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Speaker 1: Hey, or hey, did you know that not all particles

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Speaker 1: are created equal? You mean, like some of them are

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Speaker 1: heavier or more charged than others. Oh, that's definitely true.

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Speaker 1: But also not all of them have the same rights,

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Speaker 1: the same rights. I mean, is there a is there

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Speaker 1: a particle constitution that grants them certain freedoms? Only some

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Speaker 1: of them have freedoms. Electrons can be free, but quarks cannot. Oh, man,

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Speaker 1: poor quarks. Somebody ought to hit the streets and protest

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Speaker 1: for them. That's right, I can see the clever signs

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Speaker 1: already set the quarks free. Hi. I'm or hammate cartoonists

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Speaker 1: and the creator of PhD Comics. Hi. I'm Daniel. I'm

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Speaker 1: a particle physicist, and I'm an activist for the freedom

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Speaker 1: of corks. And welcome to our podcast, Daniel and Jorge

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Speaker 1: Explain the Universe, a production of I Heart Radio in

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Speaker 1: which we talk about all the amazing and crazy and

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Speaker 1: wonderful and beautiful and insane things about our universe and

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Speaker 1: try to explain them in a way that makes you

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Speaker 1: laugh and hopefully makes you understand the way they work.

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Speaker 1: That's right. We talked about all the big things in

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Speaker 1: the universe, the origin of the universe. How big is

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Speaker 1: the universe? And we also talk about the smaller things

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Speaker 1: in the universe, the little bits that make up everything

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Speaker 1: around you. I feel like it's kind of cheating that

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Speaker 1: in physics or in particle physics, I get to work

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Speaker 1: on both the biggest, the baddest, the most original, the

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Speaker 1: cosmic questions, and also the tiniest. I feel like it's

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Speaker 1: at both extremes of the universe, right everything in between.

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Speaker 1: You don't care. That's chemistry, man, who cares? Chemistry, biology, philosophy, life,

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Speaker 1: your happiness, that's right, democracy, human rights, that's all beyond

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Speaker 1: the scope of your physics research. Yeah, exactly, And I

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Speaker 1: don't mean to say nobody cares about chemistry. Chemistry is

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Speaker 1: really important, otherwise we wouldn't have pharmaceuticals and all that

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Speaker 1: good stuff. I also said human rights study, but you

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Speaker 1: don't seem to want a caveat human rights as well.

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Speaker 1: I'm more worried about backlash from chemists than people advocated.

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Speaker 1: The chemists have acids, assets and dangerous things that can

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Speaker 1: kill you. Yeah, but maybe it's just that you know

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Speaker 1: that stuff is harder. It's more complicated for me. Physics

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Speaker 1: at the extremes they're really tiny and they're really big. Uh,

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Speaker 1: sort of the simplest questions, the most basic, and therefore

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Speaker 1: the most interesting and also easier to grapple with. Well,

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Speaker 1: today we're getting into some things that are kind of

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Speaker 1: the opposite of that, Right, We're getting into the nitty

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Speaker 1: gritty complex details of the legality of particles, kind of

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Speaker 1: what rights particles have. Yeah, because when we study the universe,

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Speaker 1: what we like to do is to take it apart.

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Speaker 1: If I look at the banana in front of me

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Speaker 1: and I say, what's this made out of? I'm mean,

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Speaker 1: what particles is it made out of? And when you

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Speaker 1: do that, you're sort of taking an intellectual leap. You're saying,

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Speaker 1: this banana could get blown up into its constituent particles.

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Speaker 1: You could break it up into these little bits, and

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Speaker 1: that's an important part of how we think about understanding

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Speaker 1: the universe. But it's not always possible to actually separate

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Speaker 1: those particles. Right, do you actually have a banana in

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Speaker 1: front of you, Daniel, I have a metaphysical banana here

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Speaker 1: in front of me. Here, I'll pass you my banana

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Speaker 1: using the Ray and Kyler ren teleportation system. Just digitize

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Speaker 1: the banana and email it to me. Oh, there you go,

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Speaker 1: there you go. Somebody should develop a device that scans

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Speaker 1: a banana, turns it into an electronic banana signature, and

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Speaker 1: then at the other side like three D prints of banana. Right,

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Speaker 1: using AI. Don't forget AI, using AI precisely because every

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Speaker 1: kitchen appliance needs AI now. But anyways, we are going

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Speaker 1: to be talking about the some of the rules that

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Speaker 1: governed the universe at the smallest levels, because there are

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Speaker 1: a rule and that's kind of what physics is a

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Speaker 1: little bit all about. Right. Yeah, And once recently on

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Speaker 1: a podcast, we talked about magnetic monopoles, how you could

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Speaker 1: take an atom and separate it's positive and negative charges

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Speaker 1: and move them far away to infinity and they could

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Speaker 1: ignore each other. But you can't do that with the

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Speaker 1: north and south of the magnetic monople And today we'll

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Speaker 1: be talking about a sort of similarly confusing, sticky topic

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Speaker 1: in particle physics. Right. It's a rule about the universe

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Speaker 1: that physicists don't really know why it's there. Right, It's

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Speaker 1: kind of another of the big mysteries in nature. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: I think that describes every rule about the universe. You know,

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Speaker 1: we don't know why any of them are there. Some

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Speaker 1: people write in and they ask me questions like that,

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Speaker 1: to say, why is electromagnetism this way and not that

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Speaker 1: other way? And I think, wow, you're a physicist, because

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Speaker 1: that's the question we all want to answer to. We

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Speaker 1: don't know. You're a physicist because you don't know anything.

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Speaker 1: You two can get paid for it like I am,

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Speaker 1: because you embrace your ignorance, and you want to ask why.

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Speaker 1: And it's a deep question in physics, why is something

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Speaker 1: this way not the other way? You know, maybe someday

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Speaker 1: in the future of physics will be looking at the

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Speaker 1: equations of the universe and will say, oh, it makes sense.

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Speaker 1: This is the only set of equations we could possibly have,

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Speaker 1: and so it has to be this way. Or we

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Speaker 1: can be looking at the equations to say, well, this

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Speaker 1: is one of ten to the one hundred possible universes,

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Speaker 1: So why is it this way not the other way?

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Speaker 1: We might not ever know, right right, again, you don't know.

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Speaker 1: That's the way you summarize physics. It's some we don't know.

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Speaker 1: We have no idea, which is the title of a

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Speaker 1: great book I've heard about which everyone should check out.

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Speaker 1: I don't know. I heard it has a lot of

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Speaker 1: puns in it. Oh, like the are they as good

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Speaker 1: as the as the ones we have in our show here,

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Speaker 1: they're better because they're edited the Thank you Courtney. Well,

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Speaker 1: today on the podcast, we'll be tackling a pretty sticky subject,

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Speaker 1: and it's the question of a special rule that governs

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Speaker 1: one of the particles of nature. So today on the podcast,

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Speaker 1: we'll be tackling the question why can quarks never be alone? Yeah,

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Speaker 1: So it turns out that one of the fundamental particles

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Speaker 1: in nature, the cork, has some special rules that govern

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Speaker 1: what it can and cannot do. That's right. Quarks feel

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Speaker 1: the strong nuclear force and electrons don't. And anything that

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Speaker 1: feels the strong nuclear force is subject to that forces

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Speaker 1: really weird properties. We've talked about it a few times

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Speaker 1: in the podcast how it has strange properties like color.

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Speaker 1: But today we've been talking about one very special property

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Speaker 1: that really likes to stick these quirks together. Yeah, and

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Speaker 1: so the question is why why whether course can be

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Speaker 1: alone by themselves? And you know, does it does it

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Speaker 1: mean alone like um like psychologically like they feel alone,

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Speaker 1: or is it like alone where they have to be

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Speaker 1: They can't be in a room by themselves. Yeah, you

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Speaker 1: you can't put them in solitary confinement for too long

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Speaker 1: or they go crazy. There's another kind of quirk you

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Speaker 1: never heard about, Not the strange corps or the charm cork,

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Speaker 1: but the crazy cork. That's right, the inmate cork. No,

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Speaker 1: that's not a laughing matter. Solitary confinement is pretty serious stuff.

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Speaker 1: But we have found in physics, and as you said earlier,

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Speaker 1: we don't know why, but we have found in physics

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Speaker 1: that when you try to separate a cork, to pull

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Speaker 1: it far away from everything else, to isolate it the

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Speaker 1: way you could take, for example, an electron and put

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Speaker 1: it in the middle of space. You just can't do

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Speaker 1: that with the cork. It's physically impossible. Wow, the universe

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Speaker 1: doesn't allow it. It would take an infinite amount of energy,

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Speaker 1: which would then just collapse into a bunch more quirks.

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Speaker 1: All right, we'll get into that in more detail. But first,

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Speaker 1: as usual, we were curious to know how many people

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Speaker 1: out there. First of all, I had heard of corps,

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Speaker 1: and second of all, knew whether or not courts can

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Speaker 1: ever be alone. So you see, Irvine was closed for

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Speaker 1: the holidays, and so these questions went to random strangers

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Speaker 1: at coffee shops who were amenable to answering questions, and

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Speaker 1: as usual at you see Irvine pot nine percent of

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Speaker 1: random students are willing to answer my questions, but the

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Speaker 1: rate of acceptance of coffee shops is much much lower,

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Speaker 1: which I think says something awesome about students that you see.

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Speaker 1: I so a physicist wearing sandals and scraggly hair is

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Speaker 1: normal at a college campus, but in a commercial, regular

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Speaker 1: coffee shop, you're seen with more skepticism. Yeah, or you know,

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Speaker 1: maybe it's just the slice of people that you encounter

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Speaker 1: at a coffee shop are less open to that kind

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Speaker 1: of stuff. I'm surprised you did it twice because they

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Speaker 1: didn't kick you at the first time. I had to

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Speaker 1: go to a variety of coffee shops, you know. I

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Speaker 1: see you're trying never to hit the same one twice.

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Speaker 1: That's how you can. They have my picture up on

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Speaker 1: the wall, and so they pressed that little red button

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Speaker 1: on the counting when they see me coming. Oh man,

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Speaker 1: I can picture you walking into one in the disguise

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Speaker 1: just to try to get your coffee. That's right, I'm

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Speaker 1: disguised as a chemist. Sometimes you were the grutch marks,

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Speaker 1: you know, glasses and nose and mustache. But no, way,

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Speaker 1: that's already you. No, I just put it on a

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Speaker 1: lab coat and safety goggles. Right, chemistry, and you were

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Speaker 1: nice clothes, he said, Is that what you're saying yourself?

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Speaker 1: Physicists have to dress up to become chemists. Yes, that's

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Speaker 1: definitely true. Alright, So here's what people at that coffee

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Speaker 1: shop had to say. Um, and have you guys heard

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Speaker 1: of the particle called the cork? Yes? Now did you

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Speaker 1: know the corks can never be found by themselves? Now,

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Speaker 1: I've heard of it, but I don't know too much

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Speaker 1: about it. You never did you know you can never

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Speaker 1: find a cork by itself? They can never be alone? No? Yes?

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Speaker 1: Did you know the quarks can never be alone? No?

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Speaker 1: I did not know that. Although there are two meanings

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Speaker 1: for cork, I wasn't sure if you meant the yogurt

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Speaker 1: meaning or um, the particle meaning. I think yogurt can

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Speaker 1: be alone. Yeah, but I can't tell you what it

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Speaker 1: is because you know that corks can never be alone. Animal. No,

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Speaker 1: it's a tiny little particle. Okay, yes, you know the

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Speaker 1: corks can never be by themselves. Actually, I didn't know

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Speaker 1: that I guess I haven't looked into it deep in. No,

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Speaker 1: I actually think I have, and I have no idea

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Speaker 1: why I wouldn't know that or what it is. Yeah.

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Speaker 1: Of course they're made up of blue once, I believe,

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Speaker 1: and they make up protons and electrons, and I think

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Speaker 1: neutrons too. Did you know the corks can never be

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Speaker 1: by themselves? They can never be alone, Yeah, because they

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Speaker 1: have to switch between because I don't I tried to

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Speaker 1: study this, but I don't completely understand, because I know

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Speaker 1: I can't remember as the quarks that are labeled red, blue, green,

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Speaker 1: and they have to switch from zone to zone. They

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Speaker 1: always have to be occupied and they can't exist by themselves.

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Speaker 1: I do not know why. No, I couldn't figure that out, actually, kid,

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Speaker 1: all right, I guess, um. Not a lot of people

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Speaker 1: I've heard of the cork. No, there's not a lot

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Speaker 1: of familiarity about the cork the particle, though. One friendly

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Speaker 1: person commented on cork the yogurt. Oh again, all right,

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Speaker 1: it must be a really popular brand yogurt. It's a

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Speaker 1: whole it's a whole dairy product. I think it's not

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Speaker 1: even just a brand. It's like kind of thing, you know, Well,

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Speaker 1: I like how this person said, do you mean the

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Speaker 1: particle or the yogurt? Because this person knew about both,

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Speaker 1: and he's like, let's terrify are we talking? Are we

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Speaker 1: talking food or physics? Here? She was ready to talk

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Speaker 1: about quirk the yogurt or quirk the particles. Yes, it's

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Speaker 1: a renaissance person right there. Yeah, precisely. And there were

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Speaker 1: some misunderstandings about quirks, people who think that they are

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Speaker 1: made up of gluons or that electrons are made up

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Speaker 1: of quarks. So definitely a topic that we should cover.

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Speaker 1: Explain to people what quarks are and how they were right,

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Speaker 1: because obviously they're not made out of gluons. Everyone knows that. No,

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Speaker 1: of course, not glue is made out of glue. It's

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Speaker 1: a sticky subject, of course. Yeah, so let's get into it. Um. So,

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Speaker 1: first of all, Daniel water quirks and talk to me

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Speaker 1: about this idea that that that they can never be alone. Yeah. So,

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Speaker 1: corks are one of the fundamental particles. If you take

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Speaker 1: matter apart, you'll find, of course that it's made out

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Speaker 1: of atoms, and those atoms have inside them electrons whizzing

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Speaker 1: around the nucleus and then inside the nucleus, We have

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Speaker 1: neutrons and protons. Even glue is made out of the

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Speaker 1: same of those same things. Everything is made out of

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Speaker 1: those things. Everything that you've eaten, at least there are

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Speaker 1: kinds of matter out there in the universe that are

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Speaker 1: not made out of atoms, dark matter specifically, but everything

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Speaker 1: that you've encountered, everything you've sat on, everything any human

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Speaker 1: has ever eaten or thrown at each other is made

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Speaker 1: out of atoms. And so it's pretty universal recipe. Right,

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Speaker 1: What if my kid ate some dark matter? Should I

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Speaker 1: call the doctor or um? I think you should eating

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Speaker 1: because you're getting a Nobel prod proving that dark matter

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Speaker 1: exists for feeding my child dark matter? Are you talking

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Speaker 1: about the dark matter that goes into your child or

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Speaker 1: out of your child though, because that's a whole different topic.

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Speaker 1: All right, let's move on before somebody calls Social services off. No,

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Speaker 1: But the amazing thing about this is that it's a

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Speaker 1: recipe for all kinds of stuff. Like everything out there

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Speaker 1: has the same number of protons, neutrons and electrons. And

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Speaker 1: just can't get over this fact. Like every kind of

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Speaker 1: material out there, every element right has one proton per

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Speaker 1: electron and just about one neutron per proton. So it's

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Speaker 1: one to one to one no matter what it is, right,

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Speaker 1: And so it's not just any particle or any random

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Speaker 1: or insignificant particle nature. This is like the particle, right,

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Speaker 1: I mean, I mean you and I are made out

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Speaker 1: of the out of them. Everyone is made out of them.

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Speaker 1: It's one of the big h two particles that make

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Speaker 1: up everything. Yeah, and so the most of the stuff

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Speaker 1: that's inside you is made out of these protons and neutrons.

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Speaker 1: But the protons and neutrons are not actually themselves fundamental.

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Speaker 1: They're made of these smaller particles. And those are the corks,

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Speaker 1: the up cork and the down cork. And you mix

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Speaker 1: those together in one way you get a proton. You

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Speaker 1: mix them together another way you get a neutron. But

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Speaker 1: of course the proton and the neutron, you know, those

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Speaker 1: are the physical particles that we can see, we can

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Speaker 1: interact with, we can separate them. You can have like

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Speaker 1: one proton and have one neutron over here. And for

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Speaker 1: a long time people thought that they might be fundamental.

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Speaker 1: But then in the seventies, by shooting super high energy

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Speaker 1: electrons at the proton, we found that there was structure

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Speaker 1: inside the proton. We found that there were particles inside there,

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Speaker 1: and so that's what the corks are, right, And so

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Speaker 1: that's what a cork is. And there's something funny about

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Speaker 1: them because, for example, electrons can't be by themselves. You

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Speaker 1: can't have it like a sink. You can hold a

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Speaker 1: single electron in your hand, for example. The corks you're

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Speaker 1: telling me have come as a kind of a special

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Speaker 1: rule that they can never be alone. Yeah. The way

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Speaker 1: that we found out about electrons, you know, is that

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Speaker 1: we separated them from their atom. We isolated them so

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Speaker 1: we could study them. And we talked about in the podcast. J. J.

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Speaker 1: Thompson ionized atoms and made beams of electrons before he

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Speaker 1: even knew what he was doing. And the way we

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Speaker 1: discovered the nucleus is the same way. We separated and

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Speaker 1: we broke the atom into pieces so we could study it.

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Speaker 1: But with the quarks, we've never been able to do that.

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Speaker 1: What we've been able to do is poke the inside

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Speaker 1: the proton and see the corks sort of bouncing around

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Speaker 1: in there. We have been able to break up the

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Speaker 1: proton into quarks, but we can't ever see the corks

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Speaker 1: by themselves. They are so much in love with being together.

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Speaker 1: You always find them in pairs or triplets. But well,

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Speaker 1: I'm a little bit confused because you you told me that,

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Speaker 1: you know, at the large Hattern collider, and you take

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Speaker 1: protons and you smash them together. But when you smash

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Speaker 1: them together, you're saying, they don't actually break apart. But

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Speaker 1: we do smash protons together at the large had Run collider.

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Speaker 1: You're right, I was not lying. And what happens there

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Speaker 1: is that the corks inside one proton interact with the

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Speaker 1: quarks inside the other proton. But there's a rule about

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Speaker 1: sort of the maximum distance that a cork can ever

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Speaker 1: be from another cork. And so what happens there is

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Speaker 1: you can have like two corks go pair off to

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Speaker 1: be their own little particle. The quarks can never leave

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Speaker 1: by themselves. Oh so you smash protons together, which are

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Speaker 1: made out of quarks inside. But when they smash to

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Speaker 1: the together, it's not like in a an explosion where

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Speaker 1: everything flies off in all kinds of directions. Uh, the quarks.

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Speaker 1: You know, you can't have a cork flying off from

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Speaker 1: a collision by itself, That's right, you can't do that.

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Speaker 1: They always have to be found in pairs or in triplets.

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Speaker 1: There's no way to find a cork all by itself.

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Speaker 1: But well, you've never seen it by by itself, right, Yes,

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Speaker 1: you're right. Um, In physics we should never say never.

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Speaker 1: We don't think it's possible. Nobody's ever seen a free cork.

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Speaker 1: Nobody's ever isolated a cork by itself. Quarks are in

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Speaker 1: that sense more mathematical than any other kind of particle,

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Speaker 1: because we've never seen them on their own. They only

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Speaker 1: exist sort of as part of our model for what's

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Speaker 1: inside all these particles that we think are made up

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Speaker 1: of quarks. You've got protons, you've got neutrons, and you

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Speaker 1: mix corks and lots of other ways. You can get

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Speaker 1: all sorts of other crazy particles pions and masons and

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Speaker 1: ada particles and omega particles and um, all sorts of

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Speaker 1: crazy stuffs. You're just gonna try to slip that in. Yeah, uh,

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Speaker 1: to just go with it. Um, But I guess paid

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Speaker 1: the picture from me right. So, at the large hattern collider,

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Speaker 1: you have protons kind of going at each other right there,

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Speaker 1: coming at huge speeds. So and and in each proton

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Speaker 1: you have three quarks kind of bound together. They're stuck

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Speaker 1: together at each one and then they the two protons

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Speaker 1: smash into each other. They do, and you create this mess.

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Speaker 1: And you're saying that you know, everything that leaves out

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Speaker 1: of that collision, that explosion has to be paired up

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Speaker 1: like the No matter how you smash them together, somehow

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Speaker 1: they always corks always pair up when they fly off together.

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Speaker 1: That's right. And one possibility is that you just sort

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Speaker 1: of rearrange the quarks. You say, I got three quarks

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Speaker 1: from this proton. I got three quarks from the other proton,

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Speaker 1: so I'll just pair them up. Maybe I'll get like

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Speaker 1: three pairs of quarks and this is gonna go fly

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Speaker 1: off and make me three pions. That's one possibility. But

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Speaker 1: sometimes if you put enough energy into these things, the

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Speaker 1: corks sort of try to go free, like you get.

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Speaker 1: You push one cork off in one direction, another one

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Speaker 1: off in another direction, and there and none of the

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Speaker 1: other original quirks from the proton are near it, and

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Speaker 1: it's like flying off into outer space by itself. But

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Speaker 1: physics says no, and what yeah, And what happens there

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Speaker 1: is that some of its energy gets converted into making

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Speaker 1: a new cork. It pops a new cork out of

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Speaker 1: the vacuum, so that cork doesn't have to be by itself.

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Speaker 1: Wait what so you're saying one of the corks after

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Speaker 1: the collision was going off to the left, but because

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Speaker 1: physics says no, it like it disappears and it reappears

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Speaker 1: somewhere else. Say, for example, you have a quirk going

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Speaker 1: off really fast to the left and another cork going

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Speaker 1: off really fast to the right, so the distance between

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Speaker 1: them is growing. Well, what happens is that takes a

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Speaker 1: huge amount of energy, and that energy gets converted into

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Speaker 1: making new corks. Like you create new corks, one for

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Speaker 1: the one going to the left and one for the

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Speaker 1: one going to the right, so that each of them

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Speaker 1: now has a companion, so they're not by themselves. The

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Speaker 1: universe is like you're going off by yourself here, I'll

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Speaker 1: make you a companion it. Yeah, And that's because the

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Speaker 1: strong nuclear force is super duper weird. And we'll talk

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Speaker 1: about that in more detail in a minute, I hope.

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Speaker 1: But the short version is unlike electromagnetism, where as the

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Speaker 1: distance between them grows, the force gets weaker and fades.

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Speaker 1: In the strong force as the distance between them grows

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Speaker 1: the force gets stronger, so it takes more and more

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Speaker 1: energy to separate them, and eventually there's enough energy to

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Speaker 1: create new matter. All right, let's get into the details

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Speaker 1: of that a little bit more. But I think it's

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Speaker 1: pretty considered of the universe not to to be looking

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Speaker 1: out for quirks like that. You know, it depends. I mean,

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Speaker 1: if you're quirking, you just want some like me time,

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Speaker 1: then it's not a little love is a curse you're saying.

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Speaker 1: If you ever grew up in the house that's kind

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Speaker 1: of crowded, you know that there's value to time by yourself.

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Speaker 1: You know, you want time with your book. And just

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Speaker 1: like nobody asked me to do something or ask me

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Speaker 1: a question. You know, my family is pretty quirky, and

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Speaker 1: you've got some strange quirks in your family and some

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Speaker 1: charming works, you know, of course. Right, all right, let's

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Speaker 1: get into more of this kind of mysterious force that

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Speaker 1: makes quarks just so that they're not alone. But first

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Speaker 1: let's take a quick break, all right. I know, so

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Speaker 1: it seems like the universe doesn't like for courts to

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Speaker 1: be alone, to the point where it even makes up

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Speaker 1: new corps when it needs to whenever it sees a

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Speaker 1: cork going off to be alone, it makes a new

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Speaker 1: cork to pair up with it, which is pretty amazing.

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Speaker 1: And you're telling me that this is all because of

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Speaker 1: the force between courts. Yeah, one of the three or

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Speaker 1: four fundamental forces of nature, depending how you count. We

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Speaker 1: have gravity, which we don't understand quantum mechanically. We have

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Speaker 1: electromagnetism and the weak force, which I think of together

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Speaker 1: as bound as part of the electroweak force. And then

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Speaker 1: we have the strong nuclear force. And this is the

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Speaker 1: thing that holds the proton together and holds the neutron together,

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Speaker 1: and also it's a thing that holds the nucleus together

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Speaker 1: because there's a little residual bits of it left over

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Speaker 1: after you've made the proton and the neutron. But this

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Speaker 1: force is really powerful and really different from any of

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Speaker 1: the other forces. It's called the strong force, right, Yeah,

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Speaker 1: not the Strange force, though maybe they should have called

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Speaker 1: it the strong nut. If you get a pc in

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Speaker 1: the in the strong into the strange force, does that

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Speaker 1: make you the doctor Strange? It absolutely officially does, and

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Speaker 1: gives you power over time. It's been to everybody, right, right,

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Speaker 1: even the Benedict commor batches of the world. Yeah, and

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Speaker 1: you know, we like to categorize things in physics. We

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Speaker 1: like to say, are these things are all similar to

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Speaker 1: each other? And what connections can we draw between them?

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Speaker 1: But we also like to contrast things. We like to say, how, look,

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Speaker 1: these forces are similar because they're all forces, but they

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Speaker 1: have some big differences in them, and so those things

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Speaker 1: can teach us like what kind of forces can there

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Speaker 1: be in the universe? And the strong force is different

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Speaker 1: and basically every way that it can be different from

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Speaker 1: the other forces. Really, so it's one of the four

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Speaker 1: fundamental forces, but it's very different than the other three

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Speaker 1: or the other two. Yeah, it's very different from I

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Speaker 1: would say the other two. For example, gravity has one

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Speaker 1: way it can push, right, It can only pull things together,

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Speaker 1: and that's because there's only one kind of mass. You

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Speaker 1: can have positive and negative mass. It's so gravity is

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Speaker 1: only attractive. Electromagnetism right works on positive and negative charges,

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Speaker 1: and so we can both push and pull. It pushes

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Speaker 1: if two positive charges or negative charges come near each other.

424
00:22:34,800 --> 00:22:37,400
Speaker 1: It pulls if you have opposite charges near each other.

425
00:22:37,960 --> 00:22:41,520
Speaker 1: But the strong force is weird because it has three charges,

426
00:22:42,119 --> 00:22:45,880
Speaker 1: and we call those red, green, and blue, and so

427
00:22:46,000 --> 00:22:48,080
Speaker 1: it's it just it blows your mind and thinking like

428
00:22:48,160 --> 00:22:50,960
Speaker 1: whoa there can be like a three different kinds of

429
00:22:51,040 --> 00:22:54,080
Speaker 1: charges and it requires different kinds of math like to

430
00:22:54,119 --> 00:22:56,800
Speaker 1: balance the mouth to neutralize them, and all sorts of stuff, right,

431
00:22:56,800 --> 00:22:58,560
Speaker 1: because I was just thinking that the one I think

432
00:22:58,560 --> 00:23:01,960
Speaker 1: most people are familiar with see electro magnet magnetic force,

433
00:23:02,119 --> 00:23:05,400
Speaker 1: right in terms of they're being charges, we're so used

434
00:23:05,400 --> 00:23:08,240
Speaker 1: to just they're being two write plus or minus. Yeah,

435
00:23:08,320 --> 00:23:09,800
Speaker 1: you're used to there being two, and they used to

436
00:23:09,800 --> 00:23:12,440
Speaker 1: being there being two kinds of magnets right north and south.

437
00:23:12,640 --> 00:23:14,919
Speaker 1: What if they were like three kinds of magnets, you know,

438
00:23:15,000 --> 00:23:17,560
Speaker 1: right north, south and east or something, and the east

439
00:23:17,600 --> 00:23:20,920
Speaker 1: magnet was super weird and like it would it would

440
00:23:20,960 --> 00:23:22,919
Speaker 1: be a really different force. Well, that's what the strong

441
00:23:22,960 --> 00:23:26,399
Speaker 1: force is. Has three kinds of charges like a plus

442
00:23:26,440 --> 00:23:30,680
Speaker 1: minus and x. Well, red, green, and blue. And that's

443
00:23:30,680 --> 00:23:33,680
Speaker 1: why you can have bound states of two quarks, because

444
00:23:33,680 --> 00:23:36,000
Speaker 1: you can have like a red and an anti red,

445
00:23:36,440 --> 00:23:38,879
Speaker 1: or three quarks if you have like a red, green

446
00:23:38,920 --> 00:23:42,960
Speaker 1: and blue because red, green and blue add up to neutral. Well,

447
00:23:43,160 --> 00:23:45,439
Speaker 1: I guess step me through this a little bit um

448
00:23:45,800 --> 00:23:48,879
Speaker 1: more because I know that. You know, if I have

449
00:23:48,960 --> 00:23:51,640
Speaker 1: a plus charge and a minus charge will attract each

450
00:23:51,680 --> 00:23:57,040
Speaker 1: other in electromagnetic forces, or if you have two pluses,

451
00:23:57,080 --> 00:23:59,199
Speaker 1: they'll repel each other. So how does it work if

452
00:23:59,240 --> 00:24:01,199
Speaker 1: you have three? You know, it's like two. I know

453
00:24:01,440 --> 00:24:03,480
Speaker 1: three is kind of a weird thing. Are you asking

454
00:24:03,480 --> 00:24:05,560
Speaker 1: me how to have a three sum? In part of yes,

455
00:24:05,720 --> 00:24:10,639
Speaker 1: I was trying to avoid that reference. But if you

456
00:24:10,680 --> 00:24:12,679
Speaker 1: want to go there, let's go there. I mean, it

457
00:24:12,680 --> 00:24:14,399
Speaker 1: turns out to be pretty different if two pluses in

458
00:24:14,440 --> 00:24:17,120
Speaker 1: a minus or two minuses in a plus. I see,

459
00:24:17,840 --> 00:24:22,719
Speaker 1: it's a whole different genre exactly. No, it's a it's

460
00:24:22,760 --> 00:24:25,520
Speaker 1: a very different kind of situation. And the weird thing

461
00:24:25,640 --> 00:24:29,440
Speaker 1: is basically, anything that has color that isn't neutral will

462
00:24:29,480 --> 00:24:32,720
Speaker 1: attract the other thing. So red will attract red, red

463
00:24:32,760 --> 00:24:35,800
Speaker 1: will atract anti red, well, red will attract green, green

464
00:24:35,840 --> 00:24:39,679
Speaker 1: willottract blue, blue will attract anti blue. It's basically always

465
00:24:39,680 --> 00:24:42,800
Speaker 1: a party when it comes to this trait. So anything

466
00:24:42,840 --> 00:24:46,120
Speaker 1: that has a color charge attracts other things with color charge.

467
00:24:46,160 --> 00:24:48,560
Speaker 1: Anything that has a color charge will interact with other

468
00:24:48,560 --> 00:24:50,680
Speaker 1: things that have a color charge. Whether or not they

469
00:24:50,720 --> 00:24:55,040
Speaker 1: attract or repel depends on where they are, how close

470
00:24:55,080 --> 00:24:57,879
Speaker 1: they are. Well, if you take a red cork and

471
00:24:57,920 --> 00:25:01,000
Speaker 1: an anti red cork, if they're too close together, they

472
00:25:01,000 --> 00:25:03,679
Speaker 1: will repel each other. If they're too far apart, they

473
00:25:03,720 --> 00:25:06,439
Speaker 1: will attract each other. Oh, I see, So they like

474
00:25:06,520 --> 00:25:09,399
Speaker 1: to be sort of a specific distance apart. Yes, they

475
00:25:09,480 --> 00:25:12,160
Speaker 1: like to be a specific distance apart. Anything else takes

476
00:25:12,160 --> 00:25:14,240
Speaker 1: more energy. So if you have a red cork and

477
00:25:14,240 --> 00:25:16,320
Speaker 1: an anti red cork and you want them closer together,

478
00:25:16,480 --> 00:25:20,520
Speaker 1: you gotta squeeze them, because they repel that they avoid that. Similarly,

479
00:25:21,000 --> 00:25:23,800
Speaker 1: if you want them further apart, you gotta put in energy,

480
00:25:23,960 --> 00:25:25,960
Speaker 1: And as they get further and further apart, it takes

481
00:25:26,080 --> 00:25:29,280
Speaker 1: more and more energy. And that's the thing that's really

482
00:25:29,359 --> 00:25:32,720
Speaker 1: weird about the strong force. Like with electromagnetism, you take

483
00:25:32,760 --> 00:25:35,520
Speaker 1: plusant and minus and you pull them apart, the force

484
00:25:35,600 --> 00:25:37,880
Speaker 1: between them starts to fade right as they get further

485
00:25:37,920 --> 00:25:40,160
Speaker 1: and further apart. It goes like one over are squared.

486
00:25:40,320 --> 00:25:43,040
Speaker 1: But what about like a red and a green same situation.

487
00:25:43,200 --> 00:25:46,840
Speaker 1: I mean, there's some little details there for higher order calculations,

488
00:25:47,040 --> 00:25:50,280
Speaker 1: but roughly it's about the same. So everyone wants to

489
00:25:50,280 --> 00:25:53,080
Speaker 1: be with everybody else, but not too close, but not

490
00:25:53,240 --> 00:25:56,800
Speaker 1: too close. So why isn't everything just being pulled together?

491
00:25:57,000 --> 00:26:01,800
Speaker 1: Why are in my red quarks just totally you know,

492
00:26:01,920 --> 00:26:05,600
Speaker 1: pulling the red quarks in my microphone or in the

493
00:26:05,640 --> 00:26:09,439
Speaker 1: sun to me, because your red quarks are all in

494
00:26:09,640 --> 00:26:14,480
Speaker 1: color neutral bound states, mostly protons and neutrons. Oh, they're happy.

495
00:26:14,600 --> 00:26:16,879
Speaker 1: They're happy three and a happy threesome. They're in a

496
00:26:16,880 --> 00:26:20,320
Speaker 1: happy threesome. Yeah. And you know why is the nucleus

497
00:26:20,359 --> 00:26:22,800
Speaker 1: held together Because there's a little bit of strong force

498
00:26:22,880 --> 00:26:26,800
Speaker 1: that leaks out of the proton and holds those protons together. Um,

499
00:26:26,840 --> 00:26:29,239
Speaker 1: so mostly they're in a totally happy state. But you know,

500
00:26:29,280 --> 00:26:32,680
Speaker 1: sometimes the neutron decays into a proton. Oh, I see.

501
00:26:33,359 --> 00:26:36,240
Speaker 1: It's like asking why why aren't all my plus charges

502
00:26:36,240 --> 00:26:38,640
Speaker 1: in my body attracting the plus charges in the sun.

503
00:26:39,359 --> 00:26:41,439
Speaker 1: And the answer is that my plus charges are all

504
00:26:41,480 --> 00:26:45,600
Speaker 1: happy stuck with a negative charge inside of me. Yeah, exactly.

505
00:26:45,920 --> 00:26:48,760
Speaker 1: Most of your plus charges are in neutral atoms, and

506
00:26:48,760 --> 00:26:51,200
Speaker 1: so the neutral atoms don't really interact unless you get

507
00:26:51,240 --> 00:26:53,520
Speaker 1: really close. And then it depends on how close you

508
00:26:53,520 --> 00:26:55,560
Speaker 1: are to the plus part of the minus part. But

509
00:26:55,680 --> 00:26:58,280
Speaker 1: on average you're neutral, and so you don't interact with

510
00:26:58,320 --> 00:27:00,919
Speaker 1: the electric charges in the raw or in your mazdo

511
00:27:01,080 --> 00:27:03,359
Speaker 1: or whatever. So if I had like the power to

512
00:27:03,400 --> 00:27:05,760
Speaker 1: create a red cork right in front of me, like poof,

513
00:27:05,800 --> 00:27:07,480
Speaker 1: I just made one in front of me, it would

514
00:27:07,480 --> 00:27:10,480
Speaker 1: be super attracted to or maybe not. It would look

515
00:27:10,520 --> 00:27:14,800
Speaker 1: for the closest single cork and get attracted to that.

516
00:27:14,800 --> 00:27:17,119
Speaker 1: That's right. But it would take an enormous amount of

517
00:27:17,200 --> 00:27:19,720
Speaker 1: energy to create that cork and have it be really

518
00:27:19,760 --> 00:27:23,879
Speaker 1: far away from any partner, because it's because that the

519
00:27:23,920 --> 00:27:28,600
Speaker 1: potential energy would be so big. Precisely, think about the opposite.

520
00:27:28,600 --> 00:27:30,600
Speaker 1: Say you had a cork and an anti red cork

521
00:27:30,640 --> 00:27:32,640
Speaker 1: and you wanted to separate them. How much energy would

522
00:27:32,640 --> 00:27:34,760
Speaker 1: it take to separate them to be like, you know,

523
00:27:34,880 --> 00:27:37,879
Speaker 1: one galaxy away from each other. Well, every meter you

524
00:27:37,920 --> 00:27:40,680
Speaker 1: separate them would take more and more energy. It's not

525
00:27:40,760 --> 00:27:43,760
Speaker 1: like with electromagnetism, where once you get them far apart,

526
00:27:43,920 --> 00:27:46,960
Speaker 1: they basically ignore each other. You know, a cork here

527
00:27:47,200 --> 00:27:51,119
Speaker 1: would feel a quirk and andromeda super duper powerfully. That

528
00:27:51,160 --> 00:27:53,959
Speaker 1: would be you know, an incredible amount of energy. And

529
00:27:54,000 --> 00:27:56,159
Speaker 1: that's the really weird thing about the strong force is

530
00:27:56,160 --> 00:27:59,600
Speaker 1: that the power of the force doesn't degrade with distance,

531
00:27:59,600 --> 00:28:02,639
Speaker 1: it get stronger. It's like a spring. It's like a

532
00:28:02,680 --> 00:28:06,000
Speaker 1: one like a mechanical spring, exactly, it goes it's linearly

533
00:28:06,119 --> 00:28:08,439
Speaker 1: with a distance, just like a mechanical spring. And so

534
00:28:08,680 --> 00:28:11,000
Speaker 1: is that how you explain whether you can't find one

535
00:28:11,040 --> 00:28:12,919
Speaker 1: alone in nature? Is that it just it would just

536
00:28:12,960 --> 00:28:15,840
Speaker 1: take too much energy. Yeah, And that energy prefers to

537
00:28:15,920 --> 00:28:18,240
Speaker 1: turn into matter. So if you did take a cork

538
00:28:18,320 --> 00:28:21,720
Speaker 1: and an antiquark and you pull them apart, that would

539
00:28:21,720 --> 00:28:24,040
Speaker 1: require a huge amount of energy to be pouring energy

540
00:28:24,080 --> 00:28:27,080
Speaker 1: into it to separate them. And nature prefers to not

541
00:28:27,200 --> 00:28:30,920
Speaker 1: have that much unstable energy. It prefers to decay into

542
00:28:31,040 --> 00:28:33,800
Speaker 1: lower energy states like we talked about another time. And

543
00:28:33,840 --> 00:28:36,560
Speaker 1: it creates new quarks, and so it creates a new

544
00:28:36,600 --> 00:28:39,760
Speaker 1: partner for those quirks you're trying to pull apart, so

545
00:28:39,880 --> 00:28:43,080
Speaker 1: that no quirk is by itself. So like like let's

546
00:28:43,080 --> 00:28:46,440
Speaker 1: say I grabbed uh one quark with my right hand,

547
00:28:46,640 --> 00:28:48,840
Speaker 1: and I grabbed the other core another cork with my

548
00:28:48,920 --> 00:28:51,320
Speaker 1: left hand, and I spent We're wearing safety goggles here.

549
00:28:52,520 --> 00:28:58,640
Speaker 1: I always wear safety they're called reading glasses, all right,

550
00:28:58,720 --> 00:29:00,880
Speaker 1: So you're pulling your parks apart I'm pulling apart, and

551
00:29:00,920 --> 00:29:03,240
Speaker 1: I have big muscles, and I Am just pulling them apart,

552
00:29:03,280 --> 00:29:05,240
Speaker 1: and it's like, oh, it's really hard. It's really hard.

553
00:29:05,320 --> 00:29:07,960
Speaker 1: And then at some point the universe just just snaps,

554
00:29:08,000 --> 00:29:11,080
Speaker 1: like it just you know, it'll just it'll be like

555
00:29:11,120 --> 00:29:14,040
Speaker 1: the spring broke and suddenly I'll have two quarks in

556
00:29:14,080 --> 00:29:16,680
Speaker 1: one hand and two quarks on the other hand. Precisely. Yeah,

557
00:29:16,960 --> 00:29:19,480
Speaker 1: and you can even generate more particles. In fact, what

558
00:29:19,560 --> 00:29:22,560
Speaker 1: you just described is essentially my job. That's what we

559
00:29:22,600 --> 00:29:24,640
Speaker 1: do with the large age on collider. You wear a

560
00:29:24,680 --> 00:29:28,760
Speaker 1: safety glasses. I do wear a safety glasses. But we

561
00:29:28,800 --> 00:29:32,680
Speaker 1: smash protons together and that pushes effectively the quarks away

562
00:29:32,680 --> 00:29:35,800
Speaker 1: from each other. And when that happens, we see particles

563
00:29:35,800 --> 00:29:38,560
Speaker 1: get created out of the vacuum. Out of that, that

564
00:29:38,680 --> 00:29:41,600
Speaker 1: energy gets turned into particles, and you don't just get one.

565
00:29:41,640 --> 00:29:46,160
Speaker 1: Sometimes you get a whole stream particles, depending how much

566
00:29:46,240 --> 00:29:48,360
Speaker 1: energy you've created. It's like the universe says, you know,

567
00:29:48,520 --> 00:29:51,120
Speaker 1: it's too much effort to pull these two quarks together.

568
00:29:51,480 --> 00:29:54,400
Speaker 1: It's too much effort to fight. Wre is amazing biceps

569
00:29:54,480 --> 00:29:57,479
Speaker 1: and muscles. I'll just I'll just pair up the corks

570
00:29:57,520 --> 00:30:00,280
Speaker 1: that in each each of his hands. That's right, or hey,

571
00:30:00,400 --> 00:30:06,000
Speaker 1: versus the universe. Think about it like tension and a string,

572
00:30:06,040 --> 00:30:08,719
Speaker 1: you know, it's it's stretches and stretches and stretches. Eventually

573
00:30:08,760 --> 00:30:10,720
Speaker 1: it snaps, and it just prefers to be in a

574
00:30:10,760 --> 00:30:13,920
Speaker 1: lower energy state. And that lower energy state means having

575
00:30:13,960 --> 00:30:17,760
Speaker 1: those particles exist. We talked about it statistically on another podcast.

576
00:30:18,200 --> 00:30:21,040
Speaker 1: You know, the universe prefers configurations where there's lots of

577
00:30:21,080 --> 00:30:23,880
Speaker 1: possible ways for it to be, and so it will

578
00:30:23,920 --> 00:30:28,040
Speaker 1: always decay to a low energy configuration where that energy

579
00:30:28,080 --> 00:30:29,920
Speaker 1: can be pointed in lots of different directions. And if

580
00:30:29,960 --> 00:30:32,400
Speaker 1: you create these particles and there's lots of different ways

581
00:30:32,400 --> 00:30:34,640
Speaker 1: to arrange them, whereas if you have all the energy

582
00:30:34,680 --> 00:30:36,960
Speaker 1: just stored in that field between the cork and anti

583
00:30:37,000 --> 00:30:40,840
Speaker 1: cork is one configuration. So just an entropy argument tells

584
00:30:40,880 --> 00:30:45,120
Speaker 1: you why a very tense, single configuration, high energy state

585
00:30:45,160 --> 00:30:47,680
Speaker 1: will decay to a bunch of particles. So, and what

586
00:30:47,800 --> 00:30:50,160
Speaker 1: is that distance that which the string breaks, you know,

587
00:30:50,240 --> 00:30:52,120
Speaker 1: like if I'm pulling them apart, what is the distance

588
00:30:52,160 --> 00:30:55,320
Speaker 1: that which it just pops and it becomes for quarts.

589
00:30:55,560 --> 00:30:57,920
Speaker 1: It depends on the energy um but you know, we're

590
00:30:57,920 --> 00:31:02,000
Speaker 1: talking femptometers. That's the preferred distance for quirks. Quirks like

591
00:31:02,080 --> 00:31:04,600
Speaker 1: to be you know, a few femptometers apart, and so

592
00:31:04,680 --> 00:31:08,200
Speaker 1: push them further away and you'll start to create new quirks.

593
00:31:08,720 --> 00:31:12,040
Speaker 1: And you put in really a lot of energy. You

594
00:31:12,040 --> 00:31:14,600
Speaker 1: can create heavy quirks, you know, charm corks and bottom

595
00:31:14,680 --> 00:31:17,080
Speaker 1: quarks and that kind of stuff. Oh wait, what if

596
00:31:17,120 --> 00:31:19,200
Speaker 1: so if I pull it depends on how I pull

597
00:31:19,280 --> 00:31:21,560
Speaker 1: them apart. Well, the universe we don't know how it

598
00:31:21,640 --> 00:31:24,480
Speaker 1: randomly decides, but if you have enough energy, it can

599
00:31:24,520 --> 00:31:27,160
Speaker 1: create heavier particles, and not all the quarks sort of

600
00:31:27,240 --> 00:31:29,600
Speaker 1: cost the same in energy. The up cork and the

601
00:31:29,640 --> 00:31:32,320
Speaker 1: down cork are the cheapest corks and the lightest ones.

602
00:31:32,720 --> 00:31:35,080
Speaker 1: But the charm and the strange and the bottom these

603
00:31:35,120 --> 00:31:37,640
Speaker 1: are heavier, so they cost more energy to make. So

604
00:31:37,680 --> 00:31:39,680
Speaker 1: if you put enough energy, then you sort of go

605
00:31:39,840 --> 00:31:41,400
Speaker 1: up the menu and you can make some of these

606
00:31:41,400 --> 00:31:44,960
Speaker 1: heavier corks too interesting. And so what what is it

607
00:31:45,200 --> 00:31:48,800
Speaker 1: that makes the courts pair up in in threesomes, in

608
00:31:49,440 --> 00:31:52,800
Speaker 1: pairs and and what you call triplets. The reason is

609
00:31:52,880 --> 00:31:56,920
Speaker 1: that you can neutralize the strong force using three of

610
00:31:56,960 --> 00:31:59,720
Speaker 1: these charges it's because the strong force has these three charges.

611
00:32:00,240 --> 00:32:02,720
Speaker 1: And so for example, two ups and a down and

612
00:32:02,800 --> 00:32:04,920
Speaker 1: two downs and an up can give you a neutral

613
00:32:05,000 --> 00:32:09,840
Speaker 1: object in color space in this strong nuclear charge. Right

614
00:32:10,000 --> 00:32:13,080
Speaker 1: in electromagnetism, you can't imagine putting two pluses and a

615
00:32:13,160 --> 00:32:15,920
Speaker 1: minus together to get zero. The the math doesn't work.

616
00:32:16,520 --> 00:32:20,360
Speaker 1: But in color space and strong nuclear charge, a red,

617
00:32:20,520 --> 00:32:23,160
Speaker 1: a green, and a blue equal zero. And so that's

618
00:32:23,200 --> 00:32:26,000
Speaker 1: why you can get a threesome of quarks because they

619
00:32:26,000 --> 00:32:29,320
Speaker 1: can balance each other out. That's that's a stable configuration.

620
00:32:29,720 --> 00:32:32,680
Speaker 1: That's a stable configuration. So you can have pairs or

621
00:32:32,680 --> 00:32:35,800
Speaker 1: you can have triplets. And recently people have been trying

622
00:32:35,800 --> 00:32:38,280
Speaker 1: to figure out ways to get like penta quarks, like

623
00:32:38,400 --> 00:32:41,600
Speaker 1: combinations of five quarks that are stable together. But that's

624
00:32:41,600 --> 00:32:43,920
Speaker 1: sort of a cutting edge research. So if I have

625
00:32:44,000 --> 00:32:46,480
Speaker 1: a red and a green paired up together, that that

626
00:32:46,480 --> 00:32:49,400
Speaker 1: would be looking for a blue to join it. Yes, precisely,

627
00:32:49,440 --> 00:32:52,080
Speaker 1: it would be desperate for a blue to finish out

628
00:32:52,120 --> 00:32:55,920
Speaker 1: its color party. And you know, the strong force is

629
00:32:56,080 --> 00:32:59,200
Speaker 1: really strong. I mean it's strange also, but it's much

630
00:32:59,240 --> 00:33:03,000
Speaker 1: more powerful than any other force we've ever seen. You

631
00:33:03,000 --> 00:33:06,720
Speaker 1: should call it the strong force. Thank you, I think

632
00:33:06,800 --> 00:33:10,040
Speaker 1: we will. Um. You know, in comparison, it's more than

633
00:33:10,080 --> 00:33:15,200
Speaker 1: a hundred times the power of electricity and magnetism at

634
00:33:15,240 --> 00:33:20,640
Speaker 1: the same distance or at the same sort of you know, magnitude. Yeah, precisely,

635
00:33:20,680 --> 00:33:23,600
Speaker 1: at the same distance at one fimtometer is a hundred

636
00:33:23,640 --> 00:33:27,560
Speaker 1: times the power of electromagnetism. It's a million times the

637
00:33:27,560 --> 00:33:30,160
Speaker 1: power of the weak force, and it's ten to the

638
00:33:30,320 --> 00:33:34,160
Speaker 1: thirty eight times the power of gravity. So it's really

639
00:33:34,200 --> 00:33:36,920
Speaker 1: the most powerful force we've ever seen, even more powerful

640
00:33:36,960 --> 00:33:41,000
Speaker 1: than my biceps, even more powerful, and it's really weird,

641
00:33:41,040 --> 00:33:42,920
Speaker 1: you know, know what had ever thought about how a

642
00:33:43,000 --> 00:33:46,600
Speaker 1: force could get stronger with distance? And it took some

643
00:33:46,640 --> 00:33:49,479
Speaker 1: really clever mathematics to explain this. And there was a

644
00:33:49,480 --> 00:33:52,440
Speaker 1: Nobel prize just for that idea, the idea that maybe

645
00:33:52,440 --> 00:33:54,920
Speaker 1: this is how the strong force works. And that's a

646
00:33:55,000 --> 00:33:57,200
Speaker 1: Frank will check m I t won the Nobel Prize

647
00:33:57,360 --> 00:33:59,400
Speaker 1: just for explaining the strong force. All you have to

648
00:33:59,400 --> 00:34:02,480
Speaker 1: do is addam minus signed to one equation um, and

649
00:34:02,560 --> 00:34:04,560
Speaker 1: that explained it. Well, that's what I'll do. I'll just

650
00:34:04,560 --> 00:34:08,080
Speaker 1: put minus science in all kinds of equations and hopefully

651
00:34:08,120 --> 00:34:11,799
Speaker 1: one of them will get me a Nobel prize. All right,

652
00:34:14,000 --> 00:34:18,000
Speaker 1: it seems like a great strategy, go for it. All right,

653
00:34:18,080 --> 00:34:21,440
Speaker 1: Well that kind of explains why corks can't be alone,

654
00:34:21,560 --> 00:34:23,640
Speaker 1: sort of, I think. And so let's get into what

655
00:34:23,680 --> 00:34:26,440
Speaker 1: it all means for the universe and for you and

656
00:34:26,480 --> 00:34:28,879
Speaker 1: me and my corks. But first let's take a quick break.

657
00:34:41,800 --> 00:34:44,240
Speaker 1: All right, So corks can't be alone, although I feel

658
00:34:44,280 --> 00:34:46,920
Speaker 1: like it's kind of a depends on your definition of alone.

659
00:34:46,960 --> 00:34:50,080
Speaker 1: Like what if a cork feels that one pmtometer is

660
00:34:50,120 --> 00:34:54,200
Speaker 1: alone enough, then they can be alone. Right? That feels

661
00:34:54,200 --> 00:34:56,160
Speaker 1: pretty cozy to me, you know, like when my kids

662
00:34:56,200 --> 00:34:58,360
Speaker 1: are fighting on the couch about who's getting how much space?

663
00:34:58,560 --> 00:35:01,560
Speaker 1: If they're one themometer art, then that would be that

664
00:35:01,600 --> 00:35:05,480
Speaker 1: would be trouble. That would definitely be trouble. Yeah, I

665
00:35:05,480 --> 00:35:07,000
Speaker 1: don't really feel like I'm alone if I'm going to

666
00:35:07,000 --> 00:35:10,000
Speaker 1: the bathroom and if somebody one pmptometer away from you, Well,

667
00:35:10,360 --> 00:35:12,200
Speaker 1: it depends how big you are. You know, how big

668
00:35:12,280 --> 00:35:15,719
Speaker 1: is a court Daniel, how big is a cork? A

669
00:35:15,800 --> 00:35:18,720
Speaker 1: cork is a point particle, so it really has no volume,

670
00:35:18,960 --> 00:35:22,040
Speaker 1: really no no meaningful size. So you're saying a phantometer

671
00:35:22,239 --> 00:35:25,839
Speaker 1: is infinitely far for them, yeah, I guess, so that's

672
00:35:25,840 --> 00:35:28,600
Speaker 1: a good point. Maybe they're like, you know, folks in

673
00:35:28,640 --> 00:35:30,520
Speaker 1: a marriage feel like they're always having a shout across

674
00:35:30,560 --> 00:35:35,360
Speaker 1: the house at each other. What would you say, Yeah, Okay,

675
00:35:35,400 --> 00:35:39,400
Speaker 1: so corks don't like to be alone caveat more than

676
00:35:39,440 --> 00:35:42,439
Speaker 1: a femptometer apart, right, I guess that's maybe a better

677
00:35:42,480 --> 00:35:45,000
Speaker 1: way to say it. And and so that's weird, and

678
00:35:45,000 --> 00:35:47,399
Speaker 1: you're saying it's all because that's how that's just how

679
00:35:47,440 --> 00:35:50,560
Speaker 1: the strong force works, Like after a femptometer, it's just

680
00:35:51,160 --> 00:35:54,040
Speaker 1: decides to create more courts instead, it's easier. They're like

681
00:35:54,120 --> 00:35:56,919
Speaker 1: stuck in a little valley and they just can't get out, right.

682
00:35:57,040 --> 00:36:00,600
Speaker 1: And so that's a weird rule for the universe. But

683
00:36:00,600 --> 00:36:03,840
Speaker 1: I guess that's just kind of the way the universe is, right, Like,

684
00:36:03,880 --> 00:36:06,279
Speaker 1: if it was any different, we wouldn't be here, We

685
00:36:06,320 --> 00:36:08,560
Speaker 1: wouldn't be here yet, or there would be something else here.

686
00:36:08,600 --> 00:36:12,920
Speaker 1: There would be something else, maybe a funnier podcast. Impossible.

687
00:36:13,600 --> 00:36:16,600
Speaker 1: The laws of the universe prevent their, uh, there to

688
00:36:16,680 --> 00:36:21,000
Speaker 1: be a funnier science podcast. I have calculated the maximum

689
00:36:21,080 --> 00:36:24,000
Speaker 1: humor for a physics podcast, and we hadn't reached it.

690
00:36:24,520 --> 00:36:26,160
Speaker 1: Did you put a minus sign in it, though, are

691
00:36:26,160 --> 00:36:30,239
Speaker 1: you it's missing a minus sign? Yeah, I'm gonna go

692
00:36:30,320 --> 00:36:33,160
Speaker 1: back to check my concussions. But this is probably the

693
00:36:33,160 --> 00:36:36,880
Speaker 1: funniest podcast about science with a cartoonist and a physicist

694
00:36:37,640 --> 00:36:41,120
Speaker 1: that I have heard of. Daniel and Jorge from southern California.

695
00:36:42,719 --> 00:36:45,320
Speaker 1: Put enough caveats in and your number one in the universe,

696
00:36:45,360 --> 00:36:47,800
Speaker 1: but enough minus science you'll get an over price prize

697
00:36:49,600 --> 00:36:52,839
Speaker 1: that actually does work. Yeah, all right, let's get into

698
00:36:52,920 --> 00:36:55,960
Speaker 1: then what it all means. I mean, I mean, this

699
00:36:56,040 --> 00:36:58,840
Speaker 1: seems like a weird rule, and what practically does it

700
00:36:58,920 --> 00:37:02,400
Speaker 1: mean for extent for us? Well, I think not practically,

701
00:37:02,440 --> 00:37:05,200
Speaker 1: but philosophically, it means something pretty profound. You know. It

702
00:37:05,200 --> 00:37:08,080
Speaker 1: means that forces can be really different from the forces

703
00:37:08,120 --> 00:37:11,440
Speaker 1: that we're familiar with. And this is a recurring story

704
00:37:11,480 --> 00:37:13,799
Speaker 1: in physics that we think the world works one way

705
00:37:13,800 --> 00:37:16,640
Speaker 1: and then we discover, hope, there's an exception. Actually the

706
00:37:16,680 --> 00:37:19,440
Speaker 1: exception is much more powerful than everything we've been thinking about,

707
00:37:19,760 --> 00:37:22,560
Speaker 1: and so it's just another reminder that we need to

708
00:37:22,600 --> 00:37:25,919
Speaker 1: open our minds and that probably there's basic assumptions we're

709
00:37:25,960 --> 00:37:28,839
Speaker 1: making about how the world works that are wrong and

710
00:37:28,920 --> 00:37:31,200
Speaker 1: we just need to counter example to prove to us

711
00:37:31,480 --> 00:37:33,879
Speaker 1: that there's something else going on. So it's just an

712
00:37:33,880 --> 00:37:36,480
Speaker 1: example there, and you know, we'll always be asking the

713
00:37:36,560 --> 00:37:38,719
Speaker 1: question like, why is this that way? Why is this

714
00:37:38,840 --> 00:37:40,960
Speaker 1: the other way? Why isn't it work this other way?

715
00:37:41,000 --> 00:37:43,400
Speaker 1: I would have preferred um and I hope that one

716
00:37:43,440 --> 00:37:45,920
Speaker 1: day we have those answers. But right now we're totally clueless.

717
00:37:45,920 --> 00:37:48,200
Speaker 1: We're just like, we don't know. We're just looking at

718
00:37:48,200 --> 00:37:51,120
Speaker 1: it and trying to at least describe it, not even

719
00:37:51,239 --> 00:37:55,560
Speaker 1: necessarily understand it. But it also has some practical consequences, Yes,

720
00:37:55,600 --> 00:37:58,360
Speaker 1: step us through what what what does that mean for

721
00:37:58,640 --> 00:38:00,879
Speaker 1: what we can and can make out of stuff? Well,

722
00:38:00,880 --> 00:38:03,120
Speaker 1: one of the tempting things about the strong charge is

723
00:38:03,120 --> 00:38:05,960
Speaker 1: that it's super powerful. You know, it powers nuclear weapons

724
00:38:05,960 --> 00:38:08,440
Speaker 1: and nuclear power, and so you might think, wouldn't it

725
00:38:08,440 --> 00:38:11,560
Speaker 1: be awesome to apply that everyday life, you know, to

726
00:38:11,600 --> 00:38:14,960
Speaker 1: have things like batteries that sours the strong force. They

727
00:38:15,000 --> 00:38:18,040
Speaker 1: could be super small and you know, some version of

728
00:38:18,080 --> 00:38:22,840
Speaker 1: electrical current and electrical power that's powered by color instead

729
00:38:22,880 --> 00:38:26,440
Speaker 1: of electrical charge. Right, that would be super awesome, But

730
00:38:26,560 --> 00:38:29,440
Speaker 1: you can't because it's such a powerful force. Could we

731
00:38:29,480 --> 00:38:33,680
Speaker 1: somehow harness that power? To something practical to like charging

732
00:38:33,680 --> 00:38:36,360
Speaker 1: our cell phones. Yeah, could we carry that power around?

733
00:38:36,440 --> 00:38:38,600
Speaker 1: And can we store that power and use it to

734
00:38:38,640 --> 00:38:41,400
Speaker 1: transmit things? And we've done it very briefly. That's you

735
00:38:41,440 --> 00:38:46,120
Speaker 1: know what nuclear bombs are your power um. But it's

736
00:38:46,160 --> 00:38:48,320
Speaker 1: tempting to think about, you know, having like a current,

737
00:38:48,600 --> 00:38:51,239
Speaker 1: like why why couldn't you have a current of that

738
00:38:51,480 --> 00:38:53,600
Speaker 1: kind of power? But you can't because that relies on

739
00:38:53,719 --> 00:38:56,840
Speaker 1: isolating the charges. Like a battery, you can separate the

740
00:38:56,880 --> 00:39:00,440
Speaker 1: electrons and have them kind of flow along your wire

741
00:39:00,560 --> 00:39:03,319
Speaker 1: to power your cell phone. But you couldn't do that

742
00:39:03,360 --> 00:39:05,440
Speaker 1: with quarks. Like if you try to separate the quarks,

743
00:39:06,000 --> 00:39:08,480
Speaker 1: the universe wouldn't like that. Yeah, the universe is like

744
00:39:09,560 --> 00:39:13,600
Speaker 1: and I try it, snapping fingers in a Z pattern,

745
00:39:13,680 --> 00:39:17,120
Speaker 1: like I see what you're trying to do there, and

746
00:39:18,440 --> 00:39:20,759
Speaker 1: you get a big, fat note. So it just means

747
00:39:20,800 --> 00:39:23,040
Speaker 1: that there are things you can't do with that force

748
00:39:23,120 --> 00:39:26,080
Speaker 1: that you can do with other forces. And and one

749
00:39:26,160 --> 00:39:29,560
Speaker 1: of them is, you know, build a version of electricity um,

750
00:39:29,560 --> 00:39:32,120
Speaker 1: which is too bad because it's such an awesome powerful force.

751
00:39:32,520 --> 00:39:38,719
Speaker 1: It'd be cool to call it quarticity or quarkticity. I'm

752
00:39:38,719 --> 00:39:40,200
Speaker 1: not sure that one's going to catch on. Don't even

753
00:39:40,200 --> 00:39:43,160
Speaker 1: know how to spell that a kt in it. It

754
00:39:43,239 --> 00:39:48,560
Speaker 1: has a minus sign in the middle. That's why I'm getting, well,

755
00:39:48,640 --> 00:39:55,080
Speaker 1: that is a minus awesome idea. Well, why why did

756
00:39:55,160 --> 00:39:56,799
Speaker 1: you go with plus or minus? Why can't you go

757
00:39:56,840 --> 00:39:59,759
Speaker 1: with like that's a red red hot idea? There, that's

758
00:40:00,239 --> 00:40:03,160
Speaker 1: it's a cool idea. It's kind of a blue green idea.

759
00:40:04,719 --> 00:40:08,040
Speaker 1: But it also has consequences for me and for particle

760
00:40:08,080 --> 00:40:11,200
Speaker 1: physics because it makes our job a lot harder, because

761
00:40:11,480 --> 00:40:13,839
Speaker 1: it makes it hard to kind of separate these things

762
00:40:13,840 --> 00:40:17,120
Speaker 1: and study them. Yeah, if I am interested in understanding

763
00:40:17,160 --> 00:40:19,960
Speaker 1: what happened inside a particle collision, I got a look

764
00:40:20,000 --> 00:40:22,200
Speaker 1: at the stuff that flies out. Because I can't see

765
00:40:22,560 --> 00:40:25,439
Speaker 1: some heavy, new, crazy particle that I hope was made

766
00:40:25,440 --> 00:40:27,440
Speaker 1: in the collision. It doesn't last very long. I just

767
00:40:27,440 --> 00:40:29,920
Speaker 1: see the stuff that flies out, And so I love

768
00:40:29,960 --> 00:40:32,000
Speaker 1: if that stuff that flies out was sort of simple

769
00:40:32,200 --> 00:40:35,160
Speaker 1: and clean, like it just turned into two electrons or

770
00:40:35,400 --> 00:40:38,560
Speaker 1: something I can measure. But very often in these collisions,

771
00:40:38,560 --> 00:40:41,640
Speaker 1: because we're smashing protons together, we get quirks to fly out,

772
00:40:41,880 --> 00:40:45,000
Speaker 1: and the quirks make these big streams of particles, and

773
00:40:45,000 --> 00:40:47,640
Speaker 1: so instead of having one very simple, nice and neat

774
00:40:47,680 --> 00:40:51,000
Speaker 1: cork that flies out, I have fifty particles that fly out,

775
00:40:51,239 --> 00:40:53,200
Speaker 1: and it's a big mess, and they're interacting and they

776
00:40:53,239 --> 00:40:56,200
Speaker 1: splash in the detector, and we call that a jet

777
00:40:56,200 --> 00:40:58,480
Speaker 1: of particles, because when you pull that cork apart, all

778
00:40:58,520 --> 00:41:01,919
Speaker 1: that energy in the straw force transit into a jet

779
00:41:01,960 --> 00:41:05,160
Speaker 1: of other particles. Yeah, all the energy gets turned into

780
00:41:05,160 --> 00:41:09,319
Speaker 1: ten other particles with other quirks, which then combined to

781
00:41:09,360 --> 00:41:12,520
Speaker 1: make us whole sorts of crazy particles. And so it's

782
00:41:12,520 --> 00:41:15,440
Speaker 1: a big mess. So you're saying it impedes your rights

783
00:41:15,600 --> 00:41:20,000
Speaker 1: as a particle physicist, Yeah, it obscures the universe a

784
00:41:20,000 --> 00:41:22,320
Speaker 1: little bit. You know, we'd love to pull these protons

785
00:41:22,320 --> 00:41:24,759
Speaker 1: apart and study the quirks by themselves. You notice we

786
00:41:24,840 --> 00:41:27,800
Speaker 1: don't have a cork collider, right, We have a proton collider,

787
00:41:28,040 --> 00:41:31,359
Speaker 1: and that's why we're really interested in cork cork interactions.

788
00:41:31,600 --> 00:41:33,919
Speaker 1: But we can't build a quirk collider. But to build

789
00:41:33,920 --> 00:41:36,839
Speaker 1: a proton collider, and then we have to we can't

790
00:41:36,840 --> 00:41:39,239
Speaker 1: see the corks interacting and the quarks flying out. We

791
00:41:39,280 --> 00:41:42,160
Speaker 1: have to see the mess that they make afterwards. You know,

792
00:41:42,200 --> 00:41:45,719
Speaker 1: it's like you want to study preschoolers and and you know,

793
00:41:45,760 --> 00:41:50,959
Speaker 1: they leave a mess. You're like, you know, why can't

794
00:41:50,960 --> 00:41:53,400
Speaker 1: these pre schoolers just tell me what they're thinking? You know?

795
00:41:53,480 --> 00:41:55,759
Speaker 1: Instead they just they rereak havoc wherever they go and

796
00:41:55,920 --> 00:41:58,440
Speaker 1: to try to reconstruct from their tantrums what might have

797
00:41:58,480 --> 00:42:01,239
Speaker 1: been going on in their minds. Schoolers are complicated, and

798
00:42:01,320 --> 00:42:05,560
Speaker 1: so our courts. Yes, preschoolers are complicated, and so are quirks,

799
00:42:05,680 --> 00:42:08,200
Speaker 1: and so that makes our job a little harder. Well, um,

800
00:42:08,200 --> 00:42:10,399
Speaker 1: so I guess that means then that that's just how

801
00:42:10,400 --> 00:42:13,680
Speaker 1: the universe is. The universe has rules for quirks, and

802
00:42:14,000 --> 00:42:18,040
Speaker 1: quirks don't really have alone rights, right, they can ever

803
00:42:18,120 --> 00:42:20,720
Speaker 1: be alone because the universe always wants them to be

804
00:42:20,840 --> 00:42:23,560
Speaker 1: paired up or in three sums, that's right, And there's

805
00:42:23,600 --> 00:42:27,440
Speaker 1: one exception works what quirks they don't they can't be alone.

806
00:42:27,719 --> 00:42:30,000
Speaker 1: But there's one time when they don't have to be

807
00:42:30,080 --> 00:42:34,040
Speaker 1: in paris ms parisms is that a word in apples?

808
00:42:34,120 --> 00:42:37,719
Speaker 1: Or parisms or bananisms um, And that's when they're in

809
00:42:38,040 --> 00:42:42,200
Speaker 1: a huge party. It's called the quirk gluon plasma. Wait

810
00:42:42,280 --> 00:42:45,920
Speaker 1: what huh? Yeah, if you create enough energy density, you

811
00:42:45,960 --> 00:42:49,440
Speaker 1: pour enough energy into a tiny little space. Then you

812
00:42:49,480 --> 00:42:51,680
Speaker 1: can sort of free the quirks because you make this

813
00:42:51,800 --> 00:42:56,560
Speaker 1: like big frothing mass of stuff where there's too much

814
00:42:56,640 --> 00:42:59,160
Speaker 1: energy to bound these things together and they're sort of

815
00:42:59,160 --> 00:43:02,560
Speaker 1: like bound into a huge mass. Instead, we do this

816
00:43:02,640 --> 00:43:06,160
Speaker 1: experimentally by smashing heavy ions together, like the nucleus of

817
00:43:06,200 --> 00:43:09,000
Speaker 1: a lead atom and the nucleus of a lead atom.

818
00:43:09,280 --> 00:43:12,239
Speaker 1: Smash like hundreds of these things together makes this big,

819
00:43:12,400 --> 00:43:16,960
Speaker 1: big frothing mass oh, in which that suddenly it doesn't

820
00:43:17,960 --> 00:43:22,240
Speaker 1: they're not particularly paired to another quirk or two other quarks,

821
00:43:22,320 --> 00:43:25,240
Speaker 1: but there's sort of like, um, it's like a giant,

822
00:43:25,680 --> 00:43:29,120
Speaker 1: big party. Yeah, it's like a plasma. The same way

823
00:43:29,239 --> 00:43:31,680
Speaker 1: you've got a bunch of hydrogen atoms. They're happy with

824
00:43:31,880 --> 00:43:34,520
Speaker 1: every electron being paired with a with a proton, but

825
00:43:34,600 --> 00:43:38,600
Speaker 1: you squeeze them together enough and there's still overall balance

826
00:43:38,640 --> 00:43:41,000
Speaker 1: of electrons and protons, but the electrons are sort of

827
00:43:41,040 --> 00:43:43,799
Speaker 1: free to hop from proton to proton. The same way

828
00:43:43,840 --> 00:43:47,120
Speaker 1: you take protons and you squeeze them together enough and

829
00:43:47,160 --> 00:43:49,440
Speaker 1: the corks sort of smooshed together, and then they can

830
00:43:49,480 --> 00:43:52,920
Speaker 1: sort of swap back and forth very quickly between states

831
00:43:53,400 --> 00:43:55,799
Speaker 1: and so it makes sort of like a big plasma

832
00:43:56,800 --> 00:43:59,560
Speaker 1: and gluons. Yeah, like, oh, I see, So you can't

833
00:43:59,560 --> 00:44:03,640
Speaker 1: have a cork by itself, but you can't have free corks,

834
00:44:03,719 --> 00:44:05,680
Speaker 1: but only if they're in a soup. Yes, So basically

835
00:44:05,719 --> 00:44:07,520
Speaker 1: they like to be in pairs, chiplets, or in a

836
00:44:07,560 --> 00:44:10,920
Speaker 1: big party. And we've actually made that happen. We've collided

837
00:44:11,000 --> 00:44:14,319
Speaker 1: these things together and created them in colliders. And we

838
00:44:14,400 --> 00:44:17,120
Speaker 1: think that it happened in the very early universe when

839
00:44:17,120 --> 00:44:19,920
Speaker 1: the universe was hot and nasty and dense, that there

840
00:44:20,000 --> 00:44:23,040
Speaker 1: was this cork gluon plasma. But these days they're mostly

841
00:44:23,080 --> 00:44:26,520
Speaker 1: found um isolated in these pairs and chiplets. I see,

842
00:44:26,560 --> 00:44:29,759
Speaker 1: and can do these soups? Do these crazy soup parties

843
00:44:30,520 --> 00:44:33,919
Speaker 1: happen in nature or only in colliders? Only in colliders? Now?

844
00:44:34,080 --> 00:44:36,480
Speaker 1: The universe is too cool for that to happen. Although

845
00:44:36,520 --> 00:44:39,399
Speaker 1: some people think that maybe at the center of some

846
00:44:39,480 --> 00:44:43,640
Speaker 1: kinds of stars might be some cork glue in plastron stars,

847
00:44:43,719 --> 00:44:48,320
Speaker 1: maybe neutron stars, probably not dense enough amazingly, but these

848
00:44:48,320 --> 00:44:51,920
Speaker 1: stars called strange cork stars that where there might be

849
00:44:52,040 --> 00:44:54,799
Speaker 1: a cork glue in plasma, but nobody's for sure. All right,

850
00:44:54,880 --> 00:44:57,800
Speaker 1: So it can be free, cork, but it can be

851
00:44:57,920 --> 00:45:00,040
Speaker 1: alone because it can only be free when they a

852
00:45:00,200 --> 00:45:04,719
Speaker 1: whole bunch of other quirks, right, yeah, precisely, so they

853
00:45:04,760 --> 00:45:07,800
Speaker 1: can never be by themselves, can never be alone, but

854
00:45:07,880 --> 00:45:10,520
Speaker 1: it can be free if it's not alone. Oh man,

855
00:45:10,719 --> 00:45:14,080
Speaker 1: that's a tough tough trade off there, would you would

856
00:45:14,080 --> 00:45:17,800
Speaker 1: you trade your freedom for some alone some me time?

857
00:45:19,600 --> 00:45:21,520
Speaker 1: I don't know. I think the quirk's going to have

858
00:45:21,560 --> 00:45:25,560
Speaker 1: his lawyer explained to it exactly what that means. That's

859
00:45:25,560 --> 00:45:30,759
Speaker 1: a new job description, particle lawyer, quantum lawyer. I'm a

860
00:45:30,880 --> 00:45:36,239
Speaker 1: quantum lawyer. Sounds like a scam. Definitely a scam. Do

861
00:45:36,400 --> 00:45:40,120
Speaker 1: not pay anyone for quantum lawyering advice. All right, Well,

862
00:45:40,160 --> 00:45:44,359
Speaker 1: that's another pretty interesting fact about the universeitda at least

863
00:45:44,400 --> 00:45:48,160
Speaker 1: I learned today, is all these um rules that cover

864
00:45:48,360 --> 00:45:52,279
Speaker 1: govern our most fundamental particles. That's right to control how

865
00:45:52,440 --> 00:45:55,200
Speaker 1: your protons and how your neutrons are stuck together, and

866
00:45:55,560 --> 00:45:58,640
Speaker 1: why they're stuck together. So you should be grateful that

867
00:45:58,760 --> 00:46:01,520
Speaker 1: all those quarks are together and doing all that work

868
00:46:01,600 --> 00:46:04,319
Speaker 1: for you. We hope you enjoyed that. See you next time,

869
00:46:04,480 --> 00:46:07,239
Speaker 1: So enjoy your quirks and enjoy your cork yogurt and

870
00:46:07,360 --> 00:46:16,920
Speaker 1: talk to you guys soon before. You still have a

871
00:46:17,000 --> 00:46:20,440
Speaker 1: question after listening to all these explanations, please drop us

872
00:46:20,480 --> 00:46:22,560
Speaker 1: the line. We'd love to hear from you. You can

873
00:46:22,600 --> 00:46:25,960
Speaker 1: find us on Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram at Daniel and

874
00:46:26,120 --> 00:46:29,600
Speaker 1: Jorge That's one Word, or email us at Feedback at

875
00:46:29,719 --> 00:46:33,080
Speaker 1: Daniel and Jorge dot com. Thanks for listening, and remember

876
00:46:33,160 --> 00:46:36,000
Speaker 1: that Daniel and Jorge Explain the Universe is a production

877
00:46:36,040 --> 00:46:39,560
Speaker 1: of I Heart Radio. For more podcast from my Heart Radio,

878
00:46:39,719 --> 00:46:43,280
Speaker 1: visit the i heart Radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever

879
00:46:43,400 --> 00:46:45,080
Speaker 1: you listen to your favorite shows.