: at the Seminary from eighteen thirty six to eighteen thirty eight,

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Speaker 1: and later on she would live near and work with

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Speaker 1: Elizabeth Katie Stanton, who graduated from Troy Female Seminary in

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Speaker 1: eighteen thirty two. So it is possible, but not really

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Speaker 1: documented anywhere, that these two women felt a connection thanks

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Speaker 1: to their having gone to the same school. On August twelfth,

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Speaker 1: eighteen forty one, when Eunice was twenty two, she married

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Speaker 1: Elisha Foote, who was about ten years older than she was.

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Speaker 1: After their marriage, they moved to Seneca Falls, New York,

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Speaker 1: also home to Elizabeth Katie Stanton. At one point, Elisha

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Speaker 1: actually bought the home that's known today as the Elizabeth

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Speaker 1: Katie Stanton House, although it doesn't look like the Foot's

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Speaker 1: ever lived in that house. Both of Unice and Elisha's

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Speaker 1: children were born in Seneca Falls, and those were Mary,

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Speaker 1: who was born on July twenty one, eighteen forty two,

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Speaker 1: and Augusta, who was born October eighteen forty four. In

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Speaker 1: eighteen forty eight, while living in Seneca Falls, both Eunice

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Speaker 1: and Elisha were involved with the women's rights movement and

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Speaker 1: the Seneca Falls Convention. Unice was one of the five

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Speaker 1: women on the committee that was tasked with keeping the

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Speaker 1: conference proceedings. She and Elisha also both signed the Declaration

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Speaker 1: of Sentiments that was crafted during the convention. On most

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Speaker 1: reproductions of that document, Eunice's signature is fifth after Lucretia Mott,

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Speaker 1: Harriet Katie Eaton, Margaret Prior, and Elizabeth Katie Stanton. Again,

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Speaker 1: we don't have a lot of personal remembrance of her,

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Speaker 1: but all of this suggests that she was an active

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Speaker 1: and involved participant in this phase of the women's rights

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Speaker 1: movement in the United States. While living in Seneca Falls,

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Speaker 1: Unice became a member of the American Art Union, which

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Speaker 1: worked to promote the creation and sale of American art.

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Speaker 1: All Aisha became District attorney for Seneca County and then

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Speaker 1: a judge of the Court of Common Pleas. Eventually, the

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Speaker 1: Foots moved from Seneca Falls to Saratoga Springs, New York.

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Speaker 1: And regardless of where they lived, both Elisha and Unice

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Speaker 1: seemed to have both been really interested in experiments and inventions.

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Speaker 1: Their published work suggests that they set up laboratories in

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Speaker 1: their homes where they did experimental work that they hoped

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Speaker 1: would be worthy of publication. This includes the papers that

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Speaker 1: were read at the American Association for the Advancement of

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Speaker 1: Science meeting in eighteen fifty six, which is where we

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Speaker 1: are at chronologically in this story. But we're going to

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Speaker 1: have a lengthier discussion of Unice's scientific work later, so

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Speaker 1: for now we will move on to the rest of

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Speaker 1: what we know about her life. In addition to their

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Speaker 1: published scientific work, both Elisha and Unice applied for and

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Speaker 1: were granted multiple patents. Unite's patents included one for a

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Speaker 1: quote filling for souls of boots and shoes that's kept

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Speaker 1: the boots in the shoes from squeaking that patent was

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Speaker 1: issued in eighteen sixty Later, she developed a paper making machine.

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Speaker 1: According to a favorable write up of this machine in

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Speaker 1: the Boston Posts in eighteen sixty four, one Massachusetts paper

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Speaker 1: maker that put this invention into use was saving a

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Speaker 1: hundred and fifty seven dollars a day in materials, which

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Speaker 1: would have been a significant amount. In eighteen sixty four.

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Speaker 1: That same article suggested that rapping and printing papers that

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Speaker 1: were made using this method would cost two or three

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Speaker 1: cents less per pound than other paper did. One of

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Speaker 1: a Lisha's specialties as an attorney was patent law, and

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Speaker 1: he represented himself in legal disputes involving his patents, and

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Speaker 1: since some of his patents were financially valuable, there were

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Speaker 1: several of those. For example, one of his inventions was

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Speaker 1: a device to regulate the draft of stoves, and a

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Speaker 1: dispute over this patent led all the way to the U. S.

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Speaker 1: Supreme Court in Sills be versus Foot. This was honestly

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Speaker 1: too convoluted a case to be summed up in an

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Speaker 1: episode that is not about Elisha, or potentially even just

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Speaker 1: that case. But a similar device already existed when Foot's

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Speaker 1: patent was granted, but this case also just includes a

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Speaker 1: ton of back and forth about who had been allowed

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Speaker 1: to introduce what into evidence and how much money was

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Speaker 1: owed to whom. It was a big tangle, not really

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Speaker 1: in the scope of today's show. Yet. When we've done

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Speaker 1: Supreme Court cases on the show before, I've usually really

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Speaker 1: enjoyed reading the text of the Supreme Court decision, but

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Speaker 1: this one just made my eyes crossed. I was like,

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Speaker 1: I can't what are you even saying here. So in

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Speaker 1: eighteen sixty four, though Elishah was appointed to the U. S.

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Speaker 1: Patent Office Board of Appeals, and then in eighteen sixty

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Speaker 1: eight he became the eleventh Commissioner of Patents for the

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Speaker 1: United States. His work at the Patent Office would have

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Speaker 1: required him to be in Washington, d C. By the

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Speaker 1: point the foot daughters, Marian Augusta were grown. They were

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Speaker 1: soon to be married. It's not entirely clear whether they

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Speaker 1: and Eunice went with him, but we do know that

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Speaker 1: Unite did at least visit. On April sixteenth, eighteen sixty eight,

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Speaker 1: Susan B. Anthony's newspaper The Revolution published a piece by

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Speaker 1: Elizabeth Katie Stanton which recounted a trip to Washington d C.

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Speaker 1: It read, in part quote Judge Foote and his scientific

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Speaker 1: wife escorted us to the Patent Office, which, like all

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Speaker 1: other departments of government, we are told, is used for

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Speaker 1: political ends. We did not go there, however, to lay

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Speaker 1: bare its corruptions and favoritisms, but merely that we might

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Speaker 1: have it in our power to refute the assertion of

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Speaker 1: the Reverend Dr Todd, trepanned by Gail Hamilton's, who, in

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Speaker 1: his recent attack on his fair countrywomen, said that there

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Speaker 1: had been no inventors among our sex. And there we

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Speaker 1: found many witnesses against the unhappy Todd. Mrs Unis Foote

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Speaker 1: has herself taken out several patents and is occupied at

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Speaker 1: this time making a new kind of paper. But later

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Speaker 1: Stanton went on to say, quote Mrs Foote remarked to

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Speaker 1: us that she had no doubt that half the patents

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Speaker 1: there were the inventions of women. But as men had

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Speaker 1: the money to get up the models and loved notoriety,

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Speaker 1: they had been taken out in their names. If the

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Speaker 1: Reverend Todd will take the trouble to investigate this matter

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Speaker 1: for himself, he will no doubt find this to be true.

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Speaker 1: Elisha was the Commissioner of Patents for a little less

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Speaker 1: than a year until April of eighteen sixty nine, and

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Speaker 1: then he returned to his private law practice. By the

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Speaker 1: late eighteen seventies, he and Eunice had moved to St.

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Speaker 1: Louis to live with their daughter Mary, who had married

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Speaker 1: John B. Henderson. Henderson had served as the U. S.

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Speaker 1: Senator for Missouri from eighteen sixty two to eighteen sixty

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Speaker 1: nine and was co author of the thirteenth Amendment to

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Speaker 1: the U. S. Constitution, which outlawed slavery. Accept his punishment

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Speaker 1: for a crime. This is another one of those movements

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Speaker 1: were not really having a lot of personal accounts about

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Speaker 1: or from her means we don't know a lot of

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Speaker 1: what was going on behind the scenes. So this whole stretch,

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Speaker 1: you know, has happened over a period of time that

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Speaker 1: included the U. S. Civil War, and we just don't

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Speaker 1: have a lot of information about anything in their lives

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Speaker 1: related to that. We can reasonably conclude though, that their

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Speaker 1: daughter marrying the co author of the thirteenth Amendment to

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Speaker 1: the Constitution probably means that they were all against slavery

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Speaker 1: in this context, but not something that's particularly written down

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Speaker 1: anywhere yeah, one would help. But as we know today,

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Speaker 1: not everyone in a family feels the same way. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: and not everybody in New York or any of the

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Speaker 1: other places they lived was totally aligned on that, even

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Speaker 1: though the states in question had outlawed slavery by the

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Speaker 1: time the Civil War started. Anyway, to return to the story,

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Speaker 1: Elijah died of heart disease at the Henderson home on

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Speaker 1: October three, and Unice's life after that point is pretty

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Speaker 1: much a mystery. She died on September eight in Lenox, Massachusetts,

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Speaker 1: at the age of sixty nine. Both she and Elishah

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Speaker 1: were interred in the Foote family Mausoleum in Greenwood Cemetery

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Speaker 1: in Brooklyn, New York. According to a nineteen fifteen Newton

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Speaker 1: family genealogy that was compiled by ERMINA. Newton Leonard, Unice

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Speaker 1: was quote a fine portrait and landscape painter. She was

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Speaker 1: an inventive genius and a person of unusual beauty. No

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Speaker 1: picture of Unice survives, at least not one that has

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Speaker 1: been unearthed yet, but her science writing does, and we'll

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Speaker 1: talk more about that after a sponsor break. The American

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Speaker 1: Association for the Advancement of Science was established in Boston

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Speaker 1: in eighteen forty seven, and it held its first meeting

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Speaker 1: in Philadelphia in eighteen forty eight. The organization's purpose was

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Speaker 1: to both promote and advance science, and to that end,

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Speaker 1: it had an official membership roster, but it also arranged

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Speaker 1: annual meetings that were open to the public. In terms

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Speaker 1: of its membership, in those early years, there were no

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Speaker 1: strict criteria. Anyone who was nominated with someone else seconding

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Speaker 1: the nomination was admitted as a member. It was incredibly

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Speaker 1: rare for someone to be denied, and for the most part,

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Speaker 1: once you were remember you were a member for life

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Speaker 1: as long as you paid your dues. But that rule

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Speaker 1: only came into being after the organization realized that there

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Speaker 1: were a lot of people on its membership lists who

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Speaker 1: were not paying dues and weren't really active anymore. It

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Speaker 1: was one of those moments where people were looking at

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Speaker 1: the membership list, like, who are these people? Are they

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Speaker 1: even still alive? Don't really know. Elisha Foote was elected

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Speaker 1: to the American Association for the Advancement of Science at

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Speaker 1: its tenth meeting, which was held in Albany, New York,

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Speaker 1: in August of eighteen fifties. Six and at that meeting

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Speaker 1: he also read a paper that he had written, which

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Speaker 1: was titled on the Heat of the Sun's Rays. According

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Speaker 1: to the program, he was to read his paper on

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Speaker 1: Friday August, but some accounts place that is happening on

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Speaker 1: the Unice's paper is listed in the program immediately after Elisha's,

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Speaker 1: with a note that it was to be read by

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Speaker 1: Professor Henry. That was Professor Joseph Henry, who was the

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Speaker 1: first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and a past president

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Speaker 1: of the Triple A S. Although the program that was

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Speaker 1: printed ahead of the meeting shows both of the Foot's

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Speaker 1: papers with the same title. When Unicees was printed later,

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Speaker 1: it was with the title Circumstances Affecting the Heat of

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Speaker 1: the Sun's Rays. So side note here. For reasons that

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Speaker 1: are not clear to me at all, neither Elisha's nor

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Speaker 1: Unice's papers was printed in the proceedings of this eighteen

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Speaker 1: fifty six Triple A S meeting, nor were they included

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Speaker 1: in the list of papers that were not being printed

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Speaker 1: because their authors hadn't turned in a copy to be printed,

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Speaker 1: which delights me that that was a list in there,

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Speaker 1: and that there were seventies six papers on it, which

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Speaker 1: just feels like a lot. It's tricky to tell how

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Speaker 1: that number of seventies six papers compares to the total

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Speaker 1: number of papers that were read, though, because in the

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Speaker 1: program some of the papers were read more than once.

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Speaker 1: So I tried to figure that out to be like, Okay,

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Speaker 1: how many people read a paper and didn't turn in

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Speaker 1: a copy of the paper, And then I was like,

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Speaker 1: I'm gonna have to print all this thing out and

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Speaker 1: cross off duplicates, and that's just not happening today. So

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Speaker 1: both these papers, though, were later printed in volume twenty

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Speaker 1: two of the American Journal of Science and Arts that

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Speaker 1: was in November of eighteen fifty six. Each of the

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Speaker 1: papers was noted as having been read at the Triple

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Speaker 1: A s meeting. So it's just kind of a mystery

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Speaker 1: exactly what went on in terms of the proceedings. Given

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Speaker 1: their similar subject matter and some common elements in their methods,

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Speaker 1: it's likely that Elisha and Unice collaborated with one another

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Speaker 1: on their experiments and their papers. Elisha's used a variety

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Speaker 1: of setups to compare the ambient temperature to the temperature

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Speaker 1: that the thermometer recorded when it was placed in the sun.

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Speaker 1: Measuring what he called the quote relative heat of the

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Speaker 1: Sun's rays, which got stronger when the ambient temperature was hotter.

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Speaker 1: He also did the same experiment using a burning glass

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Speaker 1: to focus the sun's rays. Unice's experiment looked at how

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Speaker 1: the heat of the sun affected different gases, and her

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Speaker 1: words quote the experiments were made with an air pump

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Speaker 1: and two cylindrical receivers of the same size, about four

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Speaker 1: inches in diameter and thirty in length in each were

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Speaker 1: placed two thermometers, and the air was exhausted from one

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Speaker 1: and condensed in the other. After both had acquired the

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Speaker 1: same temperature, they were placed in the sun side by side,

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Speaker 1: and while the action of the sun's rays rose to

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Speaker 1: a hundred and ten degrees in the condensed tube, it

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Speaker 1: attained only eighty eight degree in the other. She concluded

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Speaker 1: in this part of the paper that quote, this circumstance

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Speaker 1: must affect the power of the Sun's rays in different

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Speaker 1: places and contribute to their feeble action on the summits

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Speaker 1: of lofty mountains. She doesn't specify what these cylinders were

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Speaker 1: made of, but they were presumably glass. Unite repeated the

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Speaker 1: same experiment using air that had been saturated with moisture

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Speaker 1: in one tube and air that had been dried with

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Speaker 1: calcium chloride in the other. And she found that when

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Speaker 1: the cylinders were placed in the sun, the air that

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Speaker 1: was full of water vapor got hotter than the dry

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Speaker 1: air did. And third, she repeated the same experiment with

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Speaker 1: common air in one tube and carbonic acid gas, which

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Speaker 1: was the term used at the time for carbon dioxide

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Speaker 1: in the other. She wrote, quote, the highest effect of

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Speaker 1: the Sun's rays I have found to be in carbonic

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Speaker 1: acid gas. She also noted that quote the receiver containing

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Speaker 1: the gas became itself much heated, very sensibly more so

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Speaker 1: than the other, and on being removed, it was many

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Speaker 1: times as long in cooling. Foot concluded by saying of

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Speaker 1: the carbonic acid gas, quote, an atmosphere of that gas

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Speaker 1: would give to our earth a high temperature. And if,

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Speaker 1: as some suppose, at one period of its history, the

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Speaker 1: air had mixed with it a larger proportion than at present,

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Speaker 1: an increased temperature from its own action, as well as

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Speaker 1: from increased weight, must have necessarily resulted. On comparing the

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Speaker 1: Sun's heat in different gases, I found it to be

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Speaker 1: in hydrogen gas one hundred four degrees in common air

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Speaker 1: one hundred six degrees, in oxygen gas on eight degrees,

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Speaker 1: and in carbonic acid gas one twenty five degrees. The

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Speaker 1: significance of this wasn't really understood at the time, but

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Speaker 1: this makes Unice Newton Foot the first person to connect

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Speaker 1: carbon dioxide and water vapor, which we know today as

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Speaker 1: greenhouse gases, to the Earth's climate and the possibility of

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Speaker 1: a warmer planet. There are a lot of sources that

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Speaker 1: say that Unice was prohibited from reading this paper at

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Speaker 1: the Triple A S meeting because she was a woman,

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Speaker 1: and that that's why Joseph Henry read it on her behalf.

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Speaker 1: And there were definitely men in the Triple A S

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Speaker 1: who did not think women belonged there, but the association

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Speaker 1: did allow women as members. The first woman to be

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Speaker 1: elected was astronomer mur Riya Mitchell in eighteen fifty. Entomologist

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Speaker 1: Margaretta Morris was elected that same year. Triple A S

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Speaker 1: meetings were open to the public, and the Triple A

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Speaker 1: S had issued an open invitation for women to attend

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Speaker 1: its first meeting in eighteen forty eight, and women frequently

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Speaker 1: did attend, although again there were certainly men in the

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Speaker 1: Triple A s, who considered women more like companions and

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Speaker 1: ornaments for the male membership than participants, like active participants

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Speaker 1: with knowledge and interests of their own. Unie was not

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Speaker 1: a member of the Triple A S, but non members

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00:19:56,760 --> 00:20:00,359
Speaker 1: also presented papers at every Triple A S meeting between

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Speaker 1: eighteen forty eight and eighteen sixty. Strangely, Triple A S

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Speaker 1: records of non member activity don't record any non members

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00:20:08,000 --> 00:20:11,879
Speaker 1: presenting in eighteen fifty six. That may be because Joseph

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Speaker 1: Henry read Unite's paper for her, or because she was

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Speaker 1: considered to be covered under her husband's membership. That list

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00:20:19,359 --> 00:20:22,960
Speaker 1: also assumes the non members in question are men, so

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Speaker 1: it also wasn't unheard of for people's papers to be

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Speaker 1: read by someone other than the author themselves. At that

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Speaker 1: eighteen fifty six meeting, Arthur shots paper on the geology

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Speaker 1: of the lower Rio Bravo was read by topographical engineer W. H. Emery,

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Speaker 1: who was a major in the U. S. Army. Emery

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00:20:42,680 --> 00:20:46,879
Speaker 1: also read Marine T. W. Chandler's on the meteorological phenomena

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00:20:46,960 --> 00:20:50,480
Speaker 1: observed at various points on the Boundary Survey and the

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Speaker 1: reasons for Emery reading these two papers and proxy for

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Speaker 1: someone else that's not really noted anywhere. So it's possible

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Speaker 1: that the organizer of the Triple A S meeting in

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Speaker 1: eighteen fifty six prevented units from reading her own paper

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Speaker 1: because she was a woman. But if that is the case,

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Speaker 1: it's just not documented anywhere, and the ongoing involvement of

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Speaker 1: women in the Triple a S at this point suggests

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00:21:14,600 --> 00:21:18,119
Speaker 1: that there may have been some other explanation. Foot is

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Speaker 1: the only woman known to have presented a paper that year,

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Speaker 1: even though it was presented by proxy, and as a

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Speaker 1: note on that proxy, Joseph Henry was extremely prominent and

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00:21:29,200 --> 00:21:33,359
Speaker 1: well respected in the scientific community, so it's also possible

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00:21:33,359 --> 00:21:36,520
Speaker 1: that his reading of the paper was intended as an honor.

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Speaker 1: He also seems to have felt compelled to make some

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Speaker 1: remarks on the subject of women's roles in science, although

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00:21:43,920 --> 00:21:46,880
Speaker 1: there's no word for word transcript of what these remarks

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Speaker 1: were anywhere. They were summarized and in eighteen fifty seven

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Speaker 1: volume that was edited by David A. Wells, and this

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00:21:54,840 --> 00:21:57,760
Speaker 1: was titled we have a long title which everyone knows

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00:21:57,760 --> 00:22:02,400
Speaker 1: we love Annual of Scientific Discovery or Yearbook of Facts

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00:22:02,400 --> 00:22:05,919
Speaker 1: in Science and Art for eighteen fifty seven exhibiting the

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Speaker 1: most important discoveries and improvements and mechanics, useful arts, natural philosophy, chemistry, astronomy, meteorology, zoology, botany, mineralogy, geology, geography, antiquities, etcetera,

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Speaker 1: together with a list of recent scientific publications, a classified

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Speaker 1: list of patents, obituaries of eminent scientific men, notes on

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Speaker 1: the progress of science during the year eighteen fifty six, etcetera.

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Speaker 1: It's a zippy one, just rolls off the tone. I

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Speaker 1: got almost to the end of the list of subjects

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Speaker 1: before I had to take a breath. Before summarizing the

376
00:22:43,760 --> 00:22:48,359
Speaker 1: content of Foot's paper, Wells characterized Henry's comments this way quote.

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Speaker 1: Professor Henry then read a paper by Mrs Unice Foot,

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Speaker 1: prefacing it with a few words to the effect that

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Speaker 1: science was of no country and of no sex. The

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00:22:58,119 --> 00:23:01,560
Speaker 1: sphere of woman embraces not only the beautiful and the useful,

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00:23:01,720 --> 00:23:06,680
Speaker 1: but the true. If Eunice Newton Foot was indeed prohibited

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Speaker 1: from reading her own paper in the eighteen fifty six

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Speaker 1: Triple a s Meeting, that prohibition seems to have been

384
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Speaker 1: lifted the next year, eighteen fifty seven. That year, she

385
00:23:17,160 --> 00:23:19,879
Speaker 1: was scheduled to read on a new source of electrical

386
00:23:19,960 --> 00:23:24,400
Speaker 1: excitation at the annual meeting in Montreal. According to the program,

387
00:23:24,520 --> 00:23:27,480
Speaker 1: she was to present her paper on Friday, August fourteenth,

388
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Speaker 1: and there is no notation in the program that would

389
00:23:30,840 --> 00:23:34,160
Speaker 1: suggest that she did not read it herself, although there's

390
00:23:34,200 --> 00:23:37,560
Speaker 1: another report that suggests that she was introduced again by

391
00:23:37,640 --> 00:23:41,600
Speaker 1: Joseph Henry. This second paper documented an experiment she had

392
00:23:41,640 --> 00:23:44,719
Speaker 1: done over the course of eight months, again using pumps

393
00:23:44,760 --> 00:23:48,399
Speaker 1: to either condense or evacuate air in a container. She

394
00:23:48,520 --> 00:23:53,080
Speaker 1: concluded quote the compression or expansion of atmospheric air produces

395
00:23:53,160 --> 00:23:58,080
Speaker 1: an electrical excitation. There are only two physics papers known

396
00:23:58,160 --> 00:24:01,840
Speaker 1: to have been written by women and published in American

397
00:24:01,920 --> 00:24:05,720
Speaker 1: journals prior to eighteen eighty nine, and they are these

398
00:24:05,760 --> 00:24:09,920
Speaker 1: two papers by Eunice Newton Foot. She also wrote two

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00:24:10,000 --> 00:24:13,600
Speaker 1: of the only sixteen physics papers known to have been

400
00:24:13,600 --> 00:24:17,679
Speaker 1: published by American women in the entire nineteenth century. Also

401
00:24:17,920 --> 00:24:21,280
Speaker 1: in eighteen fifty nine, after ongoing discussion with the Triple

402
00:24:21,320 --> 00:24:25,000
Speaker 1: A s about women's roles in the organization, this statement

403
00:24:25,040 --> 00:24:28,240
Speaker 1: was printed in the proceedings of its thirteenth meeting, quote,

404
00:24:28,680 --> 00:24:31,560
Speaker 1: no action is necessary in regard to the motion to

405
00:24:31,640 --> 00:24:35,400
Speaker 1: admit Ladies as members. Inasmuch as two ladies have already

406
00:24:35,440 --> 00:24:39,320
Speaker 1: been admitted, it's not clear whether that motion that's referenced

407
00:24:39,359 --> 00:24:43,320
Speaker 1: was made and addressed before or after educator and scientist

408
00:24:43,359 --> 00:24:46,800
Speaker 1: Elmira Lincoln Phelps became a member, which happened at that meeting.

409
00:24:47,440 --> 00:24:50,879
Speaker 1: Elmira Lincoln Phelps, Maria Mitchell, and Margaretta Morris are the

410
00:24:50,920 --> 00:24:53,879
Speaker 1: only three women known to have officially been Triple As

411
00:24:53,880 --> 00:24:57,960
Speaker 1: members before eighteen sixty, although since many people on the

412
00:24:58,000 --> 00:25:01,320
Speaker 1: member list included only their initial as, there might have

413
00:25:01,359 --> 00:25:04,920
Speaker 1: been others. We'll talk about how Eunice Newton Foots papers

414
00:25:04,960 --> 00:25:10,159
Speaker 1: were received and their impact after another quick sponsor break.

415
00:25:18,240 --> 00:25:22,399
Speaker 1: After Joseph Henry read Unice Newton Foot's paper at the

416
00:25:22,480 --> 00:25:25,200
Speaker 1: eighteen fifty six meeting of the Triple A s, it

417
00:25:25,320 --> 00:25:27,959
Speaker 1: got some attention in both the United States and Europe

418
00:25:28,000 --> 00:25:31,760
Speaker 1: in both popular and scientific journals. As we said earlier,

419
00:25:31,880 --> 00:25:35,359
Speaker 1: both the Foot's papers were published in full in the

420
00:25:35,359 --> 00:25:39,440
Speaker 1: American Journal of Science and Arts, and David A. Wells

421
00:25:39,560 --> 00:25:44,000
Speaker 1: Annual of Scientific Discovery paraphrase both of their papers, as

422
00:25:44,040 --> 00:25:47,720
Speaker 1: well as Henry's introductory remarks of Unice's paper. Even though

423
00:25:47,840 --> 00:25:52,200
Speaker 1: Unice's paper is much shorter than her husband's. His synopsis

424
00:25:52,359 --> 00:25:56,239
Speaker 1: of a little longer than the one of of her

425
00:25:56,320 --> 00:26:00,080
Speaker 1: husband's is perhaps she was so succinct he felt you

426
00:26:00,160 --> 00:26:04,960
Speaker 1: needed to like really make sure people understood. Uh. The

427
00:26:05,000 --> 00:26:08,880
Speaker 1: September eighteen fifty six issue of Scientific American included an

428
00:26:08,960 --> 00:26:15,200
Speaker 1: article titled Scientific Ladies Experiments with Condensed Gases. It commented

429
00:26:15,240 --> 00:26:18,920
Speaker 1: on women's participation in science, reading in part quote, owing

430
00:26:18,960 --> 00:26:21,560
Speaker 1: to the nature of women's duties, few of them have

431
00:26:21,680 --> 00:26:25,359
Speaker 1: had the leisure or the opportunities to pursue science experimentally.

432
00:26:26,000 --> 00:26:28,040
Speaker 1: But those of them who have had the taste and

433
00:26:28,040 --> 00:26:31,080
Speaker 1: the opportunity to do so have shown as much power

434
00:26:31,160 --> 00:26:34,919
Speaker 1: and ability to investigate and observe correctly as men. This

435
00:26:35,160 --> 00:26:39,960
Speaker 1: article then described Foots experiments and her conclusions before dipping

436
00:26:39,960 --> 00:26:42,800
Speaker 1: a toe into a debate that was going on at

437
00:26:42,800 --> 00:26:48,440
Speaker 1: the time between the plutonists and the neptunists. Briefly, plutonists

438
00:26:48,680 --> 00:26:51,959
Speaker 1: argued that the Earth had previously been molten and that

439
00:26:52,080 --> 00:26:56,320
Speaker 1: rocks were formed through volcanic activity, while neptunists argued that

440
00:26:56,520 --> 00:27:00,200
Speaker 1: rocks had formed from sediment in the oceans. Now, either

441
00:27:00,280 --> 00:27:03,400
Speaker 1: of these two ideas was totally right, and neither one

442
00:27:03,520 --> 00:27:08,560
Speaker 1: was totally wrong. They both had some valid points and

443
00:27:08,640 --> 00:27:12,560
Speaker 1: some inaccuracies, but geologists were just divided into these two camps.

444
00:27:13,359 --> 00:27:17,439
Speaker 1: The author of this Scientific American article contended that foots

445
00:27:17,520 --> 00:27:23,080
Speaker 1: experiments provided quote a more rational cause for quote ancient

446
00:27:23,160 --> 00:27:27,000
Speaker 1: great atmospheric heat uh than the idea of the earth

447
00:27:27,080 --> 00:27:31,280
Speaker 1: having previously been a fiery ball. This piece ended by saying, quote,

448
00:27:31,320 --> 00:27:35,399
Speaker 1: the columns of the Scientific American have been oftentimes graced

449
00:27:35,440 --> 00:27:39,560
Speaker 1: with articles on scientific subjects by ladies, which would do

450
00:27:39,640 --> 00:27:43,119
Speaker 1: honor to men of the highest scientific reputation, and the

451
00:27:43,160 --> 00:27:47,080
Speaker 1: experiments of Mrs Foote afford abundant evidence of the ability

452
00:27:47,200 --> 00:27:51,600
Speaker 1: of woman to investigate any subject with originality and precision.

453
00:27:52,600 --> 00:27:56,720
Speaker 1: The October eighteen fifty six edition of United States magazine

454
00:27:57,520 --> 00:28:01,359
Speaker 1: was overall not as flattering as that was. It's article

455
00:28:01,720 --> 00:28:04,919
Speaker 1: Science and Savans in America, which was written under the

456
00:28:05,000 --> 00:28:08,439
Speaker 1: pen name Anthroposts, covered the eighteen fifty six Triple A

457
00:28:08,600 --> 00:28:12,200
Speaker 1: S meeting, noting that no women or people of color

458
00:28:12,280 --> 00:28:16,760
Speaker 1: were included in the organization's membership list. It's not clear

459
00:28:17,040 --> 00:28:20,120
Speaker 1: what whoever wrote this article was using as the list

460
00:28:20,160 --> 00:28:22,280
Speaker 1: that they were working from, because the list that was

461
00:28:22,359 --> 00:28:26,480
Speaker 1: published in the conference proceedings included both Maria Mitchell and

462
00:28:26,520 --> 00:28:30,879
Speaker 1: Margaretta Morris. This article, though, claims that Foote and Mitchell

463
00:28:30,880 --> 00:28:34,639
Speaker 1: were both considered to be members, while not mentioning Morris

464
00:28:34,680 --> 00:28:38,479
Speaker 1: at all. This article mentions Henry reading Foot's paper and

465
00:28:38,640 --> 00:28:42,160
Speaker 1: quote apologizing as he did so for the lady, who,

466
00:28:42,240 --> 00:28:45,840
Speaker 1: he said, although thus devoting her time to science, had

467
00:28:45,880 --> 00:28:50,520
Speaker 1: a feminine heart. We protest against such apologies and feel

468
00:28:50,640 --> 00:28:53,280
Speaker 1: that it is the opposite fact that so few of

469
00:28:53,320 --> 00:28:56,080
Speaker 1: our countrywomen can be found who give any attention to

470
00:28:56,120 --> 00:29:00,840
Speaker 1: science as amateurs. Pardon the solcism or investing eiders. It

471
00:29:01,000 --> 00:29:05,240
Speaker 1: is this fact that needs either explanation or apology. This

472
00:29:05,320 --> 00:29:08,640
Speaker 1: goes on to describe quote ladies of perfect breeding and

473
00:29:08,720 --> 00:29:11,720
Speaker 1: finish gracing by their presence the chambers in which the

474
00:29:11,760 --> 00:29:15,719
Speaker 1: sessions were held and listening intently to the enunciation of

475
00:29:15,720 --> 00:29:20,960
Speaker 1: obstruse principles and mathematical and physical science. Uh. This sort

476
00:29:21,000 --> 00:29:23,720
Speaker 1: of sounds like it could be leading into a discussion

477
00:29:23,880 --> 00:29:28,080
Speaker 1: of the barriers to women's participation in science, but it

478
00:29:28,120 --> 00:29:31,400
Speaker 1: does not do that. Instead, it becomes insulting, saying, quote,

479
00:29:31,440 --> 00:29:34,160
Speaker 1: we could not help asking ourselves, why does it not

480
00:29:34,240 --> 00:29:36,760
Speaker 1: occur to this portion of our race, that they have

481
00:29:36,920 --> 00:29:40,600
Speaker 1: faculties of observation and reason as well as we, and

482
00:29:40,720 --> 00:29:44,160
Speaker 1: that instead of displaying the last new bonnet and the

483
00:29:44,320 --> 00:29:47,800
Speaker 1: richest lace on the side seats, or perhaps whispering and

484
00:29:47,840 --> 00:29:51,960
Speaker 1: tittering over some trifling, ludicrous incident in the proceedings, it

485
00:29:52,080 --> 00:29:54,880
Speaker 1: is their prerogative, not less than that of man, to

486
00:29:55,000 --> 00:29:58,240
Speaker 1: bring upon the tapist before a scientific body, the results

487
00:29:58,280 --> 00:30:02,240
Speaker 1: of their investigations, discoveries and deductions, and the common world

488
00:30:02,240 --> 00:30:06,280
Speaker 1: of matter and mind, which, with them we jointly inhabit.

489
00:30:08,560 --> 00:30:11,320
Speaker 1: It started so good, and then at lands with why

490
00:30:11,360 --> 00:30:14,640
Speaker 1: are you so dingy? Women? I really thought as I

491
00:30:14,680 --> 00:30:16,880
Speaker 1: started reading it, I was like, oh, man, I really

492
00:30:16,880 --> 00:30:19,640
Speaker 1: think this is gonna be talking a lot about, like

493
00:30:19,720 --> 00:30:23,280
Speaker 1: why there weren't women and people of color and involved

494
00:30:23,280 --> 00:30:29,560
Speaker 1: in this more? No, it just became a bunch of sexistencils. Nice.

495
00:30:30,280 --> 00:30:32,480
Speaker 1: A summary of the eighteen fifty six meetings of the

496
00:30:32,480 --> 00:30:36,040
Speaker 1: British and American Associations of the Advancement of Science, was

497
00:30:36,080 --> 00:30:39,200
Speaker 1: published in the Canadian Journal of Industry, Science and Art.

498
00:30:39,920 --> 00:30:43,640
Speaker 1: It summarizes Unice's paper, but makes no mention of her husband's.

499
00:30:44,280 --> 00:30:48,120
Speaker 1: The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal for eighteen fifty seven summarizes

500
00:30:48,200 --> 00:30:52,360
Speaker 1: Unice's paper as well, but since it also mentions Alisha's work,

501
00:30:52,440 --> 00:30:54,840
Speaker 1: it's a little unclear which of them the journal is

502
00:30:54,840 --> 00:30:59,640
Speaker 1: attributing the experiment to. The German journal Yadresbick printed a

503
00:30:59,680 --> 00:31:02,560
Speaker 1: summer of it as well, which was dated eighteen fifty six,

504
00:31:02,920 --> 00:31:06,240
Speaker 1: although that actually came out in eighteen fifty seven. Then,

505
00:31:06,280 --> 00:31:11,040
Speaker 1: on May eighteenth, eighteen fifty nine, Irish physicist John Tendall

506
00:31:11,240 --> 00:31:15,080
Speaker 1: made a similar observation to Eunice Newton Foots about the

507
00:31:15,080 --> 00:31:18,920
Speaker 1: ability of water, vapor and carbon dioxide gas to hold heat.

508
00:31:19,600 --> 00:31:22,760
Speaker 1: He reported this observation to the Royal Society of London

509
00:31:22,920 --> 00:31:26,200
Speaker 1: later that same year, and in his work he credited

510
00:31:26,240 --> 00:31:31,280
Speaker 1: French physicist Claude Matthias Poult for having done earlier related work.

511
00:31:31,960 --> 00:31:35,960
Speaker 1: And there's been some discussion about whether Tendall knew about

512
00:31:36,160 --> 00:31:40,080
Speaker 1: Eunice Newton Foots work and disregarded it because of her sex.

513
00:31:40,880 --> 00:31:44,240
Speaker 1: Roland Jackson, who was publishing in the Royal Society Journal

514
00:31:44,240 --> 00:31:47,200
Speaker 1: of the History of Science in twenty nineteen, argues that

515
00:31:47,280 --> 00:31:51,840
Speaker 1: he probably did not, that this omission is more about

516
00:31:51,920 --> 00:31:55,280
Speaker 1: the state of scientific communication across the Atlantic in the

517
00:31:55,320 --> 00:31:59,600
Speaker 1: mid nineteenth century. He speculates that Tendell just wouldn't have

518
00:31:59,720 --> 00:32:02,440
Speaker 1: been likely to have read any of the journals or

519
00:32:02,480 --> 00:32:06,760
Speaker 1: other publications that referenced foots work prior to his own observations.

520
00:32:07,240 --> 00:32:11,520
Speaker 1: Tindall's experimental setup was more sophisticated than Foots was, but

521
00:32:11,640 --> 00:32:14,200
Speaker 1: unlike her, he did not make the connection between these

522
00:32:14,200 --> 00:32:17,040
Speaker 1: gases and the Earth's climate until later in his work.

523
00:32:17,760 --> 00:32:20,360
Speaker 1: In eighteen sixty one, he did some research that showed

524
00:32:20,360 --> 00:32:24,800
Speaker 1: that carbon dioxide, water vapor, and hydrocarbon gases like methane

525
00:32:25,080 --> 00:32:28,640
Speaker 1: absorbed more radiant energy than nitrogen and oxygen, which are

526
00:32:28,680 --> 00:32:32,640
Speaker 1: the primary components of air. That's really when he started

527
00:32:32,680 --> 00:32:36,320
Speaker 1: to speculate that different concentrations of these gases can affect

528
00:32:36,360 --> 00:32:40,120
Speaker 1: the Earth's climate. The first paper to really quantify the

529
00:32:40,160 --> 00:32:44,680
Speaker 1: carbon dioxide concentrations involved in the greenhouse gas effect was

530
00:32:44,720 --> 00:32:50,360
Speaker 1: published by Swedish scientists Vante august Arian Has in his

531
00:32:50,560 --> 00:32:54,240
Speaker 1: later work, also suggests that the burning of fossil fuels

532
00:32:54,280 --> 00:32:58,880
Speaker 1: contributes to this process. About ten years after Tindall published

533
00:32:58,880 --> 00:33:02,160
Speaker 1: his work on this, he and Joseph Henry became acquainted,

534
00:33:02,680 --> 00:33:04,880
Speaker 1: but there's no suggestion that the two of them ever

535
00:33:04,960 --> 00:33:08,880
Speaker 1: talked about Foot's work and how it related to Tindall's. However,

536
00:33:08,960 --> 00:33:12,000
Speaker 1: there were other people who cited Eunice Newton Foot's work

537
00:33:12,080 --> 00:33:15,800
Speaker 1: later on in the nineteenth century. For example, Ethan Samuel

538
00:33:15,880 --> 00:33:21,560
Speaker 1: Chapin's book Gravitation The Determining Force references Henry's reading of

539
00:33:21,600 --> 00:33:24,520
Speaker 1: Foot's paper at the Triple A s in a section

540
00:33:24,600 --> 00:33:28,520
Speaker 1: on conditions likely to affect the temperature of the Moon's surface.

541
00:33:29,320 --> 00:33:32,160
Speaker 1: This section of the book discusses matter on the Moon

542
00:33:32,240 --> 00:33:35,640
Speaker 1: and how different densities of that matter must have different

543
00:33:35,680 --> 00:33:39,440
Speaker 1: capabilities for retaining heat. This is interesting to me because

544
00:33:39,440 --> 00:33:42,960
Speaker 1: it suggests not only that people were familiar with what

545
00:33:43,160 --> 00:33:44,840
Speaker 1: she had written about, but that they thought it was

546
00:33:44,880 --> 00:33:48,920
Speaker 1: important enough to also apply it to other situations than

547
00:33:48,960 --> 00:33:53,280
Speaker 1: what she was directly experimenting on. Today, John Tendall, not

548
00:33:53,400 --> 00:33:56,080
Speaker 1: Eunice Newton Foot is often known as the founder of

549
00:33:56,120 --> 00:33:59,680
Speaker 1: climate science, but over the last decade people have been

550
00:33:59,680 --> 00:34:04,000
Speaker 1: trying to correct that attribution. This effort really started in

551
00:34:04,080 --> 00:34:09,200
Speaker 1: twenty eleven when Raymond Sorenson published Unice Foot's pioneering research

552
00:34:09,239 --> 00:34:12,200
Speaker 1: on CEO two and climate warming that was published in

553
00:34:12,239 --> 00:34:17,640
Speaker 1: the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Search and Discovery. Sorenson

554
00:34:17,840 --> 00:34:21,360
Speaker 1: had stumbled across that summary of Foot's paper that was

555
00:34:21,400 --> 00:34:24,560
Speaker 1: in the eighteen fifty seven Annual of Scientific Discovery and

556
00:34:24,560 --> 00:34:28,800
Speaker 1: had realized its significance. There was even less publicly available

557
00:34:28,840 --> 00:34:32,960
Speaker 1: information about Unice Newton Foote in eleven than there is today,

558
00:34:33,360 --> 00:34:35,880
Speaker 1: Not even the text of her paper had been unearthed

559
00:34:35,880 --> 00:34:40,319
Speaker 1: at that point. Sorenson updated his paper in to note

560
00:34:40,360 --> 00:34:42,920
Speaker 1: that a copy of her paper had been found in

561
00:34:42,960 --> 00:34:47,560
Speaker 1: the Saratoga Springs City Historians files in Saratoga Springs, New York,

562
00:34:47,880 --> 00:34:50,279
Speaker 1: and that copy matched the one that was printed in

563
00:34:50,320 --> 00:34:54,359
Speaker 1: the American Journal of Science and Arts. This update also

564
00:34:54,440 --> 00:34:57,719
Speaker 1: clarified that it was Foote herself who made the connection

565
00:34:57,760 --> 00:35:02,279
Speaker 1: between carbon dioxide gas and the Earth's climate, and the

566
00:35:02,360 --> 00:35:06,520
Speaker 1: climate having been maybe previously warmer prior to the discovery

567
00:35:06,520 --> 00:35:09,080
Speaker 1: of her original paper, though it had not been clear

568
00:35:09,200 --> 00:35:12,239
Speaker 1: whether she had made that connection herself or whether it

569
00:35:12,320 --> 00:35:15,160
Speaker 1: was something David A. Wells had speculated on when he

570
00:35:15,239 --> 00:35:18,480
Speaker 1: was writing up that little summary of it. However, we

571
00:35:18,560 --> 00:35:21,600
Speaker 1: should note that claims that Eunice Newton Foote was totally

572
00:35:21,640 --> 00:35:26,880
Speaker 1: forgotten until Raymond Sorenson published his paper are not really accurate.

573
00:35:27,520 --> 00:35:29,920
Speaker 1: Sorenson does seem to have been the first person to

574
00:35:30,120 --> 00:35:33,080
Speaker 1: directly point out that Foote was the first person to

575
00:35:33,200 --> 00:35:36,880
Speaker 1: observe something that Tindall got the credit for, but Sally

576
00:35:36,960 --> 00:35:40,960
Speaker 1: Gregory coolesteads the formation of the American scientific Community. The

577
00:35:41,000 --> 00:35:45,520
Speaker 1: American Association for the Advancement of Science eighteen forty eighteen

578
00:35:45,600 --> 00:35:49,040
Speaker 1: sixty was published by the University of Illinois Press in

579
00:35:49,160 --> 00:35:53,200
Speaker 1: nineteen seventy six, and it mentions Foot delivering her paper

580
00:35:53,280 --> 00:35:57,600
Speaker 1: on electrical excitation in eighteen fifty seven. In addition to

581
00:35:57,680 --> 00:36:01,520
Speaker 1: that information on Foot that's found debt ancestry dot com

582
00:36:01,640 --> 00:36:04,960
Speaker 1: also includes a scan of a nineteen seventies six letter

583
00:36:05,440 --> 00:36:08,920
Speaker 1: from Deborah Dean Warner, who was then Curator of the

584
00:36:09,040 --> 00:36:13,160
Speaker 1: History of Physical Sciences at the Smithsonian, to Dr Judith

585
00:36:13,200 --> 00:36:17,120
Speaker 1: Wellman at State University of New York. Warner and Wellman

586
00:36:17,320 --> 00:36:20,480
Speaker 1: had talked about Foot at the National Archives Conference on

587
00:36:20,520 --> 00:36:24,040
Speaker 1: Women's History, according to this letter, and the letter mentions

588
00:36:24,080 --> 00:36:28,920
Speaker 1: both of Foot's papers and their titles. Warner's Science Education

589
00:36:29,000 --> 00:36:32,719
Speaker 1: for Women in ante Bellum America, published in the journal ISIS,

590
00:36:32,800 --> 00:36:36,000
Speaker 1: a Journal of the History of Science Society in ninety eight,

591
00:36:36,120 --> 00:36:40,759
Speaker 1: also cites both of Foot's papers. Wellman's The Road to

592
00:36:40,800 --> 00:36:44,440
Speaker 1: Seneca Falls Elizabeth Katie Stanton in the First Women's Rights Convention,

593
00:36:44,520 --> 00:36:47,839
Speaker 1: which was published in two thousand four, also mentions both

594
00:36:47,880 --> 00:36:52,240
Speaker 1: papers existence but not their subjects, and Lois Arnold's Four

595
00:36:52,320 --> 00:36:55,719
Speaker 1: Lives in Science Women's Education in the Nineteenth Century, which

596
00:36:55,760 --> 00:36:59,640
Speaker 1: was published in nineteen eighty four, mentions Foot's article on

597
00:36:59,719 --> 00:37:03,399
Speaker 1: the from the Sun's Rays, using the eighteen fifty six

598
00:37:03,440 --> 00:37:07,080
Speaker 1: Scientific American article as its source on that. So there

599
00:37:07,080 --> 00:37:10,600
Speaker 1: were various folks who were definitely talking about Unice Newton

600
00:37:10,600 --> 00:37:15,399
Speaker 1: Foot and other contexts before that breaking out. There's also

601
00:37:15,440 --> 00:37:18,279
Speaker 1: a short film on Unice Newton Foot called Unice and

602
00:37:18,320 --> 00:37:21,800
Speaker 1: that was released in and it is available on YouTube

603
00:37:22,360 --> 00:37:25,360
Speaker 1: as a Unice Newton Foot. I have listener mail the

604
00:37:25,480 --> 00:37:31,040
Speaker 1: Circles Backs to Invasive Species, which I had flagged to

605
00:37:31,160 --> 00:37:35,280
Speaker 1: read back in June when we got it is now August,

606
00:37:35,320 --> 00:37:38,280
Speaker 1: and then it just I just didn't somehow I overlooked

607
00:37:38,280 --> 00:37:41,520
Speaker 1: it after that, So this is from Wendy, and Wendy wrote,

608
00:37:41,600 --> 00:37:43,600
Speaker 1: Dear Holly and Tracy, I have just listened to your

609
00:37:43,680 --> 00:37:46,319
Speaker 1: kad Zoo episode and I'm finally prompted to email and

610
00:37:46,320 --> 00:37:49,520
Speaker 1: thank you for your excellent program. You succeed in combining deep,

611
00:37:49,560 --> 00:37:53,399
Speaker 1: well considered research with an entertaining presentation. The kad Zoo

612
00:37:53,440 --> 00:37:56,680
Speaker 1: episode reminded me of the prickly pair story, which my

613
00:37:56,760 --> 00:37:59,080
Speaker 1: mother used to tell me as a child. She grew

614
00:37:59,160 --> 00:38:01,719
Speaker 1: up in the nineteen nis in Queensland, Australia, where the

615
00:38:01,719 --> 00:38:05,560
Speaker 1: prickly pear cactus had become an invasive pest on farmland.

616
00:38:06,200 --> 00:38:10,000
Speaker 1: She said it was introduced earlier to start a cokeneal industry,

617
00:38:10,120 --> 00:38:12,560
Speaker 1: since the cocon eal insect, which is used to make

618
00:38:12,600 --> 00:38:15,959
Speaker 1: red dye, lives on prickly pear plants, but it got

619
00:38:15,960 --> 00:38:19,680
Speaker 1: out of hand. In the nineteen twenties, the moth Cacto

620
00:38:19,680 --> 00:38:24,240
Speaker 1: blasts cactorum was introduced to Australia as a biological control

621
00:38:24,360 --> 00:38:27,560
Speaker 1: since its larvae eat the prickly pear. It was pretty

622
00:38:27,560 --> 00:38:30,200
Speaker 1: successful and now there are a very few prickly pear

623
00:38:30,360 --> 00:38:33,960
Speaker 1: plants seen in rural areas, although there were still a lot.

624
00:38:34,000 --> 00:38:36,520
Speaker 1: When I was a child in the fifties, my mother

625
00:38:36,800 --> 00:38:39,840
Speaker 1: was a home science teacher. She gave me her fruit

626
00:38:39,920 --> 00:38:42,640
Speaker 1: preserving recipe book from the nineteen thirties, which has a

627
00:38:42,719 --> 00:38:46,560
Speaker 1: recipe for prickly pear jelly. It starts with quote, take

628
00:38:46,719 --> 00:38:49,920
Speaker 1: four dozen nice ripe prickly pears and put them in

629
00:38:50,000 --> 00:38:53,280
Speaker 1: boiling water to soften the prickles. Then take a knife

630
00:38:53,320 --> 00:38:55,800
Speaker 1: and scrape them all off, cut into pieces, and boil.

631
00:38:56,040 --> 00:38:58,480
Speaker 1: After that, it's like a normal jelly recipe. Straining the

632
00:38:58,520 --> 00:39:01,319
Speaker 1: juice from the pulp, adding sugar and boiling sounds like

633
00:39:01,360 --> 00:39:03,640
Speaker 1: a lot of work. Thank you for your program. I'm

634
00:39:03,680 --> 00:39:06,120
Speaker 1: a great fan of history and never missed an episode. Wendy,

635
00:39:06,160 --> 00:39:09,839
Speaker 1: Thank you so much, Wendy for this note. We have

636
00:39:09,880 --> 00:39:13,359
Speaker 1: talked a little bit about coconeal in earlier episodes, about

637
00:39:13,400 --> 00:39:17,200
Speaker 1: things like dyes and colors, and I don't think I've

638
00:39:17,239 --> 00:39:22,160
Speaker 1: realized that the efforts to introduce plants that coconeal could

639
00:39:22,200 --> 00:39:26,640
Speaker 1: live on had led to invasive species problems. It's not

640
00:39:26,880 --> 00:39:30,840
Speaker 1: entirely surprising, because that does happen when you introduce species

641
00:39:30,880 --> 00:39:34,799
Speaker 1: to places they don't normally live sometimes. So thank you

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