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Speaker 1: Hey, Daniel, what does it take to be a star?

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Speaker 1: I think you either have to have enormous natural talent

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Speaker 1: or rich and famous parents. I bet that helps. But

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Speaker 1: what about a star out there in the universe. Oh,

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Speaker 1: that's easier. All you need is like a lot of gas,

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Speaker 1: Like a lot of gas, like the bourbon kind, or

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Speaker 1: the other kind of gas, any kind of gas that

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Speaker 1: kind of make a star out of methane. I don't

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Speaker 1: really know how that would smell, but I bet it

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Speaker 1: would burn pretty well. How about a starman out of

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Speaker 1: laughing gas? That would be pretty funny. I am more

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Speaker 1: handmade cartoonists and the creator of PhD comics. Hi, I'm Daniel.

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Speaker 1: I'm a particle physicist and I'm no kind of star.

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Speaker 1: But I bet you're a gas. I try to make

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Speaker 1: people laugh. Well. Welcome to our podcast, Daniel and Jorge

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Speaker 1: Explain the Universe, a production of our Heart Radio in

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Speaker 1: which we try to gas you up about all the

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Speaker 1: incredible things out there in the universe, the things we understand,

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Speaker 1: the things we don't understand, and the things that scientists

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Speaker 1: are still puzzling over, and the things that make you

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Speaker 1: curious about how our universe works. We try to wrap

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Speaker 1: it all up and ject some jokes and make it

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Speaker 1: all understandable to you. Yeah, because there is a lot

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Speaker 1: out there in the universe to be curious about, including

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Speaker 1: things that may or may not exist. Those are the

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Speaker 1: best things to be curious about. Like is there a

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Speaker 1: tiny little teacup between here in Venus? Yes? Can you

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Speaker 1: prove it? Though I have faith, Daniel in the teacup hypothesis? Well, fortunately,

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Speaker 1: we have better ways of exploring the universe than just faith.

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Speaker 1: We have science, and science encourages us to think creatively,

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Speaker 1: but then ask ourselves questions like how do we know

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Speaker 1: that's true? And how could we approve it? Yeah, because

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Speaker 1: the universe is full of surprises. Sometimes we think some

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Speaker 1: things are impossible, even though the math says that it's possible,

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Speaker 1: and then we find those things out there in the cosmos. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: we have surprises, both experimentally and theoretically. Sometimes we look

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Speaker 1: out into the universe with a new kind of telescope

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Speaker 1: and we see something totally weird than we never expected

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Speaker 1: and didn't understand, like the Fermi bubbles or all sorts

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Speaker 1: of other weird stuff like pulsars. And then there are

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Speaker 1: theoretical surprises where we find something in the math that

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Speaker 1: says this thing could exist in the universe, maybe even

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Speaker 1: should exist. Let's go and see if it's real. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: because I feel like there's no there's nothing in the

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Speaker 1: universe that says that what our expectations are of it

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Speaker 1: or what our experience of it is has to dictate

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Speaker 1: what is actually out there. Thank God for that, right,

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Speaker 1: it's nice that the universe is filled with surprises. It

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Speaker 1: would be borning of the universe was just like the

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Speaker 1: surface of the Earth and not much else. Well, you

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Speaker 1: know that old cars that says, I hope you have

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Speaker 1: an interesting life. Yes, I want to live in interesting

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Speaker 1: scientific times. Actually, I want to live in times when

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Speaker 1: we discover crazy things that totally upend our knowledge of

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Speaker 1: the universe and our understanding of our place in it.

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Speaker 1: That's the power of science. That's the joy of it,

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Speaker 1: is revealing the truth and stripping away our intuition and

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Speaker 1: the ideas that came about just from like living on

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Speaker 1: the surface of the Earth. Well, today we're going to

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Speaker 1: talk about what such thing the scientists think that could

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Speaker 1: be out there. At least the math says it's possible,

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Speaker 1: but we don't really know if it does exist. It

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Speaker 1: would be pretty wild if it does. That's right. It

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Speaker 1: turns out that even though we've talked about neutron stars

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Speaker 1: and magnet oars and crazy white dwarves and all sorts

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Speaker 1: of other kinds of stars. We've done the biggest stars

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Speaker 1: in the universe, the weirdest stars in the universe, it

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Speaker 1: turns out there are even weirder, stranger kinds of stars

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Speaker 1: we haven't even scratched the surface of. So is this

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Speaker 1: the weirdest Star Daniel episode in our Extreme series? This

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Speaker 1: is the most hypothetical list Star I see, I see,

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Speaker 1: the most imaginative star, maybe the most bunkers is Star. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: because each of these sort of extreme examples tells something

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Speaker 1: a little bit about what matter can and cannot do. Right,

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Speaker 1: they're sort of like, you know, extreme examples of where

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Speaker 1: you can take physics. Yeah, these are really useful thought experiments.

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Speaker 1: You say to yourself, is this possible? And if the

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Speaker 1: laws of physics say that it is, then you go

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Speaker 1: out there and you hunt in the universe to see

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Speaker 1: if you find it. And if you find it, cool

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Speaker 1: you've learned something about the universe. And if you don't

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Speaker 1: find it, if you can prove that it doesn't exist

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Speaker 1: somehow that it should exist in the universe, but we

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Speaker 1: don't see any of it. There's a clue, there's a

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Speaker 1: hint that there's something about physics you don't yet understand.

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Speaker 1: And those clues are super valuable because those are the

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Speaker 1: ones that lead us down the path to revealing something

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Speaker 1: true about the universe we didn't know before. Yeah, and

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Speaker 1: that's the whole point of signs, to find out things

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Speaker 1: we didn't know before. What It's not just to make

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Speaker 1: us feel good or make us laugh sometimes, or do

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Speaker 1: you have interesting careers. Science makes me feel good. You know.

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Speaker 1: I had a tasty breakfast this morning because of science.

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Speaker 1: I slept in a warmhouse last night because of science.

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Speaker 1: I'm alive because of science. So, yes, science makes me

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Speaker 1: feel good. I think you mean engineering, Daniel. I don't

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Speaker 1: think a scientists, you know, fix your A C system.

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Speaker 1: This scientist certainly didn't fix my own AC system. That's true. Well,

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Speaker 1: today on the podcast will be asking the question what

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Speaker 1: is a Boson star now, Daniel? That doesn't just refer

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Speaker 1: to the press the button when they discovered the Higgs Boson, right,

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Speaker 1: That would be me. Yes, I'm a star in the

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Speaker 1: Higgs boson. Uh no, I was Did you press the button?

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Speaker 1: I pressed lots of buttons, actually, yes, because I spent

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Speaker 1: time in the control room at the large Hadron Collider,

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Speaker 1: which looks a lot like you know, the way they

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Speaker 1: depict the control room at NASA where they're launching the

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Speaker 1: shuttle or whatever. It's a bunch of monitors and people

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Speaker 1: at desk looking at screens, and you got buttons in

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Speaker 1: front of you, and so yeah, sometimes you actually get

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Speaker 1: to press a button. Yeah, did you press any buttons?

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Speaker 1: Was your role there monitoring the collisions or something? Yeah,

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Speaker 1: you monitor collisions, You make sure the data that's coming

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Speaker 1: in looks reasonable, and then in very rare circumstances, there

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Speaker 1: might be an emergency. I was actually on shift the

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Speaker 1: large hingge On collider when they first turned it on,

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Speaker 1: very early on. It was two thousand eight, if I

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Speaker 1: remember correctly, when we had that accident when there was

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Speaker 1: a spot that was welded poorly and there was an

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Speaker 1: arc and liquid helium was ejected and the whole thing broke,

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Speaker 1: and this this big red button in the control room

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Speaker 1: that you have to hit in the case of an emergency.

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Speaker 1: And I had said at that desk for weeks looking

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Speaker 1: at that button, wanting to press that button, because you know,

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Speaker 1: buttons they have to be pressed right, And so I

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Speaker 1: actually got to press that button. Wow. Now it wasn't

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Speaker 1: just a coincidence that things went wrong when you weren't

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Speaker 1: on the shift. It was a hud of coincidence that

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Speaker 1: things went wrong when I was on shift. Absolutely nothing

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Speaker 1: to do with me at all. It's not like I

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Speaker 1: knocked coffee onto a critical control panel or something. Right

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Speaker 1: with t But yeah, we're asking the question what is

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Speaker 1: a Boson star? And I have to say, I've never

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Speaker 1: heard of this concept a boson star. I mean, I've

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Speaker 1: heard of the Higgs boson, and I think I know

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Speaker 1: what a boson is. It's a kind of particle. But also,

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Speaker 1: but put together with the word star, it's a whole

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Speaker 1: new thing. Yeah. It's fun to just like take two

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Speaker 1: science words and stick them together and say, hey, is

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Speaker 1: this a thing in the universe. I wonder if that's

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Speaker 1: how they came up with this idea. Let's come up

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Speaker 1: with a few quantum black hole that is a thing?

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Speaker 1: Man there, remote dynamic firm me on teleporting hamsters, all right, Yeah,

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Speaker 1: this is an interesting concept in physics. Is it kind

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Speaker 1: of like a new thing, or is it an old

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Speaker 1: thing that people are rediscovering? What's the context here? It's

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Speaker 1: not that old an idea. It's something people have been

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Speaker 1: thinking about in the last few decades, but it's received

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Speaker 1: a little bit of attention recently because one of the

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Speaker 1: ingredients you need to make it a particularly weird kind

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Speaker 1: of Boson has sort of seen a resurgence of interest

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Speaker 1: as a candidate for what might explain the dark matter.

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Speaker 1: All right, well, let's see if people on the internet

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Speaker 1: know what it is. As usual, Daniel went out there

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Speaker 1: and as well, if they knew what a Boson star is. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: and so my deepest gratitude as usual for people who

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Speaker 1: are willing to volunteer to speculate without any preparation on

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Speaker 1: tough physics concepts even Jorge hasn't heard about. So if

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Speaker 1: you would like to participate in the future, please write

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Speaker 1: to me. Two questions at Daniel and Jorge dot com.

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Speaker 1: All right, well here's what people have to say, no idea,

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Speaker 1: the clowns of the star. Do you know there's bosons

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Speaker 1: and fermions. Those are two types of particle. I think

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Speaker 1: one adds up to a different charge and the other.

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Speaker 1: So maybe a boson star is just a start, just

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Speaker 1: completely made out of bosons. That's my best guess. I

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Speaker 1: thought we are done with boson. We find the piggs

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Speaker 1: boson then and that's it. Well and on, No, I

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Speaker 1: don't boson stars. No, sorry, Well I've never heard of them.

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Speaker 1: But my assumption would be that if you can have

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Speaker 1: a star that's only made of neutrons, then you'd be

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Speaker 1: looking at a star that's only made of bosons. However,

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Speaker 1: what that would look like or how it behaves has

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Speaker 1: completely lost all me. Boson stars are stars to give

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Speaker 1: off a lot of bosons, um, and I'm gonna have

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Speaker 1: to back up a few podcasts to remember what bosons are.

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Speaker 1: All right, A lot of good guesses. I like the

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Speaker 1: one about clowns, Like I wonder how many boson stars

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Speaker 1: can you fit into a small car? A lot? Actually

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Speaker 1: a lot. You can seek me a lot of them

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Speaker 1: into there because they're bosons. No. I love hearing these

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Speaker 1: folks try to work it out on the fly. That's

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Speaker 1: my favorite thing about this. It's not like I got

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Speaker 1: your question. I like hearing people think about it and

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Speaker 1: apply their knowledge of physics and try to put these

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Speaker 1: things together and figure it out, you know, in fifteen seconds.

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Speaker 1: So thanks to everybody for your great ideas. Yeah, well,

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Speaker 1: there are a lot of good ideas here. Some people

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Speaker 1: are saying they're stars that give off a lot of bosons,

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Speaker 1: and some people may be saying, we're thinking that there

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Speaker 1: are stars made out of bosons. Could it be a

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Speaker 1: star that eats bosons? Yeah, and there's one person who

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Speaker 1: suggested that maybe neutron stars are made out of bosons,

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Speaker 1: which is a cool idea. Neutron stars are super awesome,

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Speaker 1: but neutrons are not actually bosons. Even though you can

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Speaker 1: have objects we call stars made out of only neutrons,

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Speaker 1: that doesn't qualify as a boson star, but good try.

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Speaker 1: All right, well let's get into it, Daniel, that us

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Speaker 1: three it. What is a boson star? I guess maybe

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Speaker 1: start with the word boson? What does that mean? Yeah,

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Speaker 1: So there are two kinds of particles out there in

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Speaker 1: the universe that we've discovered. There are fermions and there

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Speaker 1: are bosons. And these are not just like cool names

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Speaker 1: for things. These actually have meetings, and the meetings are

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Speaker 1: important because fermions and bosons are very very different kinds

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Speaker 1: of particles. What's the difference. Well, fermions tend to be

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Speaker 1: the kind of particles that make up matter, and bosons

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Speaker 1: tend to be the kind of particles that transmit forces. So,

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Speaker 1: for example, electrons are fermions, Quarks are fermions. Even when

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Speaker 1: you put three quirks together to make a proton or

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Speaker 1: a neutron, you still get a fermion. And so all

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Speaker 1: the stuff that we're made out of, me and you,

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Speaker 1: and amsters and most of the stars in the universe

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Speaker 1: are made out of fermions. Right, So all the matter

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Speaker 1: in the universe are made out of fermions. Were fermion

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Speaker 1: fellas we are, yes, and all the other kind of

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Speaker 1: stuff like light beams and higgs bosons and the weak

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Speaker 1: nuclear force and the strong force. These use particles to

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Speaker 1: communicate between fermions. Like what happens when an electron repels

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Speaker 1: another electron is the exchange a photon. That photon is

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Speaker 1: a boson. So all the particles that represent how matter

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Speaker 1: particles interact, those are force particles. Those are the boson particles.

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Speaker 1: So fermion particles are matter particles, and boson particles are

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Speaker 1: the force particles. Right, So is that the criteria like

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Speaker 1: what they do. Isn't it technically like from a theory

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Speaker 1: point of view that they're all just kind of the same.

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Speaker 1: They're all just like excitations in a quantum field. They

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Speaker 1: are all excitations of quantum fields. But those fields are different,

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Speaker 1: and it's not just about what they do, like what

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Speaker 1: role they serve. They actually have a fundamentally different mathematical

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Speaker 1: structure because all the firm On particles, which are excitations

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Speaker 1: of fer me On fields, have a different quantum spin

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Speaker 1: than all the Boson particles, which are excitations of the

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Speaker 1: Boson field. Remember we talked about quantum spin once in

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Speaker 1: an episode. It's not like that the particles are actually spinning.

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Speaker 1: It's just that they have this property which is really

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Speaker 1: closely related to angular momentum, and so we call it

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Speaker 1: quantum spin. But it's a quantum property which means you

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Speaker 1: can only have a couple of values of it. So,

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Speaker 1: for example, an electron has one half spin can either

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Speaker 1: spin one half up or spin one half down. So

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Speaker 1: for me, on all have these half integer spins half

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Speaker 1: three halves, five halves, whatever. Bosons all have integer spins

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Speaker 1: zero one or two. So if you can go sort

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Speaker 1: of halfway up or halfway down, your fermion, and if

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Speaker 1: you are on the integer number zero, one or two,

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Speaker 1: then you're a boson. So they have different sort of

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Speaker 1: mathematical structures, and that tells us about like the number

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Speaker 1: of different configurations the field can be in. And so

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Speaker 1: fermions and bosons really are fundamentally different kinds of particles.

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Speaker 1: It's like they're part of a different kind of feel altogether, yes,

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Speaker 1: which probably lets them do different things, yes, exactly. And

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Speaker 1: there's a very important property that makes fermions and bosons different. Now,

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Speaker 1: fermions they can't hang out in the same state, like

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Speaker 1: you can't have two electrons hanging out in the same

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Speaker 1: quantum state. You can't have them have the same spin

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Speaker 1: and the same location and the same energy. They just

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Speaker 1: don't get along. They exclude each other. And that's why,

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Speaker 1: for example, when you have a complicated atom with eight

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Speaker 1: electrons around it, for example, they're not all on the

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Speaker 1: lowest energy state. They stack up on top of each

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Speaker 1: other like a game of Connect four. So fermions cannot

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Speaker 1: hang out in the same quantum state, but bosons can.

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Speaker 1: It's the same for quarts, it's the same for quarks. Yeah, absolutely,

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Speaker 1: for any kind of fermion. They will not hang on

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Speaker 1: the same state like this one. In that state, it's done,

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Speaker 1: it's filled in, it's checked off, and the next one

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Speaker 1: that comes in has to settle in at some other state,

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Speaker 1: either higher energy or a different spin or something. But

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Speaker 1: only they're really close together or in the same exact spot.

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Speaker 1: Location is part of your quantum state, And so if

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Speaker 1: you're like isolated in a box, like in a quantum dot,

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Speaker 1: or in a hydrogen atom or something, then the energy

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Speaker 1: level or the spin or something else has to distinguish

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Speaker 1: you from the other electrons. If you're in a different location,

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Speaker 1: that counts as having a different quantum state. But bosons

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Speaker 1: can overlap. Bosons can totally overlap. You can have two

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Speaker 1: bosons in exactly the same quantum state. And you know,

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Speaker 1: for example, take two flashlights and shine them at each other.

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Speaker 1: The phote toons don't like bounce off each other. You

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Speaker 1: can't fill up a room with like light from flashlights

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Speaker 1: and have it be like stuffed full. But fermions repel

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Speaker 1: each other, you know, That's why matter has volume, that's

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Speaker 1: why things fill up. So bosons you can have as

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Speaker 1: many of them as you like in the same state

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Speaker 1: and We've done really interesting experiments that we talked about

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Speaker 1: the podcast, like the bosons dyin condensate, which is an

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Speaker 1: extreme example of this, when you get a huge number

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Speaker 1: of bosons all together in the same quantum state. All right,

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Speaker 1: so then a boson star and then is a star

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Speaker 1: made out of bosons or that gives off the bosons? Yeah,

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Speaker 1: a boson star is a star made out of boson.

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Speaker 1: The Sun, for example, is made out of fermions. It's

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Speaker 1: made out of quarks and electrons all mixed up in

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Speaker 1: different configurations, but they're all fermions, And a Boson star

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Speaker 1: would be a star made out of just boson, like

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Speaker 1: a star made out of light, pure light. Yes, so

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Speaker 1: not every boson is capable of making a Boson star,

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Speaker 1: but yeah, photons are an example of bosons. They're like

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Speaker 1: the most miss kind of boson. But think about sort

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Speaker 1: of how hard it is to make a star. You

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Speaker 1: can't just make a star out of anything. We talked

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Speaker 1: on the podcast about the conditions for making a star.

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Speaker 1: It's actually quite tricky, right, even like stars made out

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Speaker 1: of fermions. You have to have enough mass so that

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Speaker 1: there's gravity that pulls it together and you make like

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Speaker 1: an object not just like a big fluffy cloud out

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Speaker 1: there in the universe. Has to be gravity pulling it together,

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Speaker 1: but there also has to be something else working in

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Speaker 1: the other direction. So gravity doesn't like run away and

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Speaker 1: give you a black hole. In most stars, that's fusion.

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Speaker 1: Gravity comes together and it makes the core of the

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Speaker 1: star really really hot, and so you get light and

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Speaker 1: energy flying out and that pushes against gravity. So the

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Speaker 1: key thing about making a star is this balance. You

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Speaker 1: need something pulling in gravity and you need something pushing

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Speaker 1: out to prevent the collapse. And this is not like

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Speaker 1: an eternally stable thing, so it's not that easy to

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Speaker 1: make it happen. Though in most stars you have fusion

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Speaker 1: and gravity imbalance, and other stars that aren't burning like

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Speaker 1: white dwarf, you know, other weirder stuff happening. But then

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Speaker 1: the question about boson stars is like, what can you

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Speaker 1: get to balance gravity to make a boson star? Right? Well,

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Speaker 1: I guess the tricky part is that you say that

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Speaker 1: bosons are the force particles that transmit forces. So are

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Speaker 1: you talking about like a the idea that you can

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Speaker 1: make a star out of force particles? Like what does

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Speaker 1: that even mean? Daniel, Like a star that where you

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Speaker 1: bring things that are pure force. Yeah, we'll remember that

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Speaker 1: forces aren't transmitted by particles. But those particles can also

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Speaker 1: be real. You know, photons are what electrons used to

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Speaker 1: talk to each other. But photons can also just exist, right.

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Speaker 1: They can fly across the universe, they can be part

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Speaker 1: of a laser beam, and they're created all the time.

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Speaker 1: And so these particles, you know, that's the role they

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Speaker 1: play in our matter and sort of the story we

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Speaker 1: tell about nature, but they can also just exist. So, yeah,

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Speaker 1: you can get a huge pile of bosons all together

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Speaker 1: and then ask questions like what happens to them? Do

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Speaker 1: they form interesting structures? Right? That's the physics game we play.

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Speaker 1: We think what happens when you've got a huge pile

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Speaker 1: of how did yougen together? Oh? Look it does this

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Speaker 1: cool thing. It makes a star. And now people are

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Speaker 1: playing that game, like what happens if you've got a

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Speaker 1: huge number of bosons together? Could you make a star

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Speaker 1: at them? What would they do? Many? Could you fit

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Speaker 1: into a small car? Big fundamental questions? All right, well

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Speaker 1: let's get into how you might actually make a boson

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Speaker 1: star and if they exist, what would they be like?

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Speaker 1: But first let's take a quick break. All right, we're

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Speaker 1: talking about boson stars, a hypothetical, possible, maybe theoretically plausible

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Speaker 1: kind of star, but that maybe we haven't seen yet

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Speaker 1: out there in the universe. We talked about how there

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Speaker 1: are stars that might be made out of bosons. I

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Speaker 1: guess my first question is, how would you even like

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Speaker 1: get a bunch of bosons together? Like, do they have mass?

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Speaker 1: Would gravity bring them together? Or do you need to

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Speaker 1: capture them somehow or you know, lure them with big

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Speaker 1: shoes and red noses? How do we bring them together

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Speaker 1: really comically sized cookies? I think, and that just pulled

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Speaker 1: them all in. No, that's a fair question. You know.

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Speaker 1: You can ask two different questions. One is if I

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Speaker 1: had a huge pile of bosons, would they form a star?

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Speaker 1: And the other question is could I just get or

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Speaker 1: should I expect to see in the universe a huge

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Speaker 1: pile of bosons? Right, it's possible that this thing could

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Speaker 1: potentially exist if you could assemble the ingredients, but that

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Speaker 1: it just doesn't happen in our universe because it's not

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Speaker 1: a consequence of the Big Bang in any way. So

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Speaker 1: those are two totally interesting but separate questions. Oh, I see.

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Speaker 1: One is like can it exist? And the other one

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Speaker 1: is it doesn't exist? Yeah, exactly. And you know, we

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Speaker 1: talked in this podcast about the infinity of the universe

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Speaker 1: and everything that can happen will happen, and that's mostly true.

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Speaker 1: But there's an important coffee out that you had need

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Speaker 1: to have the right initial conditions. You know, it might

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Speaker 1: be that even in an infinite universe, there's no way

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Speaker 1: to start from a hot, dense state that we began

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Speaker 1: from and end up with like a huge pile of

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Speaker 1: bosons all in the same place that then, you know,

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Speaker 1: do whatever they do, maybe make a star. All right, well,

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Speaker 1: let's play the first game. Then what if you suddenly

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Speaker 1: have a bunch of bosons all in the same place

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Speaker 1: or the same vicidity or like volume. What are we

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Speaker 1: talking about? Yeah, that's exactly what you need to do.

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Speaker 1: And you need to think about the two ingredients to

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Speaker 1: make a star. One is gravity and the others outward pressure.

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Speaker 1: So to have gravity, you need to have these objects

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Speaker 1: having some appreciable mass, Right, you need to have gravity

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Speaker 1: be able to work on these things. Now, they're folks

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Speaker 1: out there probably thinking whole lot of second. I know,

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Speaker 1: photons don't have mass, but they are affected by gravity

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Speaker 1: because they can't, for example, escape black holes. And that's true.

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Speaker 1: And we talked once on the podcast about how you

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Speaker 1: could like focus enough photons together to maybe make a

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Speaker 1: black hole, but to make a stable Boson star, you'd

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Speaker 1: actually need to have a particle with at least little

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Speaker 1: bit of mass, so gravity has like a little bit

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Speaker 1: more of a handle to pull it together, right. Well,

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Speaker 1: But it isn't like mass the same thing as energy, Like,

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Speaker 1: if I have a lot of photons in one place,

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Speaker 1: wouldn't that warp the space around it just like it

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Speaker 1: as if it had a lot of mass. Yeah, absolutely would.

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Speaker 1: And you could, for example, make a black hole if

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Speaker 1: you concentrated photons together enough. But a star is a

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Speaker 1: little bit different. It's actually harder to make than a

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Speaker 1: black hole. Black hole is just like a bunch of

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Speaker 1: energy in a super tiny space. A star is a balance, right,

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Speaker 1: It has to be a balance to have just the

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Speaker 1: right amount of gravity and just the right amount of

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Speaker 1: outward pressure. So these two things match, And the calculations

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Speaker 1: just don't suggest that photons could make a Boson star.

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Speaker 1: They don't have enough mass to like pull together in

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Speaker 1: the right density to get the outward pressure you need.

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Speaker 1: I see. I think what you're saying is that for

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Speaker 1: something to be called the star, I mean, it can't

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Speaker 1: be a black hole basically, and it can't be an

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Speaker 1: explosion either. It has to like shine and shine consistently.

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Speaker 1: And you're saying thing that you just can't do that

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Speaker 1: with bosons, like they wouldn't stick together if they don't

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Speaker 1: have mass. You can't do that with photons. There are

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Speaker 1: other bosons out there that might be candidates for making

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Speaker 1: a boson star, but we don't think that photons can

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Speaker 1: do all right, So which bosons could do it? Well,

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Speaker 1: let's go through the kinds of bosons there are in

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Speaker 1: the universe. What's on the menu next up our gluons.

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Speaker 1: But gluons also have no mass. We've got to scratch

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Speaker 1: them off. We also need a particle that's stable. We

429
00:22:29,200 --> 00:22:32,840
Speaker 1: don't want our boson start to decay instantaneously into other

430
00:22:32,920 --> 00:22:36,480
Speaker 1: kinds of stuff, and so that, for example, removes Higgs bosons.

431
00:22:36,760 --> 00:22:40,040
Speaker 1: Higgs bosons exist in the universe, but very very briefly,

432
00:22:40,280 --> 00:22:43,520
Speaker 1: they very rapidly decay into pairs of fermions, like a

433
00:22:43,600 --> 00:22:46,440
Speaker 1: Higgs will decay into two bottom corks or into two

434
00:22:46,520 --> 00:22:49,840
Speaker 1: muans or something like that. So we need a stable particle.

435
00:22:49,920 --> 00:22:52,600
Speaker 1: So we don't think there are any Higgs stars out there,

436
00:22:52,720 --> 00:22:55,400
Speaker 1: which is too bad because that would be kind of awesome. Yeah,

437
00:22:55,920 --> 00:22:59,800
Speaker 1: pretty good name recognition right there. And so that removes

438
00:22:59,840 --> 00:23:02,639
Speaker 1: the possibility of a Hig star and also a W

439
00:23:02,880 --> 00:23:06,040
Speaker 1: star or a Z star. WS and zs are the

440
00:23:06,040 --> 00:23:09,280
Speaker 1: bosons associated with the weak nuclear force, and they're also

441
00:23:09,480 --> 00:23:12,800
Speaker 1: very massive and they decay very quickly. Z s decay

442
00:23:12,840 --> 00:23:15,560
Speaker 1: into a pair of corks. Ws decay also into a

443
00:23:15,560 --> 00:23:18,320
Speaker 1: pair of corks or sometimes into leftons, and so you

444
00:23:18,359 --> 00:23:20,399
Speaker 1: just can't make them out of those particles because they

445
00:23:20,440 --> 00:23:23,120
Speaker 1: would just decay into a Meon star. Well, I'm sad

446
00:23:23,160 --> 00:23:26,720
Speaker 1: that we can't have gluon stars, but we have glue balls. Actually,

447
00:23:27,000 --> 00:23:30,240
Speaker 1: glue balls are a stable configuration of just gluons, a

448
00:23:30,280 --> 00:23:34,119
Speaker 1: particle made out of just gluons, which is pretty but

449
00:23:34,359 --> 00:23:38,320
Speaker 1: you can't have a gluon star unfortunately. Yeah. Also that's

450
00:23:38,320 --> 00:23:42,160
Speaker 1: a sticky subject. So what does that leave us, which particle,

451
00:23:42,600 --> 00:23:45,960
Speaker 1: which boson particle could we used to make a Boson star. Well,

452
00:23:46,000 --> 00:23:49,040
Speaker 1: that basically crosses off all the bosons that we know exists.

453
00:23:49,040 --> 00:23:55,040
Speaker 1: So all right, we're done, but we're not done because

454
00:23:55,080 --> 00:23:57,720
Speaker 1: there are always more particles on the list, this long,

455
00:23:57,920 --> 00:24:02,360
Speaker 1: infinite list of hypothetic goal particles, particles that we think

456
00:24:02,640 --> 00:24:06,600
Speaker 1: might exist and if they did, could do other weird

457
00:24:06,680 --> 00:24:09,679
Speaker 1: things that the particles were familiar with don't do. And

458
00:24:09,960 --> 00:24:12,720
Speaker 1: near the top of that list is a particle which

459
00:24:12,720 --> 00:24:16,320
Speaker 1: has gotten a lot of attention recently. Theoretically, it's called

460
00:24:16,359 --> 00:24:20,160
Speaker 1: the axion. Yeah, we had an episode about that. Maybe

461
00:24:20,240 --> 00:24:23,119
Speaker 1: remind folks what an axon is, And by folks I

462
00:24:23,160 --> 00:24:27,000
Speaker 1: mean including myself. Well, an axon is named after a

463
00:24:27,040 --> 00:24:29,600
Speaker 1: detergent because it was thought up by Frank Wilcheck and

464
00:24:29,640 --> 00:24:31,560
Speaker 1: he was doing a grocery shopping while he was thinking

465
00:24:31,560 --> 00:24:34,560
Speaker 1: about the name, and there's a detergent called axon, and

466
00:24:34,560 --> 00:24:37,400
Speaker 1: he thought, oh, that's a cool name. So the axon

467
00:24:37,520 --> 00:24:39,639
Speaker 1: particle is one that was thought up to sort of

468
00:24:39,680 --> 00:24:44,280
Speaker 1: explain a theoretical puzzle in the strong force. People didn't

469
00:24:44,280 --> 00:24:46,919
Speaker 1: really understand why the strong force was different from the

470
00:24:46,920 --> 00:24:49,280
Speaker 1: weak force in a subtle way, and so they came

471
00:24:49,359 --> 00:24:51,720
Speaker 1: up with this axion to explain it. But the reason

472
00:24:51,760 --> 00:24:54,880
Speaker 1: that axons are interesting recently is that people think they're

473
00:24:54,920 --> 00:24:58,400
Speaker 1: a good candidate for what might be the dark matter particle.

474
00:24:58,640 --> 00:25:01,640
Speaker 1: Remember that while we no dark matter is a thing,

475
00:25:01,800 --> 00:25:04,720
Speaker 1: we know it's out there. We know it's providing gravity.

476
00:25:04,880 --> 00:25:07,159
Speaker 1: Most of the gravity in the universe actually comes from

477
00:25:07,280 --> 00:25:10,440
Speaker 1: dark matter. We still don't know what it's made out of.

478
00:25:10,920 --> 00:25:14,000
Speaker 1: It could be made out of one particle, or many particles,

479
00:25:14,080 --> 00:25:16,639
Speaker 1: or some other weird kind of stuff. But we have

480
00:25:16,720 --> 00:25:19,400
Speaker 1: this sort of list of candidates. One of the particles

481
00:25:19,400 --> 00:25:21,560
Speaker 1: on that list is a firmion. It's called the WHIMP,

482
00:25:21,680 --> 00:25:24,560
Speaker 1: the weekly interacting massive particle, and it's sort of the

483
00:25:24,680 --> 00:25:27,560
Speaker 1: leading candidate for a long time, but nobody's founded. We

484
00:25:27,640 --> 00:25:30,960
Speaker 1: have all these dedicated experiments looking for whimps and not

485
00:25:31,040 --> 00:25:33,600
Speaker 1: seeing them. So recently people have been charted, I think

486
00:25:33,640 --> 00:25:36,159
Speaker 1: a little more broadly, dig deeper into that bag of

487
00:25:36,240 --> 00:25:39,720
Speaker 1: hypothetical particles to find other things. And the idea that

488
00:25:39,760 --> 00:25:42,760
Speaker 1: the axion might be the dark matter is sort of

489
00:25:42,800 --> 00:25:46,280
Speaker 1: popular these days. Wow, alright, I'm a little confused now.

490
00:25:46,720 --> 00:25:49,280
Speaker 1: So you're saying that dark matter could be made out

491
00:25:49,280 --> 00:25:53,479
Speaker 1: of something that's not matter, that's a force a force particle,

492
00:25:54,520 --> 00:25:57,919
Speaker 1: and that's an axion, and that if these things exist,

493
00:25:58,040 --> 00:26:02,280
Speaker 1: you could potentially put them together to make an action star. Yes, exactly.

494
00:26:02,520 --> 00:26:04,840
Speaker 1: You totally understood it, so it must have been perfectly clear.

495
00:26:05,040 --> 00:26:08,280
Speaker 1: So we don't know that acidons exist, right, it's an idea.

496
00:26:08,480 --> 00:26:10,960
Speaker 1: It would be sort of beautiful theoretically and solvement of

497
00:26:10,960 --> 00:26:13,480
Speaker 1: interesting problems. If you're interested in that, go dig into

498
00:26:13,480 --> 00:26:16,880
Speaker 1: that podcast episode specifically on that topic. We don't know

499
00:26:16,960 --> 00:26:19,280
Speaker 1: that they exist, but they would solve an interesting theoretical

500
00:26:19,280 --> 00:26:22,200
Speaker 1: problem about the strong force. They might also be dark matter,

501
00:26:22,400 --> 00:26:25,320
Speaker 1: and yes, they would be the perfect ingredient for making

502
00:26:25,400 --> 00:26:28,600
Speaker 1: a Boson star because they are boson and they have

503
00:26:28,680 --> 00:26:33,040
Speaker 1: a little bit of mass and they are stable. Hey

504
00:26:33,040 --> 00:26:35,520
Speaker 1: did I tell you that Frank will Chick retweeted me

505
00:26:35,560 --> 00:26:39,200
Speaker 1: the other day or mentioned being a tweet. I didn't

506
00:26:39,200 --> 00:26:41,159
Speaker 1: know that. I didn't even know he tweeted you. I

507
00:26:41,160 --> 00:26:43,560
Speaker 1: felt like an action star my cell there for a

508
00:26:43,640 --> 00:26:48,080
Speaker 1: moment there, alright. So then if a Boson star exists,

509
00:26:48,600 --> 00:26:51,960
Speaker 1: it would be potentially made out of actions, which is

510
00:26:52,320 --> 00:26:55,119
Speaker 1: you're saying are stable and they do last for a while,

511
00:26:55,200 --> 00:26:57,720
Speaker 1: and they do have mass, and so they could get

512
00:26:57,760 --> 00:27:00,800
Speaker 1: sort of bunched together by gravity. Yeah, that's the requirements

513
00:27:00,800 --> 00:27:02,399
Speaker 1: to be the dark matter, right, you need to have

514
00:27:02,560 --> 00:27:04,800
Speaker 1: mass otherwise you can not explain in the dark matter.

515
00:27:05,119 --> 00:27:07,960
Speaker 1: And you need to be stable on cosmological time scales,

516
00:27:07,960 --> 00:27:10,120
Speaker 1: because we think dark matter sticks around a long time

517
00:27:10,119 --> 00:27:13,280
Speaker 1: and still here after all. So axions satisfy both of

518
00:27:13,280 --> 00:27:16,280
Speaker 1: those requirements. And then you have to ask the question like, well,

519
00:27:16,680 --> 00:27:20,280
Speaker 1: what makes it a star? And I heard you saying earlier, like, well,

520
00:27:20,320 --> 00:27:22,639
Speaker 1: it has to shine. And I know we've talked on

521
00:27:22,680 --> 00:27:25,280
Speaker 1: this podcast before about the definition of a star versus

522
00:27:25,280 --> 00:27:27,800
Speaker 1: a planet, and a star is defined to be something

523
00:27:27,840 --> 00:27:31,240
Speaker 1: that has fusion happening at its core. Here though, unfortunately

524
00:27:31,240 --> 00:27:34,440
Speaker 1: we're gonna have to be inconsistent and relax that definition

525
00:27:34,960 --> 00:27:40,280
Speaker 1: because a boson star doesn't actually shine. How convenient. So

526
00:27:40,320 --> 00:27:41,919
Speaker 1: what are we talking about then? That Like, if you

527
00:27:41,960 --> 00:27:46,240
Speaker 1: get a whole bunch of axons together, then gravity would

528
00:27:46,640 --> 00:27:48,919
Speaker 1: keep them in a in a ball of axions, like

529
00:27:49,000 --> 00:27:52,080
Speaker 1: a sphere of acions. What what would happen if I

530
00:27:52,080 --> 00:27:54,080
Speaker 1: get a bunch of them together? But like, even even

531
00:27:54,080 --> 00:27:55,840
Speaker 1: if I get two of them together, do they attract

532
00:27:55,880 --> 00:27:58,439
Speaker 1: each other by gravity? They would attract each other with gravity. Now,

533
00:27:58,560 --> 00:28:02,679
Speaker 1: just two particles would have infinitesimal gravitational force, And so

534
00:28:02,720 --> 00:28:06,679
Speaker 1: that's why we don't think about gravitationally bound particle systems. Right,

535
00:28:06,760 --> 00:28:09,760
Speaker 1: Like the proton and the electron, the gravitational force between

536
00:28:09,800 --> 00:28:13,000
Speaker 1: them is basically zero. We should compare to the other forces.

537
00:28:13,040 --> 00:28:15,280
Speaker 1: But if you have a lot of axions near each other,

538
00:28:15,400 --> 00:28:17,600
Speaker 1: then yeah, you're going to have a lot of mass

539
00:28:17,680 --> 00:28:20,239
Speaker 1: and that will make a gravitationally bound system. And so

540
00:28:20,600 --> 00:28:23,119
Speaker 1: you can get a huge serving of axions and they

541
00:28:23,160 --> 00:28:25,960
Speaker 1: would clump together and they would fall into each other,

542
00:28:26,200 --> 00:28:27,760
Speaker 1: and then you have to ask the question, well, like

543
00:28:27,840 --> 00:28:30,399
Speaker 1: why wouldn't you just make a black hole? Right? Remember,

544
00:28:30,440 --> 00:28:33,320
Speaker 1: a star has to have two conditions, needs to have

545
00:28:33,359 --> 00:28:35,840
Speaker 1: gravity to clump it together, and it needs to have

546
00:28:36,000 --> 00:28:39,240
Speaker 1: something to resist falling into a black hole. The reason

547
00:28:39,240 --> 00:28:41,400
Speaker 1: why our son is not a black holes because it's

548
00:28:41,400 --> 00:28:45,000
Speaker 1: resisting that through fusion. The reason that white dwarfs, which

549
00:28:45,040 --> 00:28:47,600
Speaker 1: is the future of our Son, aren't black holes is

550
00:28:47,640 --> 00:28:50,240
Speaker 1: not because they're burning. It's because they're actually made out

551
00:28:50,240 --> 00:28:53,600
Speaker 1: of fermions. And those fermions don't want to sit on

552
00:28:53,680 --> 00:28:57,040
Speaker 1: top of each other. Right, Fermions have this exclusion principle,

553
00:28:57,440 --> 00:29:00,080
Speaker 1: and so that's like quantum mechanics at work there, and

554
00:29:00,120 --> 00:29:03,040
Speaker 1: that white dwarfs don't fall into black holes is because

555
00:29:03,080 --> 00:29:07,120
Speaker 1: of quantum mechanics of their fermions. But axons are different.

556
00:29:07,360 --> 00:29:10,360
Speaker 1: Bosons are different. They can't do either of those things.

557
00:29:10,640 --> 00:29:14,040
Speaker 1: They can't make fusion to have radiation pressure. They can't

558
00:29:14,080 --> 00:29:16,760
Speaker 1: rely on the poly exclusion principle because that only applies

559
00:29:16,800 --> 00:29:19,160
Speaker 1: to fermions, meaning like if you get a bunch of

560
00:29:19,200 --> 00:29:22,640
Speaker 1: electrons at some point they'll repel each other, or protons

561
00:29:22,760 --> 00:29:25,400
Speaker 1: or you know, balls of dirt or neutrons. Yeah, I

562
00:29:25,480 --> 00:29:28,840
Speaker 1: like to make a planet, but bosons they can't sit

563
00:29:28,880 --> 00:29:30,480
Speaker 1: on top of each other. So I guess if you

564
00:29:30,520 --> 00:29:32,920
Speaker 1: get a whole bunch of them together, why wouldn't they

565
00:29:32,960 --> 00:29:35,080
Speaker 1: just all sit in the same point. That's kind of

566
00:29:35,080 --> 00:29:37,320
Speaker 1: what you're saying, right, And if they do, then you

567
00:29:37,320 --> 00:29:39,600
Speaker 1: would form a black hole exactly. So you need a

568
00:29:39,600 --> 00:29:43,720
Speaker 1: boson which would prevent itself somehow from collapsing. And the

569
00:29:43,760 --> 00:29:47,160
Speaker 1: way you do that here is another property of quantum mechanics.

570
00:29:47,560 --> 00:29:49,960
Speaker 1: So you're exactly right there. The reason a neutron star

571
00:29:50,080 --> 00:29:53,040
Speaker 1: and a white dwarf don't collapse into a black hole

572
00:29:53,200 --> 00:29:55,560
Speaker 1: is because the fermi pressure. Right, it's all these particles

573
00:29:55,600 --> 00:29:57,880
Speaker 1: not wanting to sit on top of each other. Boson

574
00:29:57,960 --> 00:30:00,760
Speaker 1: stars can't do that. But there's an another property of

575
00:30:00,800 --> 00:30:04,880
Speaker 1: quantum mechanics, the uncertainty principle, that just prevents axions and

576
00:30:04,960 --> 00:30:09,080
Speaker 1: bosons from being too constrained. Right, if you have a

577
00:30:09,200 --> 00:30:12,080
Speaker 1: bunch of axions and say they're all within the same

578
00:30:12,160 --> 00:30:15,920
Speaker 1: sort of location, then that creates a large uncertainty on

579
00:30:15,960 --> 00:30:19,520
Speaker 1: their position, because the uncertainty principle tells us that there's

580
00:30:19,520 --> 00:30:22,520
Speaker 1: like a minimum amount of uncertainty in the momentum and

581
00:30:22,600 --> 00:30:25,120
Speaker 1: the position of these particles. So if you can strain

582
00:30:25,200 --> 00:30:27,719
Speaker 1: their position and their momentum becomes uncertain and then they

583
00:30:27,720 --> 00:30:31,160
Speaker 1: fly off, the quantum mechanics sort of resists having these

584
00:30:31,160 --> 00:30:33,640
Speaker 1: things collapse. What do you mean They can't merge like

585
00:30:33,720 --> 00:30:36,880
Speaker 1: they can be used together like fermions. Well, not all

586
00:30:36,920 --> 00:30:40,400
Speaker 1: fermions confuse together, only some, only some, but yeah, but

587
00:30:40,520 --> 00:30:45,000
Speaker 1: bosons typically don't interact with themselves, like photons don't interact

588
00:30:45,000 --> 00:30:48,600
Speaker 1: with other photons. Photons don't merge together to form something else.

589
00:30:49,000 --> 00:30:52,240
Speaker 1: Some bosons do, like gluons or higgs. Bosons have a

590
00:30:52,280 --> 00:30:57,120
Speaker 1: self interaction, but most bosons, including axions, don't interact with themselves.

591
00:30:57,440 --> 00:30:59,880
Speaker 1: They just like don't even see each other, and unlike

592
00:31:00,000 --> 00:31:02,200
Speaker 1: add up, Like if you have two in the same spot,

593
00:31:02,240 --> 00:31:03,920
Speaker 1: don't they just add up. They don't add up because

594
00:31:03,920 --> 00:31:06,000
Speaker 1: they don't like fill energy levels. Right, they can all

595
00:31:06,040 --> 00:31:08,479
Speaker 1: be in the same energy level. That's not a problem

596
00:31:08,480 --> 00:31:11,239
Speaker 1: for bosons, and they don't have any interaction. You know

597
00:31:11,280 --> 00:31:14,760
Speaker 1: that field, the axon field doesn't interact with itself at all,

598
00:31:15,000 --> 00:31:18,240
Speaker 1: just the same way photons don't. Photons, for example, only

599
00:31:18,280 --> 00:31:22,200
Speaker 1: interact with charge particles. Right. They will ignore neutrons and

600
00:31:22,360 --> 00:31:25,920
Speaker 1: neutrinos and anything else that has zero electric charge, including

601
00:31:26,360 --> 00:31:29,480
Speaker 1: their photons, and axions are the same way they ignore

602
00:31:29,600 --> 00:31:32,320
Speaker 1: all other axon. If I have two photons in the

603
00:31:32,360 --> 00:31:34,440
Speaker 1: same spot, then they just become a bigger photon or

604
00:31:34,640 --> 00:31:37,800
Speaker 1: are they still technically to fold doon, there's still two photons. Yeah,

605
00:31:38,040 --> 00:31:40,280
Speaker 1: And I should add here that there are actually a

606
00:31:40,360 --> 00:31:44,920
Speaker 1: few different flavors of axons, since they are a hypothetical particle.

607
00:31:45,520 --> 00:31:48,400
Speaker 1: Right now, we're talking about the ones that don't interact

608
00:31:48,440 --> 00:31:52,840
Speaker 1: with themselves or with photons, But there are other versions

609
00:31:52,840 --> 00:31:56,280
Speaker 1: of these theories where they have some small self interaction

610
00:31:56,360 --> 00:31:59,680
Speaker 1: and they can feel photons a little bit. Those variants

611
00:31:59,720 --> 00:32:03,760
Speaker 1: can also make boson stars, and sometimes that self interaction

612
00:32:03,880 --> 00:32:07,400
Speaker 1: can help if it's repulsive, because the axons might repel

613
00:32:07,480 --> 00:32:10,320
Speaker 1: each other and then form that outward pressure to keep

614
00:32:10,360 --> 00:32:13,800
Speaker 1: the axon star from collapsing. All right, well that's our

615
00:32:14,080 --> 00:32:19,360
Speaker 1: main imaginary candidate for these imaginary stars, the axon, and

616
00:32:19,440 --> 00:32:21,600
Speaker 1: so that's how you would make one. But let's talk

617
00:32:21,600 --> 00:32:24,520
Speaker 1: about whether or not we actually see them out there

618
00:32:24,600 --> 00:32:27,160
Speaker 1: in space and what they would be like. But first,

619
00:32:27,240 --> 00:32:42,240
Speaker 1: let's take another quick break a right. We're talking about

620
00:32:42,520 --> 00:32:46,360
Speaker 1: boson stars that may exist out there in the cosmos,

621
00:32:46,400 --> 00:32:49,280
Speaker 1: and if they do, they might be made out of axons,

622
00:32:49,360 --> 00:32:53,520
Speaker 1: which themselves may or may not exist. I feel like

623
00:32:53,520 --> 00:32:58,240
Speaker 1: we're stacking imaginaries here. The imaginary concepts exclude each other, Daniel,

624
00:32:58,360 --> 00:33:02,240
Speaker 1: do they add up? Confused? Can they merge? These bonkers

625
00:33:02,280 --> 00:33:04,600
Speaker 1: concepts are all boson, so we can have an infinite

626
00:33:04,680 --> 00:33:07,360
Speaker 1: number of bonkers nous. I see, they don't exclude each other,

627
00:33:07,400 --> 00:33:10,360
Speaker 1: so you can just stack him infinitely exactly until we

628
00:33:10,360 --> 00:33:13,120
Speaker 1: get a bozo star. All right, Well, let's say that

629
00:33:13,160 --> 00:33:16,040
Speaker 1: the axion does exist, and let's say that you could

630
00:33:16,480 --> 00:33:19,960
Speaker 1: somewhere out there and get them all together enough to

631
00:33:20,080 --> 00:33:23,840
Speaker 1: make some sort of axon object. That still doesn't tell

632
00:33:23,880 --> 00:33:25,720
Speaker 1: me how that makes it a start, Like, why isn't

633
00:33:25,800 --> 00:33:32,440
Speaker 1: wouldn't be called an axion planet or an axion you know, Well,

634
00:33:32,480 --> 00:33:34,600
Speaker 1: if you were around when they were deciding on the

635
00:33:34,640 --> 00:33:36,800
Speaker 1: name of these things, then that would have been a

636
00:33:36,800 --> 00:33:39,720
Speaker 1: good idea axion planet. I think that makes more sense,

637
00:33:39,800 --> 00:33:43,400
Speaker 1: you know, because the planet is a nonfusing blob of

638
00:33:43,560 --> 00:33:46,480
Speaker 1: stuff out there in the universe made out of basically whatever.

639
00:33:47,040 --> 00:33:50,480
Speaker 1: So yeah, these axions are also they're not fusing, they're

640
00:33:50,520 --> 00:33:53,080
Speaker 1: not glowing, they're not giving off any light. They're just

641
00:33:53,240 --> 00:33:57,840
Speaker 1: a stable collection of axions that are resisting collapsing into

642
00:33:57,920 --> 00:34:00,720
Speaker 1: a black hole. So I think they called it a

643
00:34:00,760 --> 00:34:04,040
Speaker 1: star just to sort of make it sound awesome, not

644
00:34:04,120 --> 00:34:08,680
Speaker 1: because it's actually doing it really? Was that a in

645
00:34:08,680 --> 00:34:10,920
Speaker 1: the physics paper in there, I don't know. I mean,

646
00:34:10,920 --> 00:34:14,359
Speaker 1: in the same way our neutron stars stars, right, they're

647
00:34:14,400 --> 00:34:16,879
Speaker 1: just a big collection of neutrons that aren't collapsing into

648
00:34:16,880 --> 00:34:19,759
Speaker 1: a black hole yet. But they're not glowing, right, They're

649
00:34:19,760 --> 00:34:23,840
Speaker 1: not using there's no radiation being emitted there. So the

650
00:34:23,880 --> 00:34:26,719
Speaker 1: same way like white dwarfs, right, we call those stars.

651
00:34:26,760 --> 00:34:29,200
Speaker 1: So yeah, astronomy has got support to do. I think

652
00:34:29,200 --> 00:34:31,080
Speaker 1: what you're saying. That is it? In physics, there are

653
00:34:31,120 --> 00:34:33,919
Speaker 1: no standards for being a star. Anyone can be a star.

654
00:34:34,080 --> 00:34:37,839
Speaker 1: It's like our society today. You need an Instagram account. Yeah,

655
00:34:37,840 --> 00:34:40,480
Speaker 1: for famous parents. Being a physicist is easy. It's no

656
00:34:40,560 --> 00:34:43,880
Speaker 1: big deal. No, I'm saying, I cannot defend the naming

657
00:34:43,880 --> 00:34:46,080
Speaker 1: of this thing as a star. It's just there's nothing

658
00:34:46,120 --> 00:34:48,200
Speaker 1: I can say about it, and that makes any sense.

659
00:34:48,880 --> 00:34:51,759
Speaker 1: But I guess you're saying that it is possible theoretically

660
00:34:51,800 --> 00:34:54,319
Speaker 1: to have a whole bunch of axons together in the

661
00:34:54,360 --> 00:34:57,360
Speaker 1: same spot without collapsing into a black hole. And what

662
00:34:57,560 --> 00:35:02,040
Speaker 1: keeps them from collapsing? Is this on certainty principle? He said, yeah, exactly.

663
00:35:02,160 --> 00:35:03,719
Speaker 1: As he's trying to constrain them to be in a

664
00:35:03,800 --> 00:35:07,360
Speaker 1: smaller and smaller location, the uncertainty grows on their energy,

665
00:35:07,640 --> 00:35:11,360
Speaker 1: and that essentially resists them being constrained. So the uncertainty

666
00:35:11,360 --> 00:35:15,319
Speaker 1: principle resists them from being collapsed too far into a

667
00:35:15,360 --> 00:35:19,080
Speaker 1: tiny little spot. So how big would an actium planet

668
00:35:19,239 --> 00:35:21,480
Speaker 1: evolve be? Like, if you get a whole bunch of

669
00:35:21,560 --> 00:35:24,520
Speaker 1: them together, would it be just super tiny or would

670
00:35:24,520 --> 00:35:26,080
Speaker 1: it actually be the size of a planet. It's a

671
00:35:26,120 --> 00:35:28,719
Speaker 1: great question, And it depends on the mass of the

672
00:35:28,760 --> 00:35:32,200
Speaker 1: boson star, and so a more massive boson star would

673
00:35:32,200 --> 00:35:35,680
Speaker 1: be larger have a similar sort of structure two black holes,

674
00:35:35,800 --> 00:35:39,200
Speaker 1: right or more massive black hole than just becomes larger

675
00:35:39,239 --> 00:35:41,640
Speaker 1: and larger and larger sort of in volume. And so

676
00:35:41,760 --> 00:35:44,840
Speaker 1: boson stars in the same way would resist collapsing. And

677
00:35:44,880 --> 00:35:47,319
Speaker 1: the more bosons you have, the more resistance there is,

678
00:35:47,360 --> 00:35:49,360
Speaker 1: and so they would just sort of like grow larger

679
00:35:49,400 --> 00:35:51,839
Speaker 1: and larger. But the question is, like, you know, are

680
00:35:51,880 --> 00:35:55,239
Speaker 1: there boson stars and if so, how big are they? Yeah,

681
00:35:55,239 --> 00:35:57,239
Speaker 1: because I feel like you're saying that the it's the

682
00:35:57,320 --> 00:36:02,239
Speaker 1: uncertainty principle that keeps him kind of from collapsing. Can

683
00:36:02,320 --> 00:36:04,800
Speaker 1: you have an uncertainty principle the size of a planet,

684
00:36:04,840 --> 00:36:07,640
Speaker 1: like that's a big ball of uncert is a big

685
00:36:07,680 --> 00:36:10,760
Speaker 1: ball of uncertainty, Yeah, exactly. But you know it also

686
00:36:10,800 --> 00:36:13,640
Speaker 1: applies locally and not just globally, so you can have

687
00:36:13,680 --> 00:36:16,799
Speaker 1: like patches of these things where you have bosons lying

688
00:36:16,840 --> 00:36:18,640
Speaker 1: on top of each other. So yeah, I think it

689
00:36:18,719 --> 00:36:21,880
Speaker 1: certainly could apply to something the size of a planet.

690
00:36:21,880 --> 00:36:24,360
Speaker 1: I mean it does also for white dwarves righting, for

691
00:36:24,440 --> 00:36:27,399
Speaker 1: neutron stars, there you have, like quantum mechanics at work

692
00:36:27,440 --> 00:36:30,680
Speaker 1: preventing particles from overlapping on top of each other, providing

693
00:36:30,719 --> 00:36:33,480
Speaker 1: the resistance to collapsing into a black hole. Does that

694
00:36:33,520 --> 00:36:37,400
Speaker 1: apply to photons to like? Can photons also be stacked

695
00:36:37,400 --> 00:36:40,719
Speaker 1: like that? Does the uncertainty principle also prevent photons from

696
00:36:40,760 --> 00:36:42,840
Speaker 1: being on top of each other? Yeah? Absolutely. If you

697
00:36:42,880 --> 00:36:45,960
Speaker 1: try to localize photons in the same way, then it

698
00:36:46,040 --> 00:36:48,840
Speaker 1: will prevent you from knowing their energy in exactly the

699
00:36:48,840 --> 00:36:51,520
Speaker 1: same way. The uncertainty principle applies to all quantum particles.

700
00:36:51,640 --> 00:36:54,600
Speaker 1: It might be easier to understand the uncertainty principle if

701
00:36:54,600 --> 00:36:57,680
Speaker 1: you think about it in terms of temperature. Quantum mechanics

702
00:36:57,680 --> 00:37:01,520
Speaker 1: prevents anything from going to absolute zero temperature because there's

703
00:37:01,520 --> 00:37:05,200
Speaker 1: always a minimum energy. Otherwise you'd know a particle's momentum

704
00:37:05,239 --> 00:37:07,760
Speaker 1: and location at once because it'd be frozen in place.

705
00:37:08,239 --> 00:37:11,560
Speaker 1: So there's a minimum temperature for any collection of particles.

706
00:37:11,560 --> 00:37:15,400
Speaker 1: And that's quantum mechanics keeping something from collapsing into a

707
00:37:15,440 --> 00:37:17,880
Speaker 1: single dot. So the way you, for example, you would

708
00:37:17,920 --> 00:37:21,399
Speaker 1: make a black hole out of photons is not by

709
00:37:21,400 --> 00:37:24,000
Speaker 1: trying to squeeze a bunch of photons that already exist

710
00:37:24,040 --> 00:37:27,279
Speaker 1: into the same location, but by overlapping laser beams on

711
00:37:27,360 --> 00:37:30,400
Speaker 1: top of each other, the photons from different directions are

712
00:37:30,440 --> 00:37:32,719
Speaker 1: all coming together in the same place. Well, let's say

713
00:37:32,719 --> 00:37:36,719
Speaker 1: that these stars exist, these boson stars exist. What would

714
00:37:36,760 --> 00:37:38,759
Speaker 1: they be like? Could we see the one, would we

715
00:37:38,800 --> 00:37:41,960
Speaker 1: feel attracted to them? Would they, you know, burn our

716
00:37:42,000 --> 00:37:43,879
Speaker 1: eyes if we look at them? They would actually look

717
00:37:43,880 --> 00:37:47,680
Speaker 1: a lot like black holes because they are dense gravitational objects.

718
00:37:47,719 --> 00:37:51,320
Speaker 1: There contortions in space time right due to the mass

719
00:37:51,320 --> 00:37:54,640
Speaker 1: of all the axons, And they're not glowing. They're not

720
00:37:54,719 --> 00:37:58,040
Speaker 1: giving off any light or there's no fusion happening inside

721
00:37:58,040 --> 00:38:01,920
Speaker 1: of them, but they're not black right. Light can escape them,

722
00:38:01,960 --> 00:38:05,239
Speaker 1: so there's no event horizon. But they're sort of like transparent.

723
00:38:05,280 --> 00:38:08,240
Speaker 1: In fact, they're more like transparent holes than black holes.

724
00:38:08,320 --> 00:38:10,399
Speaker 1: It's weird to think that a whole is transparent, because

725
00:38:10,400 --> 00:38:15,840
Speaker 1: the aren't all wholes transparent. Technically, I suppose that it

726
00:38:15,880 --> 00:38:18,520
Speaker 1: would be a non weird hole for once. They would

727
00:38:18,520 --> 00:38:22,520
Speaker 1: be essentially invisible, but they would distort the light around them,

728
00:38:22,560 --> 00:38:24,719
Speaker 1: so it's sort of like just being seeing a big

729
00:38:24,840 --> 00:38:27,279
Speaker 1: lens in the sky. It would look a lot like

730
00:38:27,440 --> 00:38:30,600
Speaker 1: dark matter, right, dark matter you can't see visually, but

731
00:38:30,719 --> 00:38:33,720
Speaker 1: you can detect that it's there because of its gravity,

732
00:38:33,800 --> 00:38:35,960
Speaker 1: and so Boson stars would be the same. They would

733
00:38:36,000 --> 00:38:39,440
Speaker 1: distort space around them, bending the path of light for example,

734
00:38:39,600 --> 00:38:41,960
Speaker 1: so you would see gravitational lensing and all sorts of

735
00:38:41,960 --> 00:38:45,200
Speaker 1: other weird stuff. There wouldn't be an event horizon I see,

736
00:38:45,400 --> 00:38:48,120
Speaker 1: but wouldn't They wouldn't block or reflect, like like if

737
00:38:48,120 --> 00:38:50,120
Speaker 1: I have a bunch of axons there and I shoot

738
00:38:50,120 --> 00:38:52,560
Speaker 1: a laser beam into it. With the laser beam, just

739
00:38:52,680 --> 00:38:55,400
Speaker 1: shoot right through it. It wouldn't interact with the with

740
00:38:55,440 --> 00:38:57,520
Speaker 1: the axons. If you shot a laser beam into a

741
00:38:57,560 --> 00:39:00,400
Speaker 1: Boson star, then no, nothing would happen to go right

742
00:39:00,400 --> 00:39:03,359
Speaker 1: through because photons and axons don't interact with each other

743
00:39:03,600 --> 00:39:06,920
Speaker 1: for some theories of axons. There are other versions of

744
00:39:06,960 --> 00:39:09,960
Speaker 1: axons where the photons and axons can interact a bit.

745
00:39:10,000 --> 00:39:12,960
Speaker 1: But here we're thinking about axions as dark matter with

746
00:39:13,000 --> 00:39:16,359
Speaker 1: no reaction to photons. The only effect would be gravitational.

747
00:39:16,400 --> 00:39:18,719
Speaker 1: If you shot your laser beams sort of near the

748
00:39:18,760 --> 00:39:21,600
Speaker 1: Boson star, it might curve the path of your laser.

749
00:39:22,080 --> 00:39:24,520
Speaker 1: It would bend your laser, but the axions and the

750
00:39:24,520 --> 00:39:27,719
Speaker 1: photons is quantum particles don't interact, I see, and what

751
00:39:27,880 --> 00:39:29,960
Speaker 1: these things need to be huge? Or could you have

752
00:39:30,000 --> 00:39:32,759
Speaker 1: a small Bozon star? We don't know. Actually that's a

753
00:39:32,760 --> 00:39:35,479
Speaker 1: great question. I think they might be really huge. In fact,

754
00:39:35,480 --> 00:39:38,920
Speaker 1: there's some speculation that some of the black holes at

755
00:39:38,960 --> 00:39:42,840
Speaker 1: the center of galaxies might actually just be Boson stars.

756
00:39:43,080 --> 00:39:45,080
Speaker 1: But there's also the possibility that you could make them

757
00:39:45,080 --> 00:39:47,440
Speaker 1: to be fairly small. In the same way that like

758
00:39:47,480 --> 00:39:50,400
Speaker 1: black holes you can make to me, really really really small,

759
00:39:50,680 --> 00:39:53,680
Speaker 1: you could also make Boson stars and it's fairly small

760
00:39:53,760 --> 00:39:56,640
Speaker 1: helping as long as they were compact enough. All right, Well,

761
00:39:56,680 --> 00:40:00,759
Speaker 1: so there would be basically transparent. And it's kind of

762
00:40:00,800 --> 00:40:03,600
Speaker 1: like could they have planets other planets, like real planets

763
00:40:03,680 --> 00:40:06,879
Speaker 1: orbiting around them? Absolutely they could, and they might also

764
00:40:06,960 --> 00:40:10,520
Speaker 1: not be transparent for very long because, for example, think

765
00:40:10,560 --> 00:40:13,080
Speaker 1: about what happens if you toss a banana and a

766
00:40:13,120 --> 00:40:16,839
Speaker 1: Boson star. What happens, Well, it passes through the axons

767
00:40:17,160 --> 00:40:19,640
Speaker 1: and it falls towards the center because of the gravity,

768
00:40:19,880 --> 00:40:22,040
Speaker 1: and then it just sort of stays there right like

769
00:40:22,680 --> 00:40:25,160
Speaker 1: you just fall into it and not be able to escape.

770
00:40:25,200 --> 00:40:28,360
Speaker 1: It has the gravitational pull of something else. With the

771
00:40:28,400 --> 00:40:32,000
Speaker 1: same mass, and so things would fall into the core

772
00:40:32,080 --> 00:40:34,759
Speaker 1: of it. It would collect normal matter at its core.

773
00:40:34,920 --> 00:40:38,279
Speaker 1: It wouldn't get crushed or anything. Yeah, absolutely, it might

774
00:40:38,320 --> 00:40:41,040
Speaker 1: get crushed. Your banana might not survive, but it also

775
00:40:41,040 --> 00:40:44,440
Speaker 1: wouldn't escape. And so if these boson stars are near

776
00:40:44,520 --> 00:40:47,360
Speaker 1: other matter, then that matter might fall into them and

777
00:40:47,480 --> 00:40:49,680
Speaker 1: that would be visible. Oh you mean, like in the

778
00:40:49,719 --> 00:40:52,960
Speaker 1: same way that dark matter, for example, kind of helps

779
00:40:53,400 --> 00:40:59,200
Speaker 1: gather galaxy. Yeah, and acon star could help gather banana

780
00:40:59,680 --> 00:41:02,800
Speaker 1: because the way stars tell us where dark matter is,

781
00:41:02,840 --> 00:41:07,839
Speaker 1: bananas tell us where both stars are perfect analogy. And

782
00:41:07,880 --> 00:41:09,680
Speaker 1: that would be super real because you see a banana,

783
00:41:09,760 --> 00:41:11,479
Speaker 1: but it would have like the mass of a black

784
00:41:11,520 --> 00:41:15,440
Speaker 1: hole exactly, like the most powerful banana in the universe,

785
00:41:15,440 --> 00:41:20,719
Speaker 1: and it would attract other bananas and monkeys and r maybe,

786
00:41:21,160 --> 00:41:24,040
Speaker 1: and you would also get other gravitational effects, like it

787
00:41:24,120 --> 00:41:27,000
Speaker 1: might have matter swirling around it, the same way that

788
00:41:27,040 --> 00:41:30,399
Speaker 1: black holes do. If you have nearby gas, it would

789
00:41:30,440 --> 00:41:32,720
Speaker 1: get pulled in by the gravitational field. But it doesn't

790
00:41:32,719 --> 00:41:35,919
Speaker 1: always collapse in, right, Not everything near a black hole

791
00:41:36,000 --> 00:41:39,560
Speaker 1: automatically falls in because it's spinning. So some things instead

792
00:41:39,600 --> 00:41:43,360
Speaker 1: of falling in gather into this accretion disc, and a

793
00:41:43,400 --> 00:41:46,520
Speaker 1: Boson star might also get an accretion disk, and it

794
00:41:46,600 --> 00:41:49,800
Speaker 1: might have radiation from that accretion disc. And the way

795
00:41:49,800 --> 00:41:52,960
Speaker 1: that we detect black holes normally is we see like

796
00:41:53,120 --> 00:41:57,560
Speaker 1: gravitational influence and an acretion disc and like signals from

797
00:41:57,600 --> 00:42:01,799
Speaker 1: that accreation disc of incredible gravity tational stress. Those are

798
00:42:01,880 --> 00:42:04,839
Speaker 1: also the signals of a Boson star. So how could

799
00:42:04,840 --> 00:42:07,880
Speaker 1: we tell the difference? Or is it even possible that

800
00:42:07,960 --> 00:42:12,919
Speaker 1: black holes are made out of bosons? Like you could

801
00:42:12,920 --> 00:42:15,960
Speaker 1: throw bozons into a black hole and it would grow too, right, Yeah,

802
00:42:16,000 --> 00:42:17,440
Speaker 1: you can throw anything into a black hole, and you

803
00:42:17,440 --> 00:42:19,759
Speaker 1: can make a black hole out of anything, So it's

804
00:42:19,800 --> 00:42:22,120
Speaker 1: possible that black holes have a lot of bosons or

805
00:42:22,160 --> 00:42:25,640
Speaker 1: axons in them. Certainly, how could you tell the difference

806
00:42:25,680 --> 00:42:28,120
Speaker 1: between a black hole and a Bozon star. You'd have

807
00:42:28,200 --> 00:42:30,759
Speaker 1: to look really directly at it, because a Boson star

808
00:42:30,880 --> 00:42:33,440
Speaker 1: doesn't have an event horizon. So, for example, when we

809
00:42:33,520 --> 00:42:36,400
Speaker 1: directly image that black hole and we saw the shadow

810
00:42:36,440 --> 00:42:38,840
Speaker 1: of the black hole, we saw the back of the

811
00:42:38,880 --> 00:42:41,799
Speaker 1: event horizon in the front of it inside the accretion disk.

812
00:42:42,120 --> 00:42:45,480
Speaker 1: That's pretty clearly not a Boson star because there's a

813
00:42:45,520 --> 00:42:47,360
Speaker 1: black spot in the middle. But if you looked at

814
00:42:47,400 --> 00:42:49,239
Speaker 1: one of these things directly and you didn't see the

815
00:42:49,239 --> 00:42:51,239
Speaker 1: black spot, if you saw gas all the way through it,

816
00:42:51,360 --> 00:42:54,560
Speaker 1: then you think, oh, that's probably a Bozon star. All right, Well,

817
00:42:54,600 --> 00:42:57,680
Speaker 1: then how could we see these hypothetical Bozon stars if

818
00:42:57,719 --> 00:42:59,840
Speaker 1: they exist? And there are two ways. One is direct

819
00:43:00,000 --> 00:43:02,480
Speaker 1: imaging of them, right, just look at black hole candidates

820
00:43:02,480 --> 00:43:05,040
Speaker 1: and see if you can see the event horizon. If

821
00:43:05,080 --> 00:43:07,799
Speaker 1: you can't, then it might be a Boson star. There's

822
00:43:07,840 --> 00:43:11,160
Speaker 1: another way, which is maybe easier, because directly imaging black

823
00:43:11,160 --> 00:43:13,719
Speaker 1: holes is hard. You know, We've been working on it

824
00:43:13,719 --> 00:43:15,640
Speaker 1: for a long time and only done it for one

825
00:43:15,920 --> 00:43:19,720
Speaker 1: and that's it. Looking at the gravitational waves. Gravitational waves

826
00:43:19,719 --> 00:43:22,480
Speaker 1: are generated from spinning black holes or from things moving

827
00:43:22,520 --> 00:43:25,399
Speaker 1: around black holes, like neutron stars and stuff like that.

828
00:43:25,520 --> 00:43:29,040
Speaker 1: So because there's a slightly different structure in the field,

829
00:43:29,120 --> 00:43:32,200
Speaker 1: because boson is of a different distribution than like a singularity,

830
00:43:32,280 --> 00:43:34,760
Speaker 1: the heart of a black hole is a slightly different

831
00:43:34,800 --> 00:43:37,839
Speaker 1: pattern in the gravitational waves, so you might be able

832
00:43:37,840 --> 00:43:40,719
Speaker 1: to detect the difference. There's some recent paper is talking

833
00:43:40,719 --> 00:43:44,200
Speaker 1: about like exactly how to look for gravitational waves that

834
00:43:44,280 --> 00:43:48,000
Speaker 1: come from Boson star collisions rather than black hole collisions.

835
00:43:48,239 --> 00:43:52,160
Speaker 1: So this is an imaginary event featuring two imaginary objects

836
00:43:52,200 --> 00:43:54,279
Speaker 1: made out of an imaginary particle made out of a

837
00:43:54,320 --> 00:43:59,960
Speaker 1: lot of imaginary particles. Yes, exactly. I feel like now

838
00:44:00,000 --> 00:44:02,719
Speaker 1: we're going deeper into the rabbit hole here, we're being

839
00:44:02,719 --> 00:44:06,960
Speaker 1: incepted to like level four and there's even level five

840
00:44:07,080 --> 00:44:09,520
Speaker 1: inception there, which is, like, how did these things get

841
00:44:09,560 --> 00:44:13,000
Speaker 1: made in the first place? Even if axions are real,

842
00:44:13,480 --> 00:44:15,839
Speaker 1: even if all the laws of physics work the way

843
00:44:15,880 --> 00:44:18,319
Speaker 1: we're talking about, so that if you put axons in

844
00:44:18,360 --> 00:44:20,759
Speaker 1: the same place they would make a Boson star. Are

845
00:44:20,800 --> 00:44:24,360
Speaker 1: their conditions in our universe for that to happen? Should

846
00:44:24,360 --> 00:44:27,759
Speaker 1: it arise? So it's not easy to imagine how you

847
00:44:27,800 --> 00:44:30,319
Speaker 1: would make that many axions. Really, you got to go

848
00:44:30,400 --> 00:44:32,840
Speaker 1: all the way back to the Big Bang and say

849
00:44:33,040 --> 00:44:35,799
Speaker 1: maybe during the Big Bang there was some crazy fluctuation

850
00:44:35,880 --> 00:44:39,480
Speaker 1: and these things got made primordially and like before most

851
00:44:39,560 --> 00:44:42,879
Speaker 1: particles were made, when maybe even early black holes were made,

852
00:44:42,920 --> 00:44:46,400
Speaker 1: that you've got these weird collections of bosons created quantum

853
00:44:46,440 --> 00:44:49,920
Speaker 1: mechanically during the Big Bang, and those are the seeds

854
00:44:50,000 --> 00:44:53,080
Speaker 1: of current Boson stars. Because I guess you can't think

855
00:44:53,120 --> 00:44:56,399
Speaker 1: of any circumstances right now in our universe in which

856
00:44:56,400 --> 00:44:59,960
Speaker 1: you could get that many bo's. Yeah, and then maybe Daniel,

857
00:45:00,080 --> 00:45:04,840
Speaker 1: we're just imaginary imagining these imaginary things. My brain feels

858
00:45:04,840 --> 00:45:08,680
Speaker 1: like it's filled with banana sometimes, which might be imaginary

859
00:45:08,719 --> 00:45:12,160
Speaker 1: themselves if they weren't so delicious. Good thing. Physics is

860
00:45:12,200 --> 00:45:14,560
Speaker 1: so easy, right, all right? Well, so that's a Boson

861
00:45:14,680 --> 00:45:17,480
Speaker 1: star and that's pretty interesting. And now are there people

862
00:45:17,600 --> 00:45:20,080
Speaker 1: looking for these right now? Is this something that people

863
00:45:20,120 --> 00:45:22,080
Speaker 1: are taking seriously or is it still kind of in

864
00:45:22,080 --> 00:45:24,920
Speaker 1: the back of the conference room. There, It's definitely in

865
00:45:24,960 --> 00:45:27,000
Speaker 1: the back of the conference room, but there are also

866
00:45:27,080 --> 00:45:29,800
Speaker 1: some people taking it very seriously, which is sort of

867
00:45:29,840 --> 00:45:32,360
Speaker 1: the way in physics. You've got like the mainstream stuff

868
00:45:32,400 --> 00:45:34,160
Speaker 1: people are working on, and then you've got the people

869
00:45:34,200 --> 00:45:35,920
Speaker 1: thinking in the back of the room, going, m what

870
00:45:35,960 --> 00:45:39,920
Speaker 1: about this other weird thing? And sometimes those ideas are right.

871
00:45:40,280 --> 00:45:42,439
Speaker 1: I'm really glad that in science were open to all

872
00:45:42,480 --> 00:45:45,960
Speaker 1: sorts of crazy ideas. And there are definitely people dedicated

873
00:45:46,200 --> 00:45:49,600
Speaker 1: to this topic, you know, running detailed simulations of what

874
00:45:49,640 --> 00:45:52,040
Speaker 1: Boson stars would look like and trying to understand like

875
00:45:52,360 --> 00:45:54,879
Speaker 1: the plasma loops that might form around them, and how

876
00:45:54,920 --> 00:45:57,759
Speaker 1: you would see those signals and gravitational wave detectors of

877
00:45:57,800 --> 00:46:00,600
Speaker 1: the future. So it's definitely something people are thinking about.

878
00:46:00,680 --> 00:46:02,560
Speaker 1: And how many of those can you fit into a

879
00:46:02,560 --> 00:46:05,560
Speaker 1: clown car or how many of you are willing to

880
00:46:05,560 --> 00:46:09,000
Speaker 1: get into one for the sake of physics. That's philosophy.

881
00:46:09,160 --> 00:46:12,120
Speaker 1: That's philosophy, man, that's not science. See, that's the other

882
00:46:12,160 --> 00:46:16,399
Speaker 1: imaginary science. Or maybe it's psychology. I don't know. All right, Well,

883
00:46:16,680 --> 00:46:19,239
Speaker 1: it's always interesting to think about what could be out

884
00:46:19,239 --> 00:46:21,600
Speaker 1: there in the universe, you know, like we have all

885
00:46:21,640 --> 00:46:23,920
Speaker 1: these rules, and if you sort of think about those

886
00:46:24,000 --> 00:46:26,080
Speaker 1: rules enough, you sort of come up with these weird

887
00:46:26,160 --> 00:46:28,200
Speaker 1: things that may or may not exist. Yeah, And it

888
00:46:28,239 --> 00:46:30,799
Speaker 1: could be that we are in the era before the

889
00:46:30,840 --> 00:46:33,600
Speaker 1: discovery of Boson stars, when people are just thinking about

890
00:46:33,640 --> 00:46:36,080
Speaker 1: what could be out there in the universe. So if

891
00:46:36,120 --> 00:46:38,960
Speaker 1: you are a budding astronomer or astrophysicist and you're thinking

892
00:46:39,520 --> 00:46:42,560
Speaker 1: the universe has all been discovered, there is still plenty

893
00:46:42,600 --> 00:46:45,759
Speaker 1: of crazy stuff out there for you to find. Yeah,

894
00:46:45,800 --> 00:46:48,520
Speaker 1: because at some point even thinks like black holes in

895
00:46:48,680 --> 00:46:54,040
Speaker 1: dark matter, they're all imaginary. Back at the conference room,

896
00:46:54,080 --> 00:46:57,399
Speaker 1: these are now just Nobel prizes waiting to be one. Well,

897
00:46:57,440 --> 00:46:59,920
Speaker 1: we hope you enjoyed that. And the next time you

898
00:47:00,040 --> 00:47:01,799
Speaker 1: look at into the Start, I think about what you're

899
00:47:01,840 --> 00:47:05,239
Speaker 1: not seeing that could be out there sucking bananas and

900
00:47:05,280 --> 00:47:09,239
Speaker 1: turning them into smoothies. Thanks for joining us, see you

901
00:47:09,280 --> 00:47:19,480
Speaker 1: next time. Thanks for listening, and remember that Daniel and

902
00:47:19,560 --> 00:47:22,480
Speaker 1: Jorge explain the Universe is a production of I Heart

903
00:47:22,560 --> 00:47:25,759
Speaker 1: Radio or more podcast or my heart Radio. Visit the

904
00:47:25,800 --> 00:47:29,560
Speaker 1: I heart Radio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you listen

905
00:47:29,640 --> 00:47:36,520
Speaker 1: to your favorite shows. Yeah,