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Speaker 1: Hey, it Jorhan Daniel here, and we want to tell

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Speaker 1: you about our new book. It's called Frequently Asked Questions

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Speaker 1: about the Universe because you have questions about the universe,

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Speaker 1: and so we decided to write a book all about them.

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Speaker 1: We talk about your questions, we give some answers, we

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Speaker 1: make a bunch of silly jokes as usual, and we

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Speaker 1: tackle all kinds of questions, including what happens if I

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Speaker 1: fall into a black hole? Or is there another version

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Speaker 1: of you out there that's right? Like usual, we tackle

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Speaker 1: the deepest, darkest, biggest, craziest questions about this incredible cosmos.

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Speaker 1: If you want to support the podcast, please get the

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Speaker 1: book and get a copy not just for yourself, but

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Speaker 1: you know, for your nieces and nephews, cousins, friends, parents, dogs, hamsters,

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Speaker 1: and for the aliens. So get your copy of Frequently

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Speaker 1: Asked Questions about the Universe is available for pre order now,

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Speaker 1: coming out November two. You can find more details at

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Speaker 1: the book's website, Universe f a Q dot com. Thanks

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Speaker 1: for your support, and if you have a hamster that

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Speaker 1: can read, please let us know. We'd love to have

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Speaker 1: them on the podcast. Hey Daniel, do you ever wish

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Speaker 1: the universe was a bad simpler you mean, like easier

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Speaker 1: to understand. Yeah, you know, it seems so complex, filled

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Speaker 1: with crazy particles and weird phenomena that's hard to understand.

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Speaker 1: I don't know. I guess I'm glad that the universe

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Speaker 1: is weird and mysterious. Well, I see, because then otherwise

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Speaker 1: you'd be out of a job. Yeah, and we'd be

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Speaker 1: out of a podcast. But also because the universe without mystery,

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Speaker 1: I don't know, it sounds boring. You make it sound

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Speaker 1: like understanding the universe would be born. Yeah, you know,

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Speaker 1: sort of like you're watching that horror movie and it

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Speaker 1: shows you the monster a little too early, and you're like, hey, physicists,

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Speaker 1: watch out. The truth is right behind you. Physicists don't

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Speaker 1: want to jump scare Hi'm more handing cartoonists and the

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Speaker 1: creator of PhD comics. Hi. I'm Daniel. I'm a particle

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Speaker 1: physicist and a professor you see, Irvine, And I'm not

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Speaker 1: scared by anything the universe might offer us. Really not

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Speaker 1: even I don't know anything your kids might say to

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Speaker 1: you one day. I'm barely terrified of whether this world

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Speaker 1: will be livable for my kids. But when we do

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Speaker 1: uncover secrets of the Universe. I feel like I'm prepared

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Speaker 1: for the craziest, most bonkers is ideas out there. What

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Speaker 1: if it tells you that the universe is a horror movie,

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Speaker 1: alien simulation or alien Netflix. Wow, if my life is

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Speaker 1: scaring people, I don't know what to say to that.

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Speaker 1: It's pretty terrifying. Oh, I see, it's a it's more

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Speaker 1: of a tragedy than a horror It's a disaster movie.

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Speaker 1: Is a disaster movie? Well, if it's an American version,

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Speaker 1: it's going to have a happy ending. So let's hope

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Speaker 1: for that. We're like the shark Nado of the Alien Netflix.

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Speaker 1: Maybe let's just hope they got enough budget to make

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Speaker 1: realistic special effects and Welcome to our podcast Daniel and

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Speaker 1: Jorge Explain the Universe, a production of I Heart Radio,

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Speaker 1: in which we talked about everything that is special and

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Speaker 1: everything that is mundane, and everything that is boring and

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Speaker 1: amazing about the universe. We take it all in stride.

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Speaker 1: We want to understand all of it. We think the

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Speaker 1: deepest thoughts about the universe, and we ask why is

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Speaker 1: it this way, Why is it not some other way?

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Speaker 1: Why doesn't it make sense to us? We try to

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Speaker 1: digest all of the deepest questions in the universe, from

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Speaker 1: black holes to tiny particles to everything in between, and

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Speaker 1: explain all of it to you, because it is a

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Speaker 1: pretty exciting universe out there, full of interesting plots in

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Speaker 1: conflict and drama and sometimes a surprise twist ending. That's right.

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Speaker 1: In this journey to uncover the nature of the universe,

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Speaker 1: we have had lots of surprising moments where we found

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Speaker 1: things we didn't think we needed or things we certainly

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Speaker 1: didn't expect and later wondered, like do we really need

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Speaker 1: those bits where you scare it that is startled physicists.

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Speaker 1: There are lots of moments like that. But you know

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Speaker 1: what they say, like a particle discovered in Act one

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Speaker 1: has to kill somebody in Act three with the renting

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Speaker 1: in the hall in the particle physics lab. Yeah, and

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Speaker 1: it makes you ask a deeper question like is there

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Speaker 1: a reason for everything? If you discover something about the universe,

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Speaker 1: doesn't mean it had to be that way or could

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Speaker 1: it had just been accidental? Are you uncovering some grand

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Speaker 1: plan or just some like random collection of numbers that

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Speaker 1: quantum mechanically fell into place? Yeah? Like is there a

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Speaker 1: sort of a structure or sort of some sort of

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Speaker 1: a goal to the universe, or is it all just

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Speaker 1: kind of random? Right, because that's one theory of the

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Speaker 1: origin of the universe, that we're just kind of like

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Speaker 1: a random occurrence or a random fluctuation and in existence. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: a lot of people ask why questions about physics, right.

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Speaker 1: Physics is mostly focused on how how does this work?

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Speaker 1: How does this fit together? How does this talk to

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Speaker 1: the other thing? But in the end, the reason we're

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Speaker 1: interesting these questions is because of the why questions. Why

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Speaker 1: is it this way and not some other way? And

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Speaker 1: I hope that when we do have the full picture

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Speaker 1: of how everything works, we can look at it in

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Speaker 1: see and say, hmm, well it couldn't be any other way,

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Speaker 1: so it had to be this way. But you're right,

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Speaker 1: it might just be that there are lots of universes

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Speaker 1: and they're all just different and there's no rhyme or

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Speaker 1: reason why anyone is any certain way. Is randomly generated

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Speaker 1: by the Netflix agrilla? Is that random? I thought it

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Speaker 1: was supposed to be intelligent. Seems kind of randoms. There

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Speaker 1: are a lot of random shows and Netflix someuntimes it

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Speaker 1: seems random at least but physicists are asking pretty interesting

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Speaker 1: questions out there about the universe, the cosmos, what's out there,

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Speaker 1: what's at the edge of the universe. But one of

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Speaker 1: the more interesting questions that physicists asked is kind of

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Speaker 1: about us, like what are we made out of? That's right,

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Speaker 1: because we want to bring this question home in the end.

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Speaker 1: This question is about our lives and our experiences and

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Speaker 1: understanding our world, and that of course includes us and

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Speaker 1: the things we eat and the things around us. And

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Speaker 1: when you look around yourself in the universe, you wonder, like,

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Speaker 1: what is the pattern here? Am I similar to that rock?

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Speaker 1: Do I have something in common with that squirrel or

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Speaker 1: that bit of lava? With that piece of ice cream

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Speaker 1: over there? We all made out of the same bits,

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Speaker 1: and we've made a lot of progress in that direction. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: me and the rock have a lot in common. You

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Speaker 1: both eat a lot of ice cream, right, Yeah, we

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Speaker 1: both eat a lot and also um, But I think

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Speaker 1: we're made out of the same things, carbon and nitrogen.

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Speaker 1: I think that's right and pure determination, that's right and awesomeness.

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Speaker 1: Of course. I hear he gets up at five am

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Speaker 1: and has a workout? Is that also your schedule? I

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Speaker 1: got to sleep at five am after I work out

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Speaker 1: my brain cells. Yeah, it's a big question what are

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Speaker 1: we made of? And as a scientists physicists have made

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Speaker 1: a lot of progress answering that question. Like we we

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Speaker 1: sort of have it down up to a pretty good

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Speaker 1: level of you know, kind of the fundamental elements of

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Speaker 1: the universe. We know that most of the things around

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Speaker 1: us are made of a few basic building blocks that

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Speaker 1: you're familiar with, you know, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, all that

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Speaker 1: kind of stuff, the elements of the periodic table. And

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Speaker 1: it's sort of incredible, right that you can describe so

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Speaker 1: many different complicated things in terms of a few basic

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Speaker 1: building blocks. It's like we talked about sometimes it's like

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Speaker 1: the lego principle of the universe that with a small

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Speaker 1: number of things arranged in complex ways, you can make

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Speaker 1: incredible complexity. But of course we've dug even deeper than that.

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Speaker 1: Right inside the atom, we know there is the nucleus

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Speaker 1: which has protons and neutrons inside of it, which are

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Speaker 1: made out of quarks. And those corks are just two

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Speaker 1: particular flavors. There's the up cork and the down cork.

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Speaker 1: Combine them in one way you get protons, combine them

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Speaker 1: another way, you get neutrons sprinkling some electrons, and you

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Speaker 1: get everything any human has ever eaten or slept on

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Speaker 1: or thrown at their little sister. Yeah, it's sort of

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Speaker 1: like finding out that legos are actually made out of

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Speaker 1: Lincoln logs, super tiny little Lincoln logs, super tiny Lincoln blogs.

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Speaker 1: But yeah, it seems like everything not just us and

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Speaker 1: in this planet, but like everything you kind of see

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Speaker 1: out there in the universal stars, the asteroids, all those

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Speaker 1: billions and trillions of planets out that they're all made

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Speaker 1: out of just three particles, the up and down quirks

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Speaker 1: and the electron. That's right, And not just only those

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Speaker 1: three particles, but those three particles in basically the same ratios, Right,

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Speaker 1: Like the number of electrons and up corks and down

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Speaker 1: corks that are in ice cream are the same as

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Speaker 1: the number that are in lava. So like a kilogram

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Speaker 1: of ice cream and a kilogram of lava have basically

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Speaker 1: the same number of each kind of particles. It's just

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Speaker 1: how you put them together that makes one different from

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Speaker 1: the other. Yeah, we're all pretty hot. Yeah, have you

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Speaker 1: ever had lava flavored ice cream? By the way, I

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Speaker 1: have loved as ice cream, lava ice cream, but I

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Speaker 1: have not had lava ice cream. All right, we are

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Speaker 1: breaking new ground here today, and it's sort of amazing,

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Speaker 1: right that you can get so much complexity out of

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Speaker 1: that just these three particles. It blows my mind every

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Speaker 1: time I think about it. Yeah, it's pretty amazing that

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Speaker 1: we're all just made out of three particles. But the

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Speaker 1: weird thing about the universe is that those are not

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Speaker 1: the only particles in the universe. There are other There's

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Speaker 1: a whole bunch of other particles out there that can

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Speaker 1: possibly exist, and also a lot of them are are

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Speaker 1: kind of flying around and raining down upon us. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: it's sort of like in the Pantra the universe, there

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Speaker 1: are a bunch of others ices, but your cook only

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Speaker 1: ever uses three of them, right, and only uses those

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Speaker 1: three to cook every single meal, And then you discover, wow,

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Speaker 1: what about some basil or maybe a little bit of

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Speaker 1: a reggano, you know, or some time? There are other

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Speaker 1: things out there in the universe, not just the up cork,

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Speaker 1: the down cork and the electron. Which spices? Do you

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Speaker 1: think humans are made out of saltiness? I think a

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Speaker 1: little cayenne pepper in there for sure, spice there. So

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Speaker 1: we have not just the up cork and the down cork,

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Speaker 1: but we have four other corks that we have discovered,

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Speaker 1: and the electron has five more partners, other particles we

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Speaker 1: call lepton. So in total, there are twelve of these

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Speaker 1: matter particles out there, only three of which we need

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Speaker 1: to make me and you and kittens and lava and

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Speaker 1: all sorts of crazy things like kitten flavored ice cream.

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Speaker 1: So that's a very big mystery in the universe that

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Speaker 1: physicists are still pondering about, like why are those other

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Speaker 1: particles there? Why does the universe need them? And I

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Speaker 1: guess what would the universe be like if we didn't

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Speaker 1: have them? You know, what role do they play? Like,

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Speaker 1: imagine a universe without them, how would it work? They're

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Speaker 1: really important or they just sort of extraneous. This is

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Speaker 1: actually a question that came from one of our listeners

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Speaker 1: asking me about it on Twitter. So to be on

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Speaker 1: the podcast, we'll be asking the question what if the

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Speaker 1: exotic particles didn't exist? And thanks a lot to Paolo

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Speaker 1: Avocado for asking us about this on Twitter. It was

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Speaker 1: a really cool question and inspired this episode. So, Daniel,

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Speaker 1: why are they called exotic particles. That sounds like, um,

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Speaker 1: I don't know, it sounds almost non PC. Well, I

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Speaker 1: think we call them exotic. I don't know, I call

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Speaker 1: him exotic. I don't know if that's like the official title.

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Speaker 1: You know, the High Council on Physics naming hasn't met

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Speaker 1: us since you started disparaging us on the podcast. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: we're blackballed now. We'll never get a particle called Daniel

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Speaker 1: and Jorge explained the universe. You know, that's for sure.

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Speaker 1: We're not top of the list anymore. But we call

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Speaker 1: him exotic because they don't appear in normal, everyday matter,

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Speaker 1: because you need exotic unusual situations in order to create them,

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Speaker 1: and they don't laugh for very long. I guess you'd

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Speaker 1: call them exotic because you like you rarely see them,

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Speaker 1: or like they rarely happen. Yeah, both. I mean, they

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Speaker 1: do occur outside of our laboratory, but again rarely under

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Speaker 1: special circumstances. And so there's sort of like, you know,

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Speaker 1: that strange bird that you don't see very often in

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Speaker 1: the park. You know, it's like compared to pigeons, that

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Speaker 1: really weird strange bird is you might call it exotic

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Speaker 1: if you don't see it very often landing on a

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Speaker 1: tree nearby. So the big question is what would happen

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Speaker 1: if that exotic bird didn't exist, Like, would the ecosystem

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Speaker 1: be the same, would your experience of going to the

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Speaker 1: park be the same, or would you even notice if

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Speaker 1: they didn't exist? What if they were only pigeons? Right,

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Speaker 1: we should ask Roseberry mousk of that question. It's pigeons

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Speaker 1: all the way down. But we were wondering, as usual,

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Speaker 1: how many people out there had thought about this question

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Speaker 1: or thought they had an answer. So Daniel went out

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Speaker 1: there into the wilds of the internet to ask what

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Speaker 1: if the exotic particles didn't exist? And I love the

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Speaker 1: symmetry here because this question came from the Internet and

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Speaker 1: I'm sending it back out into the Internet to get

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Speaker 1: people's responses. And so if you would like to participate

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Speaker 1: in future questions for future episodes, please don't be shy.

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Speaker 1: Right to me two questions at Daniel and Jorge dot com.

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Speaker 1: It's fun, it's easy, you'll be semi famous. It sounds

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Speaker 1: like that's a typical strategy for physicist Daniel, Like someone

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Speaker 1: asks you a question, you just ask the question back.

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Speaker 1: Why do you say that's a typical strategy. I don't know,

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Speaker 1: why do you think Anyways, here's what people had to say,

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Speaker 1: So I'm gonna say, yes, we would notice if the

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Speaker 1: particles that don't make a normal manner disappeared, like neutrinos,

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Speaker 1: and now, because we can observe them, albeit not often,

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Speaker 1: uh so all of a sudden we wouldn't be able

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Speaker 1: to observe them anymore. But I assume there would be

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Speaker 1: some other effects that we haven't considered, or maybe someone's

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Speaker 1: considered that would have profound changes to our existence. That

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Speaker 1: is a very good question, and yes, I think we

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Speaker 1: would notice. I know that these particles don't interact with

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Speaker 1: us or anything around us, and I know that neutronos

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Speaker 1: are usually something that comes from supernovas or outer space.

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Speaker 1: But I think we would notice because maybe there would

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Speaker 1: be a difference in the supernovas, or maybe there is

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Speaker 1: something that these particles interact with that we are yet

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Speaker 1: to discover. I think we would notice, but I don't

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Speaker 1: know how. I think we will notice. I don't know

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Speaker 1: how much it will affect us. I don't know how much,

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Speaker 1: but I'm sure we can notice it. Well. I think

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Speaker 1: all matter is supposed to be interconnected and affecting each other.

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Speaker 1: So even if we can't see it or since it,

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Speaker 1: something's got to happen to normal matter if that non

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Speaker 1: normal matter disappeared. I imagine if the moon suddenly disappeared,

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Speaker 1: we would certainly notice it, not just by what we saw,

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Speaker 1: but by the change in the motion of the Earth. Um.

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Speaker 1: I don't know enough about neutrinos and tows, you know,

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Speaker 1: if they have mass or anything like that, but they

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Speaker 1: have to have something that we're interacting with that we

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Speaker 1: would no longer be interacting with all of a sudden,

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Speaker 1: and that's got to be weird. I think we definitely

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Speaker 1: would notice if particles like neutrinos that don't make up

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Speaker 1: normal matter disappeared all of a sudden, because I know

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Speaker 1: there's experiments around the world that detect those particles. I

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Speaker 1: don't know what the consequences of that happening would be,

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Speaker 1: though I'm assuming that the particles that don't make up

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Speaker 1: normal matter have an effect on normal matter. I'm not

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Speaker 1: in timely sure what I know that neutrinos passed straight

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Speaker 1: through stuff without affecting it, so I would hesitate to

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Speaker 1: say that we wouldn't notice it at all. It seems

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Speaker 1: to me like that's unlikely, because there's quite a lot

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Speaker 1: of them. If particles that don't make up normal manner disappeared,

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Speaker 1: we would not us because the energy of the universe

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Speaker 1: would decrease. All right, people had opinions here. Nobody said

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Speaker 1: I have no idea. Yeah, exactly, this is their universe

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Speaker 1: we're talking about. Man, you know, they're really getting into it.

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Speaker 1: It's important to them. It's almost like they didn't they

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Speaker 1: haven't read the book We Have No Idea, A Guide

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Speaker 1: to the Unknown Universe or our new book. Frequently asked

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Speaker 1: questions about the universe, which is out right now. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: check out your copy of Universe f a Q dot com.

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Speaker 1: But no, it seems like a lot of people sort

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Speaker 1: of had opinions about this, right, So people said we

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Speaker 1: wouldn't notice, and people said we wouldn't notice. Yeah, nobody

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Speaker 1: was on the fence, and a lot of people felt like,

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Speaker 1: you know, these do make up an important part of

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Speaker 1: our universe, even if you don't necessarily see them or

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Speaker 1: detect them every single day. All right, Well, let's dig

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Speaker 1: into it, Daniel. What are the exotic particles like specifically?

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Speaker 1: Can you name them? I can't name them, though, I'm

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Speaker 1: not responsible for having chosen their names, of course. And

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Speaker 1: you know, the first sort of exotic particle is the

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Speaker 1: new trino. We talked about the particles that make up

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Speaker 1: matter in their two corks and one lepton. This electron

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Speaker 1: is a particle we call a lepton, but the electron

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Speaker 1: actually has a partner which is pretty weird and doesn't

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Speaker 1: exist as part of matter, and that's the neutrino. It's

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Speaker 1: this very strange particle. And it's not strange because it's rare.

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Speaker 1: It's actually very very common. It's just not part of

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Speaker 1: the atom. The Sun makes lots and lots of neutrinos

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Speaker 1: when it produces nuclear fusion, and it's like a hundred

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Speaker 1: billion of them raining down on every square centimeter of

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Speaker 1: the Earth every second. So the universe is filled with neutrinos,

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Speaker 1: but they're mostly invisible to us and they don't play

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Speaker 1: a role in the atom. Yeah, I guess it's kind

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Speaker 1: of weird to think about that. You know, the Sun,

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Speaker 1: like the hydrogen in it and the fuel that's making

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Speaker 1: it burn, is made out of the same things that

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Speaker 1: we know that you and I are, you know, up

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Speaker 1: and down quarts and electrons, and it's burning, but in

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Speaker 1: doing so it creates other particles like the neutrino and

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Speaker 1: then shoots a whole bunch of them out into space. Absolutely,

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Speaker 1: and that's because involved infusion is the weak force, and

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Speaker 1: the neutrino is a pro dout of the weak force.

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Speaker 1: Like every time you have a W boson created by

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Speaker 1: the weak force, it decays into, for example, an electron

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Speaker 1: and a neutrino. So every time you get like a

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Speaker 1: neutron that de cas into a proton. The way that

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Speaker 1: happens is one cork changes into another one by giving

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Speaker 1: off a W which then turns into an electron and

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Speaker 1: a neutrino. So you go from neutron into proton, electron

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Speaker 1: and a neutrino. Yeah, it's almost like the universe just

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Speaker 1: kind of makes these particles out of nothingness, right, Like

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Speaker 1: there's some sort of collision or reaction in the center

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Speaker 1: of the Sun, and there's like pure energy for a

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Speaker 1: brief second, and then that energy, you know, kind of

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Speaker 1: solidifies or becomes particles that can exist and including stuff

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Speaker 1: like the neutrino. Yeah, you can think of it that way.

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Speaker 1: You know that we are like converting one kind of

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Speaker 1: matter into another kind of matter. It's not like we're

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Speaker 1: rearranging the pieces inside these particles to make something else

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Speaker 1: out of the same bits, like a jigsaw puzzle or

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Speaker 1: chemistry experiment. We really are converting one kind of matter

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Speaker 1: into another. But another way to think about it is

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Speaker 1: in terms of fields. If you'd like to think of

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Speaker 1: about particles as like little energy bubbles inside a field,

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Speaker 1: then you can just think about these fields is like

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Speaker 1: connected to each other, and the energy can slash from

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Speaker 1: one kind of field, you know, like a field that

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Speaker 1: has a w boson in it, to another kind of field,

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Speaker 1: like one that has neutrinos. And the way the forces

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Speaker 1: work is that they are the things that connect those

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Speaker 1: fields together that allow energy to slash from one kind

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Speaker 1: of field into another. Yeah, but then a trina is

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Speaker 1: not the only exotic particle. There's a whole bunch of

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Speaker 1: other ones, that's right. So we talk about those three

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Speaker 1: particles that make up the atom and then the neutrinos together,

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Speaker 1: we have four particles we've talked about so far. And

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Speaker 1: the amazing thing is that those four particles each have

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Speaker 1: a copy out there. So those four particles we call

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Speaker 1: them the first generation of particles. They're like the core

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Speaker 1: group of particles, and then each of them has a

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Speaker 1: copy in the second generation of particles. So for example,

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Speaker 1: the up cork has a copy which is called the

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Speaker 1: charm cork, and the down cork has a copy which

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Speaker 1: is called the strange cork, and the electron is a

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Speaker 1: copy which is called them you you on. And by

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Speaker 1: copy I mean that there's another the particle out there

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Speaker 1: that has almost exactly the same properties, the same electric charges,

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Speaker 1: the same interaction, the same spins, etcetera. Except it's different

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Speaker 1: because it has more mass. It's definitely a different particle,

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Speaker 1: right Like all the ones in the first generation, the

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Speaker 1: up and down course, the electron, the neutrino, they're all

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Speaker 1: very different, right, Like they all have different electrical charges,

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Speaker 1: and the maternal has zero electrical charge. They're like very

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Speaker 1: different in terms of their properties. But there are sort

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Speaker 1: of copies of them that are just heavier like that,

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Speaker 1: but heavier precisely. And it's a big mystery, like why

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Speaker 1: do these particles exist? If you're gonna have more particles,

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Speaker 1: why just have like reruns of the particles you already had.

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Speaker 1: Why not have like brand new, weird kinds of particles.

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Speaker 1: But for whatever reason, there's this mirror image. This is

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Speaker 1: like symmetry. This is the kind of thing we've see

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Speaker 1: in particle physics all the time. You know, like every particle,

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Speaker 1: you know, the electron, has lots of different kinds of symmetries.

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Speaker 1: You know, there's also the symmetry that says every particle

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Speaker 1: has an anti particle. That's like another reflection of this

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Speaker 1: first generation of particles. We don't think about them usually,

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Speaker 1: it's like the whole other set of particles. We think

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Speaker 1: about the electron and its antiparticle like grouped together into

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Speaker 1: one idea. And so here we have like a different

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Speaker 1: way to reflect this first generation. We say this first

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Speaker 1: generation has a copy, which we call the second generation.

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Speaker 1: And the incredible thing is that there are two copies actually,

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Speaker 1: so this is the second generation of particles, and then

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Speaker 1: another four particles, the top and the bottom, and the

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Speaker 1: towel particle, which is a copy of the electron of

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Speaker 1: the muan, and then another neutrino. So in total there

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Speaker 1: are twelve of these particles and eight of them are

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Speaker 1: just copies of the first four. Yeah, that is super weird.

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Speaker 1: And you know that there you call them different particles,

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Speaker 1: not just because they're heavier. But because they said act

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Speaker 1: a little bit different as well, I mean, like the

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Speaker 1: fact that they're heavier makes them act different. They certainly

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Speaker 1: do act differently. And because they are heavier, and more specifically,

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Speaker 1: because there is a lighter version of them, they don't

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Speaker 1: laugh for very long because they can decay, Like the

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Speaker 1: top cork lasts for like ten to the minus twenty

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Speaker 1: three seconds and very quickly decays into a bottom cork

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Speaker 1: and a couple of other things, and then the bottom

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Speaker 1: core class for a very short amount of time before

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Speaker 1: it decays into other things like muans or charm corks

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Speaker 1: or other stuff. And so things don't like to stick

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Speaker 1: around in very massive particles. They tend to fall down

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Speaker 1: the ladder to the lowest mass particles and those get

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Speaker 1: stuck like an up cork and a down cork. They

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Speaker 1: can't decay into anything else because there's nothing below them

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Speaker 1: on the ladder. I guess what I mean is like

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Speaker 1: there's no continuum of mass with particles, you know what

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Speaker 1: I mean, Like, there's not like an electron and then

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Speaker 1: a slot, and then you can have a slightly heavier

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Speaker 1: electron and a slightly slightly heavier electron all the way

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Speaker 1: up to like you know, super heavy that there's like

428
00:21:38,320 --> 00:21:41,359
Speaker 1: discrete kind of slots for the mass of an electron,

429
00:21:41,600 --> 00:21:46,600
Speaker 1: regular electron, a little bit heavier electron, and x L electro.

430
00:21:46,840 --> 00:21:49,480
Speaker 1: That's right. It's not like ordering shoes on Amazon where

431
00:21:49,480 --> 00:21:51,800
Speaker 1: they have every single size. You know, there's like the

432
00:21:51,880 --> 00:21:54,080
Speaker 1: very very small ones, the heavy ones, and then the

433
00:21:54,080 --> 00:21:56,800
Speaker 1: supermassive ones. And the incredible thing is that there's no

434
00:21:56,920 --> 00:21:59,159
Speaker 1: like pattern to these masses. It's not like the second

435
00:21:59,160 --> 00:22:01,800
Speaker 1: generation or all twice as heavi or three times as

436
00:22:01,840 --> 00:22:04,240
Speaker 1: heavy as the first generation. They all have different ratios

437
00:22:04,280 --> 00:22:07,080
Speaker 1: for the first generation, and the third generation has even

438
00:22:07,200 --> 00:22:10,520
Speaker 1: weirder ratio. Its like the top cork is ridiculously heavy.

439
00:22:10,520 --> 00:22:13,720
Speaker 1: It's like much heavier than everything else put together, and

440
00:22:13,760 --> 00:22:16,399
Speaker 1: then times fifty. So we don't understand the pattern of

441
00:22:16,480 --> 00:22:18,720
Speaker 1: those masses at all. As you say, it's not regular,

442
00:22:19,119 --> 00:22:22,000
Speaker 1: it's not like something in every location, is not something

443
00:22:22,000 --> 00:22:25,080
Speaker 1: that every possible mass, and there's nothing to explain why

444
00:22:25,119 --> 00:22:27,399
Speaker 1: we have some masses and others. All right, So then

445
00:22:27,440 --> 00:22:29,639
Speaker 1: we have eight or nine. I guess I need to

446
00:22:30,080 --> 00:22:33,560
Speaker 1: count the neutrino exotic particles, which are you know, rare

447
00:22:33,600 --> 00:22:36,040
Speaker 1: particles that don't make up the usual matter. And so

448
00:22:36,080 --> 00:22:38,520
Speaker 1: the big question is why do we need them? And

449
00:22:38,640 --> 00:22:42,080
Speaker 1: what would happen to the universe if we didn't have them.

450
00:22:42,160 --> 00:22:44,400
Speaker 1: So we'll get to those questions, but first let's take

451
00:22:44,440 --> 00:23:00,360
Speaker 1: a quick break. Alright, we're talking about exotic particle and

452
00:23:00,560 --> 00:23:03,400
Speaker 1: who needs them? Why do we care? Daniel? They don't

453
00:23:03,440 --> 00:23:05,320
Speaker 1: make me up, Like, I'm not made out of any

454
00:23:05,320 --> 00:23:08,119
Speaker 1: exotic particles. None of the things around me, said, are

455
00:23:08,119 --> 00:23:10,680
Speaker 1: made out of exotic particles. It seems like there's sort

456
00:23:10,680 --> 00:23:13,480
Speaker 1: of extraneous at least to the human experience. But it

457
00:23:13,520 --> 00:23:16,000
Speaker 1: seems like most of the experience of the universe they're

458
00:23:16,000 --> 00:23:18,320
Speaker 1: a little bit extraneous. So I guess the big question

459
00:23:18,400 --> 00:23:20,760
Speaker 1: is do we actually need them like that the universe

460
00:23:20,800 --> 00:23:23,720
Speaker 1: need to make them or create them or invent them. Well,

461
00:23:23,760 --> 00:23:26,119
Speaker 1: I need them. I mean they're not experenious to my experience.

462
00:23:26,160 --> 00:23:28,439
Speaker 1: They're pretty big job of my everyday life. You know,

463
00:23:28,480 --> 00:23:31,520
Speaker 1: without them, I wouldn't be a particle of physicist studying them. So,

464
00:23:31,600 --> 00:23:34,480
Speaker 1: you know, for some tiny sliver or humanity, they are

465
00:23:34,520 --> 00:23:37,200
Speaker 1: actually a central part of the human existence, you mean,

466
00:23:37,359 --> 00:23:40,080
Speaker 1: an essential part of your job. Like if they didn't exist,

467
00:23:40,119 --> 00:23:42,040
Speaker 1: you we just have a different job. Yeah, I guess,

468
00:23:42,040 --> 00:23:44,040
Speaker 1: so I would have a different job. What job Daniel

469
00:23:44,119 --> 00:23:47,360
Speaker 1: have in that university be inventing terrible ice cream flavors

470
00:23:47,359 --> 00:23:51,000
Speaker 1: in a factory somewhere, like lava flavor and kitten flavor, yeah,

471
00:23:51,119 --> 00:23:55,200
Speaker 1: or lego flavor. And you're right, you know, we don't

472
00:23:55,280 --> 00:23:58,600
Speaker 1: necessarily see them in our everyday lives, but I think

473
00:23:58,640 --> 00:24:01,960
Speaker 1: that probably we do need them. I think that these

474
00:24:01,960 --> 00:24:05,440
Speaker 1: particles are clues. I mean, I think that they exist

475
00:24:05,600 --> 00:24:08,760
Speaker 1: because there's something deeper going on, you know. I think

476
00:24:08,800 --> 00:24:12,560
Speaker 1: that they come about because fundamentally, they're like a different

477
00:24:12,560 --> 00:24:15,359
Speaker 1: way to organize little bits that are inside all of

478
00:24:15,359 --> 00:24:17,359
Speaker 1: these particles, you know, sort of like the way the

479
00:24:17,440 --> 00:24:20,719
Speaker 1: periodic table has structure, Right, it has metal here and

480
00:24:20,760 --> 00:24:23,399
Speaker 1: this kind of stuff there, and various atoms act in

481
00:24:23,440 --> 00:24:26,320
Speaker 1: certain ways and their patterns there, and those patterns come

482
00:24:26,440 --> 00:24:29,199
Speaker 1: from the structure of the atom. How many electrons you

483
00:24:29,200 --> 00:24:31,400
Speaker 1: have in orbitals or whatever. So now we look at

484
00:24:31,400 --> 00:24:33,399
Speaker 1: this table of the fundamental particles and we see that

485
00:24:33,400 --> 00:24:36,000
Speaker 1: there are patterns, and I'm pretty sure, though I have

486
00:24:36,080 --> 00:24:39,879
Speaker 1: no proof, that those patterns come from something smaller that

487
00:24:40,040 --> 00:24:42,480
Speaker 1: makes up all of these particles. Some you know, way

488
00:24:42,560 --> 00:24:44,960
Speaker 1: to rearrange little er bits that give you all of

489
00:24:44,960 --> 00:24:47,280
Speaker 1: these things. And so in that sense, we do need

490
00:24:47,320 --> 00:24:50,320
Speaker 1: them because they're like an expression of what's going on underneath.

491
00:24:50,359 --> 00:24:53,240
Speaker 1: And we certainly need them because their clues that will

492
00:24:53,280 --> 00:24:56,320
Speaker 1: help us figure out what's going on underneath. I see

493
00:24:56,359 --> 00:24:59,640
Speaker 1: you're saying like maybe the universe doesn't really need them,

494
00:24:59,680 --> 00:25:02,119
Speaker 1: but are sort of useful or great for us that

495
00:25:02,160 --> 00:25:05,800
Speaker 1: they're there because they might help us sort of understand that,

496
00:25:05,960 --> 00:25:08,359
Speaker 1: you know, the secrets of how the rest of the universe,

497
00:25:08,359 --> 00:25:10,040
Speaker 1: like the stuff we are made out of, how and

498
00:25:10,080 --> 00:25:13,399
Speaker 1: why it's built. Yeah, So for example, if corks and

499
00:25:13,480 --> 00:25:16,320
Speaker 1: electrons are not like the smallest things, we're pretty sure

500
00:25:16,359 --> 00:25:19,560
Speaker 1: they're not. If they're made out of smaller things inside

501
00:25:19,560 --> 00:25:22,720
Speaker 1: them tying your little particles, then I suspect these other

502
00:25:22,840 --> 00:25:25,800
Speaker 1: things muans and the top corks and bottom corks are

503
00:25:25,880 --> 00:25:29,879
Speaker 1: just natural byproducts of other ways those things can come together,

504
00:25:30,359 --> 00:25:33,160
Speaker 1: And so I think that they're vital clues towards pointing

505
00:25:33,240 --> 00:25:35,840
Speaker 1: us to those secrets. Right, and I vote that we

506
00:25:36,160 --> 00:25:42,199
Speaker 1: name those smaller particles Lincoln Lugginos or something. But I

507
00:25:42,200 --> 00:25:44,280
Speaker 1: guess maybe you know, and asking like why do we

508
00:25:44,320 --> 00:25:46,520
Speaker 1: need them. Do we have anything that's made out of

509
00:25:46,560 --> 00:25:48,920
Speaker 1: these particles? Is there anything out the any universe that

510
00:25:49,160 --> 00:25:53,480
Speaker 1: kind of uses these for like building anything, or you know,

511
00:25:53,640 --> 00:25:58,160
Speaker 1: at least momentarily in some extreme cases. So these particles

512
00:25:58,160 --> 00:26:00,760
Speaker 1: are not stable, so they can't hang out. You can't

513
00:26:00,760 --> 00:26:02,800
Speaker 1: like take a bunch of top quarks and build it

514
00:26:02,840 --> 00:26:05,800
Speaker 1: together into some structure that's just made out of top quarks.

515
00:26:06,359 --> 00:26:08,679
Speaker 1: You can't do the same thing with muons or with hows.

516
00:26:08,720 --> 00:26:11,600
Speaker 1: These particles, if they are in the universe, they last

517
00:26:11,680 --> 00:26:14,119
Speaker 1: very briefly and then they turn into lighter stuff, So

518
00:26:14,160 --> 00:26:16,199
Speaker 1: you can't like build anything out of them. But that

519
00:26:16,280 --> 00:26:18,600
Speaker 1: doesn't mean that they don't play a role. Just because

520
00:26:18,920 --> 00:26:21,720
Speaker 1: you can't stick around for a long time doesn't mean

521
00:26:21,760 --> 00:26:24,040
Speaker 1: that you can't influence what happens. You know. It's sort

522
00:26:24,080 --> 00:26:26,600
Speaker 1: of like a guest appearance on a TV show. You

523
00:26:26,640 --> 00:26:28,159
Speaker 1: don't have to be in all the seasons, but you

524
00:26:28,160 --> 00:26:30,800
Speaker 1: can still like totally steal a scene when you come

525
00:26:30,840 --> 00:26:33,159
Speaker 1: in and change the way things happen. You're saying they

526
00:26:33,200 --> 00:26:35,679
Speaker 1: sort of have a presence about them. Yeah, they certainly do.

527
00:26:35,920 --> 00:26:39,119
Speaker 1: They have some charisma, and there's actually lots of ways

528
00:26:39,320 --> 00:26:43,600
Speaker 1: in which these particles really strongly influenced not just the

529
00:26:43,640 --> 00:26:46,679
Speaker 1: structure of the universe and the way it's organized, but

530
00:26:46,800 --> 00:26:49,760
Speaker 1: our everyday lives. I think we're going to get into

531
00:26:49,800 --> 00:26:52,119
Speaker 1: that later, but I guess maybe a question I have

532
00:26:52,359 --> 00:26:55,360
Speaker 1: is about the neutrinos. I mean, the neutrinos are pretty stable,

533
00:26:55,480 --> 00:26:57,800
Speaker 1: they hang out for a while. It doesn't seem like

534
00:26:57,840 --> 00:27:00,920
Speaker 1: they're used for anything because they're so Yeah, that's true.

535
00:27:01,000 --> 00:27:03,879
Speaker 1: Neutrinos are stable. They can last for a long time.

536
00:27:04,119 --> 00:27:07,000
Speaker 1: They do actually slide into each other. Like if you

537
00:27:07,040 --> 00:27:09,840
Speaker 1: produce an electron neutrino and you shoot it through the universe,

538
00:27:10,119 --> 00:27:12,639
Speaker 1: it might end up as a muon neutrino or a

539
00:27:12,640 --> 00:27:15,960
Speaker 1: town neutrino. These particles sort of mix into each other,

540
00:27:16,000 --> 00:27:17,720
Speaker 1: which is sort of cool, and we have a whole

541
00:27:17,720 --> 00:27:21,000
Speaker 1: fun podcast episode about neutrino mixing. It's this crazy quantum

542
00:27:20,960 --> 00:27:22,919
Speaker 1: mechanical effect though you can learn about if you check

543
00:27:22,960 --> 00:27:25,760
Speaker 1: out that episode. But you're right that even though neutrinos

544
00:27:25,800 --> 00:27:27,960
Speaker 1: are mostly stable, if you make a neutrino, you're gonna

545
00:27:28,000 --> 00:27:30,480
Speaker 1: have a neutrino. You can't build anything out of them,

546
00:27:30,680 --> 00:27:32,640
Speaker 1: and the reason is that they don't really interact. They're

547
00:27:32,680 --> 00:27:35,880
Speaker 1: not like sticky, right. The neutrinos have only one way

548
00:27:35,880 --> 00:27:38,560
Speaker 1: to interact with each other or with other stuff, and

549
00:27:38,600 --> 00:27:41,680
Speaker 1: that's through the weak interaction, which is super duper weak.

550
00:27:42,040 --> 00:27:44,800
Speaker 1: Like you can shoot a neutrino through a block of

551
00:27:44,920 --> 00:27:47,240
Speaker 1: lead that's a light year thick and you only have

552
00:27:47,280 --> 00:27:50,160
Speaker 1: a fifty percent chance of interacting with anything in there.

553
00:27:50,440 --> 00:27:54,000
Speaker 1: So mostly the universe is just totally transparent to a neutrino,

554
00:27:54,119 --> 00:27:56,520
Speaker 1: which makes it hard to like, you know, make something

555
00:27:56,600 --> 00:27:59,639
Speaker 1: like atoms or elements or anything more complex out of

556
00:27:59,680 --> 00:28:02,480
Speaker 1: neutrin knows. So that's why complexity doesn't arise out of

557
00:28:02,520 --> 00:28:05,159
Speaker 1: just like pure boxes of neutrinos. But then would you

558
00:28:05,160 --> 00:28:07,600
Speaker 1: say they're needed for anything in the universe, Well, their

559
00:28:07,680 --> 00:28:09,960
Speaker 1: math definitely contributes to things, you know. The fact that

560
00:28:09,960 --> 00:28:13,720
Speaker 1: their neutrinos are out there changes the overall mass energy

561
00:28:13,760 --> 00:28:16,040
Speaker 1: density of the universe, so it contributes, you know, to

562
00:28:16,160 --> 00:28:19,359
Speaker 1: like the curvature of the universe, Like if you deleted

563
00:28:19,480 --> 00:28:22,239
Speaker 1: all the neutrinos in the universe, it would change a

564
00:28:22,240 --> 00:28:25,479
Speaker 1: little bit the gravitational shape of space. I also remember

565
00:28:25,640 --> 00:28:28,359
Speaker 1: talking in another episode about how you know some of

566
00:28:28,359 --> 00:28:32,720
Speaker 1: these heavier exotic particles they disappear very quickly. But that's

567
00:28:32,720 --> 00:28:35,880
Speaker 1: only because right now things are pretty calm in the universe.

568
00:28:36,320 --> 00:28:38,400
Speaker 1: But back at the beginning of the universe, when things

569
00:28:38,400 --> 00:28:41,560
Speaker 1: were like super hot and crazy like, these particles were

570
00:28:41,600 --> 00:28:45,440
Speaker 1: more normal kind of, they were less exotic. Yeah, precisely.

571
00:28:45,480 --> 00:28:47,880
Speaker 1: And that's what we're doing at particle accelerators is we

572
00:28:47,920 --> 00:28:51,880
Speaker 1: are trying to recreate those conditions. These things require a

573
00:28:51,880 --> 00:28:55,240
Speaker 1: certain temperature. It's sort of like having a puff of steam.

574
00:28:55,280 --> 00:28:57,480
Speaker 1: You know, out there on a cold night. It's not

575
00:28:57,480 --> 00:28:59,920
Speaker 1: going to stay stem very long, but you inject the

576
00:29:00,000 --> 00:29:02,000
Speaker 1: puff of steam into a sauna, then yeah, you can

577
00:29:02,040 --> 00:29:03,880
Speaker 1: hang out and stay a puff of steam. And so

578
00:29:03,960 --> 00:29:06,520
Speaker 1: back in the early universe, when everything was hot and

579
00:29:06,640 --> 00:29:09,680
Speaker 1: dense and very compressed, if you had one of these particles,

580
00:29:09,680 --> 00:29:12,040
Speaker 1: it could hang around a lot longer because it was

581
00:29:12,080 --> 00:29:14,400
Speaker 1: surrounded by a lot of energy, so the energy didn't

582
00:29:14,440 --> 00:29:17,240
Speaker 1: have to spread out into lower mass particles. You could

583
00:29:17,240 --> 00:29:19,880
Speaker 1: just hang out like that, like the average energy denstat

584
00:29:19,960 --> 00:29:22,840
Speaker 1: The temperature of the universe was higher, so we could

585
00:29:22,840 --> 00:29:25,360
Speaker 1: make these heavier particles and have them stick around. But

586
00:29:25,400 --> 00:29:28,040
Speaker 1: these days the universe is very very cold and dilute.

587
00:29:28,120 --> 00:29:30,680
Speaker 1: So if you get that much energy concentrated into one spot,

588
00:29:31,120 --> 00:29:34,040
Speaker 1: Entropy likes to spread it out and very quickly decays

589
00:29:34,080 --> 00:29:37,040
Speaker 1: into the lower mass stable particles. But I guess maybe

590
00:29:37,080 --> 00:29:39,760
Speaker 1: back then, when the universe was hot and crazy, could

591
00:29:39,800 --> 00:29:42,280
Speaker 1: you have made an atom out of like a top particle,

592
00:29:42,360 --> 00:29:44,760
Speaker 1: you know, like a heavier version of what we would

593
00:29:44,800 --> 00:29:47,360
Speaker 1: normally call hydrogen. Now, yeah, people are thinking about that

594
00:29:47,400 --> 00:29:50,480
Speaker 1: kind of stuff, you know. Can you make things like toponium,

595
00:29:50,640 --> 00:29:52,440
Speaker 1: which would be like a bound state of a top

596
00:29:52,440 --> 00:29:55,600
Speaker 1: cork and an anti top cork, or charmonium or stuff

597
00:29:55,640 --> 00:29:57,400
Speaker 1: like this. Can you have those things? We have actually

598
00:29:57,400 --> 00:30:00,600
Speaker 1: seen charmonium like to charm corks, They get together and

599
00:30:00,640 --> 00:30:02,720
Speaker 1: make a stable particle. It doesn't last for that long,

600
00:30:02,760 --> 00:30:04,440
Speaker 1: but it hangs out for a little while, and so

601
00:30:04,520 --> 00:30:07,000
Speaker 1: people experiment with that kind of stuff. Those calculations are

602
00:30:07,080 --> 00:30:09,760
Speaker 1: very very difficult to do because they involved the strong force,

603
00:30:10,160 --> 00:30:12,040
Speaker 1: and you're talking about a lot of particles in a

604
00:30:12,040 --> 00:30:15,160
Speaker 1: really small place, and so the calculations gets sort of

605
00:30:15,200 --> 00:30:18,240
Speaker 1: out of control. It's not something we can very actively simulate.

606
00:30:18,240 --> 00:30:20,600
Speaker 1: But yes, we do think that there were other different

607
00:30:20,640 --> 00:30:23,600
Speaker 1: weird states of matter in the very early universe that

608
00:30:23,680 --> 00:30:26,160
Speaker 1: might have involved some of these heavier particles. Yes, like

609
00:30:26,200 --> 00:30:29,040
Speaker 1: maybe the early universe was a universe dominated by these

610
00:30:29,360 --> 00:30:32,200
Speaker 1: exotic things made out of these exotic particles, though it

611
00:30:32,200 --> 00:30:34,520
Speaker 1: wouldn't be as like separated, you know, you wouldn't have

612
00:30:34,600 --> 00:30:37,800
Speaker 1: like these things floating around and separated and is distinct

613
00:30:37,840 --> 00:30:40,080
Speaker 1: the way we think about Adams now. It's more like

614
00:30:40,160 --> 00:30:43,000
Speaker 1: a big plasma, like a big gamush where things are

615
00:30:43,040 --> 00:30:45,800
Speaker 1: like interacting constantly with lots of other things. So things

616
00:30:45,840 --> 00:30:49,880
Speaker 1: were more exotic and also swishier. Yeah, exactly, it was

617
00:30:49,920 --> 00:30:53,320
Speaker 1: like a crazy party packed full of weird people. Nowadays

618
00:30:53,360 --> 00:30:57,680
Speaker 1: were less exotic and I guess um less squishy. Definitely

619
00:30:57,680 --> 00:31:00,400
Speaker 1: not lower mass though, yeah, not only used to go

620
00:31:00,480 --> 00:31:04,120
Speaker 1: up well. And also I like this analogy you were

621
00:31:04,160 --> 00:31:06,720
Speaker 1: telling me that it's it's sort of like wondering what

622
00:31:07,160 --> 00:31:09,360
Speaker 1: iron or or at least what some of these like

623
00:31:09,440 --> 00:31:13,040
Speaker 1: super heavy elements that you see like plutonium or you know,

624
00:31:13,120 --> 00:31:16,440
Speaker 1: even those crazy einsteinium like what are those four? You

625
00:31:16,480 --> 00:31:18,600
Speaker 1: can ask and you might say, well, they're not really

626
00:31:18,640 --> 00:31:21,880
Speaker 1: good for anything, but there's sort of you know, evidence

627
00:31:22,040 --> 00:31:24,960
Speaker 1: or a result of the universe having these kinds of

628
00:31:25,080 --> 00:31:27,560
Speaker 1: rules about how to put things together, which is useful

629
00:31:27,600 --> 00:31:29,440
Speaker 1: for us to know exactly if you're going to have

630
00:31:29,560 --> 00:31:32,920
Speaker 1: like protons and neutrons and electrons, then they're going to

631
00:31:33,000 --> 00:31:36,000
Speaker 1: come together and make weird stuff. And that stuff includes

632
00:31:36,040 --> 00:31:38,880
Speaker 1: of course hydrogen and helium, basic stuff, but also more

633
00:31:38,960 --> 00:31:41,560
Speaker 1: complex stuff. And that's great because when you see that

634
00:31:41,600 --> 00:31:43,440
Speaker 1: complex stuff, you can look at the power, you can

635
00:31:43,440 --> 00:31:45,240
Speaker 1: look at the clues, and you can figure out what's

636
00:31:45,280 --> 00:31:47,840
Speaker 1: going on underneath. Now, in that case, you know they

637
00:31:47,880 --> 00:31:50,440
Speaker 1: formed stable things like iron is pretty stable, it will

638
00:31:50,680 --> 00:31:52,760
Speaker 1: last for a very very long time. In the case

639
00:31:52,800 --> 00:31:54,960
Speaker 1: of the fundamental particles, like none of those other ones

640
00:31:55,000 --> 00:31:57,200
Speaker 1: we think are stable, so they don't last for a

641
00:31:57,240 --> 00:31:59,480
Speaker 1: very very long time, but we do hope they are

642
00:31:59,560 --> 00:32:01,400
Speaker 1: clues of about what they might be made out of

643
00:32:01,520 --> 00:32:04,360
Speaker 1: a smaller scale where those tiny little particles that make

644
00:32:04,400 --> 00:32:06,880
Speaker 1: all of matter might be. It's so that's why I

645
00:32:06,880 --> 00:32:09,360
Speaker 1: think there's sort of like a natural byproduct of the

646
00:32:09,440 --> 00:32:12,320
Speaker 1: deeper pattern of the universe. So you just can't get

647
00:32:12,440 --> 00:32:13,880
Speaker 1: rid of them. Like if you're gonna have protons and

648
00:32:13,920 --> 00:32:17,120
Speaker 1: neutrons and electrons, you can't just remove iron from the universe.

649
00:32:17,200 --> 00:32:18,920
Speaker 1: It's going to happen. I guess you could almost say

650
00:32:18,960 --> 00:32:21,960
Speaker 1: Daniel that these exotic particles exist for you kind of

651
00:32:23,000 --> 00:32:25,440
Speaker 1: like for you to understand the universe. Yeah, well, you know,

652
00:32:25,520 --> 00:32:28,200
Speaker 1: they're just sort of like the consequences of the universe.

653
00:32:28,200 --> 00:32:30,360
Speaker 1: And I think about this a lot, like what in

654
00:32:30,360 --> 00:32:33,800
Speaker 1: the universe is fundamental, like what is written into the

655
00:32:33,840 --> 00:32:35,920
Speaker 1: basic laws of the universe, and what just sort of

656
00:32:35,960 --> 00:32:40,000
Speaker 1: like arises from how those fundamental elements interact, you know,

657
00:32:40,080 --> 00:32:43,160
Speaker 1: like me and you, humanity and biology. None of that

658
00:32:43,240 --> 00:32:45,200
Speaker 1: is fundamental, is to say in the source code of

659
00:32:45,240 --> 00:32:47,800
Speaker 1: the university have to have it. It comes out of,

660
00:32:48,080 --> 00:32:51,200
Speaker 1: you know, the interactions of particles in a very complex way,

661
00:32:51,480 --> 00:32:54,040
Speaker 1: something it's very difficult to foresee. And the same thing

662
00:32:54,160 --> 00:32:57,360
Speaker 1: is true of iron and platinum and all these complex elements.

663
00:32:57,440 --> 00:32:59,760
Speaker 1: You take basic particles and you let them run free

664
00:32:59,760 --> 00:33:02,680
Speaker 1: and they do these crazy things. And we think about

665
00:33:02,720 --> 00:33:06,120
Speaker 1: the particles we know now, the electron, the upcork, the downcourt.

666
00:33:06,160 --> 00:33:08,880
Speaker 1: Could think about those as if they're fundamental particles, but

667
00:33:09,040 --> 00:33:13,000
Speaker 1: likely they are also just like emergent phenomena that arises

668
00:33:13,320 --> 00:33:16,440
Speaker 1: out of something much much smaller that's interacting in a

669
00:33:16,480 --> 00:33:18,680
Speaker 1: weird way in creating those things. So I think we

670
00:33:18,720 --> 00:33:21,200
Speaker 1: haven't even seen the deep truth of the universe. All

671
00:33:21,280 --> 00:33:23,760
Speaker 1: we've ever seen are the things that sort of happened

672
00:33:23,800 --> 00:33:26,320
Speaker 1: to come together. I guess, in general, asking the question

673
00:33:26,400 --> 00:33:28,920
Speaker 1: like do we need these exotic particles, it is really

674
00:33:28,960 --> 00:33:32,080
Speaker 1: kind of a philosophical question, you know, And like maybe

675
00:33:32,080 --> 00:33:34,160
Speaker 1: the better way to approach this question is, like what

676
00:33:34,240 --> 00:33:36,360
Speaker 1: would the universe be like if we didn't have these

677
00:33:36,440 --> 00:33:39,360
Speaker 1: exotic particles? Like what would be the consequences if they

678
00:33:39,440 --> 00:33:42,360
Speaker 1: somehow didn't exist? I think it's asking like a hypothetical question,

679
00:33:42,400 --> 00:33:45,760
Speaker 1: like how different would that universe be if you could

680
00:33:45,800 --> 00:33:48,440
Speaker 1: some like edit these out of the simulation, right, And

681
00:33:48,480 --> 00:33:50,760
Speaker 1: so let's talk about that, Like what are some of

682
00:33:50,760 --> 00:33:53,760
Speaker 1: the things that would change about our universe if we

683
00:33:53,800 --> 00:33:56,560
Speaker 1: didn't have these exotic particles. Well, one thing that would

684
00:33:56,560 --> 00:34:00,880
Speaker 1: happen is we would all feel less radiation. When particles

685
00:34:00,960 --> 00:34:04,920
Speaker 1: from space hit our atmosphere, like really high energy protons

686
00:34:05,000 --> 00:34:08,880
Speaker 1: or electrons or whatever, they create tiny little meteor showers.

687
00:34:09,000 --> 00:34:11,440
Speaker 1: Like what happens when a rock hits the atmosphere. It

688
00:34:11,480 --> 00:34:13,880
Speaker 1: doesn't just hit the ground with the same energy as

689
00:34:13,880 --> 00:34:15,960
Speaker 1: when it hit the atmosphere. It loses a lot of

690
00:34:16,040 --> 00:34:18,800
Speaker 1: energy on re entry, right, or like a spacecraft also

691
00:34:18,920 --> 00:34:21,520
Speaker 1: heats up when it enters the atmosphere. The same is

692
00:34:21,560 --> 00:34:24,960
Speaker 1: true on a tiny scale. When a particle hits the atmosphere,

693
00:34:25,040 --> 00:34:27,560
Speaker 1: it bangs into all the other particles in the atmosphere

694
00:34:27,560 --> 00:34:29,760
Speaker 1: and gives up some of its energy, and it creates

695
00:34:29,840 --> 00:34:33,160
Speaker 1: weird matter because it's created like extra energy density. So

696
00:34:33,239 --> 00:34:35,400
Speaker 1: like a proton like smashes into an atom and the

697
00:34:35,400 --> 00:34:38,319
Speaker 1: top of the atmosphere, it might create momentarily like a

698
00:34:38,400 --> 00:34:42,000
Speaker 1: pion or a kon or some other weird combination that

699
00:34:42,120 --> 00:34:45,160
Speaker 1: requires one of these exotic particles and then decay and

700
00:34:45,200 --> 00:34:49,000
Speaker 1: produce muans, And those muans then come down and hit

701
00:34:49,080 --> 00:34:52,000
Speaker 1: the earth, and that's radiation. That's radiation that hits your

702
00:34:52,000 --> 00:34:55,080
Speaker 1: brain or hits your finger, or hits the ground. But

703
00:34:55,120 --> 00:34:59,080
Speaker 1: it's definitely radiation created from exotic particles. Yeah, and it's

704
00:34:59,120 --> 00:35:02,279
Speaker 1: not harmless radiation, right, Like it can actually kind of

705
00:35:02,360 --> 00:35:05,480
Speaker 1: mutate your DNA. Like if those muans or those little

706
00:35:05,480 --> 00:35:07,920
Speaker 1: bits of stuff that are falling down, you know, hit

707
00:35:08,000 --> 00:35:10,560
Speaker 1: a DNA molecule, it's going to create a mutation. And

708
00:35:10,560 --> 00:35:13,520
Speaker 1: so that could be trouble, yeah, or it could be necessary. Right,

709
00:35:13,880 --> 00:35:16,560
Speaker 1: We don't know how much radiation is Like the exactly

710
00:35:16,680 --> 00:35:20,359
Speaker 1: best amount of radiation to cause mutations in your DNA,

711
00:35:20,480 --> 00:35:23,719
Speaker 1: because evolution needs some mutations. If every creature is just

712
00:35:23,760 --> 00:35:26,719
Speaker 1: a copy of its parent, then you're not like exploring

713
00:35:26,760 --> 00:35:29,640
Speaker 1: the possible ways creatures can be. You need variation and

714
00:35:29,719 --> 00:35:33,239
Speaker 1: mutation to get randomness for natural selection to work, and

715
00:35:33,280 --> 00:35:35,640
Speaker 1: so we sort of rely on some of those mistakes

716
00:35:35,719 --> 00:35:38,040
Speaker 1: caused by cosmic rays. Well, I guess you know, when

717
00:35:38,080 --> 00:35:40,240
Speaker 1: you're out in the sun, people worry about UV rays,

718
00:35:40,320 --> 00:35:43,160
Speaker 1: which are photons, but you're saying that there's other particles

719
00:35:43,200 --> 00:35:45,440
Speaker 1: raining down on me that could you know, harm me

720
00:35:45,760 --> 00:35:48,799
Speaker 1: or burn my skin. Yeah, like muans. So muans don't

721
00:35:48,880 --> 00:35:51,279
Speaker 1: last very long. They last just a few microseconds, but

722
00:35:51,320 --> 00:35:53,560
Speaker 1: when they are created in the upper atmosphere, they're going

723
00:35:53,640 --> 00:35:57,160
Speaker 1: really really fast, like some fraction of the speed of light,

724
00:35:57,360 --> 00:36:00,879
Speaker 1: and so actually their clocks are slowed down. Even though

725
00:36:00,920 --> 00:36:04,360
Speaker 1: they only last a few microseconds in their reference frame

726
00:36:04,560 --> 00:36:07,399
Speaker 1: from our point of view, they actually last a long time,

727
00:36:07,520 --> 00:36:10,040
Speaker 1: long enough to hit the ground, and the same is

728
00:36:10,080 --> 00:36:13,319
Speaker 1: not true for example, for electrons. Electrons can't penetrate all

729
00:36:13,400 --> 00:36:15,560
Speaker 1: the way down to the ground, so it's only because

730
00:36:15,600 --> 00:36:18,279
Speaker 1: these muans are heavier they can make it all the

731
00:36:18,280 --> 00:36:20,279
Speaker 1: way through the atmosphere down to the ground to cause

732
00:36:20,320 --> 00:36:22,560
Speaker 1: a mutation in your d n A. If we didn't

733
00:36:22,600 --> 00:36:25,200
Speaker 1: have muans, then what would happen when a proton hit

734
00:36:25,239 --> 00:36:27,520
Speaker 1: the upper atmosphere is it would just create a shower

735
00:36:27,560 --> 00:36:30,279
Speaker 1: of electrons, and those electrons wouldn't make it down to

736
00:36:30,320 --> 00:36:33,600
Speaker 1: the surface, and they wouldn't cause mutations in that primordial

737
00:36:33,680 --> 00:36:36,680
Speaker 1: soup that were necessary for you to evolve. So I

738
00:36:36,719 --> 00:36:39,319
Speaker 1: think what you're saying is that without exotic particles, the

739
00:36:39,360 --> 00:36:42,120
Speaker 1: sun block industry would go out of business, first of all,

740
00:36:42,680 --> 00:36:44,839
Speaker 1: and second of all, we might not even be here,

741
00:36:44,920 --> 00:36:47,320
Speaker 1: like humans may not have evolved at all, or life

742
00:36:47,360 --> 00:36:49,239
Speaker 1: on Earth. Yeah. Actually, if you want to protect yourself

743
00:36:49,239 --> 00:36:52,400
Speaker 1: against muans, you need like several meters of lead or

744
00:36:52,520 --> 00:36:55,080
Speaker 1: rock or something. No sun blog is going to do it.

745
00:36:55,160 --> 00:37:00,480
Speaker 1: How about at several of that. You gotta live underground, folks.

746
00:37:00,520 --> 00:37:02,960
Speaker 1: That's why we do these experiments, these dark matter searches.

747
00:37:03,000 --> 00:37:05,200
Speaker 1: We do them deep deep underground, so that we can

748
00:37:05,239 --> 00:37:07,759
Speaker 1: protect ourselves from the reign of new ones coming from

749
00:37:07,800 --> 00:37:10,080
Speaker 1: the atmosphere. All right, Well, that's one way in which

750
00:37:10,120 --> 00:37:12,800
Speaker 1: the universe would be different. Let's get into other ways

751
00:37:12,840 --> 00:37:16,320
Speaker 1: in which the universe would be different without exotic particles.

752
00:37:16,480 --> 00:37:31,440
Speaker 1: But first, let's take another quick break. All right, we

753
00:37:31,480 --> 00:37:35,000
Speaker 1: are painting the picture of a less exotic universe. I

754
00:37:35,000 --> 00:37:37,680
Speaker 1: guess a more bland universe, Daniel, Is that the opposite

755
00:37:37,719 --> 00:37:42,480
Speaker 1: of exotic, a more boring universe, a less surprising universe,

756
00:37:43,040 --> 00:37:47,759
Speaker 1: more typical, or I guess less diverse universe? Right, yeah, exactly,

757
00:37:47,920 --> 00:37:49,720
Speaker 1: all right, And so we talked about how the universe

758
00:37:49,760 --> 00:37:52,759
Speaker 1: would not have cosmic race you're raining down on Earth

759
00:37:52,800 --> 00:37:56,239
Speaker 1: and maybe even kickstarting evolution for us that lead to

760
00:37:56,400 --> 00:37:58,640
Speaker 1: humans evolving. What are some of the other ways in

761
00:37:58,680 --> 00:38:01,719
Speaker 1: which the universe would change change without exotic particles. Well,

762
00:38:01,719 --> 00:38:04,719
Speaker 1: exotic particles actually play a really big role in the

763
00:38:04,760 --> 00:38:08,240
Speaker 1: reason the universe even exists at all, in the way

764
00:38:08,239 --> 00:38:10,680
Speaker 1: that it does. You know, one of the deep mysteries

765
00:38:10,719 --> 00:38:14,080
Speaker 1: of the universe is why it's made out of matter

766
00:38:14,480 --> 00:38:17,759
Speaker 1: and not antimatter. Like we know that every particle out

767
00:38:17,760 --> 00:38:22,240
Speaker 1: there has an antimatter equivalent. Electrons have positrons, and protons

768
00:38:22,320 --> 00:38:25,920
Speaker 1: have anti protons, and quirks have antiquarks, and there seems

769
00:38:25,960 --> 00:38:28,680
Speaker 1: to be this deep symmetry, right, this is cool reflection,

770
00:38:28,760 --> 00:38:31,400
Speaker 1: And you wonder, like well, why is the universe made

771
00:38:31,400 --> 00:38:35,080
Speaker 1: out of matter and not antimatter? Because in the Big Bang,

772
00:38:35,160 --> 00:38:37,200
Speaker 1: we think that like the same amount of matter and

773
00:38:37,239 --> 00:38:40,439
Speaker 1: antimatter was made out of that primordial goo. So why

774
00:38:40,480 --> 00:38:43,279
Speaker 1: didn't it just like find each other, smash up, and

775
00:38:43,320 --> 00:38:46,520
Speaker 1: then annihilate and give us a universe filled with photons

776
00:38:46,560 --> 00:38:49,640
Speaker 1: and energy with no matter left over whatsoever. So if

777
00:38:49,640 --> 00:38:53,120
Speaker 1: the two were perfectly symmetric, then that would have happened

778
00:38:53,120 --> 00:38:55,560
Speaker 1: and we would have no stuff left in the universe.

779
00:38:55,600 --> 00:38:57,759
Speaker 1: But you look around you and obviously there's lots of

780
00:38:57,800 --> 00:39:00,279
Speaker 1: stuff in the universe. There's like tons and tons uns

781
00:39:00,360 --> 00:39:02,759
Speaker 1: and stuff in the universe. There's billions of stars and

782
00:39:02,840 --> 00:39:05,600
Speaker 1: galaxies and all sorts of crazy stuff made out of

783
00:39:05,680 --> 00:39:09,160
Speaker 1: matter and not antimatter. And for that to happen you

784
00:39:09,200 --> 00:39:12,839
Speaker 1: need some kind of process, some weird physics interaction that

785
00:39:13,040 --> 00:39:17,480
Speaker 1: prefers to create matter or that turns antimatter into matter. Yeah,

786
00:39:17,520 --> 00:39:19,200
Speaker 1: that is weird that the most of the universe, or

787
00:39:19,239 --> 00:39:22,080
Speaker 1: almost all of the universe is matter and not antimatter.

788
00:39:22,520 --> 00:39:25,080
Speaker 1: And so you're saying that maybe exotic particles are the

789
00:39:25,120 --> 00:39:27,759
Speaker 1: reason that is so, Yeah, we know of only a

790
00:39:27,800 --> 00:39:31,640
Speaker 1: few ways that the universe prefers matter to antimatter that

791
00:39:31,680 --> 00:39:34,799
Speaker 1: it likes to produce more matter than antimatter. Mostly it's

792
00:39:34,840 --> 00:39:38,359
Speaker 1: totally symmetric, like in almost every way it's symmetric. It's

793
00:39:38,360 --> 00:39:41,840
Speaker 1: sort of amazing, like it's cern we have made anti hydrogen.

794
00:39:41,880 --> 00:39:44,440
Speaker 1: For example, we took an anti proton and we put

795
00:39:44,440 --> 00:39:47,400
Speaker 1: an anti electron around it, and the two things formed

796
00:39:47,440 --> 00:39:50,160
Speaker 1: anti hydrogen, and it acts just like hydrogen. You know,

797
00:39:50,239 --> 00:39:52,520
Speaker 1: it's like emits light and it has energy levels to

798
00:39:52,600 --> 00:39:56,520
Speaker 1: matter antimatter. Almost totally symmetric. But there are a couple

799
00:39:56,560 --> 00:39:59,759
Speaker 1: of ways in which the universe prefers matter to antimatter,

800
00:40:00,160 --> 00:40:04,040
Speaker 1: and those involve these exotic particles. So, for example, if

801
00:40:04,040 --> 00:40:07,360
Speaker 1: you have a weird interaction that involves a bottom cork

802
00:40:07,680 --> 00:40:10,600
Speaker 1: or a strange cork, that's more likely to give you

803
00:40:10,719 --> 00:40:14,160
Speaker 1: matter than antimatter. And so we think that maybe in

804
00:40:14,200 --> 00:40:16,760
Speaker 1: the early universe, this is what happened, that those exotic

805
00:40:16,840 --> 00:40:20,800
Speaker 1: particles like steered the balance a tiny little bit towards matter,

806
00:40:21,200 --> 00:40:24,239
Speaker 1: so that most of the stuff annihilated and turned into light.

807
00:40:24,480 --> 00:40:26,440
Speaker 1: But what was left over is the matter that ended

808
00:40:26,520 --> 00:40:29,600
Speaker 1: up being me. And you, wow, that's some heavy matters here.

809
00:40:30,239 --> 00:40:31,719
Speaker 1: I think what you're saying is that, you know, when

810
00:40:31,719 --> 00:40:35,120
Speaker 1: you smash particles together or there's a you know, explosion

811
00:40:35,200 --> 00:40:37,600
Speaker 1: or something, there's kind of a fifty fifty chance of

812
00:40:37,719 --> 00:40:41,319
Speaker 1: making matter or antimatter usually out of these kind of

813
00:40:41,320 --> 00:40:44,280
Speaker 1: collisions or reactions. But you're saying that if it involves

814
00:40:44,280 --> 00:40:48,040
Speaker 1: one of these exotic particles, then maybe it's not. Yeah,

815
00:40:48,040 --> 00:40:50,879
Speaker 1: this is like fifty point one percent chance of making

816
00:40:50,960 --> 00:40:53,560
Speaker 1: matter rather than antimatter, and that's enough. You know, it

817
00:40:53,600 --> 00:40:55,920
Speaker 1: adds up, and we haven't actually identified all the ways

818
00:40:55,920 --> 00:40:58,200
Speaker 1: that it happens. We found a few ways that the

819
00:40:58,280 --> 00:41:01,840
Speaker 1: universe prefers matter to antimatter, and those are solid and

820
00:41:01,840 --> 00:41:04,239
Speaker 1: they're real, but they can't explain the imbalance, Like the

821
00:41:04,239 --> 00:41:06,719
Speaker 1: amount is actually bigger than we can understand, and so

822
00:41:06,760 --> 00:41:09,520
Speaker 1: we suspect that these exotic particles are doing even more

823
00:41:09,560 --> 00:41:13,600
Speaker 1: than we think to tip the balance towards matter than antimatter.

824
00:41:13,760 --> 00:41:16,000
Speaker 1: We haven't figured it out yet. It's still an open mystery.

825
00:41:16,120 --> 00:41:18,200
Speaker 1: So like, if you have a bottom cork in that reaction,

826
00:41:18,239 --> 00:41:21,000
Speaker 1: then it will create a little bit more matter than antimatter.

827
00:41:21,040 --> 00:41:23,040
Speaker 1: But what if you have like an anti bottom cord,

828
00:41:23,200 --> 00:41:27,200
Speaker 1: wouldn't that create more antimatter? Yeah, Actually, these things are

829
00:41:27,280 --> 00:41:30,239
Speaker 1: bound states of matter and antimatter. So you have things

830
00:41:30,280 --> 00:41:32,880
Speaker 1: like it's called a b maison, which is like a

831
00:41:32,920 --> 00:41:35,879
Speaker 1: B cork and an anti D cork, and those things

832
00:41:35,920 --> 00:41:39,560
Speaker 1: oscillate back and forth between matter and antimatter, but they

833
00:41:39,560 --> 00:41:42,080
Speaker 1: are more likely to stick around and stay as matter

834
00:41:42,400 --> 00:41:45,400
Speaker 1: than antimatter. All right, So that's another kind of reason

835
00:41:45,440 --> 00:41:48,160
Speaker 1: the universe seems to have these exotic particles, or at

836
00:41:48,239 --> 00:41:50,560
Speaker 1: least you know, one big thing that would change if

837
00:41:50,560 --> 00:41:54,239
Speaker 1: we didn't have these exotic particles, maybe we wouldn't be here, right, Like,

838
00:41:54,239 --> 00:41:57,200
Speaker 1: maybe everything would just annihilated itself and there wouldn't be

839
00:41:57,280 --> 00:41:59,880
Speaker 1: any room for us. Yeah, if they were just up quarks,

840
00:42:00,000 --> 00:42:02,840
Speaker 1: down quirks and electrons made in the Big Bang, that

841
00:42:02,920 --> 00:42:05,200
Speaker 1: they might have all annihilated and there wouldn't be anything

842
00:42:05,280 --> 00:42:07,319
Speaker 1: left for us to be built out of. All right. Well,

843
00:42:07,320 --> 00:42:09,160
Speaker 1: what are some of the other ways in which the

844
00:42:09,239 --> 00:42:12,160
Speaker 1: universe would change without exotic particles. Well, we think that

845
00:42:12,200 --> 00:42:15,400
Speaker 1: the really heavy particles play a really big role in

846
00:42:15,640 --> 00:42:19,160
Speaker 1: the Higgs boson in a giving mass to the other particles.

847
00:42:19,360 --> 00:42:21,279
Speaker 1: You know that the Higgs boson is the way that

848
00:42:21,320 --> 00:42:24,240
Speaker 1: other particles have mass, and that it does that because

849
00:42:24,239 --> 00:42:26,960
Speaker 1: it has this field that fills the universe called the

850
00:42:27,040 --> 00:42:29,920
Speaker 1: Higgs field. And the key to the Higgs field is

851
00:42:29,960 --> 00:42:32,880
Speaker 1: that even when it's most relaxed, even when it's like

852
00:42:33,000 --> 00:42:36,840
Speaker 1: lowest energy, it's not a zero energy. So everywhere in

853
00:42:36,920 --> 00:42:39,320
Speaker 1: space has this weird thing and it called the Higgs field,

854
00:42:39,400 --> 00:42:42,040
Speaker 1: which has some energy stored in it. And when particles

855
00:42:42,040 --> 00:42:44,520
Speaker 1: fly through the Higgs field, they interact with it in

856
00:42:44,560 --> 00:42:46,840
Speaker 1: different ways and that's what gives them mass. So a

857
00:42:46,840 --> 00:42:49,400
Speaker 1: particle that interacts with Higgs field a lot gets a

858
00:42:49,400 --> 00:42:51,440
Speaker 1: lot of mass, and particles that don't interact with the

859
00:42:51,520 --> 00:42:54,160
Speaker 1: Higgs field really at all get a very small amount

860
00:42:54,160 --> 00:42:56,960
Speaker 1: of mass. And so that's key that the Higgs field

861
00:42:57,000 --> 00:43:00,560
Speaker 1: has this energy stored in it. It's vital or making

862
00:43:00,560 --> 00:43:02,920
Speaker 1: all the particles we know and love have the masses

863
00:43:02,960 --> 00:43:05,200
Speaker 1: that they do. Right, Like, if the Higgs field didn't

864
00:43:05,239 --> 00:43:08,320
Speaker 1: have this kind of basic energy to it, like everything

865
00:43:08,440 --> 00:43:10,600
Speaker 1: which just fly through the universe, like it didn't have

866
00:43:10,680 --> 00:43:13,280
Speaker 1: mass like a photon kinda yeah, exactly, if the Higgs

867
00:43:13,360 --> 00:43:16,560
Speaker 1: field had cooled and relaxed down to zero energy inside

868
00:43:16,600 --> 00:43:18,640
Speaker 1: of it, or much much smaller energy than most of

869
00:43:18,680 --> 00:43:20,680
Speaker 1: the particles would have almost no mass. That W and

870
00:43:20,719 --> 00:43:22,640
Speaker 1: the Z would have no mass, the electron might not

871
00:43:22,719 --> 00:43:24,880
Speaker 1: have any mass, and the whole nature of the universe,

872
00:43:24,920 --> 00:43:28,240
Speaker 1: the whole like way things come together, all those emergent

873
00:43:28,280 --> 00:43:31,600
Speaker 1: phenomena we talked about earlier, the complexity that arises when

874
00:43:31,640 --> 00:43:34,319
Speaker 1: you collide these particles and make them into soup. Then

875
00:43:34,360 --> 00:43:36,520
Speaker 1: it would be totally different and the universe would look very,

876
00:43:36,640 --> 00:43:39,000
Speaker 1: very different. And the Higgs field only has the value

877
00:43:39,040 --> 00:43:41,879
Speaker 1: that it does because of the heavy particles that are there.

878
00:43:42,160 --> 00:43:44,840
Speaker 1: Whoa wait, wait a minute. You're saying that the Higgs

879
00:43:44,840 --> 00:43:47,640
Speaker 1: field has some energy, and without it, we wouldn't have

880
00:43:47,640 --> 00:43:49,839
Speaker 1: any mass, or nothing would stick together because everything would

881
00:43:49,840 --> 00:43:52,600
Speaker 1: be flying around like light. Basically, you're saying that it

882
00:43:52,680 --> 00:43:55,600
Speaker 1: has this energy because of the exotic particles, or it

883
00:43:55,680 --> 00:43:58,600
Speaker 1: has this energy, or it keeps this energy because of

884
00:43:58,600 --> 00:44:02,000
Speaker 1: the heavy particles. It keeps the energy because the heavy particles,

885
00:44:02,120 --> 00:44:04,160
Speaker 1: like the Higgs field in the early universe had a

886
00:44:04,160 --> 00:44:06,319
Speaker 1: lot of energy in it like everything else. And then

887
00:44:06,360 --> 00:44:08,800
Speaker 1: the universe started to cool and everything got more spread

888
00:44:08,840 --> 00:44:11,840
Speaker 1: out and calmer, and everything started to relax down to

889
00:44:11,920 --> 00:44:14,200
Speaker 1: smaller and smaller energies. But the Higgs field at some

890
00:44:14,239 --> 00:44:16,920
Speaker 1: point got stuck. It's sort of like water that was

891
00:44:16,920 --> 00:44:18,880
Speaker 1: flowing downhill, but instead of making it all the way

892
00:44:18,920 --> 00:44:20,759
Speaker 1: to the ocean, it got stuck in some sort of

893
00:44:20,760 --> 00:44:24,920
Speaker 1: mountain lake, right, really high energy, like it's holding some energy.

894
00:44:25,120 --> 00:44:27,760
Speaker 1: It's holding some energy exactly. If it didn't have that energy,

895
00:44:28,000 --> 00:44:30,120
Speaker 1: we wouldn't have the mass that we do. And the

896
00:44:30,160 --> 00:44:32,080
Speaker 1: only reason it got stuck in that lake is because

897
00:44:32,080 --> 00:44:33,719
Speaker 1: you know, there's like another other side of the lake,

898
00:44:33,760 --> 00:44:36,239
Speaker 1: the thing that's like blocking it from flowing downhill. And

899
00:44:36,280 --> 00:44:39,600
Speaker 1: then blocking comes from the heavier particles. Like if you

900
00:44:39,680 --> 00:44:42,239
Speaker 1: didn't have the top cork, then the Higgs field would

901
00:44:42,280 --> 00:44:44,439
Speaker 1: not have gotten stuck in that mountain lake. It would

902
00:44:44,440 --> 00:44:46,160
Speaker 1: have flowed all the way down to the ocean. I

903
00:44:46,200 --> 00:44:48,520
Speaker 1: guess that's a kind of a hard picture to understand.

904
00:44:48,560 --> 00:44:51,080
Speaker 1: You're saying not because the top cord exists, but because

905
00:44:51,080 --> 00:44:53,520
Speaker 1: it sort of can exist almost in a way, right,

906
00:44:53,680 --> 00:44:56,759
Speaker 1: Like the top cork is something that could happen, and

907
00:44:56,800 --> 00:44:59,560
Speaker 1: so because it can happen, the Higgs field doesn't just

908
00:44:59,719 --> 00:45:02,200
Speaker 1: dump all of its energy. Yeah, because the top corp

909
00:45:02,280 --> 00:45:05,000
Speaker 1: can exist because its field is out there, and because

910
00:45:05,000 --> 00:45:07,759
Speaker 1: it's field interact with the Higgs boson so much, right,

911
00:45:07,760 --> 00:45:10,440
Speaker 1: because the top cork is super massive, then it creates

912
00:45:10,480 --> 00:45:13,000
Speaker 1: this weird shelf that the Higgs field gets stuck on.

913
00:45:13,239 --> 00:45:14,560
Speaker 1: I guess what you mean, Like, if you didn't have

914
00:45:14,600 --> 00:45:20,040
Speaker 1: the top cork field, then the Higgs field with relax

915
00:45:20,120 --> 00:45:22,120
Speaker 1: down to zero energy. What does it mean to not

916
00:45:22,239 --> 00:45:25,600
Speaker 1: relax or relax? Well, the Higgs field has energy stored

917
00:45:25,640 --> 00:45:27,480
Speaker 1: in it, right, because it's sort of stuck. Like think

918
00:45:27,520 --> 00:45:29,960
Speaker 1: about a ball that's trying to get down to the

919
00:45:29,960 --> 00:45:32,759
Speaker 1: lowest energy state. It's like rolling down a hill, but

920
00:45:32,840 --> 00:45:34,759
Speaker 1: it gets trapped along the way. You know, it can't

921
00:45:34,800 --> 00:45:37,680
Speaker 1: relax down to the lowest height. And so the Higgs

922
00:45:37,719 --> 00:45:39,600
Speaker 1: field is sort of like that. It got stuck while

923
00:45:39,600 --> 00:45:41,360
Speaker 1: he was relaxing. Well though the rest of the universe

924
00:45:41,440 --> 00:45:43,640
Speaker 1: was cooling down, the Higgs field got stuck at a

925
00:45:43,640 --> 00:45:46,520
Speaker 1: certain energy level, and it's the top cork that's keeping

926
00:45:46,560 --> 00:45:48,880
Speaker 1: it from getting all the way down to zero energy.

927
00:45:49,000 --> 00:45:50,840
Speaker 1: Even though you don't see a lot of top corks

928
00:45:50,880 --> 00:45:53,400
Speaker 1: out there in the university. They're sort of fleeting and

929
00:45:53,440 --> 00:45:55,480
Speaker 1: they don't exist for very long. Just the fact that

930
00:45:55,520 --> 00:45:59,200
Speaker 1: they can exist somehow prevents the Higgs field from collapsing. Yeah,

931
00:45:59,200 --> 00:46:01,880
Speaker 1: it changes the potential energy for the Higgs field to

932
00:46:01,920 --> 00:46:04,799
Speaker 1: create this weird little local minimum that the Higgs field

933
00:46:04,800 --> 00:46:07,520
Speaker 1: gets trapped in, and we don't really understand that shape

934
00:46:07,520 --> 00:46:09,040
Speaker 1: of that minimum. We know that it's due to the

935
00:46:09,080 --> 00:46:11,520
Speaker 1: top cork. We also don't know how stable it is,

936
00:46:11,560 --> 00:46:14,160
Speaker 1: like it could collapse. We have a whole fun podcast

937
00:46:14,160 --> 00:46:17,160
Speaker 1: episode about whether the Higgs boson will destroy the universe

938
00:46:17,520 --> 00:46:20,200
Speaker 1: if that local minimum falls apart. So right now the

939
00:46:20,239 --> 00:46:22,840
Speaker 1: top cork is protecting it and making it strong, but

940
00:46:22,920 --> 00:46:25,080
Speaker 1: we don't know how long that's going to go on for. Well,

941
00:46:25,120 --> 00:46:28,279
Speaker 1: thank goodness it's there, because I know that without the

942
00:46:28,360 --> 00:46:30,400
Speaker 1: Higgs field, or with the Higgs field collapse, like the

943
00:46:30,400 --> 00:46:34,480
Speaker 1: whole universe would kind of like turnover right invert itself. Yeah,

944
00:46:34,520 --> 00:46:36,799
Speaker 1: the universe would be totally different if the Higgs field

945
00:46:36,840 --> 00:46:39,160
Speaker 1: ever collapsed. We still would have a universe, but the

946
00:46:39,160 --> 00:46:41,840
Speaker 1: effective laws of physics would change dramatically because all of

947
00:46:41,880 --> 00:46:44,640
Speaker 1: a sudden, like electrons and up corks and down corks

948
00:46:44,760 --> 00:46:47,560
Speaker 1: would have much much less mass, if any at all,

949
00:46:48,160 --> 00:46:50,319
Speaker 1: and that would change the way everything worked. Yeah, my

950
00:46:50,360 --> 00:46:53,120
Speaker 1: son learned about this recently and it's been keeping him up.

951
00:46:55,040 --> 00:46:57,279
Speaker 1: It's kind of a scary picture. Hopefully won't happened, and

952
00:46:57,360 --> 00:46:59,480
Speaker 1: thank goodness, it's not happening because of the one of

953
00:46:59,520 --> 00:47:02,440
Speaker 1: these Eiggs particles. Exactly. Just tell your son that the

954
00:47:02,480 --> 00:47:06,680
Speaker 1: top cork is out there saving the universe the unsunk hero.

955
00:47:08,840 --> 00:47:10,560
Speaker 1: All right, we have one more way in which the

956
00:47:10,640 --> 00:47:13,160
Speaker 1: universe would be different without exotic particles, and it has

957
00:47:13,200 --> 00:47:14,959
Speaker 1: to do with the weak force. That's right. We talked

958
00:47:14,960 --> 00:47:17,440
Speaker 1: about new trinos, and neutrinos don't play a role in

959
00:47:17,480 --> 00:47:20,319
Speaker 1: the atom, but they do play an important role in

960
00:47:20,360 --> 00:47:22,920
Speaker 1: the weak force, like when you have beta decay, Like

961
00:47:22,960 --> 00:47:26,000
Speaker 1: when a neutron decays, it can't just decay into a

962
00:47:26,000 --> 00:47:28,880
Speaker 1: proton and an electron. It also has to make a

963
00:47:28,960 --> 00:47:32,120
Speaker 1: new trino, right, because something has to carry away that

964
00:47:32,239 --> 00:47:36,440
Speaker 1: extra hypercharge. And so every time you have a process

965
00:47:36,480 --> 00:47:38,440
Speaker 1: that involves the weak force, which turns out to be

966
00:47:38,480 --> 00:47:41,480
Speaker 1: pretty important in basic fusion and all sorts of stuff

967
00:47:41,480 --> 00:47:43,960
Speaker 1: in the universe, then you have to have a new trino.

968
00:47:44,160 --> 00:47:47,239
Speaker 1: For example, you were taking the universe and redesigning it

969
00:47:47,280 --> 00:47:49,680
Speaker 1: and stripping stuff out. If you took away the new trino,

970
00:47:49,800 --> 00:47:51,839
Speaker 1: you'd have to get rid of the w boson. If

971
00:47:51,880 --> 00:47:54,080
Speaker 1: you get rid of the w boson, then the whole

972
00:47:54,200 --> 00:47:56,440
Speaker 1: weak force doesn't work because the weak force is this

973
00:47:56,600 --> 00:47:59,880
Speaker 1: complicated dance of the W and the Z and the photon.

974
00:48:00,120 --> 00:48:01,759
Speaker 1: So now you've got to get rid of all of that.

975
00:48:02,160 --> 00:48:04,680
Speaker 1: So neutrino sort of like at the foundation of the house,

976
00:48:04,680 --> 00:48:06,919
Speaker 1: and once you start pulling it out, then things start

977
00:48:06,960 --> 00:48:09,879
Speaker 1: to collapse. And specifically you get rid of the weak force,

978
00:48:10,000 --> 00:48:12,759
Speaker 1: you get rid of electromagnetism, and you also got to

979
00:48:12,760 --> 00:48:14,600
Speaker 1: get rid of the Higgs boson. I guess what do

980
00:48:14,640 --> 00:48:16,400
Speaker 1: you mean, Like if I take out the neutrino, you

981
00:48:16,440 --> 00:48:19,200
Speaker 1: have to take out the W boson and everything falls apart,

982
00:48:19,280 --> 00:48:22,160
Speaker 1: Like what would happen, Like there wouldn't be like the

983
00:48:22,200 --> 00:48:25,120
Speaker 1: same reactions wouldn't be able to happen, or like the

984
00:48:25,120 --> 00:48:28,080
Speaker 1: reactions would happen, but they would be different or they

985
00:48:28,200 --> 00:48:30,319
Speaker 1: like do you need them to have some sort of

986
00:48:30,360 --> 00:48:35,440
Speaker 1: like exhaust or byproduct that kind of makes the reactions work? Yeah, Well,

987
00:48:35,440 --> 00:48:37,040
Speaker 1: the way I think about them, you know, there are

988
00:48:37,239 --> 00:48:39,880
Speaker 1: just like different elements of the same Rubik's cube. You know,

989
00:48:40,000 --> 00:48:43,560
Speaker 1: the weak force is the W particles and the Z particles,

990
00:48:43,600 --> 00:48:46,520
Speaker 1: but also the particles that interact with them, and so

991
00:48:46,600 --> 00:48:48,759
Speaker 1: that's the neutrino. Like, the neutrino is the thing that

992
00:48:48,840 --> 00:48:52,080
Speaker 1: interacts via the weak force, and so you know what

993
00:48:52,120 --> 00:48:54,440
Speaker 1: does the W particle do? For example, Well, it turns

994
00:48:54,520 --> 00:48:57,759
Speaker 1: electrons into neutrinos. Right, if you have an electron and

995
00:48:57,800 --> 00:49:00,680
Speaker 1: admits a W, that W carries the ectric charge, and

996
00:49:00,680 --> 00:49:03,719
Speaker 1: so it carries away the charge of the electron and

997
00:49:03,840 --> 00:49:06,319
Speaker 1: leaves you with a new trino. And so you just

998
00:49:06,360 --> 00:49:08,600
Speaker 1: can't do that anymore if you don't have new trinos. Like,

999
00:49:08,680 --> 00:49:12,000
Speaker 1: if an electron admits a W, then what does it

1000
00:49:12,080 --> 00:49:15,080
Speaker 1: turn into. It's not nowhere to go without a new trino,

1001
00:49:15,320 --> 00:49:17,560
Speaker 1: And so that means that you basically can't have W

1002
00:49:17,719 --> 00:49:21,200
Speaker 1: bosons in the universe. And the whole symmetry this beautiful

1003
00:49:21,239 --> 00:49:25,279
Speaker 1: picture of the electroweak force, this combination of electromagnetism and

1004
00:49:25,320 --> 00:49:28,239
Speaker 1: the weak force as one nice machine that all fits

1005
00:49:28,280 --> 00:49:31,560
Speaker 1: together perfectly and respects certain symmetries. It all just falls apart,

1006
00:49:31,600 --> 00:49:33,640
Speaker 1: and you can't just like pick and choose. It's like

1007
00:49:33,640 --> 00:49:35,160
Speaker 1: a game of Jenga. You know, you pull out the

1008
00:49:35,160 --> 00:49:37,120
Speaker 1: wrong piece and the whole thing falls apart. But I

1009
00:49:37,120 --> 00:49:39,360
Speaker 1: guess that's kind of a weak excuse. Part of the

1010
00:49:39,440 --> 00:49:42,759
Speaker 1: pun for motivating the existence of a particle, Like, you know,

1011
00:49:42,840 --> 00:49:45,640
Speaker 1: why can I just be extra careful when I take

1012
00:49:45,640 --> 00:49:48,160
Speaker 1: out the Jenga piece and still have the thing hold

1013
00:49:48,600 --> 00:49:50,000
Speaker 1: you know what I mean? Like unless it's like the

1014
00:49:50,080 --> 00:49:52,840
Speaker 1: one piece holding everything up, you know, you can usually

1015
00:49:52,920 --> 00:49:57,600
Speaker 1: you know, patch it up or have it balanced something else.

1016
00:49:57,840 --> 00:50:00,320
Speaker 1: Like couldn't you have the weak force without the trino?

1017
00:50:00,480 --> 00:50:02,800
Speaker 1: Like couldn't it do the same things, just not output

1018
00:50:02,800 --> 00:50:05,000
Speaker 1: a neutrino. The way particles does this think about the

1019
00:50:05,000 --> 00:50:08,040
Speaker 1: weak force is that you have these states where you

1020
00:50:08,040 --> 00:50:11,040
Speaker 1: have the electron and the neutrino together, and what the

1021
00:50:11,040 --> 00:50:13,560
Speaker 1: weak force does is sort of like rotates those states.

1022
00:50:13,640 --> 00:50:16,680
Speaker 1: We have an episode recently about gauge symmetry that showed

1023
00:50:16,719 --> 00:50:19,040
Speaker 1: you that every force that's out there is really just

1024
00:50:19,160 --> 00:50:23,120
Speaker 1: there to respect and protect some sort of weird internal

1025
00:50:23,120 --> 00:50:25,640
Speaker 1: symmetry of the universe. And in the case of the

1026
00:50:25,719 --> 00:50:29,200
Speaker 1: weak force, that's the symmetry between electrons and neutrinos, which

1027
00:50:29,239 --> 00:50:33,160
Speaker 1: is why the w boson, for example, turns electrons into neutrinos.

1028
00:50:33,160 --> 00:50:37,160
Speaker 1: So to have this symmetry at all between electrons and neutrinos,

1029
00:50:37,280 --> 00:50:40,120
Speaker 1: you need the neutrinos. So the weak force exists sort

1030
00:50:40,160 --> 00:50:43,080
Speaker 1: of to protect this symmetry between electrons and neutrinos. Without

1031
00:50:43,120 --> 00:50:45,600
Speaker 1: the neutrinos, you don't need the weak force. And so

1032
00:50:45,960 --> 00:50:48,640
Speaker 1: I mean would it exist without it, It wouldn't be active,

1033
00:50:48,719 --> 00:50:51,200
Speaker 1: wouldn't be part of the universe, even if it potentially

1034
00:50:51,200 --> 00:50:53,839
Speaker 1: could be if you didn't have neutrinos. I see, it's

1035
00:50:53,880 --> 00:50:55,840
Speaker 1: like it's such an integral part of the weak force

1036
00:50:56,480 --> 00:50:58,560
Speaker 1: that you wouldn't have an excuse to have the weak

1037
00:50:58,560 --> 00:51:02,439
Speaker 1: force without it exactly who ordered that? Well, you could

1038
00:51:02,480 --> 00:51:04,480
Speaker 1: still maybe order it, it would just be an exotic

1039
00:51:04,960 --> 00:51:08,239
Speaker 1: part of the many all right. Well, then the weak

1040
00:51:08,280 --> 00:51:10,840
Speaker 1: force is pretty important because without the weak force, and

1041
00:51:10,920 --> 00:51:13,720
Speaker 1: you would have no Higgs effect, right, and so again

1042
00:51:13,760 --> 00:51:16,520
Speaker 1: things wouldn't have mass. Yeah, because the Higgs field again

1043
00:51:16,640 --> 00:51:20,719
Speaker 1: is also just around to solve this puzzle of the

1044
00:51:20,719 --> 00:51:22,960
Speaker 1: weak force, of why the weak force is connected to

1045
00:51:23,000 --> 00:51:27,000
Speaker 1: electromagnetism but also so different. You see Higgs boson, which

1046
00:51:27,040 --> 00:51:31,040
Speaker 1: breaks that symmetry. It's called electroweak symmetry breaking for anybody

1047
00:51:31,040 --> 00:51:33,200
Speaker 1: who wants to read further on it. So that's why

1048
00:51:33,239 --> 00:51:35,640
Speaker 1: we have the Higgs boson. So without the neutrinos, we

1049
00:51:35,640 --> 00:51:37,319
Speaker 1: don't have the weak force. Without the weak force, we

1050
00:51:37,360 --> 00:51:39,680
Speaker 1: don't have the Higgs boson, and then we don't have

1051
00:51:39,800 --> 00:51:42,840
Speaker 1: me and you and kitten flavored ice cream. Sounds like

1052
00:51:42,840 --> 00:51:44,960
Speaker 1: the main reason we have these particles are just to

1053
00:51:45,120 --> 00:51:47,480
Speaker 1: save you a lot of anxiety, Daniel. I feel like

1054
00:51:47,480 --> 00:51:49,760
Speaker 1: it would really spress you out if we took away

1055
00:51:49,840 --> 00:51:52,520
Speaker 1: these particles. I don't know. I imagine what would Daniel

1056
00:51:52,560 --> 00:51:54,120
Speaker 1: be like in the universe where there were a lot

1057
00:51:54,120 --> 00:51:57,120
Speaker 1: more exotic particles where we found like twelve thousand of them.

1058
00:51:57,360 --> 00:51:59,239
Speaker 1: That seems like much more of a headache. Well, that's

1059
00:51:59,239 --> 00:52:01,480
Speaker 1: another big mystery, right, Like why do we only have

1060
00:52:01,800 --> 00:52:05,040
Speaker 1: eight exotic particles and not more? Like technically we could

1061
00:52:05,080 --> 00:52:07,439
Speaker 1: have more. We certainly could have more, and we don't

1062
00:52:07,440 --> 00:52:09,440
Speaker 1: know if we don't have more. These are just the

1063
00:52:09,480 --> 00:52:11,359
Speaker 1: ones that we have seen. It could be that if

1064
00:52:11,360 --> 00:52:14,719
Speaker 1: we build bigger colliders and smash more energy together that

1065
00:52:14,840 --> 00:52:17,399
Speaker 1: we could create even heavier particles. There might be more

1066
00:52:17,440 --> 00:52:20,040
Speaker 1: out there that are just not yet discovered. All right, Well,

1067
00:52:20,080 --> 00:52:22,719
Speaker 1: I guess the overall picture is that, you know, we

1068
00:52:22,719 --> 00:52:25,760
Speaker 1: don't need these exotic particles to make you me ice cream.

1069
00:52:25,880 --> 00:52:28,320
Speaker 1: Things that are you know, effect us in a daily

1070
00:52:28,840 --> 00:52:31,480
Speaker 1: life sort of or at least at first glance. But

1071
00:52:31,600 --> 00:52:34,000
Speaker 1: if you actually took them away, they might have some

1072
00:52:34,080 --> 00:52:36,960
Speaker 1: pretty cosmic consequences, like none of us would be here

1073
00:52:37,680 --> 00:52:39,520
Speaker 1: none none of us would have evolved, or none of

1074
00:52:39,560 --> 00:52:41,360
Speaker 1: us would be here, none of us would have mass.

1075
00:52:41,440 --> 00:52:44,319
Speaker 1: The whole universe might just collapse without them. That's right.

1076
00:52:44,480 --> 00:52:47,200
Speaker 1: Nothing in the universe seems to be optional. Nothing in

1077
00:52:47,200 --> 00:52:49,880
Speaker 1: the universe seems to be extraneous. If you pull apart

1078
00:52:50,000 --> 00:52:53,239
Speaker 1: one piece of this Jenda puzzle, the whole thing collapses. Well,

1079
00:52:53,239 --> 00:52:55,279
Speaker 1: I think lava ice cream is optional. I don't think

1080
00:52:55,280 --> 00:52:58,840
Speaker 1: that's a requirement in any diet. Let's see what happens

1081
00:52:58,880 --> 00:53:01,160
Speaker 1: if we delete lava ice cream from the universe. I'll

1082
00:53:01,200 --> 00:53:04,719
Speaker 1: do it right now. Uh, nothing happened, alright, Well, just

1083
00:53:04,800 --> 00:53:08,799
Speaker 1: another great reminder of how exotic and flavorful and mysterious

1084
00:53:09,040 --> 00:53:11,880
Speaker 1: and the kind of scary the universe can be. Hopefully

1085
00:53:11,960 --> 00:53:13,960
Speaker 1: the collapse of the Higgs field won't scare us like

1086
00:53:14,000 --> 00:53:16,760
Speaker 1: a horror movie jump scare. And also kind of beautiful,

1087
00:53:16,840 --> 00:53:19,239
Speaker 1: you know, the way all these particles and fields fit

1088
00:53:19,280 --> 00:53:22,799
Speaker 1: together to make this incredible universe. It's gorgeous. It's sort

1089
00:53:22,800 --> 00:53:25,759
Speaker 1: of like figuring it out and unraveling this mystery is

1090
00:53:25,760 --> 00:53:29,480
Speaker 1: really beautiful. It really feels like we're revealing some deep mechanism,

1091
00:53:29,760 --> 00:53:31,600
Speaker 1: which is kind of gorgeous when you see all of

1092
00:53:31,600 --> 00:53:34,120
Speaker 1: its working parts. Are you saying these exotic particles are

1093
00:53:34,200 --> 00:53:36,520
Speaker 1: like the bling of the universe. They just make everything

1094
00:53:36,560 --> 00:53:39,440
Speaker 1: sparkle a little more. That's right. You might not need them,

1095
00:53:39,440 --> 00:53:41,680
Speaker 1: but they make you look special. All right. Well, we

1096
00:53:41,760 --> 00:53:45,040
Speaker 1: hope that expanded your idea of what the universe can

1097
00:53:45,080 --> 00:53:47,520
Speaker 1: do and why it is the way it is. Thanks

1098
00:53:47,520 --> 00:53:57,640
Speaker 1: for joining us, See you next time. Thanks for listening,

1099
00:53:57,640 --> 00:54:00,200
Speaker 1: and remember that Daniel and Jorghe explained. The uni Verse

1100
00:54:00,320 --> 00:54:03,640
Speaker 1: is a production of I Heart Radio. For more podcast

1101
00:54:03,760 --> 00:54:06,440
Speaker 1: for my heart Radio, visit the I heart Radio app,

1102
00:54:06,680 --> 00:54:15,879
Speaker 1: Apple Podcasts, or wherever you listen to your favorite shows. Yeah,