1
00:00:00,080 --> 00:00:02,960
Speaker 1: If you love iPhone, you'll love Apple Card. It's the

2
00:00:03,040 --> 00:00:06,920
Speaker 1: credit card designed for iPhone. It gives you unlimited daily

3
00:00:07,040 --> 00:00:10,000
Speaker 1: cash back that can earn four point four zero percent

4
00:00:10,160 --> 00:00:12,960
Speaker 1: annual percentage yield. When you open a high Yield savings

5
00:00:13,000 --> 00:00:16,280
Speaker 1: account through Apple Card, apply for Applecard in the wallet

6
00:00:16,280 --> 00:00:19,520
Speaker 1: app subject to credit approval. Savings is available to Apple

7
00:00:19,560 --> 00:00:22,800
Speaker 1: Card owners subject to eligibility. Apple Card and Savings by

8
00:00:22,840 --> 00:00:26,120
Speaker 1: Goldman Sachs Bank USA, Salt Lake City Branch, Member FDIC

9
00:00:26,520 --> 00:00:29,280
Speaker 1: terms and more at applecard dot Com. When you pop

10
00:00:29,320 --> 00:00:31,240
Speaker 1: a piece of cheese into your mouth, you're probably not

11
00:00:31,360 --> 00:00:34,280
Speaker 1: thinking about the environmental impact. But the people in the

12
00:00:34,360 --> 00:00:37,680
Speaker 1: dairy industry are. That's why they're working hard every day

13
00:00:37,720 --> 00:00:40,760
Speaker 1: to find new ways to reduce waste, conserve natural resources,

14
00:00:40,800 --> 00:00:44,360
Speaker 1: and drive down greenhouse gas emissions. How is US Dairy

15
00:00:44,400 --> 00:00:48,520
Speaker 1: tackling greenhouse gases? Many farms use anaerobic digesters to turn

16
00:00:48,560 --> 00:00:53,080
Speaker 1: the methane from manure into renewable energy that can power farms, towns,

17
00:00:53,120 --> 00:00:57,240
Speaker 1: and electric cars. Visit us dairy dot COM's Last Sustainability

18
00:00:57,280 --> 00:00:58,000
Speaker 1: to learn more.

19
00:00:58,640 --> 00:01:01,640
Speaker 2: Everyone loves getting good at advice and staying in the know.

20
00:01:02,320 --> 00:01:04,880
Speaker 2: There's nothing like getting a heads up on something before

21
00:01:04,920 --> 00:01:07,280
Speaker 2: you've even had time to think about whether you need

22
00:01:07,440 --> 00:01:11,880
Speaker 2: or want it. Well. Thankfully, AT and T provides personalized

23
00:01:11,959 --> 00:01:15,119
Speaker 2: recommendations and solutions so you get what's right for you.

24
00:01:15,680 --> 00:01:18,319
Speaker 2: Whether right for you means a plan that's better suited

25
00:01:18,319 --> 00:01:21,039
Speaker 2: for you and your family, or a product that makes

26
00:01:21,080 --> 00:01:24,960
Speaker 2: sense for you and your lifestyle. So relax and let

27
00:01:25,000 --> 00:01:29,440
Speaker 2: AT and T provide proactive recommendations to help empower your

28
00:01:29,480 --> 00:01:32,040
Speaker 2: best connected life.

29
00:01:33,160 --> 00:01:35,680
Speaker 3: As a United Explorer card member, you can earn fifty

30
00:01:35,760 --> 00:01:39,640
Speaker 3: thousand bonus miles plus look forward to extraordinary travel rewards,

31
00:01:39,760 --> 00:01:42,240
Speaker 3: including a free checked bag, two times the miles on

32
00:01:42,360 --> 00:01:45,000
Speaker 3: United purchases and two times the miles on dining and

33
00:01:45,080 --> 00:01:48,400
Speaker 3: at hotels. Become an Explorer and seek out unforgettable places

34
00:01:48,400 --> 00:01:51,840
Speaker 3: while enjoying rewards everywhere you travel. Cards issued by JP

35
00:01:51,920 --> 00:01:55,920
Speaker 3: Morgan Chase Bank NA Member FDIC subject to credit approval Offer,

36
00:01:56,000 --> 00:01:57,800
Speaker 3: subject to change Terms apply.

37
00:02:05,440 --> 00:02:08,280
Speaker 1: Hey, Orge, do you think our podcast episodes are getting

38
00:02:08,320 --> 00:02:09,360
Speaker 1: like a little too long?

39
00:02:10,200 --> 00:02:11,480
Speaker 4: Are they longer than it used to be?

40
00:02:11,919 --> 00:02:14,040
Speaker 1: You know, we used to start out around forty ish

41
00:02:14,080 --> 00:02:16,440
Speaker 1: minutes and some of the recent ones been hitting an hour.

42
00:02:17,480 --> 00:02:20,639
Speaker 4: But not the ones with me in it right, I'll

43
00:02:20,680 --> 00:02:21,560
Speaker 4: just try to keep it short.

44
00:02:22,760 --> 00:02:25,120
Speaker 1: You ask a lot of questions, and sometimes it takes

45
00:02:25,160 --> 00:02:26,280
Speaker 1: an hour to explain them all.

46
00:02:26,760 --> 00:02:28,799
Speaker 4: I guess we are trying to explain the whole universe,

47
00:02:28,919 --> 00:02:30,600
Speaker 4: so that's supposed to take a while.

48
00:02:31,240 --> 00:02:34,239
Speaker 1: Yeah, it's actually amazing if you can explain like a

49
00:02:34,320 --> 00:02:37,160
Speaker 1: whole year's worth of physics in like sixty minutes.

50
00:02:37,440 --> 00:02:40,079
Speaker 4: Yeah. And the funny thing is that I usually forget

51
00:02:40,080 --> 00:02:41,320
Speaker 4: it within sixty seconds.

52
00:02:43,680 --> 00:02:45,519
Speaker 1: That's where you got to listen to it sixty times.

53
00:02:45,800 --> 00:02:47,640
Speaker 4: But then I'll give it when sixty of the attention

54
00:02:47,720 --> 00:02:50,799
Speaker 4: it needs to. Hey, we're done after an hour, right.

55
00:02:52,240 --> 00:02:53,280
Speaker 1: I think the math works out.

56
00:02:53,320 --> 00:02:56,160
Speaker 4: Yeah, yeah, I do pay attention to math.

57
00:03:11,440 --> 00:03:11,560
Speaker 5: Hi.

58
00:03:11,639 --> 00:03:13,320
Speaker 4: I am Poor Hee May, cartoonist and the author of

59
00:03:13,360 --> 00:03:14,880
Speaker 4: Oliver It's Great, Big Universe.

60
00:03:15,000 --> 00:03:17,880
Speaker 1: Hi. I'm Daniel. I'm a particle physicist and a professor

61
00:03:17,960 --> 00:03:21,160
Speaker 1: at UC Irvine, and I'm very conscious of our finite

62
00:03:21,160 --> 00:03:21,919
Speaker 1: amounts of time.

63
00:03:22,160 --> 00:03:25,079
Speaker 4: You mean, like here on Earth or on the air.

64
00:03:25,919 --> 00:03:30,080
Speaker 1: Yeah, both, Absolutely, we're spending a non trivial amount of

65
00:03:30,080 --> 00:03:32,200
Speaker 1: time on Earth on the air, now that we've done

66
00:03:32,240 --> 00:03:34,720
Speaker 1: so many episodes, you know, it's like a non zero

67
00:03:34,800 --> 00:03:38,400
Speaker 1: fraction of our lives we spent doing this podcast. Yeah,

68
00:03:38,400 --> 00:03:43,360
Speaker 1: I know, but you know, more existentially, my kids are

69
00:03:43,440 --> 00:03:45,920
Speaker 1: growing up. I'm gonna leave home soon, and so yeah,

70
00:03:45,960 --> 00:03:47,960
Speaker 1: I'm valuing every hour I have with them.

71
00:03:48,240 --> 00:03:51,040
Speaker 4: Yeah, they grow up pretty fast, sometimes too fast.

72
00:03:51,360 --> 00:03:54,720
Speaker 1: Do you believe in parental time dilation? Everybody says, oh,

73
00:03:54,760 --> 00:03:57,080
Speaker 1: those years go buy so fast, But you know, when

74
00:03:57,160 --> 00:03:59,440
Speaker 1: you have a screaming toddler and it's two in the morning,

75
00:03:59,480 --> 00:04:02,360
Speaker 1: it feels like about a million hours before they go

76
00:04:02,520 --> 00:04:03,240
Speaker 1: down for their nap.

77
00:04:04,400 --> 00:04:07,560
Speaker 4: Definitely, times needs to go by faster. But I feel

78
00:04:07,560 --> 00:04:10,800
Speaker 4: like I've paid attention pretty good. There's definitely a lot

79
00:04:10,800 --> 00:04:16,320
Speaker 4: of video records of our children, so we always go

80
00:04:16,360 --> 00:04:17,560
Speaker 4: back don memory lean.

81
00:04:17,880 --> 00:04:19,040
Speaker 1: Yeah, that's true.

82
00:04:19,120 --> 00:04:21,560
Speaker 4: But anyways, welcome to our podcast. Daniel and Jorge Explain

83
00:04:21,600 --> 00:04:24,320
Speaker 4: the Universe, a production of iHeartRadio in which.

84
00:04:24,160 --> 00:04:26,400
Speaker 1: We try to take an hour to slow down and

85
00:04:26,520 --> 00:04:30,640
Speaker 1: really understand something. We think it's worthwhile to update the

86
00:04:30,680 --> 00:04:34,000
Speaker 1: mental model in your mind. That's explaining the way the

87
00:04:34,120 --> 00:04:37,280
Speaker 1: universe works out there. We wanted to correspond as much

88
00:04:37,279 --> 00:04:39,880
Speaker 1: as possible, so the way the universe actually works, the

89
00:04:39,880 --> 00:04:44,480
Speaker 1: weird rules that quantum particles follow, the incredible powerful forces

90
00:04:44,560 --> 00:04:47,840
Speaker 1: swirling in the hearts of black holes. We want your

91
00:04:47,880 --> 00:04:50,279
Speaker 1: brain to be aligned with the universe, even if it

92
00:04:50,320 --> 00:04:51,720
Speaker 1: does take a little bit of time.

93
00:04:52,320 --> 00:04:54,720
Speaker 4: Yeah, we do like to take our time to make

94
00:04:54,720 --> 00:04:57,800
Speaker 4: the most of your time when it's time to understand the.

95
00:04:57,800 --> 00:05:01,239
Speaker 1: Universe, and the universe operates on so many amazingly different

96
00:05:01,360 --> 00:05:04,039
Speaker 1: time scales. We think about our lives and you know,

97
00:05:04,200 --> 00:05:06,919
Speaker 1: tens of years, maybe one hundred if we're lucky, but

98
00:05:07,040 --> 00:05:09,080
Speaker 1: that's just the blink of an eye in the history

99
00:05:09,120 --> 00:05:12,400
Speaker 1: of the universe that is billions of years old. And

100
00:05:12,440 --> 00:05:15,839
Speaker 1: then also between every second, there's an incredible number of

101
00:05:15,960 --> 00:05:19,640
Speaker 1: quantum operations happening, electrons buzzing and tuing and throwing, and

102
00:05:19,680 --> 00:05:23,800
Speaker 1: particles appearing and disappearing. Things happen in the universe from

103
00:05:23,839 --> 00:05:26,320
Speaker 1: the tiniest fractions of a second all the way out

104
00:05:26,400 --> 00:05:29,159
Speaker 1: to billions and maybe even trillions of years.

105
00:05:29,440 --> 00:05:31,240
Speaker 4: Yeah, there's a lot going on in the universe, and

106
00:05:31,320 --> 00:05:34,800
Speaker 4: times seems to be underneath it all, dictating at what

107
00:05:35,000 --> 00:05:37,560
Speaker 4: rate things happen and in what order things happen.

108
00:05:38,160 --> 00:05:40,800
Speaker 1: And I wonder sometimes whether the deepest answers to the

109
00:05:40,880 --> 00:05:44,160
Speaker 1: nature of the universe are at the shortest time scales,

110
00:05:44,320 --> 00:05:47,400
Speaker 1: like what is the real fabric of reality, the smallest

111
00:05:47,400 --> 00:05:50,480
Speaker 1: bits in the smallest pieces of time dictating how everything

112
00:05:50,480 --> 00:05:54,000
Speaker 1: else works somehow bubbling up to form our universe, or

113
00:05:54,040 --> 00:05:57,240
Speaker 1: whether the real story is of the longest time periods.

114
00:05:57,480 --> 00:06:00,080
Speaker 1: What's happening to the universe? How does it form or

115
00:06:00,200 --> 00:06:03,560
Speaker 1: what is its future? Over billions or maybe trillions of years?

116
00:06:03,960 --> 00:06:06,200
Speaker 1: You know, the billions of years that our universe has

117
00:06:06,279 --> 00:06:09,800
Speaker 1: existed could just be the first few moments of a

118
00:06:10,000 --> 00:06:14,039
Speaker 1: much longer, impossibly to imagine deep time future.

119
00:06:15,160 --> 00:06:16,880
Speaker 4: Do you feel like maybe you have a little bit

120
00:06:16,880 --> 00:06:19,960
Speaker 4: of a fear of missing out in the universe, you know,

121
00:06:20,000 --> 00:06:22,120
Speaker 4: but maybe things are happening too fast for you to

122
00:06:22,200 --> 00:06:24,440
Speaker 4: notice or too long for you to live through.

123
00:06:24,680 --> 00:06:27,200
Speaker 1: Yeah, I have FOMU. I fear of missing the universe

124
00:06:27,240 --> 00:06:27,640
Speaker 1: for sure.

125
00:06:28,600 --> 00:06:33,400
Speaker 4: Yeah, physical fear of missing the universe. Fomu.

126
00:06:33,600 --> 00:06:35,640
Speaker 1: Yeah. Some of the most interesting things that happened in

127
00:06:35,680 --> 00:06:39,599
Speaker 1: the universe are not the tiniest rules of the little particles,

128
00:06:39,600 --> 00:06:43,040
Speaker 1: but how things come together over time. You know, galaxies

129
00:06:43,080 --> 00:06:46,279
Speaker 1: took hundreds of millions of years to form. Imagine you

130
00:06:46,320 --> 00:06:49,520
Speaker 1: were an intelligent species that existed somehow in the first

131
00:06:49,600 --> 00:06:51,680
Speaker 1: one hundred million years in the universe. You would never

132
00:06:51,760 --> 00:06:54,200
Speaker 1: even see a galaxy, which to us now is like

133
00:06:54,240 --> 00:06:56,920
Speaker 1: the basic building block of what's out there in space.

134
00:06:57,600 --> 00:06:59,960
Speaker 1: What if the most basic building block of the few

135
00:07:00,000 --> 00:07:04,120
Speaker 1: future hasn't yet formed. An intelligent species that evolve in

136
00:07:04,160 --> 00:07:06,680
Speaker 1: a trillion years will wonder about what it was like

137
00:07:06,760 --> 00:07:09,560
Speaker 1: to be us, never even seeing the most basic thing

138
00:07:09,840 --> 00:07:11,760
Speaker 1: that exists in their universe.

139
00:07:12,360 --> 00:07:14,240
Speaker 4: Or even if the future is set at all.

140
00:07:14,760 --> 00:07:15,200
Speaker 1: Yeah.

141
00:07:15,480 --> 00:07:19,600
Speaker 4: Right, they're a big question of whether the universe is deterministic,

142
00:07:19,720 --> 00:07:22,080
Speaker 4: meaning you can sort of know what's going to happen

143
00:07:22,080 --> 00:07:24,000
Speaker 4: in the future or at least in one of the futures,

144
00:07:24,120 --> 00:07:26,160
Speaker 4: or whether it's totally random.

145
00:07:26,680 --> 00:07:28,960
Speaker 1: That's right, And we're hoping to push ourselves into a

146
00:07:29,000 --> 00:07:32,239
Speaker 1: future where we understand the universe a little bit better,

147
00:07:32,280 --> 00:07:35,280
Speaker 1: from the largest time scales to the shortest time scales.

148
00:07:35,920 --> 00:07:37,680
Speaker 4: Yeah, and when it's time to do that, we will

149
00:07:37,960 --> 00:07:39,720
Speaker 4: take a little bit of time to explain it to you,

150
00:07:39,960 --> 00:07:42,880
Speaker 4: in hopefully more or less an hour, because time seems

151
00:07:42,920 --> 00:07:45,320
Speaker 4: to be one of the most fundamental things in the universe,

152
00:07:45,400 --> 00:07:48,600
Speaker 4: but sometimes you have to ask questions about time itself.

153
00:07:48,760 --> 00:07:51,360
Speaker 1: And while we can't see the deep future yet, we

154
00:07:51,440 --> 00:07:54,000
Speaker 1: can do our best to try to understand the shortest

155
00:07:54,040 --> 00:07:56,920
Speaker 1: time scales to zoom in on how fast things are

156
00:07:56,960 --> 00:07:58,240
Speaker 1: happening in the universe.

157
00:07:58,400 --> 00:08:05,640
Speaker 4: So today on the podcast, we'll be tagged clang, what's

158
00:08:05,720 --> 00:08:08,360
Speaker 4: the fastest event ever measured?

159
00:08:08,600 --> 00:08:11,040
Speaker 1: You know, when people run simulations like the Hearts of

160
00:08:11,120 --> 00:08:14,120
Speaker 1: neutron stars or like weather or whatever, they always have

161
00:08:14,200 --> 00:08:17,480
Speaker 1: to choose like a minimum time step. Now you have

162
00:08:17,600 --> 00:08:20,000
Speaker 1: your universe, and then you evolve it forward in time,

163
00:08:20,080 --> 00:08:22,640
Speaker 1: one step in time, and then again and again and again,

164
00:08:22,920 --> 00:08:26,240
Speaker 1: and eventually you describe something longer. But there's that minimum

165
00:08:26,280 --> 00:08:28,480
Speaker 1: time on the computer, right, Yeah, on the computer when

166
00:08:28,480 --> 00:08:31,520
Speaker 1: you run simulations, and so in our real universe. I

167
00:08:31,520 --> 00:08:33,560
Speaker 1: think it's fascinating to think about, like, well, what is

168
00:08:33,600 --> 00:08:36,480
Speaker 1: the shortest time step? How far have we zoomed in

169
00:08:36,960 --> 00:08:39,559
Speaker 1: to see like the fastest thing ever happened?

170
00:08:39,920 --> 00:08:43,000
Speaker 4: Yeah, or possibly we are living in the simulation, right.

171
00:08:43,120 --> 00:08:45,880
Speaker 4: Isn't that something that even smart people think about, not

172
00:08:46,040 --> 00:08:47,800
Speaker 4: just conspiracy theorists.

173
00:08:48,240 --> 00:08:51,000
Speaker 1: I think it's definitely true that smart people think about it.

174
00:08:51,040 --> 00:08:52,880
Speaker 1: I don't know how true it is that smart people

175
00:08:53,000 --> 00:08:55,640
Speaker 1: believe in it or think that it's realistic. I know

176
00:08:55,640 --> 00:08:57,240
Speaker 1: there's a lot of talk out there about it. It's

177
00:08:57,240 --> 00:08:59,680
Speaker 1: a lot of fun to think about. But if you

178
00:08:59,679 --> 00:09:01,720
Speaker 1: have to ask people like whether they really believe it,

179
00:09:01,760 --> 00:09:04,320
Speaker 1: I mean, I think it's unlikely we're living in a simulation.

180
00:09:04,400 --> 00:09:06,960
Speaker 4: For example, you mean it's fun to simulate in your

181
00:09:07,000 --> 00:09:10,600
Speaker 4: head that maybe we're living in a simulation.

182
00:09:11,360 --> 00:09:14,160
Speaker 1: Yeah, it's a really clever sort of meta idea. Like

183
00:09:14,200 --> 00:09:16,960
Speaker 1: we think about simulations. As you say, we run simulations

184
00:09:17,000 --> 00:09:18,680
Speaker 1: in our head. We use simulations for our science. We

185
00:09:18,679 --> 00:09:21,440
Speaker 1: had a whole fun podcast episode about the importance of

186
00:09:21,480 --> 00:09:25,120
Speaker 1: doing simulations in science. It's really a whole new branch

187
00:09:25,200 --> 00:09:28,480
Speaker 1: of science, sort of different from experimental and theoretical physics.

188
00:09:29,080 --> 00:09:31,719
Speaker 1: You know, we describe things like in vivo or in

189
00:09:31,840 --> 00:09:34,960
Speaker 1: vitro and now sometimes we call them in silico. But

190
00:09:35,040 --> 00:09:37,280
Speaker 1: I don't know that we actually are living in a simulation,

191
00:09:37,520 --> 00:09:39,360
Speaker 1: or you know, how we would actually prove that. But

192
00:09:39,440 --> 00:09:41,640
Speaker 1: we have a whole episode about that, so folks interested

193
00:09:41,679 --> 00:09:44,200
Speaker 1: in that go check out that episode right right.

194
00:09:44,600 --> 00:09:47,079
Speaker 4: But whether it's a simulation or not, there's definitely time

195
00:09:47,200 --> 00:09:49,600
Speaker 4: in it. And as you said, when we create little

196
00:09:49,640 --> 00:09:52,239
Speaker 4: universes in our computers, you have to pick a timestep

197
00:09:53,160 --> 00:09:55,280
Speaker 4: to do your simulation, and so you can kind of

198
00:09:55,280 --> 00:09:58,080
Speaker 4: ask the question does that happen in the real universe

199
00:09:58,120 --> 00:09:58,480
Speaker 4: as well?

200
00:09:58,840 --> 00:10:01,240
Speaker 1: Yeah, and when we do it in our simulations, we

201
00:10:01,360 --> 00:10:05,120
Speaker 1: pick a timestep short enough that we're not ignoring anything important.

202
00:10:05,559 --> 00:10:07,000
Speaker 1: So we try to figure out, like, what is the

203
00:10:07,000 --> 00:10:09,520
Speaker 1: shortest time step we're interested in. You know, if you're

204
00:10:09,559 --> 00:10:12,600
Speaker 1: simulating like a evolution of a galaxy, nothing really exciting

205
00:10:12,679 --> 00:10:14,640
Speaker 1: happens in a year or one hundred years, so you

206
00:10:14,720 --> 00:10:17,800
Speaker 1: might take like thousand year time steps. But if you're

207
00:10:17,800 --> 00:10:21,760
Speaker 1: simulating like a nuclear explosion underground, you might take timesteps

208
00:10:21,760 --> 00:10:23,920
Speaker 1: of like a millionth of a second to make sure

209
00:10:23,960 --> 00:10:25,600
Speaker 1: you're capturing all the dynamics.

210
00:10:25,880 --> 00:10:27,720
Speaker 4: Yeah, and as you said, there's lots of things happening

211
00:10:27,800 --> 00:10:31,240
Speaker 4: in the universe, and the idea of a timestep is

212
00:10:31,280 --> 00:10:34,480
Speaker 4: also important when you try to measure things, right. Yeah, Like,

213
00:10:34,480 --> 00:10:36,160
Speaker 4: if you're trying to measure an explosion, you don't want

214
00:10:36,160 --> 00:10:38,440
Speaker 4: to sample the explosion every three minutes because it's going

215
00:10:38,480 --> 00:10:41,880
Speaker 4: to be gone and over. And when you're sampling, you know,

216
00:10:41,960 --> 00:10:43,320
Speaker 4: had the motion of a start, you don't want to

217
00:10:43,320 --> 00:10:45,480
Speaker 4: do it every femtosecond because you're going to have too

218
00:10:45,559 --> 00:10:46,240
Speaker 4: much data.

219
00:10:46,360 --> 00:10:50,120
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly, So things happen on different timescales, and the

220
00:10:50,200 --> 00:10:52,959
Speaker 1: question is like, what's the fastest thing we've ever measured?

221
00:10:52,960 --> 00:10:55,960
Speaker 1: And what's the actual minimum time slice of the universe?

222
00:10:57,000 --> 00:11:02,000
Speaker 4: Two big questions about very small things. Hopefully we can

223
00:11:02,040 --> 00:11:03,720
Speaker 4: do it in the short amount of time that we

224
00:11:03,800 --> 00:11:06,680
Speaker 4: have well, as usually, we were wondering how many people

225
00:11:06,679 --> 00:11:08,800
Speaker 4: out there had thought about the question of what is

226
00:11:08,840 --> 00:11:12,440
Speaker 4: the fastest event ever measured? So Daniel went out there

227
00:11:12,480 --> 00:11:15,240
Speaker 4: once again to ask people, what do you think is

228
00:11:15,280 --> 00:11:19,000
Speaker 4: the most fleeting or fastest physical event ever measured?

229
00:11:19,160 --> 00:11:21,480
Speaker 1: Thanks very much to our listeners who answer these questions

230
00:11:21,600 --> 00:11:24,880
Speaker 1: very very quickly. I'm very grateful for your contributions. It

231
00:11:24,920 --> 00:11:28,040
Speaker 1: helps me understand what people are thinking about. And I

232
00:11:28,080 --> 00:11:30,400
Speaker 1: hope you enjoy hearing your voice on the air. And

233
00:11:30,400 --> 00:11:32,400
Speaker 1: if you are out there listening and would like to

234
00:11:32,400 --> 00:11:35,200
Speaker 1: hear your voice answering these questions, please don't be shy

235
00:11:35,280 --> 00:11:38,520
Speaker 1: write to me to questions at Danielandjorge dot com.

236
00:11:38,520 --> 00:11:40,000
Speaker 4: So think about it for a second. What do you

237
00:11:40,040 --> 00:11:44,720
Speaker 4: think is the fastest thing humans have ever detected? Here's

238
00:11:44,720 --> 00:11:45,560
Speaker 4: what people had to say.

239
00:11:46,400 --> 00:11:50,439
Speaker 6: I don't know what the smallest time slice ever measured. Here,

240
00:11:51,120 --> 00:11:56,320
Speaker 6: I'm going to assume that it's somehow around themto seconds.

241
00:11:56,360 --> 00:11:58,040
Speaker 6: I don't know why that number sticks my brain, but

242
00:11:58,040 --> 00:11:59,360
Speaker 6: I'm going to say themto seconds.

243
00:12:00,200 --> 00:12:03,280
Speaker 3: The smallest amount of space ever measured, I think is

244
00:12:03,320 --> 00:12:04,319
Speaker 3: the plank space.

245
00:12:05,880 --> 00:12:07,760
Speaker 1: Gonna go with plank time.

246
00:12:08,240 --> 00:12:11,120
Speaker 7: That's easy. It's the time between when butter goes from

247
00:12:11,200 --> 00:12:15,840
Speaker 7: being soft to being soup. But actually it probably tend

248
00:12:15,920 --> 00:12:19,679
Speaker 7: to the negative twenty something, at which point I guess

249
00:12:20,720 --> 00:12:23,320
Speaker 7: doesn't even show that time makes any sense anymore.

250
00:12:23,880 --> 00:12:25,960
Speaker 4: All Right, we got some cooking answers here.

251
00:12:27,679 --> 00:12:29,760
Speaker 1: You know, some people listen to our podcast while they're

252
00:12:29,800 --> 00:12:32,080
Speaker 1: making dinner, and that might have influenced this answer.

253
00:12:33,200 --> 00:12:36,400
Speaker 4: Well, I'm very interested in this recipe that where you

254
00:12:36,440 --> 00:12:37,400
Speaker 4: make soup out of butter.

255
00:12:38,559 --> 00:12:40,640
Speaker 1: You've never had butter soup. Oh man, that.

256
00:12:43,360 --> 00:12:44,840
Speaker 4: Sounds so healthy, so healthy.

257
00:12:45,400 --> 00:12:49,440
Speaker 1: Yeah, I'll have butter soup low fat version please. Yeah.

258
00:12:49,480 --> 00:12:51,760
Speaker 4: That will definitely shorten your time on Earth for sure.

259
00:12:52,160 --> 00:12:54,640
Speaker 4: I mean expand your space, but short in your time.

260
00:12:55,120 --> 00:12:58,959
Speaker 4: I mean that seems like the wrong proportions.

261
00:12:59,640 --> 00:13:02,280
Speaker 1: With well. Buttered chicken is a very popular recipe, so

262
00:13:02,320 --> 00:13:04,400
Speaker 1: I'm sure butter soup is a thing people can make.

263
00:13:04,600 --> 00:13:09,520
Speaker 4: Mm, but buttered chicken soup Oh my goodness, what's better

264
00:13:09,559 --> 00:13:12,120
Speaker 4: than the physics of that? How does it even work?

265
00:13:13,600 --> 00:13:14,760
Speaker 1: It definitely adds mass.

266
00:13:15,120 --> 00:13:19,040
Speaker 4: But yeah, it's definitely an interesting question, and so let's

267
00:13:19,080 --> 00:13:21,560
Speaker 4: jump into it. Daniel. First of all, I guess let's

268
00:13:21,559 --> 00:13:25,120
Speaker 4: talk about time in general and the idea that maybe

269
00:13:25,160 --> 00:13:28,680
Speaker 4: time is pixelated or there's a minimum amount of time

270
00:13:28,720 --> 00:13:31,439
Speaker 4: in the universe. What if physicists think about that.

271
00:13:31,760 --> 00:13:34,839
Speaker 1: Physicists really have no idea how time works.

272
00:13:34,840 --> 00:13:35,560
Speaker 4: All right, we're done.

273
00:13:35,679 --> 00:13:38,200
Speaker 1: Yeah, so it's about time we gave up.

274
00:13:38,520 --> 00:13:38,600
Speaker 6: No.

275
00:13:38,720 --> 00:13:43,040
Speaker 4: Yeah, the shortest episode ever, the shortest podcast about physics

276
00:13:43,080 --> 00:13:45,120
Speaker 4: ever recorded, today's episode.

277
00:13:45,400 --> 00:13:49,000
Speaker 1: Yeah, every podcast is just we don't know. Done. No,

278
00:13:49,200 --> 00:13:52,040
Speaker 1: It is really an enduring mystery. And it's weird because

279
00:13:52,080 --> 00:13:54,520
Speaker 1: time is something we sort of feel like we understand.

280
00:13:54,520 --> 00:13:56,439
Speaker 1: It's part of our everyday lives. We talk about all

281
00:13:56,440 --> 00:13:59,240
Speaker 1: the time. We all have complicated schedules, we rely on time,

282
00:13:59,280 --> 00:14:02,040
Speaker 1: We do time zoneans, we mess them up and miss meetings.

283
00:14:02,480 --> 00:14:06,240
Speaker 1: Time is both familiar and also mysterious because we don't

284
00:14:06,320 --> 00:14:09,880
Speaker 1: understand like what it is. Special relativity tells us that

285
00:14:09,920 --> 00:14:13,199
Speaker 1: it's deeply connected to space, and it makes actually much

286
00:14:13,200 --> 00:14:16,120
Speaker 1: more sense to think about time and space together. As

287
00:14:16,200 --> 00:14:20,080
Speaker 1: one unit space time. And that makes sense because some

288
00:14:20,200 --> 00:14:22,920
Speaker 1: of the things in special relativity show us that space

289
00:14:22,960 --> 00:14:26,160
Speaker 1: and time are mixed. That you know, moving quickly through

290
00:14:26,200 --> 00:14:29,120
Speaker 1: space can affect your measurement of time. All these sorts

291
00:14:29,120 --> 00:14:31,280
Speaker 1: of things sort of the same way that like electricity

292
00:14:31,320 --> 00:14:35,120
Speaker 1: and magnetism make more sense when stuck together into one idea.

293
00:14:35,560 --> 00:14:37,960
Speaker 1: It doesn't tell you that electricity and magnetism are the

294
00:14:37,960 --> 00:14:40,120
Speaker 1: same thing, just that they're connected in the same way

295
00:14:40,400 --> 00:14:43,320
Speaker 1: space and time are connected. They're not the same, but

296
00:14:43,360 --> 00:14:46,920
Speaker 1: they're related to each other in special relativity.

297
00:14:46,840 --> 00:14:49,520
Speaker 4: Right because I guess we grow up, you know, not

298
00:14:49,720 --> 00:14:52,160
Speaker 4: just as kids, but also like sort of through elementary

299
00:14:52,240 --> 00:14:54,800
Speaker 4: high school, thinking that space and time are sort of immovable,

300
00:14:54,880 --> 00:14:57,600
Speaker 4: right like fixed in the universe. But really then eventually

301
00:14:57,680 --> 00:15:00,040
Speaker 4: you learn that space is and time are both and

302
00:15:00,160 --> 00:15:04,160
Speaker 4: a squishy, right envirorable. Time can slow down, time can

303
00:15:04,200 --> 00:15:07,400
Speaker 4: speed up, space can contract, space can expand they can

304
00:15:07,440 --> 00:15:10,600
Speaker 4: both wiggle. But where did this idea that maybe time

305
00:15:10,680 --> 00:15:13,080
Speaker 4: is pixelated? Where did it come from or what would

306
00:15:13,160 --> 00:15:15,000
Speaker 4: make physicists think that it might be?

307
00:15:15,280 --> 00:15:19,320
Speaker 1: Yeah, it's fascinating. You sort of trace the evolution of

308
00:15:19,360 --> 00:15:21,960
Speaker 1: the ideas and we all sort of have that same experience.

309
00:15:22,080 --> 00:15:24,760
Speaker 1: Like Newton thought of space and time as absolute and fixed,

310
00:15:24,760 --> 00:15:28,000
Speaker 1: as you say, sort of immutable. They're like the backdrop

311
00:15:28,080 --> 00:15:31,920
Speaker 1: of the universe. But then Einstein showd us that they're not. Actually,

312
00:15:32,160 --> 00:15:37,160
Speaker 1: they're flexible, they're interconnected. But most importantly, Einstein's theory of

313
00:15:37,240 --> 00:15:42,560
Speaker 1: general relativity and special relativity still suggests that time is continuous,

314
00:15:42,720 --> 00:15:48,120
Speaker 1: it's smooth, it's infinitely divisible, that it's not discrete or pixelated.

315
00:15:48,200 --> 00:15:50,960
Speaker 1: It's not like there are steps in time. In Einstein's

316
00:15:51,000 --> 00:15:53,880
Speaker 1: theory of the universe. You can take any two moments

317
00:15:53,920 --> 00:15:56,960
Speaker 1: and there's always another moment in between. Right, there's no

318
00:15:57,160 --> 00:16:01,080
Speaker 1: minimum time step in Einstein's universe, and relativity describes the

319
00:16:01,160 --> 00:16:04,480
Speaker 1: universe very very well. It describes the expansion of the

320
00:16:04,560 --> 00:16:08,240
Speaker 1: universe and the motion of galaxies and everything we've ever

321
00:16:08,280 --> 00:16:10,920
Speaker 1: been able to test about general relativity has always been

322
00:16:11,000 --> 00:16:14,160
Speaker 1: bang on, exactly correct, with astonishing accuracy.

323
00:16:14,720 --> 00:16:17,560
Speaker 4: Now, when you say the answing theories suggest that what

324
00:16:17,600 --> 00:16:19,400
Speaker 4: does that mean? Does that mean that it only works

325
00:16:19,440 --> 00:16:22,880
Speaker 4: with continuous time or that is just always used continuous

326
00:16:22,880 --> 00:16:26,320
Speaker 4: time and nobody has thought about applying it to the

327
00:16:26,720 --> 00:16:27,560
Speaker 4: pixelated time.

328
00:16:28,400 --> 00:16:32,600
Speaker 1: Yeah, great question. It works assuming that space is continuous.

329
00:16:32,600 --> 00:16:34,760
Speaker 1: So you're like, let's start from that assumption and then

330
00:16:34,800 --> 00:16:37,160
Speaker 1: build on top of that. And then you could ask, well,

331
00:16:37,200 --> 00:16:39,800
Speaker 1: could you have a different theory that didn't make that assumption.

332
00:16:39,880 --> 00:16:43,680
Speaker 1: What if you assumed instead that space was pixelated? And

333
00:16:43,760 --> 00:16:45,760
Speaker 1: then you run into all sorts of mathematical problems that

334
00:16:45,800 --> 00:16:48,800
Speaker 1: nobody has been able to solve before. The motivation for

335
00:16:48,840 --> 00:16:51,280
Speaker 1: that comes from quantum mechanics. Like you might ask, well,

336
00:16:51,320 --> 00:16:53,840
Speaker 1: why would you wake time pixelated? It feels pretty smooth

337
00:16:53,880 --> 00:16:55,440
Speaker 1: to me. I mean, we measure it in seconds, but

338
00:16:55,480 --> 00:16:58,560
Speaker 1: we know there's always milliseconds below those and microseconds below those.

339
00:16:58,960 --> 00:17:01,520
Speaker 1: Why would you ever imagine there would be pixels? And

340
00:17:01,560 --> 00:17:04,320
Speaker 1: that comes from the idea of quantum mechanics, which tells

341
00:17:04,440 --> 00:17:07,680
Speaker 1: us that the nature of reality is a sort of discrete.

342
00:17:07,720 --> 00:17:10,919
Speaker 1: It's like made out of chunks. It's not smooth, you know,

343
00:17:11,000 --> 00:17:12,680
Speaker 1: like when we look at a beam of life from

344
00:17:12,680 --> 00:17:17,000
Speaker 1: a flashlight. Einstein's actual discovery from the photoelectric effect tells

345
00:17:17,080 --> 00:17:19,600
Speaker 1: us that it's not just like smooth beams of light

346
00:17:19,640 --> 00:17:22,480
Speaker 1: that you could like chop up infinitely small, that there's

347
00:17:22,520 --> 00:17:25,639
Speaker 1: like a minimum brightness because light comes in packets, these

348
00:17:25,680 --> 00:17:30,159
Speaker 1: little things called photons, right, and so quantum mechanics suggests

349
00:17:30,200 --> 00:17:33,600
Speaker 1: that even though the universe seems continuous and smooth when

350
00:17:33,680 --> 00:17:36,120
Speaker 1: you zoom in, it really is kind of pixelated. It's

351
00:17:36,119 --> 00:17:38,200
Speaker 1: just like when you look at your computer screen and

352
00:17:38,280 --> 00:17:41,640
Speaker 1: you zoom in, it seems smooth, right, but actually there's

353
00:17:41,680 --> 00:17:43,760
Speaker 1: little dots there. There are little basic units.

354
00:17:44,200 --> 00:17:48,600
Speaker 4: So that's the motivation, right, Like even this podcast is pixelated, right,

355
00:17:48,680 --> 00:17:52,199
Speaker 4: Like we're recording into a digital device. It's recording it

356
00:17:52,520 --> 00:17:54,960
Speaker 4: with a time sample with a minimum time sampling rate,

357
00:17:55,080 --> 00:17:58,720
Speaker 4: and then it gets transmitted as bits and then it

358
00:17:58,760 --> 00:18:01,160
Speaker 4: plays out there where you're listening to this as those

359
00:18:01,359 --> 00:18:02,439
Speaker 4: little bits.

360
00:18:02,720 --> 00:18:07,680
Speaker 1: Yeah, you're exactly right. Digitization is creating some pixelization, right,

361
00:18:07,720 --> 00:18:10,600
Speaker 1: You're creating these units, and exactly the sort of way

362
00:18:10,640 --> 00:18:15,160
Speaker 1: quantum mechanics works. Fascinatingly though, even analog measurements have a resolution, right,

363
00:18:15,200 --> 00:18:17,919
Speaker 1: like a photograph. You think of it as like, oh,

364
00:18:17,920 --> 00:18:21,240
Speaker 1: it's photons. It's not like pixels like a digital camera

365
00:18:21,800 --> 00:18:25,880
Speaker 1: or a analog recording on like vinyl or on a tape.

366
00:18:26,000 --> 00:18:28,520
Speaker 1: It's not using digits. It's analog. It's using some sort

367
00:18:28,520 --> 00:18:31,160
Speaker 1: of like magnetic technology to record it, or like physical

368
00:18:31,200 --> 00:18:34,800
Speaker 1: bumps on the vinyl. Still that is discrete, right, because

369
00:18:34,960 --> 00:18:38,000
Speaker 1: in the end, there's a finite resolution, Like for photographs

370
00:18:38,160 --> 00:18:41,399
Speaker 1: there's a resolution of a photon or the molecule of

371
00:18:41,480 --> 00:18:44,600
Speaker 1: the chemical atoms that are you know, recording the light,

372
00:18:45,359 --> 00:18:47,720
Speaker 1: or on the tape, there's still the resolution of like

373
00:18:47,720 --> 00:18:50,520
Speaker 1: the little magnets that are aligned to record your information,

374
00:18:50,760 --> 00:18:52,879
Speaker 1: or on the vinyl there's still like the chemistry of

375
00:18:52,920 --> 00:18:56,280
Speaker 1: the vinyl itself. So analog is higher resolution, but it's

376
00:18:56,280 --> 00:18:59,320
Speaker 1: not infinite resolution, right, And so.

377
00:18:59,280 --> 00:19:02,359
Speaker 4: The idea is that maybe time is also pixelated.

378
00:19:02,080 --> 00:19:04,560
Speaker 1: Yeah, because it's weird to think about time as infinite.

379
00:19:04,600 --> 00:19:08,320
Speaker 1: You know, we don't see infinities in reality. Everywhere we

380
00:19:08,359 --> 00:19:11,919
Speaker 1: see infinities in our theory, always something acts to prevent

381
00:19:11,920 --> 00:19:14,480
Speaker 1: it from happening in reality. And this is what quantum

382
00:19:14,520 --> 00:19:17,320
Speaker 1: mechanics tells us, that there are new infinities. You can't

383
00:19:17,320 --> 00:19:22,320
Speaker 1: divide things infinitely small, and maybe space itself and time

384
00:19:22,560 --> 00:19:26,359
Speaker 1: are pixelated. Maybe there's a minimum unit of space and

385
00:19:26,400 --> 00:19:29,600
Speaker 1: a minimum unit of time. This would be very natural

386
00:19:29,600 --> 00:19:32,800
Speaker 1: from a quantum mechanical point of view. You asked earlier, like, well,

387
00:19:32,840 --> 00:19:35,280
Speaker 1: has anybody tried that? What if you built general relativity

388
00:19:35,520 --> 00:19:38,080
Speaker 1: out of discrete units of space and time, you know,

389
00:19:38,160 --> 00:19:40,360
Speaker 1: pixelated the universe, and people are trying to do that.

390
00:19:40,440 --> 00:19:43,439
Speaker 1: But bringing together the ideas of general relativity and the

391
00:19:43,440 --> 00:19:46,439
Speaker 1: ideas of quantum mechanics to make that new concept, like

392
00:19:46,480 --> 00:19:48,760
Speaker 1: a theory of gravity and space and time that's built

393
00:19:48,760 --> 00:19:51,560
Speaker 1: on discrete units has so far not been successful. People

394
00:19:51,600 --> 00:19:53,960
Speaker 1: have been trying for decades. You run into all sorts

395
00:19:53,960 --> 00:19:57,000
Speaker 1: of mathematical problems doing so. So we don't have a

396
00:19:57,119 --> 00:20:00,320
Speaker 1: theory of general relativity that's built on discrete time. So

397
00:20:00,359 --> 00:20:02,399
Speaker 1: we have this theory of general relativity. It tells us

398
00:20:02,440 --> 00:20:05,680
Speaker 1: about space and gravity but assumes continuous time. And then

399
00:20:05,680 --> 00:20:08,920
Speaker 1: this idea that the universe is quantum mechanical and time

400
00:20:08,960 --> 00:20:11,480
Speaker 1: and space are probably discrete. But we can't bring these

401
00:20:11,520 --> 00:20:12,200
Speaker 1: two things together.

402
00:20:12,560 --> 00:20:15,320
Speaker 4: Right. But this theory, even though it comes from Einstein,

403
00:20:15,400 --> 00:20:17,760
Speaker 4: does have its problems, right, Like it sort of breaks down,

404
00:20:17,840 --> 00:20:20,520
Speaker 4: especially when you get down to the smallest levels of

405
00:20:20,600 --> 00:20:22,840
Speaker 4: particles in quantum physics.

406
00:20:23,040 --> 00:20:27,080
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly, general relativity is very, very accurate. But everything

407
00:20:27,280 --> 00:20:30,679
Speaker 1: we think in physics has its limitations. Like every theory

408
00:20:30,720 --> 00:20:35,680
Speaker 1: you describe is applicable only in certain situations. Situations where

409
00:20:35,720 --> 00:20:39,160
Speaker 1: you've derived it, you know, under the assumptions that are valid,

410
00:20:39,320 --> 00:20:41,600
Speaker 1: and so, as you mentioned, like general relativity, we think

411
00:20:41,640 --> 00:20:44,720
Speaker 1: breaks down in certain situations Like number one, It can't

412
00:20:44,720 --> 00:20:48,360
Speaker 1: describe particles, like what is the gravity of a particle?

413
00:20:48,480 --> 00:20:52,560
Speaker 1: We don't know because particles have uncertainty. General relativity can

414
00:20:52,640 --> 00:20:55,639
Speaker 1: only tell you about how space is bent when you

415
00:20:55,760 --> 00:20:57,720
Speaker 1: know where a mass is, Well, what if you don't

416
00:20:57,720 --> 00:20:59,000
Speaker 1: know where it is? What if it only has a

417
00:20:59,040 --> 00:21:01,560
Speaker 1: probability to be here and a probability to be there,

418
00:21:01,880 --> 00:21:05,480
Speaker 1: is space probably bent or space bent on average? We

419
00:21:05,520 --> 00:21:07,760
Speaker 1: don't know the answers to these questions, So we don't

420
00:21:07,800 --> 00:21:11,040
Speaker 1: know how to do general relativity for quantum particles, and

421
00:21:11,200 --> 00:21:12,320
Speaker 1: it makes weird predictions.

422
00:21:12,720 --> 00:21:14,479
Speaker 4: Are we ever going to find out? Like how are

423
00:21:14,520 --> 00:21:18,400
Speaker 4: we going to tell if the universe is pixelated in time? Ever?

424
00:21:19,880 --> 00:21:22,399
Speaker 1: Yeah, those are two great questions. Will we ever find

425
00:21:22,440 --> 00:21:25,080
Speaker 1: out how general relativity or how space is bent by

426
00:21:25,160 --> 00:21:28,680
Speaker 1: quantum particles? There's a bunch of really cool, clever experiments. Well,

427
00:21:28,680 --> 00:21:29,959
Speaker 1: one way to do it is to try to come

428
00:21:30,040 --> 00:21:32,239
Speaker 1: up with a theory of quantum gravity that mirrors these

429
00:21:32,240 --> 00:21:34,600
Speaker 1: things together and tells us sort of like conceptually, how

430
00:21:34,680 --> 00:21:37,919
Speaker 1: time might work. Another is to try to like make

431
00:21:37,960 --> 00:21:41,600
Speaker 1: approximate calculations and guess even without the theory of quantum gravity.

432
00:21:41,600 --> 00:21:43,040
Speaker 1: And you heard one of the listeners talk about the

433
00:21:43,040 --> 00:21:45,920
Speaker 1: plank time. And another is to try to make fast

434
00:21:45,960 --> 00:21:48,320
Speaker 1: measurements and see, like, can we zoom in on stuff

435
00:21:48,320 --> 00:21:51,760
Speaker 1: in the universe and see if we can measure these pixels,

436
00:21:51,760 --> 00:21:54,880
Speaker 1: if we can notice some like discrete unit of time

437
00:21:55,000 --> 00:21:57,359
Speaker 1: happening in our experiments.

438
00:21:57,080 --> 00:21:59,560
Speaker 4: Like we might measure something in an experiment and actually

439
00:21:59,600 --> 00:22:00,879
Speaker 4: see the pixels.

440
00:22:00,480 --> 00:22:03,520
Speaker 1: Of time, Yeah, exactly, the way you can zoom in

441
00:22:03,600 --> 00:22:06,160
Speaker 1: on a screen and see the pixels are there, right,

442
00:22:06,640 --> 00:22:09,120
Speaker 1: Or you could slow down a movie and notice, oh,

443
00:22:09,160 --> 00:22:11,640
Speaker 1: it's not actually a continuous motion, it's just a bunch

444
00:22:11,640 --> 00:22:14,679
Speaker 1: of still frames. If you could zoom in on the

445
00:22:14,680 --> 00:22:19,080
Speaker 1: physical universe in time, then you might notice those time

446
00:22:19,119 --> 00:22:20,760
Speaker 1: pixels if they're there. Yeah.

447
00:22:20,840 --> 00:22:23,560
Speaker 4: Well, I guess the question is how fast are things

448
00:22:23,680 --> 00:22:26,679
Speaker 4: in nature? And the second question you can ask is

449
00:22:26,840 --> 00:22:29,240
Speaker 4: what's the fastest thing that we can measure or that

450
00:22:29,320 --> 00:22:31,720
Speaker 4: we have been able to measure? Yeah, so far, So

451
00:22:31,800 --> 00:22:34,879
Speaker 4: let's dig into both of those small questions. I guess

452
00:22:35,480 --> 00:22:39,520
Speaker 4: short questions. Probably not, but unfortunately it's time to take

453
00:22:39,760 --> 00:22:40,560
Speaker 4: a quick break.

454
00:22:45,119 --> 00:22:48,080
Speaker 1: With big wireless providers, what you see is never what

455
00:22:48,160 --> 00:22:50,840
Speaker 1: you get. Somewhere between the store and your first month's bill,

456
00:22:50,880 --> 00:22:54,600
Speaker 1: the price you thought you were paying magically skyrockets. With Mintmobile,

457
00:22:54,720 --> 00:22:57,720
Speaker 1: You'll never have to worry about gotcha's ever again. When

458
00:22:57,760 --> 00:23:00,000
Speaker 1: Mint Mobile says fifteen dollars a month for a three

459
00:23:00,080 --> 00:23:02,960
Speaker 1: month plan, they really mean it. I've used mint Mobile

460
00:23:02,960 --> 00:23:05,280
Speaker 1: and the call quality is always so crisp and so

461
00:23:05,480 --> 00:23:07,800
Speaker 1: clear I can recommend it to you, So say bye

462
00:23:07,840 --> 00:23:11,240
Speaker 1: bye to your overpriced wireless plans, jaw dropping monthly bills

463
00:23:11,240 --> 00:23:14,199
Speaker 1: and unexpected overages. You can use your own phone with

464
00:23:14,280 --> 00:23:17,080
Speaker 1: any Mint Mobile plan and bring your phone number along

465
00:23:17,119 --> 00:23:20,080
Speaker 1: with your existing contacts. So dit your overpriced wireless with

466
00:23:20,119 --> 00:23:22,880
Speaker 1: mint Mobiles deal and get three months a premium wireless

467
00:23:22,880 --> 00:23:25,040
Speaker 1: service for fifteen bucks a month. To get this new

468
00:23:25,080 --> 00:23:27,560
Speaker 1: customer offer and your new three month premium wireless plan

469
00:23:27,600 --> 00:23:29,560
Speaker 1: for just fifteen bucks a month, go to mintmobile dot

470
00:23:29,600 --> 00:23:33,080
Speaker 1: com slash universe. That's mintmobile dot com slash universe. Cut

471
00:23:33,080 --> 00:23:35,360
Speaker 1: your wireless bill to fifteen bucks a month. At mintmobile

472
00:23:35,359 --> 00:23:38,439
Speaker 1: dot com slash universe. Forty five dollars upfront payment required

473
00:23:38,440 --> 00:23:41,080
Speaker 1: equivalent to fifteen dollars per month new customers on first

474
00:23:41,080 --> 00:23:43,720
Speaker 1: three month plan only speeds slower about forty gigabytes on

475
00:23:43,800 --> 00:23:46,680
Speaker 1: unlimited plan. Additional taxi speed and restrictions apply. See mint

476
00:23:46,680 --> 00:23:47,680
Speaker 1: Mobile for details.

477
00:23:47,840 --> 00:23:50,880
Speaker 8: AI might be the most important new computer technology ever.

478
00:23:51,160 --> 00:23:54,359
Speaker 8: It's storming every industry and literally billions of dollars are

479
00:23:54,400 --> 00:23:58,600
Speaker 8: being invested, so buckle up. The problem is that AI

480
00:23:58,720 --> 00:24:01,359
Speaker 8: needs a lot of speed and pro assessing power. So

481
00:24:01,400 --> 00:24:04,040
Speaker 8: how do you compete without cost spiraling out of control.

482
00:24:04,560 --> 00:24:07,080
Speaker 8: It's time to upgrade to the next generation of the cloud.

483
00:24:07,400 --> 00:24:12,600
Speaker 8: Oracle Cloud Infrastructure or OCI. OCI is a single platform

484
00:24:12,640 --> 00:24:17,480
Speaker 8: for your infrastructure, database, application development, and AI needs. OCI

485
00:24:17,640 --> 00:24:20,000
Speaker 8: has four to eight times the bandwidth of other clouds,

486
00:24:20,400 --> 00:24:23,960
Speaker 8: offers one consistent price instead of variable regional pricing, and

487
00:24:24,040 --> 00:24:27,120
Speaker 8: of course nobody does data better than Oracle. So now

488
00:24:27,160 --> 00:24:29,359
Speaker 8: you can train your AI models at twice the speed

489
00:24:29,560 --> 00:24:31,920
Speaker 8: and less than half the cost of other clouds. If

490
00:24:31,920 --> 00:24:34,160
Speaker 8: you want to do more and spend less, like Uber

491
00:24:34,280 --> 00:24:36,880
Speaker 8: eight by eight and Data Bricks Mosaic, take a free

492
00:24:36,960 --> 00:24:40,880
Speaker 8: test drive of OCI at Oracle dot com slash strategic.

493
00:24:41,160 --> 00:24:46,440
Speaker 8: That's Oracle dot com slash Strategic Oracle dot com Slash Strategic.

494
00:24:46,680 --> 00:24:49,600
Speaker 1: If you love iPhone, you'll love Apple Card. It's the

495
00:24:49,680 --> 00:24:53,560
Speaker 1: credit card designed for iPhone. It gives you unlimited daily

496
00:24:53,680 --> 00:24:56,640
Speaker 1: cash back that can earn four point four zero percent

497
00:24:56,760 --> 00:24:59,560
Speaker 1: annual percentage yield. When you open a high yield savings

498
00:24:59,600 --> 00:25:02,439
Speaker 1: account through Apple Card, apply for Apple Card in the

499
00:25:02,520 --> 00:25:05,800
Speaker 1: wallet app subject to credit approval. Savings is available to

500
00:25:05,840 --> 00:25:09,280
Speaker 1: Apple Card owners subject to eligibility. Apple Card and Savings

501
00:25:09,280 --> 00:25:12,200
Speaker 1: by Goldman, sax Bank USA, Salt Lake City Branch Member

502
00:25:12,280 --> 00:25:15,639
Speaker 1: FDIC terms and more at applecard dot com. When you

503
00:25:15,680 --> 00:25:17,680
Speaker 1: pop a piece of cheese into your mouth or enjoy

504
00:25:17,720 --> 00:25:21,000
Speaker 1: a rich spoonful of Greek yogurt, you're probably not thinking

505
00:25:21,040 --> 00:25:24,600
Speaker 1: about the environmental impact of each and every bite, But

506
00:25:24,640 --> 00:25:27,320
Speaker 1: the people in the dairy industry are US. Dairy has

507
00:25:27,320 --> 00:25:31,760
Speaker 1: set themselves some ambitious sustainability goals, including being greenhouse gas

508
00:25:31,800 --> 00:25:34,359
Speaker 1: neutral by twenty to fifty. That's why they're working hard

509
00:25:34,400 --> 00:25:36,879
Speaker 1: every day to find new ways to reduce waste, conserve

510
00:25:36,960 --> 00:25:40,720
Speaker 1: natural resources, and drive down greenhouse gas emissions. Take water,

511
00:25:40,760 --> 00:25:43,840
Speaker 1: for example, most dairy farms reuse water up to four

512
00:25:43,920 --> 00:25:47,359
Speaker 1: times the same water cools the milk, cleans equipment, washes

513
00:25:47,400 --> 00:25:50,200
Speaker 1: the barn and irrigates the crops. How is US dairy

514
00:25:50,240 --> 00:25:54,000
Speaker 1: tackling greenhouse gases? Many farms use anaerobic digestors that turn

515
00:25:54,040 --> 00:25:57,960
Speaker 1: the methane from maneure into renewable energy that can power farms, towns,

516
00:25:57,960 --> 00:25:59,960
Speaker 1: and electric cars. So the next time you grab a

517
00:26:00,080 --> 00:26:02,080
Speaker 1: slice of pizza or lick an ice cream cone, know

518
00:26:02,160 --> 00:26:04,800
Speaker 1: that dairy farmers and processors around the country are using

519
00:26:04,880 --> 00:26:08,359
Speaker 1: the latest practices and innovations to provide the nutrient intents

520
00:26:08,480 --> 00:26:11,200
Speaker 1: dairy products we love with less of an impact. Visit

521
00:26:11,320 --> 00:26:14,119
Speaker 1: us dairy dot com slash sustainability to learn more.

522
00:26:22,280 --> 00:26:24,680
Speaker 4: All right, very quickly, Daniel, what are we talking about today?

523
00:26:25,760 --> 00:26:28,800
Speaker 1: We're talking about the fastest things that ever happened.

524
00:26:29,880 --> 00:26:33,800
Speaker 4: Not the fastest podcast episode. I think we're we're already

525
00:26:33,800 --> 00:26:34,480
Speaker 4: past that point.

526
00:26:34,560 --> 00:26:36,439
Speaker 1: Maybe somebody out there is playing our podcast at like

527
00:26:36,520 --> 00:26:39,119
Speaker 1: ten x so they're understanding the universe is so much

528
00:26:39,160 --> 00:26:39,760
Speaker 1: faster than us.

529
00:26:39,920 --> 00:26:41,640
Speaker 4: Well, do we sound like chipmunks now?

530
00:26:41,680 --> 00:26:47,640
Speaker 1: Then to them we should talk really slowly for those people.

531
00:26:48,320 --> 00:26:51,159
Speaker 4: Maybe we shouldn't, like figure out how to encode secret

532
00:26:51,200 --> 00:26:54,800
Speaker 4: messages by talking backwards, Like if you play the podcast backwards.

533
00:26:56,000 --> 00:26:58,959
Speaker 1: If you only listen to every twenty fifth word I say.

534
00:26:59,080 --> 00:27:01,920
Speaker 1: I've been talking and cet messages the whole time. It's

535
00:27:01,960 --> 00:27:03,040
Speaker 1: for the special audience.

536
00:27:03,160 --> 00:27:07,360
Speaker 4: It's like you and Tator Swift hiding secret messages.

537
00:27:07,560 --> 00:27:09,360
Speaker 1: Yeah, it's like those books where if you read only

538
00:27:09,400 --> 00:27:11,240
Speaker 1: the words along the left side of the page, it's

539
00:27:11,240 --> 00:27:12,680
Speaker 1: a whole second message there.

540
00:27:12,840 --> 00:27:14,960
Speaker 4: All right. If you take every twenty fifth word Daniel

541
00:27:15,000 --> 00:27:17,879
Speaker 4: has ever said in all five hundred plus episodes, and

542
00:27:17,920 --> 00:27:21,000
Speaker 4: you take every thirteenth word that I ever said in

543
00:27:21,040 --> 00:27:23,240
Speaker 4: all five hundred episodes, and you put them in the

544
00:27:23,280 --> 00:27:26,159
Speaker 4: right order, you'll get the answer to the origin of

545
00:27:26,160 --> 00:27:27,520
Speaker 4: the universe, like.

546
00:27:27,520 --> 00:27:30,520
Speaker 1: The universe and everything. Yeah, that's exactly it is. The

547
00:27:30,520 --> 00:27:32,439
Speaker 1: big reveal folk plot twist at the end.

548
00:27:32,560 --> 00:27:33,879
Speaker 4: Today's a day where re announce it.

549
00:27:34,080 --> 00:27:37,120
Speaker 1: Yes, absolutely, But we.

550
00:27:37,040 --> 00:27:39,280
Speaker 4: Are talking about how fast things are in the universe.

551
00:27:39,320 --> 00:27:42,879
Speaker 4: And I guess two sort of basic questions. What's the

552
00:27:42,960 --> 00:27:45,080
Speaker 4: fastest thing that we know about in the universe and

553
00:27:45,119 --> 00:27:48,199
Speaker 4: what's the fastest thing we've ever measured in the universe. Yeah,

554
00:27:48,240 --> 00:27:51,119
Speaker 4: so talk to us about how fast things are in

555
00:27:51,160 --> 00:27:53,639
Speaker 4: the universe, Like what are the different scales that we

556
00:27:53,680 --> 00:27:54,080
Speaker 4: know about.

557
00:27:54,600 --> 00:27:57,200
Speaker 1: Yeah, So, first of all, there's the unit of the second. Right,

558
00:27:57,240 --> 00:27:59,879
Speaker 1: the second is like our natural unit of time, but

559
00:28:00,080 --> 00:28:02,879
Speaker 1: it's totally arbitrary. We just made it up. It's not

560
00:28:02,920 --> 00:28:05,760
Speaker 1: like a physical thing. You know, light travels a certain

561
00:28:05,800 --> 00:28:08,920
Speaker 1: distance in a second. There's some caesium atom that oscillates

562
00:28:09,000 --> 00:28:11,800
Speaker 1: billions of times in a second. But a second tells

563
00:28:11,880 --> 00:28:14,680
Speaker 1: us something about ourselves and our relationship with time, because

564
00:28:14,680 --> 00:28:17,960
Speaker 1: it's what we feel like is the minimum unit of

565
00:28:18,000 --> 00:28:20,919
Speaker 1: time that sort of makes sense to talk about between people.

566
00:28:21,040 --> 00:28:23,840
Speaker 1: It's like the natural rhythm of our thoughts. One second,

567
00:28:24,160 --> 00:28:26,200
Speaker 1: is it. I think that's why we pick the second,

568
00:28:26,240 --> 00:28:28,600
Speaker 1: you know, because it's reasonable, Like you pick a unit

569
00:28:28,680 --> 00:28:31,800
Speaker 1: so that you're usually talking about small numbers. I mean,

570
00:28:31,880 --> 00:28:34,560
Speaker 1: we could live our lives with clocks that go down

571
00:28:34,560 --> 00:28:36,840
Speaker 1: to the microseconds, but it would be pretty exhausting, you know,

572
00:28:37,080 --> 00:28:38,960
Speaker 1: if you had to tell your kid like, okay, you

573
00:28:38,960 --> 00:28:43,160
Speaker 1: can watch TV for six billion milliseconds or six billion nanoseconds,

574
00:28:43,480 --> 00:28:45,560
Speaker 1: that'd be confusing all the time. So we tend to

575
00:28:45,600 --> 00:28:47,719
Speaker 1: pick units so you can say small numbers.

576
00:28:47,800 --> 00:28:49,720
Speaker 4: I think you're talking about like the scale of a second,

577
00:28:49,760 --> 00:28:52,120
Speaker 4: not exactly like the second, Like, why is in the

578
00:28:52,120 --> 00:28:55,120
Speaker 4: second one point one seconds? Nobody knows, right.

579
00:28:55,080 --> 00:28:57,920
Speaker 1: Yeah, nobody knows. It's totally arbitrary. But why is this

580
00:28:58,040 --> 00:29:00,840
Speaker 1: second not like one hundred times longer, one hundred times shorter.

581
00:29:01,080 --> 00:29:03,320
Speaker 1: That tells us something about like the scale in which

582
00:29:03,360 --> 00:29:03,760
Speaker 1: we live.

583
00:29:04,040 --> 00:29:06,160
Speaker 4: Well, we also talk about like minutes and hours. Those

584
00:29:06,160 --> 00:29:08,320
Speaker 4: are really important too, But I think you're saying, like

585
00:29:08,800 --> 00:29:11,400
Speaker 4: the second is maybe the minimum amount of time that

586
00:29:11,600 --> 00:29:15,320
Speaker 4: sort of our brains can grow or understand or grasp.

587
00:29:15,480 --> 00:29:19,080
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly, we have no smaller time unit that's not

588
00:29:19,200 --> 00:29:20,560
Speaker 1: just like a fraction of a second.

589
00:29:20,720 --> 00:29:22,840
Speaker 4: That makes sense, right, Like nobody worries about things that

590
00:29:22,880 --> 00:29:25,840
Speaker 4: happen in the millisecond level on an everyday basis.

591
00:29:25,520 --> 00:29:27,680
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. And if you think about the way your

592
00:29:27,680 --> 00:29:30,600
Speaker 1: body works, you know, like roughly your heart beats once

593
00:29:30,640 --> 00:29:33,600
Speaker 1: a second ish, depending on whether you're an athlete or not.

594
00:29:34,480 --> 00:29:37,240
Speaker 1: And your eyes, for example, blink in like a tenth

595
00:29:37,320 --> 00:29:40,160
Speaker 1: of a second, and your eyes can only see things

596
00:29:40,160 --> 00:29:42,760
Speaker 1: that happen, you know, to like one thirtieth of a second,

597
00:29:42,760 --> 00:29:44,920
Speaker 1: which is why you can play a movie with like

598
00:29:45,040 --> 00:29:47,960
Speaker 1: thirty frames per second and it looks continuous. Your eye

599
00:29:47,960 --> 00:29:51,280
Speaker 1: can't tell the difference between that and actual continuous motion.

600
00:29:52,520 --> 00:29:54,160
Speaker 4: So maybe more it's more like the one tenth of

601
00:29:54,160 --> 00:29:56,400
Speaker 4: a second is really kind of the minimum unit that

602
00:29:56,440 --> 00:29:58,239
Speaker 4: we were used to thinking about, right, But we are

603
00:29:58,320 --> 00:30:00,120
Speaker 4: used to thinking about things that happen in the think

604
00:30:00,160 --> 00:30:00,600
Speaker 4: of an eye.

605
00:30:00,640 --> 00:30:02,360
Speaker 1: And I think that's why you choose a unit to

606
00:30:02,400 --> 00:30:04,480
Speaker 1: be like a second, and you can think about small

607
00:30:04,560 --> 00:30:06,000
Speaker 1: numbers of it, you know, a tenth of a second

608
00:30:06,040 --> 00:30:10,200
Speaker 1: or ten seconds. It encapsulates the typical range of human activity.

609
00:30:10,360 --> 00:30:13,560
Speaker 1: But of course the physical universe things happen much faster,

610
00:30:14,080 --> 00:30:17,560
Speaker 1: you know, like even inside your brain, neurons fire. You know,

611
00:30:17,600 --> 00:30:20,200
Speaker 1: we think like about a thousand times a second, so

612
00:30:20,240 --> 00:30:22,480
Speaker 1: the processing speed of your brain is like a thousand

613
00:30:22,520 --> 00:30:25,960
Speaker 1: times faster than a second. And you know, tiny particles

614
00:30:26,000 --> 00:30:29,520
Speaker 1: out there can interact and live for much shorter times,

615
00:30:29,600 --> 00:30:31,840
Speaker 1: Like do you create a muon in the upper atmosphere

616
00:30:31,840 --> 00:30:34,360
Speaker 1: because a cosmic rays is smashed into a particle, that

617
00:30:34,440 --> 00:30:37,480
Speaker 1: muon lives for ten to the minus six seconds a

618
00:30:37,560 --> 00:30:40,760
Speaker 1: millionth of a second. Whoa, and you can zoom in

619
00:30:40,840 --> 00:30:43,160
Speaker 1: much faster, of course, and think about like what happens

620
00:30:43,200 --> 00:30:45,760
Speaker 1: in a billionth of a second. Well, in a billionth

621
00:30:45,800 --> 00:30:48,200
Speaker 1: of a second, light travels about a foot.

622
00:30:48,520 --> 00:30:49,480
Speaker 4: Yeah, light is fast.

623
00:30:50,440 --> 00:30:52,440
Speaker 1: Light is pretty fast, but it's amazing to think about,

624
00:30:52,440 --> 00:30:55,800
Speaker 1: like slowing time down enough to see light move right,

625
00:30:56,040 --> 00:30:58,560
Speaker 1: for light to travel at a small distance. Usually we

626
00:30:58,600 --> 00:31:01,200
Speaker 1: think about light as going like around the Earth lots

627
00:31:01,200 --> 00:31:03,360
Speaker 1: of times, but in a billionth of a second, it

628
00:31:03,400 --> 00:31:06,000
Speaker 1: only goes afoot, which is cool. There are other tiny

629
00:31:06,000 --> 00:31:08,479
Speaker 1: particles that live much shorter than the mew on. For example,

630
00:31:08,480 --> 00:31:11,040
Speaker 1: if you create a bottom cork, it lives about a

631
00:31:11,120 --> 00:31:14,280
Speaker 1: billionth of a second before flying off to something else.

632
00:31:14,680 --> 00:31:16,400
Speaker 1: This is a slice of time it's hard to even

633
00:31:16,440 --> 00:31:18,760
Speaker 1: really think about, like does that really exist? Is there

634
00:31:18,800 --> 00:31:21,480
Speaker 1: like a moment when the bottom cork is like there

635
00:31:21,600 --> 00:31:24,800
Speaker 1: and doing its thing before it decays? It feels almost

636
00:31:24,840 --> 00:31:26,120
Speaker 1: like zero time already.

637
00:31:26,320 --> 00:31:28,200
Speaker 4: Well, I wonder if it feels like zero time to

638
00:31:28,400 --> 00:31:32,040
Speaker 4: us because we're so slow, you know, in our thinking.

639
00:31:32,120 --> 00:31:35,560
Speaker 4: But maybe if you have like you know, microscopic creatures

640
00:31:35,720 --> 00:31:39,360
Speaker 4: or you know, really tiny beings that probably think a

641
00:31:39,360 --> 00:31:41,680
Speaker 4: lot faster, I wonder if that will seem slow to them.

642
00:31:42,000 --> 00:31:45,400
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. It's all relative, right, this choice of a second.

643
00:31:45,440 --> 00:31:47,480
Speaker 1: It tells us about like how we live our lives.

644
00:31:47,480 --> 00:31:49,160
Speaker 1: It's relative to the length of our lives and the

645
00:31:49,200 --> 00:31:52,560
Speaker 1: operating of our brain, but it's arbitrary. Time extends on

646
00:31:52,600 --> 00:31:55,960
Speaker 1: this enormous spectrum from the many, many, many billions of

647
00:31:56,080 --> 00:31:58,920
Speaker 1: years down to the tiniest slice, and we're operating on

648
00:31:58,960 --> 00:32:01,040
Speaker 1: a tiny little bit of it, Like the way we

649
00:32:01,080 --> 00:32:04,120
Speaker 1: can see a little slice of the visual spectrum, but

650
00:32:04,160 --> 00:32:06,760
Speaker 1: there's light with much higher frequencies and lower frequencies in

651
00:32:06,840 --> 00:32:08,640
Speaker 1: the universe. Is a wash in that kind of light

652
00:32:08,880 --> 00:32:10,920
Speaker 1: that we don't normally see. It's just it's like our

653
00:32:11,000 --> 00:32:15,400
Speaker 1: human perspective, but the universe operates on even shorter time scales.

654
00:32:15,440 --> 00:32:17,040
Speaker 1: You know, if you go down to like ten to

655
00:32:17,040 --> 00:32:20,280
Speaker 1: the minus fifteen seconds, this is now a thempto second.

656
00:32:20,680 --> 00:32:22,720
Speaker 4: I wonder if because we also know time is sort

657
00:32:22,760 --> 00:32:25,120
Speaker 4: of relative, right, So I wonder, like, if you create

658
00:32:25,160 --> 00:32:28,000
Speaker 4: a bottom cord near a black hole or in a

659
00:32:28,000 --> 00:32:31,480
Speaker 4: spacehip going near the speed of light, is that we're

660
00:32:31,520 --> 00:32:35,000
Speaker 4: going to seem longer lived to us from our perspective.

661
00:32:35,400 --> 00:32:38,560
Speaker 1: Absolutely, yeah. And like these muons, for example, that we

662
00:32:38,640 --> 00:32:41,320
Speaker 1: create in the upper atmosphere, they only live for a

663
00:32:41,320 --> 00:32:43,400
Speaker 1: millionth of a second, and so you might wonder, like, well,

664
00:32:43,720 --> 00:32:45,680
Speaker 1: would they ever get down to the surface of the Earth,

665
00:32:45,760 --> 00:32:48,280
Speaker 1: And the answer is yes, and The only reason they

666
00:32:48,360 --> 00:32:50,880
Speaker 1: do make it to the surface is because they're going

667
00:32:51,000 --> 00:32:54,040
Speaker 1: very very fast relative to us, so their clocks are

668
00:32:54,080 --> 00:32:57,080
Speaker 1: running slow. So even though they live for a millionth

669
00:32:57,120 --> 00:32:59,920
Speaker 1: of a second, that's enough time for them to make

670
00:33:00,040 --> 00:33:02,479
Speaker 1: get to the surface, because that million of a second

671
00:33:02,520 --> 00:33:06,680
Speaker 1: clicks very very slowly. As we're watching them, essentially.

672
00:33:06,240 --> 00:33:08,600
Speaker 4: To them, so are you saying it they live a

673
00:33:08,640 --> 00:33:10,719
Speaker 4: million of a second if you're the muon, But to

674
00:33:10,840 --> 00:33:12,200
Speaker 4: us they actually live longer.

675
00:33:12,480 --> 00:33:14,920
Speaker 1: To us they live longer. Yet they travel much further

676
00:33:15,320 --> 00:33:18,000
Speaker 1: than otherwise because they're going fast, and so their time

677
00:33:18,160 --> 00:33:20,920
Speaker 1: ticks slowly. From our point of view. If you had

678
00:33:21,000 --> 00:33:23,320
Speaker 1: like a little clock traveling with a muon, you would

679
00:33:23,320 --> 00:33:26,040
Speaker 1: see its ticks going very very slowly, and it would

680
00:33:26,080 --> 00:33:28,920
Speaker 1: fly very far before a million of a second ticked over,

681
00:33:29,000 --> 00:33:31,840
Speaker 1: and then that muon decayed. From its point of view,

682
00:33:32,120 --> 00:33:34,160
Speaker 1: it only lives for a million to a second, but

683
00:33:34,280 --> 00:33:37,000
Speaker 1: it sees the atmosphere is compressed, because when you're moving

684
00:33:37,080 --> 00:33:39,960
Speaker 1: fast relative to something, you see it shortened. So for

685
00:33:40,080 --> 00:33:43,320
Speaker 1: the muon's point of view, it sees the atmosphere is compressed.

686
00:33:43,320 --> 00:33:45,480
Speaker 1: In short, it can make it to the bottom of

687
00:33:45,480 --> 00:33:47,719
Speaker 1: the atmosphere, to the surface in a millionth of a second.

688
00:33:48,200 --> 00:33:50,560
Speaker 1: So that's an example of how special relativity is cool

689
00:33:50,600 --> 00:33:53,240
Speaker 1: because from one point of view, it's time dilation. From

690
00:33:53,240 --> 00:33:55,800
Speaker 1: another point of view, it's length contraction. It's really the

691
00:33:55,840 --> 00:33:56,560
Speaker 1: same physics.

692
00:33:57,360 --> 00:33:59,760
Speaker 4: But yeah, time is relative, okay, So what else is

693
00:33:59,760 --> 00:34:00,840
Speaker 4: fast in the universe?

694
00:34:01,000 --> 00:34:03,160
Speaker 1: So if you go down to like a femtosecond, how

695
00:34:03,200 --> 00:34:05,560
Speaker 1: far can light travel and like ten to the minus

696
00:34:05,600 --> 00:34:09,279
Speaker 1: fifteen seconds. Now we're talking about short distances. We're talking

697
00:34:09,360 --> 00:34:12,520
Speaker 1: about like less than a micrometer, and you can go

698
00:34:12,600 --> 00:34:15,560
Speaker 1: down even further to auto seconds. This is ten to

699
00:34:15,640 --> 00:34:19,160
Speaker 1: minus eighteen seconds. This is a hard number to think about.

700
00:34:19,560 --> 00:34:22,680
Speaker 1: It's so short that the number of autoseconds in a

701
00:34:22,719 --> 00:34:25,880
Speaker 1: single second is the same as the number of seconds

702
00:34:25,920 --> 00:34:28,120
Speaker 1: that have elapsed in the whole history of the universe.

703
00:34:28,960 --> 00:34:32,160
Speaker 1: Like there's been about ten to the eighteen seconds since

704
00:34:32,200 --> 00:34:35,160
Speaker 1: the beginning of the universe, and an auto second is

705
00:34:35,200 --> 00:34:37,920
Speaker 1: one in ten to the eighteenth of a second. So

706
00:34:38,000 --> 00:34:39,520
Speaker 1: it's really an incredible slice.

707
00:34:39,719 --> 00:34:41,880
Speaker 4: Well, that's like if you take a second and you

708
00:34:41,920 --> 00:34:44,400
Speaker 4: split it into a million, and then take each of

709
00:34:44,400 --> 00:34:46,319
Speaker 4: those and split it it into a million, and then

710
00:34:46,360 --> 00:34:48,000
Speaker 4: take each of those and split it it into a

711
00:34:48,000 --> 00:34:50,800
Speaker 4: million timesteps. That's what an attosecond is.

712
00:34:50,960 --> 00:34:53,120
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly, it's a millionth of a millionth of a million.

713
00:34:53,360 --> 00:34:55,239
Speaker 4: Is there anything that happens at the at a second

714
00:34:55,320 --> 00:34:56,320
Speaker 4: level that we know about.

715
00:34:56,360 --> 00:34:58,960
Speaker 1: Absolutely. There are lots of particles that decay in an

716
00:34:58,960 --> 00:35:01,080
Speaker 1: auto second. And as we'll talk about in a minute,

717
00:35:01,080 --> 00:35:03,879
Speaker 1: we've actually measured things down to the attosecond. It's sort

718
00:35:03,920 --> 00:35:07,000
Speaker 1: of incredible. But the universe happens even faster. So we

719
00:35:07,000 --> 00:35:09,279
Speaker 1: can think about like a zepto second, which is ten

720
00:35:09,360 --> 00:35:12,680
Speaker 1: to the minus twenty one seconds. This is how long

721
00:35:12,719 --> 00:35:15,360
Speaker 1: it takes a photon to go from one side of

722
00:35:15,400 --> 00:35:18,400
Speaker 1: the hydrogen atom to the other side of the hydrogen atom.

723
00:35:19,040 --> 00:35:22,680
Speaker 1: Like super fast photon moving a very short distance, only

724
00:35:22,719 --> 00:35:27,560
Speaker 1: takes a zepto second. Pretty zipty, pretty zipty. But you know,

725
00:35:27,640 --> 00:35:30,160
Speaker 1: down in the realm of fundamental particles, even a zepto

726
00:35:30,200 --> 00:35:32,879
Speaker 1: second can feel like a long time. If we create

727
00:35:32,920 --> 00:35:35,480
Speaker 1: a Higgs boson in the Large Hadron collider, for example,

728
00:35:35,800 --> 00:35:38,920
Speaker 1: that lasts for a thousands of a zepto second, it's

729
00:35:38,960 --> 00:35:41,680
Speaker 1: ten to the minus twenty four seconds.

730
00:35:41,920 --> 00:35:44,279
Speaker 4: Well, meaning like you create a Higgs boson but in

731
00:35:44,400 --> 00:35:47,520
Speaker 4: less than one thousands of azepto second it's gone, yeah,

732
00:35:47,960 --> 00:35:49,040
Speaker 4: or probably gone.

733
00:35:49,080 --> 00:35:51,919
Speaker 1: It's probably gone. Yeah. Each one has a distribution. They're

734
00:35:51,920 --> 00:35:53,920
Speaker 1: pretty tighty. It's sort of like radioactive decay. It's not

735
00:35:53,920 --> 00:35:56,560
Speaker 1: an exact measurement, doesn't disappear when its time is up.

736
00:35:56,560 --> 00:35:59,879
Speaker 1: There's an average there. But yeah, they live much much

737
00:36:00,040 --> 00:36:04,080
Speaker 1: shorter than muons. Muons live forever compared to a higgs boson.

738
00:36:04,400 --> 00:36:07,279
Speaker 1: You know, higgs boson can be born and died ten

739
00:36:07,320 --> 00:36:11,839
Speaker 1: to eighteen times before a muon decays. Whoa digging down

740
00:36:11,880 --> 00:36:14,520
Speaker 1: even deeper. Some of the shortest lived particles we know

741
00:36:14,600 --> 00:36:17,080
Speaker 1: about are things like the W boson, the Z boson

742
00:36:17,080 --> 00:36:19,400
Speaker 1: on the top quark. These last for like ten to

743
00:36:19,400 --> 00:36:23,279
Speaker 1: the minus twenty seven seconds. And that's about as far

744
00:36:23,360 --> 00:36:25,840
Speaker 1: as we can go in terms of like theoretical stuff

745
00:36:25,880 --> 00:36:29,000
Speaker 1: that we can describe. And this is just probing theoretically,

746
00:36:29,040 --> 00:36:32,080
Speaker 1: like what can we describe in our theories of quantum

747
00:36:32,080 --> 00:36:35,319
Speaker 1: particles that takes this short amount of time. That's about the.

748
00:36:35,280 --> 00:36:37,759
Speaker 4: Bottom of it, meaning, like, of all the things that

749
00:36:37,800 --> 00:36:41,440
Speaker 4: we have names for physically in the universe, that's about

750
00:36:41,760 --> 00:36:44,400
Speaker 4: the shortest scale that we be operating.

751
00:36:44,200 --> 00:36:46,960
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly, And you could postulate something that happens short.

752
00:36:47,000 --> 00:36:50,840
Speaker 1: There's no limitation there. Like we think about other particles

753
00:36:50,840 --> 00:36:53,640
Speaker 1: that are really really heavy that might decay much much faster.

754
00:36:53,800 --> 00:36:56,040
Speaker 1: There's nothing that's stopping you from thinking about that. But

755
00:36:56,080 --> 00:36:57,960
Speaker 1: we don't know of any particles in the universe that

756
00:36:58,040 --> 00:36:59,759
Speaker 1: operate on a shorter timescale.

757
00:37:00,000 --> 00:37:02,719
Speaker 4: We always talk about how fast things go right, or

758
00:37:02,920 --> 00:37:06,520
Speaker 4: light goes right, like like, can't you say, well, light

759
00:37:06,600 --> 00:37:13,160
Speaker 4: travels one zipto fento minisecond in less amount of time

760
00:37:13,160 --> 00:37:13,360
Speaker 4: than that?

761
00:37:14,320 --> 00:37:17,520
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. You can always divide time further according to

762
00:37:17,560 --> 00:37:19,920
Speaker 1: general relativity. You can just keep slicing it and you

763
00:37:19,920 --> 00:37:21,680
Speaker 1: could measure it the way you describe, like how far

764
00:37:21,719 --> 00:37:25,000
Speaker 1: does light go? And if space is continuous and time

765
00:37:25,040 --> 00:37:27,560
Speaker 1: is continuous, you could just keep doing that forever. Right,

766
00:37:27,600 --> 00:37:29,760
Speaker 1: you go down to ten to the minus a million,

767
00:37:29,840 --> 00:37:32,840
Speaker 1: you know, zero point zero with a million zeros and

768
00:37:32,880 --> 00:37:35,799
Speaker 1: then a one of seconds and think about how far

769
00:37:36,000 --> 00:37:39,560
Speaker 1: light goes there. But at some point you're beyond the

770
00:37:39,600 --> 00:37:42,160
Speaker 1: extrapolation the same way that we talked about like general

771
00:37:42,160 --> 00:37:45,279
Speaker 1: relativity breaking down. You know, when we go to the

772
00:37:45,360 --> 00:37:48,359
Speaker 1: heart of black holes and having infinite density. We're not

773
00:37:48,400 --> 00:37:52,240
Speaker 1: really comfortable thinking about things theoretically smaller than a certain

774
00:37:52,480 --> 00:37:54,800
Speaker 1: time called the Plank time, which is ten to the

775
00:37:54,840 --> 00:37:58,400
Speaker 1: minus forty four seconds. We think that our theory of

776
00:37:58,520 --> 00:38:01,360
Speaker 1: quantum particles and quantum field theory and the standard model

777
00:38:01,560 --> 00:38:04,680
Speaker 1: works very very well down to about that resolution, and

778
00:38:04,719 --> 00:38:06,319
Speaker 1: beyond that we don't trust it.

779
00:38:06,640 --> 00:38:08,560
Speaker 4: I know we had an episode about the plank time,

780
00:38:08,680 --> 00:38:11,840
Speaker 4: but it was too much time ago. I don't remember.

781
00:38:12,239 --> 00:38:15,040
Speaker 4: So maybe for our listeners, what is the plank time?

782
00:38:15,360 --> 00:38:16,359
Speaker 4: But make it quick.

783
00:38:17,680 --> 00:38:19,960
Speaker 1: The plank time is sort of two things. It's on

784
00:38:19,960 --> 00:38:22,640
Speaker 1: one hand, just like you put together a bunch of

785
00:38:22,640 --> 00:38:25,640
Speaker 1: physical constants of the universe until you get something that

786
00:38:25,680 --> 00:38:28,239
Speaker 1: has units of time, and then you ask, okay, what's

787
00:38:28,239 --> 00:38:30,799
Speaker 1: the number. So you take like the speed of light

788
00:38:31,239 --> 00:38:34,719
Speaker 1: and the gravitational constant and planks constant, and those all

789
00:38:34,760 --> 00:38:36,880
Speaker 1: have units on them, you know, energy or meters or

790
00:38:36,880 --> 00:38:38,759
Speaker 1: seconds whatever, but you can put them together in a

791
00:38:38,800 --> 00:38:40,640
Speaker 1: way that cancels and you get a number, and that

792
00:38:40,719 --> 00:38:43,360
Speaker 1: number is ten to the minus forty four seconds, and

793
00:38:43,400 --> 00:38:45,239
Speaker 1: then you can ask, well, what does that number mean?

794
00:38:45,719 --> 00:38:48,160
Speaker 1: And you know that number doesn't mean anything very precisely.

795
00:38:48,200 --> 00:38:50,160
Speaker 1: You hear a lot in popular science that it's like

796
00:38:50,440 --> 00:38:53,560
Speaker 1: definitively the minimum resolution of time. It's definitely not that.

797
00:38:54,040 --> 00:38:56,319
Speaker 1: It's just like, this is what we can do to

798
00:38:56,440 --> 00:38:59,799
Speaker 1: say roughly where things start to be different because at

799
00:38:59,840 --> 00:39:02,520
Speaker 1: the plank time or if you rearrange it to the

800
00:39:02,560 --> 00:39:04,920
Speaker 1: plank distance, or you rearrange it differently to like the

801
00:39:04,960 --> 00:39:08,200
Speaker 1: plank energy, that's where we think our theories break down

802
00:39:08,200 --> 00:39:12,160
Speaker 1: where we need to have some contribution from gravity and

803
00:39:12,200 --> 00:39:14,320
Speaker 1: some contribution from quant mechanics, and again we don't know

804
00:39:14,360 --> 00:39:16,600
Speaker 1: how to put those two things together. So we can

805
00:39:16,640 --> 00:39:19,320
Speaker 1: extrapolate our theories up to about the plank energy or

806
00:39:19,360 --> 00:39:22,120
Speaker 1: down to the plank time it's equivalent, but beyond that

807
00:39:22,280 --> 00:39:25,239
Speaker 1: is basically a question mark. Theoretically, we don't know how

808
00:39:25,239 --> 00:39:27,600
Speaker 1: to do calculations that we trust that we can rely

809
00:39:27,680 --> 00:39:29,520
Speaker 1: on shorter than the plank time.

810
00:39:29,719 --> 00:39:31,960
Speaker 4: Maybe another way to look at it is that it's

811
00:39:31,960 --> 00:39:34,480
Speaker 4: sort of like when the things that we know about

812
00:39:34,520 --> 00:39:37,040
Speaker 4: that happen physically in the universe sort of end, right,

813
00:39:37,040 --> 00:39:39,000
Speaker 4: Like we don't know of anything that's smaller than the

814
00:39:39,000 --> 00:39:41,640
Speaker 4: plank distance, or we don't know of anything that happens

815
00:39:42,200 --> 00:39:45,080
Speaker 4: shorter than the plank time scale, and so it's like

816
00:39:45,360 --> 00:39:46,320
Speaker 4: unknown territory.

817
00:39:46,600 --> 00:39:50,120
Speaker 1: Yeah, it's unknown territory, and it's unknown territory. We can't

818
00:39:50,120 --> 00:39:53,560
Speaker 1: even like really think coherently past it, like we've never

819
00:39:53,600 --> 00:39:56,320
Speaker 1: seen anything at ten to the minus forty four seconds.

820
00:39:56,719 --> 00:39:58,640
Speaker 1: But we can talk about it, and we can calculate it,

821
00:39:58,680 --> 00:40:01,200
Speaker 1: we can imagine it, we can use our theories, but

822
00:40:01,360 --> 00:40:04,120
Speaker 1: beyond that, we don't even really know how to think

823
00:40:04,120 --> 00:40:06,680
Speaker 1: about it carefully. Like you could think about it not carefully.

824
00:40:06,880 --> 00:40:08,600
Speaker 1: You could say, well, I'm just going to use general

825
00:40:08,640 --> 00:40:11,520
Speaker 1: relativity and assume it is correct and talk about infinite

826
00:40:11,520 --> 00:40:14,120
Speaker 1: slices of time and infinitely short distances light travel. You

827
00:40:14,120 --> 00:40:16,960
Speaker 1: could do that, but nobody believes that that describes reality,

828
00:40:17,440 --> 00:40:20,520
Speaker 1: the same way nobody believes that there's a singularity the

829
00:40:20,520 --> 00:40:23,360
Speaker 1: heart of a black hole. It's a naive extrapolation of

830
00:40:23,400 --> 00:40:26,640
Speaker 1: general relativity beyond what we think is reasonable, and so

831
00:40:26,840 --> 00:40:29,360
Speaker 1: we can't even really think coherently about it, sort of

832
00:40:29,360 --> 00:40:31,759
Speaker 1: the way we can't think coherently about what happened before

833
00:40:31,800 --> 00:40:34,640
Speaker 1: the Big Bang because for the same reason our theories

834
00:40:34,680 --> 00:40:37,000
Speaker 1: break down there. We need a theory of quantum gravity

835
00:40:37,040 --> 00:40:39,239
Speaker 1: to take us further back. So we don't even have

836
00:40:39,400 --> 00:40:42,600
Speaker 1: like mental theoretical pictures that we can trust.

837
00:40:42,719 --> 00:40:45,040
Speaker 4: Right, right, all right, Well, that's kind of a picture

838
00:40:45,080 --> 00:40:47,080
Speaker 4: of how fast things move in the universe of Daniel.

839
00:40:47,160 --> 00:40:50,840
Speaker 4: How fast do kids grow up? Faster than that? Or flower?

840
00:40:51,040 --> 00:40:54,200
Speaker 1: It feels like a million years every hour when you're

841
00:40:54,200 --> 00:40:56,239
Speaker 1: in it, and then it feels like a millionth of

842
00:40:56,280 --> 00:40:57,680
Speaker 1: a second, and when you're looking back.

843
00:40:57,560 --> 00:41:01,640
Speaker 4: On it as their physical effect. A name for that.

844
00:41:02,440 --> 00:41:03,440
Speaker 4: It's called the theory of.

845
00:41:03,400 --> 00:41:05,759
Speaker 1: Relations, theory of relatives.

846
00:41:05,840 --> 00:41:08,640
Speaker 4: Yeah, theory, that's what I I was gonna say, theory

847
00:41:08,680 --> 00:41:11,640
Speaker 4: of relatives. Yeah, your relative theory of relatives.

848
00:41:12,680 --> 00:41:15,880
Speaker 1: Parental time dilation in the theory of relatives. But no,

849
00:41:16,000 --> 00:41:18,279
Speaker 1: we have been doing our best to try to understand

850
00:41:18,440 --> 00:41:20,880
Speaker 1: how fast things actually happen in their universe, not just

851
00:41:20,920 --> 00:41:24,600
Speaker 1: think about them theoretically, and lots of really cool, amazing

852
00:41:24,640 --> 00:41:28,200
Speaker 1: techniques out there to measure really really short slices of time.

853
00:41:29,560 --> 00:41:32,239
Speaker 4: I guess what we've been talking about are things that

854
00:41:32,280 --> 00:41:34,759
Speaker 4: we know happen in super short time scales. But then

855
00:41:34,800 --> 00:41:37,600
Speaker 4: there's the other question, the flip side, which is which

856
00:41:37,640 --> 00:41:41,680
Speaker 4: of these events can we actually measure and see for

857
00:41:41,719 --> 00:41:44,879
Speaker 4: ourselves that they happen at that timescale. Yeah, so let's

858
00:41:44,880 --> 00:41:48,240
Speaker 4: get into that technology. But first let's take another quick break.

859
00:41:52,200 --> 00:41:54,000
Speaker 1: When you pop a piece of cheese into your mouth

860
00:41:54,120 --> 00:41:57,240
Speaker 1: or enjoy a rich spoonful of greeky yogurt, you're probably

861
00:41:57,280 --> 00:42:01,320
Speaker 1: not thinking about the environmental impact of each and every bite,

862
00:42:01,360 --> 00:42:04,000
Speaker 1: But the people in the dairy industry are. US Dairy

863
00:42:04,040 --> 00:42:08,319
Speaker 1: has set themselves some ambitious sustainability goals, including being greenhouse

864
00:42:08,360 --> 00:42:10,919
Speaker 1: gas neutral by twenty to fifty. That's why they're working

865
00:42:10,960 --> 00:42:13,280
Speaker 1: hard every day to find new ways to reduce waste,

866
00:42:13,360 --> 00:42:17,560
Speaker 1: conserve natural resources, and drive down greenhouse gas emissions. Take water,

867
00:42:17,640 --> 00:42:20,720
Speaker 1: for example, most dairy farms reuse water up to four

868
00:42:20,760 --> 00:42:24,240
Speaker 1: times the same water cools the milk, cleans equipment, washes

869
00:42:24,280 --> 00:42:27,080
Speaker 1: the barn, and irrigates the crops. How is US dairy

870
00:42:27,080 --> 00:42:30,839
Speaker 1: tackling greenhouse gases? Many farms use anaerobic digestors that turn

871
00:42:30,880 --> 00:42:34,800
Speaker 1: the methane from maneuver into renewable energy that can power farms, towns,

872
00:42:34,840 --> 00:42:36,920
Speaker 1: and electric cars. So the next time you grab a

873
00:42:36,920 --> 00:42:38,960
Speaker 1: slice of pizza or lick an ice cream cone, know

874
00:42:39,040 --> 00:42:41,719
Speaker 1: that dairy farmers and processors around the country are using

875
00:42:41,719 --> 00:42:45,239
Speaker 1: the latest practices and innovations to provide the nutrient dense

876
00:42:45,360 --> 00:42:48,080
Speaker 1: dairy products we love with less of an impact. Visit

877
00:42:48,160 --> 00:42:50,959
Speaker 1: usdairy dot com slash sustainability to learn more.

878
00:42:52,000 --> 00:42:55,520
Speaker 9: There are children, friends, and families, walking, riding on passing

879
00:42:55,520 --> 00:42:57,959
Speaker 9: the roads every day. Remember they're real people with loved

880
00:42:57,960 --> 00:43:00,640
Speaker 9: ones who need them to get home safely. Protect cyclists

881
00:43:00,640 --> 00:43:03,880
Speaker 9: and pedestrians because they're people too. Go safely California from

882
00:43:03,920 --> 00:43:06,760
Speaker 9: the California Office of Traffic Safety and Caltrans Hey, their.

883
00:43:06,560 --> 00:43:09,839
Speaker 10: Fellow globetrotters and destination dreamers. If you're anything like us,

884
00:43:09,880 --> 00:43:12,760
Speaker 10: you know that life's too short for boring toasters and towels.

885
00:43:12,840 --> 00:43:15,760
Speaker 10: That's why we decided to ditch the traditional wedding registry

886
00:43:15,800 --> 00:43:18,520
Speaker 10: and went with honeyfund dot com. And that's your friends

887
00:43:18,520 --> 00:43:20,479
Speaker 10: and family chipping in to send you on a dream

888
00:43:20,520 --> 00:43:25,080
Speaker 10: you exotic honeymoon, practical check, meaningful, double check. Plus, it's

889
00:43:25,160 --> 00:43:27,800
Speaker 10: fee free and so fun for wedding guests to shop.

890
00:43:27,960 --> 00:43:31,399
Speaker 10: So why get more stuff when you can have unforgettable experiences.

891
00:43:31,560 --> 00:43:35,160
Speaker 10: Join the revolution at honey fund dot com and start

892
00:43:35,200 --> 00:43:36,240
Speaker 10: your adventure today.

893
00:43:36,880 --> 00:43:40,840
Speaker 5: Whether you like fresh faced, full glam, or somewhere in between,

894
00:43:41,320 --> 00:43:44,640
Speaker 5: you've probably seen Thrive Cosmetics, viral tubing Mescara.

895
00:43:45,200 --> 00:43:46,359
Speaker 4: You know the one in the.

896
00:43:46,320 --> 00:43:50,040
Speaker 5: Turquoise tube all over your socials. It's easy to see

897
00:43:50,040 --> 00:43:53,239
Speaker 5: why their best sellers have thousands of five star reviews.

898
00:43:53,960 --> 00:43:57,960
Speaker 5: I love their high performance formulas. The Brilliant Eye Brightener

899
00:43:58,080 --> 00:44:00,360
Speaker 5: is one of my faves and I I love it

900
00:44:00,400 --> 00:44:02,759
Speaker 5: because it's so versatile. You can use it as a

901
00:44:02,840 --> 00:44:07,799
Speaker 5: highlighter or an eyeshadow. It's amazing. Refresh your everyday look

902
00:44:07,840 --> 00:44:11,799
Speaker 5: with Thrive Cosmetics Beauty that gives back. Right now, you

903
00:44:11,840 --> 00:44:15,000
Speaker 5: can get an exclusive twenty percent off your first order

904
00:44:15,120 --> 00:44:18,920
Speaker 5: at Thrivecosmetics dot com slash nine oh two one oh.

905
00:44:19,680 --> 00:44:24,120
Speaker 5: That's Thrive Cosmetics D A U S E M E

906
00:44:24,200 --> 00:44:27,480
Speaker 5: T I C S dot com slash nine oh two

907
00:44:27,520 --> 00:44:30,520
Speaker 5: O one oh for twenty percent off your first order.

908
00:44:39,960 --> 00:44:43,200
Speaker 4: All right, we're talking about the fastest things in the universe,

909
00:44:43,280 --> 00:44:46,000
Speaker 4: or I guess, the fastest events in the universe, the

910
00:44:46,040 --> 00:44:48,160
Speaker 4: things that happened in at the shortest timescales.

911
00:44:48,360 --> 00:44:52,200
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly, the most fleeting things in the universe. Yeah.

912
00:44:52,360 --> 00:44:54,719
Speaker 4: Yeah, and this podcast is I think at it for

913
00:44:54,760 --> 00:44:59,640
Speaker 4: maybe the longest event in the universe. But let's get

914
00:44:59,640 --> 00:45:02,040
Speaker 4: to it. We're gonna get a run short of time soon.

915
00:45:02,680 --> 00:45:04,759
Speaker 1: Yeah. So when we try to see things happening in

916
00:45:04,800 --> 00:45:07,359
Speaker 1: the universe. We do something pretty basic. We take slow

917
00:45:07,400 --> 00:45:10,359
Speaker 1: motion footage. Like if you're taking a movie and you

918
00:45:10,440 --> 00:45:12,680
Speaker 1: measure thirty frames per second and then you play them

919
00:45:12,680 --> 00:45:15,800
Speaker 1: on the screen at thirty frames per second, then everything

920
00:45:15,800 --> 00:45:18,759
Speaker 1: plays like normal. But if instead you take like three

921
00:45:18,840 --> 00:45:21,960
Speaker 1: hundred frames per second and you play them on the

922
00:45:22,000 --> 00:45:25,000
Speaker 1: screen at thirty frames per second, then time looks slow.

923
00:45:25,040 --> 00:45:27,200
Speaker 1: In the movie, everything is slowed down. You can see

924
00:45:27,520 --> 00:45:30,680
Speaker 1: Ussain Bolt running at a reasonable rate. You can see

925
00:45:30,920 --> 00:45:34,520
Speaker 1: fast things happening more slowly. So that's what we try

926
00:45:34,520 --> 00:45:36,799
Speaker 1: to do, is we try to develop cameras that can

927
00:45:36,840 --> 00:45:41,759
Speaker 1: basically take pictures or make measurements equivalently much faster than

928
00:45:41,800 --> 00:45:43,799
Speaker 1: thirty frames per second, so that we can watch them

929
00:45:43,840 --> 00:45:45,800
Speaker 1: slow down and try to understand what happens.

930
00:45:46,280 --> 00:45:48,279
Speaker 4: Right, And it sort of depends on what you're trying

931
00:45:48,320 --> 00:45:51,840
Speaker 4: to capture too, Right, Like, the slow motion camera on

932
00:45:51,880 --> 00:45:54,600
Speaker 4: your phone can capture you know, your kids running, maybe

933
00:45:54,640 --> 00:45:57,640
Speaker 4: somebody jumping into a pool pretty good, But if you're

934
00:45:57,640 --> 00:46:00,840
Speaker 4: trying to capture something faster, like a bullet or an explosion,

935
00:46:01,120 --> 00:46:03,120
Speaker 4: it's not going to be fast enough exactly.

936
00:46:03,239 --> 00:46:05,359
Speaker 1: And in the old days, people used shutters for this

937
00:46:05,440 --> 00:46:07,760
Speaker 1: like you had a camera and you open the shutter

938
00:46:07,800 --> 00:46:09,919
Speaker 1: and you let light in. And if you're trying to take,

939
00:46:10,040 --> 00:46:12,480
Speaker 1: for example, a picture of a sporting event, where when

940
00:46:12,480 --> 00:46:14,440
Speaker 1: things are moving really fast, you had a really fast

941
00:46:14,440 --> 00:46:17,000
Speaker 1: shutter setting, right, your shutters open for a tiny fraction

942
00:46:17,080 --> 00:46:19,520
Speaker 1: of a second. Whereas if you're taking a picture of

943
00:46:19,560 --> 00:46:21,600
Speaker 1: something in the dark, like at night, if a really

944
00:46:21,680 --> 00:46:24,759
Speaker 1: long exposure, so gather as much light maybe seconds or

945
00:46:24,800 --> 00:46:25,480
Speaker 1: even hours.

946
00:46:26,120 --> 00:46:29,200
Speaker 4: Now, what made you think of a camera? I wonder

947
00:46:29,239 --> 00:46:31,640
Speaker 4: if that in the history of humanity, if cameras are

948
00:46:31,680 --> 00:46:35,040
Speaker 4: maybe the first time that we've had something like automated

949
00:46:35,160 --> 00:46:40,359
Speaker 4: recording instances of data about the world, because before that, I imagine,

950
00:46:40,280 --> 00:46:42,719
Speaker 4: you know, it was maybe people writing things down on

951
00:46:42,719 --> 00:46:43,440
Speaker 4: a piece of paper.

952
00:46:44,600 --> 00:46:47,520
Speaker 1: I think that before cameras, we probably had recordings of

953
00:46:47,600 --> 00:46:50,959
Speaker 1: sound also, right, which you could think about the same way,

954
00:46:52,200 --> 00:46:54,439
Speaker 1: you know, probably within decades of each other. I haven't

955
00:46:54,440 --> 00:46:56,000
Speaker 1: looked at the details.

956
00:46:55,760 --> 00:46:57,640
Speaker 4: But those were analogue probably right.

957
00:46:57,600 --> 00:47:00,719
Speaker 1: Yeah, those are definitely analog. The first measurements were the analogue.

958
00:47:01,040 --> 00:47:03,400
Speaker 1: It's an interesting question, like how far back do we

959
00:47:03,440 --> 00:47:06,080
Speaker 1: have like data things where we have recordings that are

960
00:47:06,120 --> 00:47:07,600
Speaker 1: not just eyewitness testimony.

961
00:47:08,040 --> 00:47:08,200
Speaker 8: You know.

962
00:47:08,239 --> 00:47:10,799
Speaker 1: I mean Gallet, for example, has his drawings of the

963
00:47:10,880 --> 00:47:13,719
Speaker 1: night sky, and in some sense that's still data, right,

964
00:47:13,719 --> 00:47:15,680
Speaker 1: it went into his eye and out his arm, so

965
00:47:16,040 --> 00:47:17,879
Speaker 1: he's sort of the recording device there.

966
00:47:18,000 --> 00:47:19,880
Speaker 4: Yeah, well that's what I mean. Like I wonder, for

967
00:47:20,000 --> 00:47:22,360
Speaker 4: most of the history of science, people were just writing

968
00:47:22,360 --> 00:47:25,239
Speaker 4: things down piece of paper. But maybe the cameras, where

969
00:47:25,320 --> 00:47:28,000
Speaker 4: you expose a piece of film or played for a

970
00:47:28,000 --> 00:47:30,400
Speaker 4: certain amount of time, that's maybe some of the first

971
00:47:30,400 --> 00:47:32,719
Speaker 4: times that we had kind of this idea of a

972
00:47:32,760 --> 00:47:36,240
Speaker 4: mechanical recording of what's happening in the universe.

973
00:47:36,360 --> 00:47:39,719
Speaker 1: Yeah, very cool question. I'm not sure we'll dig into

974
00:47:39,760 --> 00:47:42,480
Speaker 1: the history that. Maybe I'll look into that for an episode.

975
00:47:43,080 --> 00:47:46,080
Speaker 1: But these days we use digital cameras, right, and these

976
00:47:46,120 --> 00:47:49,560
Speaker 1: digital cameras can be very very fast, and the technology

977
00:47:49,560 --> 00:47:53,359
Speaker 1: behind the digital camera actually limits how fast they can go.

978
00:47:53,880 --> 00:47:56,000
Speaker 1: The way a digital camera works is that a photon

979
00:47:56,080 --> 00:47:57,759
Speaker 1: comes in the lens the same way it does for

980
00:47:57,800 --> 00:48:00,480
Speaker 1: a normal camera, but instead of hitting a piece of film,

981
00:48:00,520 --> 00:48:02,960
Speaker 1: which has like special chemicals on it that react to

982
00:48:03,000 --> 00:48:05,800
Speaker 1: the light, instead you hit a pixel, which is a

983
00:48:05,800 --> 00:48:08,360
Speaker 1: piece of silicon, and the photon hits an electron inside

984
00:48:08,360 --> 00:48:11,280
Speaker 1: that piece. Of silicon, and then the electron is like free.

985
00:48:11,360 --> 00:48:13,640
Speaker 1: It's like bumped out a little hole it was stuck in.

986
00:48:13,719 --> 00:48:15,560
Speaker 1: It can move along a little bit and then it

987
00:48:15,600 --> 00:48:17,440
Speaker 1: drifts along to the edge of the pixel and it

988
00:48:17,480 --> 00:48:20,719
Speaker 1: gets picked up by some electronics and measured. That's how

989
00:48:20,880 --> 00:48:24,320
Speaker 1: individual pixel works inside your digital camera. It's this interaction

990
00:48:24,400 --> 00:48:27,279
Speaker 1: between the photon the electron. The electron causes a little

991
00:48:27,320 --> 00:48:29,839
Speaker 1: bit of current and those can be really fast. Like

992
00:48:29,880 --> 00:48:32,480
Speaker 1: you can get CCDs or sea moss devices which are

993
00:48:32,480 --> 00:48:35,319
Speaker 1: more modern, which can take pictures down to millions of

994
00:48:35,360 --> 00:48:36,320
Speaker 1: frames per second.

995
00:48:36,520 --> 00:48:38,319
Speaker 4: Well, you mean, like the camera in my phone can

996
00:48:38,360 --> 00:48:38,680
Speaker 4: do that.

997
00:48:38,840 --> 00:48:41,200
Speaker 1: Not necessarily the camera in your phone, but like very

998
00:48:41,280 --> 00:48:43,880
Speaker 1: high tech sea moss and CCD devices can do this.

999
00:48:44,280 --> 00:48:46,719
Speaker 1: People who want to take pictures of lightning or like

1000
00:48:47,160 --> 00:48:51,400
Speaker 1: fuel in a plasma dissolving, or very high speed scientific events,

1001
00:48:51,520 --> 00:48:54,040
Speaker 1: they have specialized cameras that can get down to millions

1002
00:48:54,080 --> 00:48:56,600
Speaker 1: of frames per second. In order to be that fast,

1003
00:48:56,760 --> 00:49:00,439
Speaker 1: you need like very small pixels with very fast electron time.

1004
00:49:00,440 --> 00:49:02,400
Speaker 1: That's what in the end limits it how long it

1005
00:49:02,400 --> 00:49:05,520
Speaker 1: takes the electron once it's been freed to like slide

1006
00:49:05,560 --> 00:49:07,239
Speaker 1: over to the part of the pixel where it gets

1007
00:49:07,239 --> 00:49:09,720
Speaker 1: read out. If you went really really high speed cameras,

1008
00:49:09,840 --> 00:49:12,080
Speaker 1: you're going to make some sacrifices in the design to

1009
00:49:12,120 --> 00:49:14,040
Speaker 1: make it that fast. So then it's not as good

1010
00:49:14,080 --> 00:49:16,799
Speaker 1: for like taking pictures of your kids, but it's really

1011
00:49:16,840 --> 00:49:18,240
Speaker 1: good for measuring fast things.

1012
00:49:18,520 --> 00:49:20,719
Speaker 4: You might be able to catch the exact point at

1013
00:49:20,719 --> 00:49:23,800
Speaker 4: which they grew up and record it forever.

1014
00:49:24,239 --> 00:49:26,799
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly when they started rolling their eyes at you

1015
00:49:26,840 --> 00:49:28,160
Speaker 1: instead of laughing at your jokes.

1016
00:49:28,239 --> 00:49:30,600
Speaker 4: Yeah, there you go. That's slow roll their eyes. You

1017
00:49:30,600 --> 00:49:32,960
Speaker 4: can have it at a million of a second resolution.

1018
00:49:33,760 --> 00:49:36,040
Speaker 1: Yeah, and these are cool devices. Actually played with one

1019
00:49:36,080 --> 00:49:38,680
Speaker 1: for one of my first science projects when I was

1020
00:49:38,719 --> 00:49:42,320
Speaker 1: a summer student, using it to take pictures of lightning

1021
00:49:42,400 --> 00:49:44,920
Speaker 1: in the skies in New Mexico at thousands of frames

1022
00:49:44,960 --> 00:49:47,520
Speaker 1: per second, which is pretty cool. It's amazing to see

1023
00:49:47,520 --> 00:49:48,439
Speaker 1: the world slow down.

1024
00:49:48,640 --> 00:49:50,759
Speaker 4: But I wonder why you bring up cameras. I know

1025
00:49:50,800 --> 00:49:54,280
Speaker 4: cameras are used in astronomy, right, like those big telescopes

1026
00:49:54,360 --> 00:49:58,120
Speaker 4: they have basically camera sensors at the end of the telescope.

1027
00:49:58,920 --> 00:50:02,120
Speaker 4: But how much are cameras used in like physics labs.

1028
00:50:02,280 --> 00:50:04,279
Speaker 1: Well, it's a little bit philosophical, you know. You could

1029
00:50:04,280 --> 00:50:06,920
Speaker 1: think of our particle physics detector as kind of a camera.

1030
00:50:07,040 --> 00:50:09,920
Speaker 1: You know, it's a bunch of pixels arranged around a

1031
00:50:09,920 --> 00:50:13,360
Speaker 1: collision point and it takes an image. In some sense,

1032
00:50:13,640 --> 00:50:16,040
Speaker 1: a camera really is just an array of detectors. You know,

1033
00:50:16,080 --> 00:50:18,399
Speaker 1: any kind of detector you have, just make an array

1034
00:50:18,440 --> 00:50:20,520
Speaker 1: of them so you get some sort of like spatial

1035
00:50:20,560 --> 00:50:22,880
Speaker 1: measurement as well as time. You know, that's really what

1036
00:50:22,920 --> 00:50:25,320
Speaker 1: a picture is. It's just like a bunch of measurements

1037
00:50:25,600 --> 00:50:26,560
Speaker 1: all in an array.

1038
00:50:27,440 --> 00:50:29,759
Speaker 4: Are you saying that the large Hadron collider the eight

1039
00:50:29,840 --> 00:50:32,080
Speaker 4: billion dollar machine there, and we could have just used

1040
00:50:32,080 --> 00:50:32,920
Speaker 4: the cell phone camera.

1041
00:50:35,040 --> 00:50:36,759
Speaker 1: Yeah, actually that's what we did. We just bought one

1042
00:50:36,800 --> 00:50:38,960
Speaker 1: iPhone and it kept the rest of the month for ourselves.

1043
00:50:38,960 --> 00:50:42,359
Speaker 4: It's just a whole bunch of iPhones, yes, arranged around.

1044
00:50:42,960 --> 00:50:45,799
Speaker 1: Your hard hitting investigative journalism right here has exposed the

1045
00:50:45,840 --> 00:50:46,799
Speaker 1: scam today.

1046
00:50:46,880 --> 00:50:50,760
Speaker 4: Artist, Yes, now, but seriously, like, what's the difference between

1047
00:50:50,800 --> 00:50:53,560
Speaker 4: the sensors that the large having collider and like my

1048
00:50:53,600 --> 00:50:56,040
Speaker 4: cell phone camera. Do they work faster or are they

1049
00:50:56,040 --> 00:50:56,960
Speaker 4: basically the same?

1050
00:50:57,280 --> 00:51:00,160
Speaker 1: Or they are basically the same? I mean, actually the

1051
00:51:00,200 --> 00:51:03,759
Speaker 1: devices near the center of the collision, the fastest, smallest

1052
00:51:03,760 --> 00:51:07,279
Speaker 1: devices we have are silicon devices, and we borrow the

1053
00:51:07,320 --> 00:51:11,040
Speaker 1: technology from the semiconductor industry, which use them develop chips

1054
00:51:11,080 --> 00:51:14,440
Speaker 1: and cameras, so we're basically piggybacking off of that technology.

1055
00:51:14,480 --> 00:51:17,640
Speaker 1: It's a little bit different because we apply higher voltage

1056
00:51:17,640 --> 00:51:19,839
Speaker 1: across these pixels to make them read out a little

1057
00:51:19,880 --> 00:51:22,799
Speaker 1: bit faster, but it's fundamentally the same thing. Yeah.

1058
00:51:22,840 --> 00:51:24,520
Speaker 4: Wait, wait, so then when you take a picture of

1059
00:51:24,520 --> 00:51:27,320
Speaker 4: a Higgs boson, can you put it in portrait mode?

1060
00:51:27,400 --> 00:51:30,480
Speaker 4: Also you can do the touch up?

1061
00:51:31,480 --> 00:51:35,160
Speaker 1: Yeah? Absolutely, I like my Sepia Higgs boson, only timey

1062
00:51:35,239 --> 00:51:36,719
Speaker 1: Higgs boson, or like.

1063
00:51:36,640 --> 00:51:39,000
Speaker 4: The Higgs boson with bunny ears or something.

1064
00:51:40,480 --> 00:51:42,319
Speaker 1: All the best scientific papers and bunny ears.

1065
00:51:42,360 --> 00:51:45,760
Speaker 4: Absolutely, yes, yeah, I know it'd be very popular in TikTok.

1066
00:51:45,840 --> 00:51:47,880
Speaker 1: Yeah, but in the end, this is limited in time.

1067
00:51:48,080 --> 00:51:49,799
Speaker 1: You know, in the large Hadron collider, we don't need

1068
00:51:49,800 --> 00:51:52,640
Speaker 1: things much faster than that. We have millions of collisions

1069
00:51:52,680 --> 00:51:54,840
Speaker 1: per second, and so that the fact that our devices

1070
00:51:54,880 --> 00:51:57,520
Speaker 1: can read out millions of times per second is fast enough.

1071
00:51:57,520 --> 00:52:00,120
Speaker 1: We don't need to go faster. But there are people

1072
00:52:00,120 --> 00:52:02,640
Speaker 1: who aren't interested in things that happen in like a

1073
00:52:02,680 --> 00:52:05,000
Speaker 1: trillionth of a second instead of a billionth or a

1074
00:52:05,000 --> 00:52:07,839
Speaker 1: millionth There are special devices, special cameras that can take

1075
00:52:07,840 --> 00:52:10,240
Speaker 1: footage with trillions of frames per second.

1076
00:52:10,320 --> 00:52:10,480
Speaker 3: Wait.

1077
00:52:10,520 --> 00:52:13,240
Speaker 4: Wait, so you're saying the large attern collider. You don't

1078
00:52:13,280 --> 00:52:16,120
Speaker 4: care about things or you can't measure things that happen

1079
00:52:16,280 --> 00:52:17,960
Speaker 4: faster than a minute of a second.

1080
00:52:18,120 --> 00:52:20,600
Speaker 1: We don't care about things that happen faster than that,

1081
00:52:20,800 --> 00:52:23,440
Speaker 1: and we can't resolve it anyway. It would be much

1082
00:52:23,440 --> 00:52:25,799
Speaker 1: more expensive to have our devices be able to do that.

1083
00:52:25,840 --> 00:52:27,120
Speaker 1: But we only have one collision.

1084
00:52:27,280 --> 00:52:28,640
Speaker 4: I know you need the latest iPhone.

1085
00:52:28,640 --> 00:52:33,120
Speaker 1: Probably we're interested in one collision at a time, right,

1086
00:52:33,239 --> 00:52:36,480
Speaker 1: So if we only looked at one collision, we wouldn't

1087
00:52:36,480 --> 00:52:38,200
Speaker 1: need to be very fast. You just have a collision.

1088
00:52:38,360 --> 00:52:40,520
Speaker 1: It sits in your detector, you read it out. It's

1089
00:52:40,560 --> 00:52:44,919
Speaker 1: like a single picture. We're not taking movies of these interactions.

1090
00:52:45,080 --> 00:52:47,719
Speaker 1: We only take one picture basically per interaction.

1091
00:52:48,400 --> 00:52:51,000
Speaker 4: Oh I see, but could you would you learn more

1092
00:52:51,040 --> 00:52:53,200
Speaker 4: if you could take a slow motion movie of like

1093
00:52:53,239 --> 00:52:54,600
Speaker 4: two protons hitting each other.

1094
00:52:55,000 --> 00:52:58,120
Speaker 1: We can't actually instrument the collision itself, only the stuff

1095
00:52:58,160 --> 00:53:00,160
Speaker 1: that flies out of it, and so in the and

1096
00:53:00,200 --> 00:53:02,640
Speaker 1: we're just sort of looking at the debris, and sometimes

1097
00:53:02,680 --> 00:53:05,759
Speaker 1: we are interested in like when bits arise, because it

1098
00:53:05,760 --> 00:53:07,920
Speaker 1: tells us like how fast they're moving. So we do

1099
00:53:08,000 --> 00:53:11,400
Speaker 1: have some specialized time of flight detectors people developed to

1100
00:53:11,400 --> 00:53:14,480
Speaker 1: see like did this photon arrive before that electron in

1101
00:53:14,520 --> 00:53:17,399
Speaker 1: the same collision or not, So we do sometimes dig

1102
00:53:17,440 --> 00:53:19,560
Speaker 1: into that a little bit, but mostly we just care

1103
00:53:19,600 --> 00:53:21,440
Speaker 1: about what flew out. We don't usually care about like

1104
00:53:21,480 --> 00:53:24,120
Speaker 1: what the order was or the sequence of events doesn't

1105
00:53:24,120 --> 00:53:26,520
Speaker 1: really tell us that much more, and it's really really

1106
00:53:26,600 --> 00:53:28,000
Speaker 1: hard to do, especially that fast.

1107
00:53:28,320 --> 00:53:30,520
Speaker 4: I'm interesting, but you're saying that there are, as we

1108
00:53:30,520 --> 00:53:33,279
Speaker 4: talked about before, there are physical events that happened in

1109
00:53:33,360 --> 00:53:35,719
Speaker 4: a much shorter timescale, and so for that you need

1110
00:53:36,200 --> 00:53:37,160
Speaker 4: even better cameras.

1111
00:53:37,320 --> 00:53:40,239
Speaker 1: Yeah, and these are called streak cameras. The idea of

1112
00:53:40,239 --> 00:53:44,120
Speaker 1: a CCD or SIEMOS device is a photon releases an electron,

1113
00:53:44,440 --> 00:53:46,600
Speaker 1: and then you pick up those electrons. But you don't

1114
00:53:46,600 --> 00:53:49,480
Speaker 1: distinguish between an electron that arrived near the end of

1115
00:53:49,520 --> 00:53:51,680
Speaker 1: your time cycle and near the beginning of it, and

1116
00:53:51,760 --> 00:53:54,240
Speaker 1: within a single frame, you count those electrons the same way,

1117
00:53:54,440 --> 00:53:57,040
Speaker 1: and that loses information if there are things happening faster

1118
00:53:57,520 --> 00:54:00,600
Speaker 1: than your time cycle than your frame, then you're losing them.

1119
00:54:00,840 --> 00:54:03,040
Speaker 1: So a streak camera tries to take advantage of that

1120
00:54:03,360 --> 00:54:07,400
Speaker 1: and applies a time varying electric field. So electrons that

1121
00:54:07,400 --> 00:54:09,680
Speaker 1: are released at one moment and electrons are released another

1122
00:54:09,719 --> 00:54:12,680
Speaker 1: moment will end up in different directions. So it sort

1123
00:54:12,680 --> 00:54:17,400
Speaker 1: of like sweeps a single frame across something in space,

1124
00:54:17,680 --> 00:54:20,920
Speaker 1: like spreads it out. That's why it's called a streak camera,

1125
00:54:21,360 --> 00:54:24,560
Speaker 1: like takes these electrons and sprays them across something so

1126
00:54:24,640 --> 00:54:26,160
Speaker 1: you can tell when they arrived.

1127
00:54:26,560 --> 00:54:30,239
Speaker 4: Well wait, wait, so this is like a sensor just

1128
00:54:30,280 --> 00:54:32,240
Speaker 4: like the camera, or is this a different kind of sensor.

1129
00:54:32,600 --> 00:54:35,359
Speaker 1: It's fundamentally like a camera, right. A photon comes in

1130
00:54:35,400 --> 00:54:38,239
Speaker 1: and releases an electron, but instead of just letting the

1131
00:54:38,239 --> 00:54:41,880
Speaker 1: electrons drift across your pixel, you know, guiding these electrons

1132
00:54:41,920 --> 00:54:44,400
Speaker 1: to different places, like on a mini screen, based on

1133
00:54:44,480 --> 00:54:45,400
Speaker 1: when they arrived.

1134
00:54:46,360 --> 00:54:48,840
Speaker 4: So sort of instead of catching the electrons in a bucket,

1135
00:54:49,040 --> 00:54:51,680
Speaker 4: you sort of sweep the bucket so that you can

1136
00:54:52,040 --> 00:54:54,879
Speaker 4: tell when the electrons were released, which tells you when

1137
00:54:54,920 --> 00:54:57,760
Speaker 4: the photons arrived at your sensor exactly.

1138
00:54:58,120 --> 00:55:01,200
Speaker 1: Yeah, so where the electron hits tells you when it

1139
00:55:01,320 --> 00:55:03,719
Speaker 1: was created, which tells you when the photon arrived, so

1140
00:55:03,760 --> 00:55:05,960
Speaker 1: then you could tell the difference between a photon that

1141
00:55:06,080 --> 00:55:08,240
Speaker 1: arrived at the beginning or the end of your frame.

1142
00:55:08,760 --> 00:55:12,800
Speaker 1: And this gets you more more time resolution, yes exactly,

1143
00:55:13,320 --> 00:55:15,600
Speaker 1: And so street cameras go down to like ten to

1144
00:55:15,640 --> 00:55:18,960
Speaker 1: the minus fourteen seconds. The fastest that I found was

1145
00:55:19,000 --> 00:55:22,879
Speaker 1: one that can do seventy trillion frames per second. That's

1146
00:55:22,920 --> 00:55:25,280
Speaker 1: like a lot of pictures of your kid picking their nose.

1147
00:55:28,400 --> 00:55:33,040
Speaker 4: Well, depends how quickly they do it. But what kinds

1148
00:55:33,080 --> 00:55:35,719
Speaker 4: of things are being measured with this crazy camera? Like

1149
00:55:36,040 --> 00:55:37,279
Speaker 4: what are they trying to do?

1150
00:55:37,560 --> 00:55:40,960
Speaker 1: These things are used to understand like biochemistry and some

1151
00:55:41,040 --> 00:55:45,680
Speaker 1: kind of interactions you know, like proteins folding or bonds forming,

1152
00:55:46,239 --> 00:55:50,400
Speaker 1: you know, basically chemicals interacting, this kind of stuff. But

1153
00:55:50,520 --> 00:55:52,160
Speaker 1: you know, lots of people are just curious and nobody

1154
00:55:52,160 --> 00:55:54,680
Speaker 1: really knows. It's sort of like uncharted territory. There are

1155
00:55:54,680 --> 00:55:56,600
Speaker 1: things we think happened in a certain way, and it

1156
00:55:56,680 --> 00:55:59,320
Speaker 1: might be that if you slow them down, they happen differently.

1157
00:55:59,360 --> 00:56:02,440
Speaker 1: This weird happening that nobody expected. So it's sort of

1158
00:56:02,480 --> 00:56:06,040
Speaker 1: like exploring the unknown. So people are using street cameras

1159
00:56:06,080 --> 00:56:08,879
Speaker 1: to explore all sorts of things hoping to find something new.

1160
00:56:10,040 --> 00:56:12,879
Speaker 4: Now, this is if you're trying to capture photons.

1161
00:56:12,360 --> 00:56:15,440
Speaker 1: Right, yeah, in order to like take a picture of something.

1162
00:56:15,560 --> 00:56:16,080
Speaker 8: Right right, what?

1163
00:56:16,320 --> 00:56:19,200
Speaker 4: But you can also just measure things in other ways, right,

1164
00:56:19,239 --> 00:56:21,400
Speaker 4: like measure the voltage of something, or measure I don't know,

1165
00:56:21,480 --> 00:56:24,799
Speaker 4: the magnetic field or something. M would those be able

1166
00:56:24,800 --> 00:56:26,320
Speaker 4: to be measured faster?

1167
00:56:26,719 --> 00:56:28,919
Speaker 1: Yeah? Absolutely, there's not a fundamental limitation there.

1168
00:56:29,960 --> 00:56:30,160
Speaker 6: You know.

1169
00:56:30,200 --> 00:56:32,960
Speaker 1: The question is really like can you capture something which

1170
00:56:33,080 --> 00:56:36,839
Speaker 1: varies that quickly? Can you isolate it? And in order

1171
00:56:36,880 --> 00:56:38,319
Speaker 1: to do that, you need to like probe it. You

1172
00:56:38,360 --> 00:56:41,080
Speaker 1: need to like create something that happens at that fast

1173
00:56:41,200 --> 00:56:43,680
Speaker 1: time slice so that you can take a picture of it.

1174
00:56:43,719 --> 00:56:45,839
Speaker 1: You need like something that happens really quickly, and then

1175
00:56:45,880 --> 00:56:48,680
Speaker 1: something that can respond very quickly, and then something that

1176
00:56:48,719 --> 00:56:52,280
Speaker 1: can record that. And people are really pushing the forefront

1177
00:56:52,280 --> 00:56:55,280
Speaker 1: of that technology. This is actually what won the Nobel

1178
00:56:55,360 --> 00:56:59,240
Speaker 1: Prize in twenty twenty three is making super duper short

1179
00:56:59,360 --> 00:57:02,520
Speaker 1: laser pulse is down to the atto second, down to

1180
00:57:02,600 --> 00:57:06,280
Speaker 1: ten to the mine eighteen seconds. And these were super

1181
00:57:06,280 --> 00:57:10,480
Speaker 1: short laser pulses created by layering longer laser pulses on

1182
00:57:10,560 --> 00:57:12,279
Speaker 1: top of each other to sort of like interfere with

1183
00:57:12,320 --> 00:57:15,560
Speaker 1: each other to make a super short pulse. And you

1184
00:57:15,600 --> 00:57:18,160
Speaker 1: can use this to like probe things that are happening

1185
00:57:18,280 --> 00:57:21,800
Speaker 1: inside the nucleus or inside an atom. You can give

1186
00:57:21,840 --> 00:57:24,080
Speaker 1: it a super short kick and see what happens.

1187
00:57:24,200 --> 00:57:26,760
Speaker 4: Ye, how does that help you measure of something fast

1188
00:57:26,960 --> 00:57:28,440
Speaker 4: a short laser pulse.

1189
00:57:28,640 --> 00:57:32,040
Speaker 1: The use this technique called pump probe measurements. Basically, you

1190
00:57:32,080 --> 00:57:34,320
Speaker 1: shoot this laser pulse at the thing you're trying to

1191
00:57:34,320 --> 00:57:36,440
Speaker 1: look at and you take one measurement of it, so

1192
00:57:36,480 --> 00:57:39,040
Speaker 1: you have like one measurement of where your electron is

1193
00:57:39,320 --> 00:57:41,760
Speaker 1: after you zap it with a laser. And what you're

1194
00:57:41,800 --> 00:57:44,120
Speaker 1: really interested in is like a movie. So you want

1195
00:57:44,160 --> 00:57:46,440
Speaker 1: to see, like how does the electron jumping from one

1196
00:57:46,520 --> 00:57:48,840
Speaker 1: energy level to another or from one atom to another.

1197
00:57:49,360 --> 00:57:51,520
Speaker 1: So you zap it with this laser pulse and you

1198
00:57:51,560 --> 00:57:53,960
Speaker 1: take one measurement of your electron. That doesn't give you

1199
00:57:54,040 --> 00:57:56,200
Speaker 1: a whole movie, but you can do it over and

1200
00:57:56,240 --> 00:57:58,000
Speaker 1: over again. So if you can set up the same

1201
00:57:58,080 --> 00:58:01,280
Speaker 1: system over and over again and with a laser pulse

1202
00:58:01,520 --> 00:58:04,760
Speaker 1: at slightly different times along the process and take a

1203
00:58:04,800 --> 00:58:08,160
Speaker 1: measurement each time, then you can put them together into

1204
00:58:08,200 --> 00:58:10,880
Speaker 1: a movie. So it's like if you watch your kid

1205
00:58:11,160 --> 00:58:13,920
Speaker 1: do a long jump and you take a really fast picture,

1206
00:58:13,960 --> 00:58:16,000
Speaker 1: but only one picture per long jump, and then you

1207
00:58:16,040 --> 00:58:19,600
Speaker 1: stitch them together into a whole description of the long jump.

1208
00:58:19,760 --> 00:58:21,640
Speaker 1: Because you're able to take really fast pictures, you have

1209
00:58:21,720 --> 00:58:24,840
Speaker 1: a now very slow motion movie of the long jump.

1210
00:58:25,000 --> 00:58:27,439
Speaker 1: It's really a movie of like a thousand long jumps

1211
00:58:27,440 --> 00:58:29,480
Speaker 1: where you took one picture from each. So it's not

1212
00:58:29,560 --> 00:58:32,520
Speaker 1: exactly the same thing, but in principle, they are very

1213
00:58:32,600 --> 00:58:34,320
Speaker 1: fast measurements of this event.

1214
00:58:35,040 --> 00:58:36,400
Speaker 4: I think I see what you're saying that this is

1215
00:58:36,440 --> 00:58:39,480
Speaker 4: like a flash basically, right, Yeah, you're basically creating a

1216
00:58:39,520 --> 00:58:43,440
Speaker 4: super fast flash which lets you capture what's going on

1217
00:58:43,680 --> 00:58:46,720
Speaker 4: even if that thing is going super super fast. By

1218
00:58:46,760 --> 00:58:49,360
Speaker 4: having a really short flash, you can get a picture

1219
00:58:49,360 --> 00:58:51,800
Speaker 4: of it because otherwise, like even the flash in your

1220
00:58:51,840 --> 00:58:54,920
Speaker 4: camera takes a while, and so if anything happens faster

1221
00:58:54,960 --> 00:58:57,200
Speaker 4: than that, it'll just get streaked in your photo.

1222
00:58:57,440 --> 00:59:01,320
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly, Like remember those Strobe foot people developed really

1223
00:59:01,360 --> 00:59:03,760
Speaker 1: fast flashes and they took pictures like a bullet going

1224
00:59:03,760 --> 00:59:05,920
Speaker 1: through an apple. You don't need a really fast camera

1225
00:59:05,960 --> 00:59:08,720
Speaker 1: if you have a really fast flash and everything's dark otherwise,

1226
00:59:09,000 --> 00:59:12,640
Speaker 1: because then you're only illuminating it during one very brief moment. Now,

1227
00:59:12,680 --> 00:59:15,560
Speaker 1: imagine you did that same experiment a million times, and

1228
00:59:15,600 --> 00:59:18,479
Speaker 1: you turn the flash on a slightly different time each time.

1229
00:59:18,680 --> 00:59:21,200
Speaker 1: You'd have a whole movie, a whole slow motion movie.

1230
00:59:21,320 --> 00:59:23,560
Speaker 1: It'd be from different bullets hitting different apples, but in

1231
00:59:23,600 --> 00:59:26,640
Speaker 1: principle you'd put together the dynamics of what's happening.

1232
00:59:27,560 --> 00:59:30,080
Speaker 4: All right, So that's a camera then that can take

1233
00:59:30,200 --> 00:59:33,800
Speaker 4: pictures essentially sort of every at a second.

1234
00:59:34,040 --> 00:59:37,400
Speaker 1: Yeah, the limitation so far as forty three auto seconds.

1235
00:59:38,040 --> 00:59:40,040
Speaker 1: So this is really getting to the edge of what

1236
00:59:40,080 --> 00:59:44,200
Speaker 1: we can do. But the fastest thing ever measured actually

1237
00:59:44,360 --> 00:59:48,160
Speaker 1: does get down to the zepdo second. This is a

1238
00:59:48,280 --> 00:59:51,840
Speaker 1: really cool technique where they shoot a photon and a

1239
00:59:51,920 --> 00:59:55,120
Speaker 1: molecule that has two electrons. So say, for example, you

1240
00:59:55,200 --> 00:59:58,480
Speaker 1: have like H two, which is two protons and two

1241
00:59:58,480 --> 01:00:02,640
Speaker 1: electrons right atoms of hydrogen bonded together. You shoot a

1242
01:00:02,640 --> 01:00:06,760
Speaker 1: photon at it and it actually interacts with both electrons. Okay,

1243
01:00:06,760 --> 01:00:09,240
Speaker 1: so this single photon like hits one electron and then

1244
01:00:09,240 --> 01:00:13,480
Speaker 1: it hits another electrons and those electrons react, right, both

1245
01:00:13,520 --> 01:00:17,160
Speaker 1: of them generate some signal and those signals interfere, and

1246
01:00:17,200 --> 01:00:20,880
Speaker 1: by looking at the interference between the light generated from

1247
01:00:20,880 --> 01:00:24,480
Speaker 1: those two electrons, you can see this time difference. So

1248
01:00:24,520 --> 01:00:26,520
Speaker 1: you can tell that the photon hit one and then

1249
01:00:26,600 --> 01:00:29,320
Speaker 1: later it hit the other one, and the time difference

1250
01:00:29,360 --> 01:00:32,080
Speaker 1: between those two things is about two hundred and fifty

1251
01:00:32,360 --> 01:00:33,320
Speaker 1: zepto seconds.

1252
01:00:33,720 --> 01:00:37,840
Speaker 4: WHOA, now, what does this help you measure? You use

1253
01:00:37,920 --> 01:00:39,440
Speaker 4: it to take a photograph of it.

1254
01:00:39,520 --> 01:00:41,840
Speaker 1: Lets you declare yourself the king of time man. This

1255
01:00:41,920 --> 01:00:45,080
Speaker 1: is the fastest thing ever measured. So in one sense,

1256
01:00:45,160 --> 01:00:48,880
Speaker 1: this is just like engineers being awesome and like trying

1257
01:00:48,880 --> 01:00:51,000
Speaker 1: to make things as fast as possible, just for the

1258
01:00:51,000 --> 01:00:52,800
Speaker 1: purpose of making things as fast as possible.

1259
01:00:52,880 --> 01:00:55,400
Speaker 4: Well, first of all, Daniel, engineers are awesome, yes, just

1260
01:00:55,440 --> 01:00:56,640
Speaker 4: by being engineered ourselves.

1261
01:00:56,760 --> 01:00:59,200
Speaker 1: Yes, even when they sleep in and sit around in

1262
01:00:59,200 --> 01:01:01,920
Speaker 1: their pajamas and do little cartoons all day, engineers.

1263
01:01:01,400 --> 01:01:03,400
Speaker 4: Are exactly I mean, that's even more awesome.

1264
01:01:03,600 --> 01:01:07,120
Speaker 1: Let's face it, absolutely, that's the pinnacle of awesomeness.

1265
01:01:06,640 --> 01:01:11,000
Speaker 4: Obviously, right, Like who wouldn't go on that job without doubt?

1266
01:01:11,040 --> 01:01:13,720
Speaker 1: Without doubt? But you know, if you're interested in how

1267
01:01:13,920 --> 01:01:16,720
Speaker 1: H two works and how electrons interfere with each other,

1268
01:01:17,280 --> 01:01:20,640
Speaker 1: you know, and understanding the system and all its full glory.

1269
01:01:20,880 --> 01:01:23,200
Speaker 1: Usually we think about like an individual electron one at

1270
01:01:23,240 --> 01:01:25,440
Speaker 1: a time, but really it's a complicated system where the

1271
01:01:25,440 --> 01:01:28,480
Speaker 1: electrons can interact and affect each other. If you want

1272
01:01:28,480 --> 01:01:32,439
Speaker 1: to understand the finite gradations of energy levels in H two,

1273
01:01:32,760 --> 01:01:35,280
Speaker 1: then this can help you understand that. By poking one

1274
01:01:35,280 --> 01:01:36,320
Speaker 1: electron and poking another.

1275
01:01:36,520 --> 01:01:39,480
Speaker 4: So what is it actually measuring, like the difference in

1276
01:01:39,560 --> 01:01:42,200
Speaker 4: time between when the electrons came out of the atom,

1277
01:01:42,560 --> 01:01:45,600
Speaker 4: or just when the photons hit each of the atoms

1278
01:01:45,920 --> 01:01:46,320
Speaker 4: or what.

1279
01:01:46,240 --> 01:01:48,680
Speaker 1: Yeah, it's measuring those two electrons. So you're knocking both

1280
01:01:48,680 --> 01:01:51,600
Speaker 1: electrons out of the atom, and then you're making measurements

1281
01:01:51,600 --> 01:01:54,720
Speaker 1: of those electrons, and because they're sort of almost on

1282
01:01:54,760 --> 01:01:57,240
Speaker 1: top of each other, those two electrons can interfere, and

1283
01:01:57,240 --> 01:02:00,680
Speaker 1: the interference pattern lets you recover the there's a time

1284
01:02:00,720 --> 01:02:03,640
Speaker 1: difference between the two electrons when they get knocked.

1285
01:02:03,320 --> 01:02:06,160
Speaker 4: Out and the normal measurement. You think, oh, both electrons

1286
01:02:06,160 --> 01:02:07,880
Speaker 4: came out at the same time. But yeah, now you're

1287
01:02:07,880 --> 01:02:09,920
Speaker 4: saying we can actually tell like, oh, this one, the

1288
01:02:10,000 --> 01:02:12,120
Speaker 4: right one came out first, then the lack.

1289
01:02:12,040 --> 01:02:15,200
Speaker 1: One exactly, and the difference in time is really minute.

1290
01:02:15,280 --> 01:02:18,520
Speaker 1: It's two times ten of the negative nineteen seconds, and

1291
01:02:18,560 --> 01:02:20,960
Speaker 1: that is the fastest thing ever measured.

1292
01:02:21,400 --> 01:02:24,800
Speaker 4: WHA, that's even faster than the higgs boson.

1293
01:02:25,000 --> 01:02:27,480
Speaker 1: That's not faster than the higgs boson. But we've never

1294
01:02:27,680 --> 01:02:30,600
Speaker 1: measured the lifetime of a higgs boson. The higgs boson

1295
01:02:30,960 --> 01:02:34,720
Speaker 1: lifetime ten of the minus twenty four seconds. That's theoretical, Like,

1296
01:02:34,800 --> 01:02:37,760
Speaker 1: we don't know how long the higgs boson lasts. We'd

1297
01:02:37,800 --> 01:02:38,640
Speaker 1: haven't measured it.

1298
01:02:38,720 --> 01:02:41,960
Speaker 4: Actually, maybe if you install the new iOS on your

1299
01:02:42,320 --> 01:02:48,880
Speaker 4: large Hydrin collider phones here, yeah, a particle physics portrait mode.

1300
01:02:48,920 --> 01:02:49,280
Speaker 4: Mm hmm.

1301
01:02:49,560 --> 01:02:51,880
Speaker 1: There's a way indirectly to understand the lifetime of the

1302
01:02:51,920 --> 01:02:54,520
Speaker 1: higgs boson because it's connected to its mass and how

1303
01:02:54,680 --> 01:02:57,680
Speaker 1: different higgs bosons have different masses, And there's a bunch

1304
01:02:57,720 --> 01:02:59,400
Speaker 1: of theory that lets you say, if you measure the

1305
01:02:59,440 --> 01:03:02,240
Speaker 1: mass of the higson, you can then extrapolate to know

1306
01:03:02,280 --> 01:03:04,040
Speaker 1: what its lifetime is. But that's not the same as

1307
01:03:04,120 --> 01:03:07,560
Speaker 1: actually measuring its lifetime. That theory could be wrong. So

1308
01:03:07,600 --> 01:03:09,680
Speaker 1: we haven't been able to resolve the lifetime of a

1309
01:03:09,760 --> 01:03:13,120
Speaker 1: higgs boson, like the time between when it's created and

1310
01:03:13,240 --> 01:03:17,240
Speaker 1: it decays, and even this zepdo second measuring device is

1311
01:03:17,320 --> 01:03:21,080
Speaker 1: like a factor of ten thousand too slow to observe

1312
01:03:21,080 --> 01:03:21,880
Speaker 1: a Higgs boson.

1313
01:03:22,720 --> 01:03:24,400
Speaker 4: Well, I guess maybe what you mean, like, this is

1314
01:03:24,440 --> 01:03:29,160
Speaker 4: the fastest physical event we've seen. Yeah, with like a

1315
01:03:29,200 --> 01:03:30,600
Speaker 4: camera basically.

1316
01:03:30,240 --> 01:03:32,600
Speaker 1: Yeah, with a camera, we're like the definition of a

1317
01:03:32,640 --> 01:03:34,280
Speaker 1: camera is kind of loose here because we're not like

1318
01:03:34,320 --> 01:03:36,880
Speaker 1: getting pixels or images here. We're just sort of making

1319
01:03:36,960 --> 01:03:39,960
Speaker 1: measurements after illuminating it, right, we flash it with an

1320
01:03:40,080 --> 01:03:41,840
Speaker 1: X ray, maybe take some measurements.

1321
01:03:42,120 --> 01:03:44,600
Speaker 4: Right, So this is the fastest event that we have

1322
01:03:44,640 --> 01:03:48,760
Speaker 4: a pick for. So definitely it happened exactly, because otherwise

1323
01:03:49,200 --> 01:03:49,880
Speaker 4: it didn't happen.

1324
01:03:50,040 --> 01:03:52,080
Speaker 1: Yeah, Pixar, it didn't happen. And this is the.

1325
01:03:52,040 --> 01:03:54,360
Speaker 4: Fastest pigs it didn't happen. Yeah, exactly.

1326
01:03:54,520 --> 01:03:57,320
Speaker 1: And we think probably the universe is operating on a

1327
01:03:57,440 --> 01:04:02,040
Speaker 1: much shorter timescale we do these calculations. We're pretty confident

1328
01:04:02,040 --> 01:04:05,080
Speaker 1: in our theory about Higgs bosons and Wz's bosons, where

1329
01:04:05,280 --> 01:04:07,440
Speaker 1: we think it's happening, but it's not the same as

1330
01:04:07,480 --> 01:04:08,280
Speaker 1: actually seeing it.

1331
01:04:08,560 --> 01:04:13,280
Speaker 4: Hmmm, all right, Well, it's kind of this interesting convergence

1332
01:04:13,320 --> 01:04:16,080
Speaker 4: of technology and theory, right, it's like this is where

1333
01:04:16,160 --> 01:04:18,600
Speaker 4: rubber meets throat basically, right, Like you have these theories,

1334
01:04:18,640 --> 01:04:21,120
Speaker 4: but then you need actual measurements to prove that these

1335
01:04:21,120 --> 01:04:23,760
Speaker 4: things are happening at those time scales. And that's where

1336
01:04:23,760 --> 01:04:26,120
Speaker 4: the technology is right now, that's right.

1337
01:04:26,000 --> 01:04:29,120
Speaker 1: And the experimental technology actually taking these pictures is still

1338
01:04:29,160 --> 01:04:32,840
Speaker 1: like twenty five orders of magnitude away from the theory.

1339
01:04:32,880 --> 01:04:34,640
Speaker 1: Like the theory will work down to ten of the

1340
01:04:34,640 --> 01:04:37,720
Speaker 1: minus forty four seconds. We've only measured down to ten

1341
01:04:37,760 --> 01:04:40,960
Speaker 1: of the minus nineteen seconds. So there's a long way

1342
01:04:40,960 --> 01:04:41,240
Speaker 1: to go.

1343
01:04:41,320 --> 01:04:45,440
Speaker 4: Oh so we're halfway there. Sure, Sure, we've done that

1344
01:04:45,440 --> 01:04:46,320
Speaker 4: in what twenty years?

1345
01:04:46,320 --> 01:04:49,520
Speaker 1: So yeah, the same way that like getting one thousand

1346
01:04:49,520 --> 01:04:51,760
Speaker 1: dollars is like halfway to a million dollars, right, it's

1347
01:04:51,800 --> 01:04:54,040
Speaker 1: just ten to the three insteat.

1348
01:04:53,320 --> 01:04:59,400
Speaker 4: It if you think logarithmic scale actually or the way

1349
01:04:59,440 --> 01:05:01,000
Speaker 4: inflation right now.

1350
01:05:02,880 --> 01:05:06,320
Speaker 1: Much to say, totally fair. Anyway, we're making progress and

1351
01:05:06,320 --> 01:05:09,440
Speaker 1: we're illuminating the universe. It's smaller and smaller time slices.

1352
01:05:09,560 --> 01:05:12,680
Speaker 1: Maybe eventually one day we'll see it at its smallest

1353
01:05:12,680 --> 01:05:16,560
Speaker 1: time slice and discover the granularity of the universe itself.

1354
01:05:16,920 --> 01:05:19,520
Speaker 4: Yeah, and we can measure the progress of human eyes

1355
01:05:19,640 --> 01:05:22,320
Speaker 4: to see the fast things in the universe. Daniel, when

1356
01:05:22,360 --> 01:05:25,560
Speaker 4: should be the next podcast episode where we sample how

1357
01:05:25,600 --> 01:05:27,160
Speaker 4: fast things can be measured?

1358
01:05:28,880 --> 01:05:31,120
Speaker 1: You know, things are happening pretty rapidly, so maybe in

1359
01:05:31,160 --> 01:05:34,240
Speaker 1: the next couple of years so we will break this record.

1360
01:05:34,760 --> 01:05:36,920
Speaker 4: Which case, we might set a new record for what's

1361
01:05:36,960 --> 01:05:40,320
Speaker 4: the fastest change in how fast we can measure things

1362
01:05:40,360 --> 01:05:43,240
Speaker 4: measured by a podcast in portrait mode?

1363
01:05:43,400 --> 01:05:45,520
Speaker 1: Yeah, and maybe by then we'll be making millions of

1364
01:05:45,560 --> 01:05:46,640
Speaker 1: dollars instead of thousands.

1365
01:05:47,600 --> 01:05:50,440
Speaker 4: Yeah, by then we're halfway there. Yeah, hopefully, hopefully, we

1366
01:05:50,440 --> 01:05:54,360
Speaker 4: can only hope so, and maybe by then I'll actually

1367
01:05:54,360 --> 01:05:56,360
Speaker 4: remember what we talked about in the episodes.

1368
01:05:57,480 --> 01:05:58,200
Speaker 1: Sounds like a plan.

1369
01:05:58,400 --> 01:06:00,560
Speaker 4: All right, Well, we hope you enjoyed that. Thanks for

1370
01:06:00,640 --> 01:06:02,800
Speaker 4: joining us, See you next time.

1371
01:06:07,480 --> 01:06:10,360
Speaker 1: For more science and curiosity, come find us on social

1372
01:06:10,400 --> 01:06:15,320
Speaker 1: media where we answer questions and post videos. We're on Twitter, Discord, Instant,

1373
01:06:15,400 --> 01:06:19,120
Speaker 1: and now TikTok. Thanks for listening and remember that Daniel

1374
01:06:19,160 --> 01:06:22,600
Speaker 1: and Jorge Explain the Universe is a production of iHeartRadio.

1375
01:06:22,880 --> 01:06:28,040
Speaker 1: For more podcasts from iHeartRadio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts,

1376
01:06:28,160 --> 01:06:35,640
Speaker 1: or wherever you listen to your favorite shows. When you

1377
01:06:35,640 --> 01:06:37,720
Speaker 1: pop a piece of cheese into your mouth, you're probably

1378
01:06:37,760 --> 01:06:40,800
Speaker 1: not thinking about the environmental impact. But the people in

1379
01:06:40,840 --> 01:06:43,960
Speaker 1: the dairy industry are. That's why they're working hard every

1380
01:06:44,040 --> 01:06:47,360
Speaker 1: day to find new ways to reduce waste, conserve natural resources,

1381
01:06:47,400 --> 01:06:51,440
Speaker 1: and drive down greenhouse gas emissions. House US dairy tackling

1382
01:06:51,480 --> 01:06:55,200
Speaker 1: greenhouse gases. Many farms use anaerobic digestors to turn the

1383
01:06:55,280 --> 01:06:59,640
Speaker 1: methane from manure into renewable energy that can power farms, towns,

1384
01:06:59,680 --> 01:07:02,960
Speaker 1: and electric cars. Visit you as dairy dot COM's Last

1385
01:07:03,000 --> 01:07:04,600
Speaker 1: Sustainability to learn more.

1386
01:07:05,240 --> 01:07:07,800
Speaker 3: As a United Explorer Card member, you can earn fifty

1387
01:07:07,840 --> 01:07:11,760
Speaker 3: thousand bonus miles plus look forward to extraordinary travel rewards,

1388
01:07:11,840 --> 01:07:14,360
Speaker 3: including a free checked bag, two times the miles on

1389
01:07:14,440 --> 01:07:17,120
Speaker 3: United purchases and two times the miles on dining and

1390
01:07:17,160 --> 01:07:20,480
Speaker 3: at hotels. Become an Explorer and seek out unforgettable places

1391
01:07:20,480 --> 01:07:23,919
Speaker 3: while enjoying rewards everywhere you travel. Cards issued by JP

1392
01:07:24,000 --> 01:07:27,680
Speaker 3: Morgan Chase Bank NA Member FDIC subject to credit approval

1393
01:07:27,760 --> 01:07:29,880
Speaker 3: offer subject to change. Terms apply.

1394
01:07:30,360 --> 01:07:32,640
Speaker 5: I'm a cleaning lady, a single mom with three kids

1395
01:07:32,640 --> 01:07:35,440
Speaker 5: and an IQ north of one sixty, so helping the

1396
01:07:35,480 --> 01:07:38,600
Speaker 5: cops solve a murders, literally the easiest part of my day.

1397
01:07:38,760 --> 01:07:42,680
Speaker 11: ABC Tuesday the series premiere of falls most anticipated new

1398
01:07:42,760 --> 01:07:45,320
Speaker 11: drama High Potential. That big brain of hers is going

1399
01:07:45,360 --> 01:07:47,280
Speaker 11: to help us close out a lot of cases. Haylen

1400
01:07:47,320 --> 01:07:49,360
Speaker 11: Open is the new base of investigation.

1401
01:07:49,560 --> 01:07:52,080
Speaker 1: You're a single mom pretend interview, Car, I am not pretending.

1402
01:07:52,240 --> 01:07:53,840
Speaker 4: I'm just out here super copping.

1403
01:07:54,400 --> 01:07:58,000
Speaker 11: High Potential series premiere Tuesday, ten ninth Central on ABC

1404
01:07:58,280 --> 01:07:59,520
Speaker 11: and stream on Hulu