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Speaker 1: So I wonder sometimes, why isn't the universe you know,

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Speaker 1: more boring? You know, what, what do you mean more boring? Well,

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Speaker 1: not only is so much of our universe beautiful from

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Speaker 1: you know, like features on Earth too, incredible things in space,

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Speaker 1: but it's also just seems to be filled with like

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Speaker 1: really weird stuff, you know. Yeah, the universe always seems

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Speaker 1: to top itself with more intense or more crazy stuff.

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Speaker 1: I know. But I wonder is that a property of

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Speaker 1: the universe or is that something about us? Like if

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Speaker 1: we meet aliens and their physicists, would they be like, yawn,

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Speaker 1: the universe is so simple and boring and we're the

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Speaker 1: only ones who think is fascinating. Or they also just

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Speaker 1: like stand a gape at the incredible features we see

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Speaker 1: in the universe. Oh, I see you're asking a philosophical question,

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Speaker 1: like is it not boring objectively or just subjectively as

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Speaker 1: for humans given our experience? Yeah, is the universe not

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Speaker 1: boring because of who we are? Because of what the

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Speaker 1: universe is? Like? If we lived in a crazier part

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Speaker 1: of the universe, maybe would be we would be more

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Speaker 1: used to crazy things exactly if we had seen all

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Speaker 1: the fascinating stuff early on, then all these discoveries would

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Speaker 1: be ho hum, Right, But we grew up in a

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Speaker 1: kind of a boring corner of the universe, and so

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Speaker 1: we're blown away when we go to like the Manhattan

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Speaker 1: part of the university, see all the crazy stuff that happens,

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Speaker 1: all the extremes. Yeah, yeah, we're like the uh, the

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Speaker 1: provincial ignor a miss of the universe. Y'all, y'all got

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Speaker 1: a nice universe here. Now let's insult the United States.

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Speaker 1: I mean we should come definitely, let's cut that. And

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Speaker 1: I'm Daniel. Welcome to our podcast Annual and Jorge Explained

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Speaker 1: the Universe, a production of I Heart Radio in which

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Speaker 1: we take a tour of the universe and find weird,

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Speaker 1: interesting stuff that's hard to understand and try to explain

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Speaker 1: it to you. They ever going to take a topic

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Speaker 1: and we're going to examine some of the weirdest examples

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Speaker 1: of them, So the most intense and extreme examples of

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Speaker 1: this very common thing you see every night. That's right,

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Speaker 1: And this episode is dedicated to a listener who wrote

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Speaker 1: in and asked us to do an episode about all

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Speaker 1: the weirdest stars in the universe. This was requested by

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Speaker 1: Callie Smith, who also in her email described yourself as

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Speaker 1: a physics ninja or hey, what do you think that means?

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Speaker 1: She must have gone to like a combination school where

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Speaker 1: they teach physics and ninja skills. I imagine that a

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Speaker 1: physics ninja is somebody who breaks into your office late

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Speaker 1: at night, totally silently and solves all the problems you

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Speaker 1: have on the chalkboard and escapes without leaving a tri wow.

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Speaker 1: I would love to see a duel between her and

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Speaker 1: like a physics samurai. What would happen a physics samurai

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Speaker 1: comes in and chops your chalkboard in half? I think

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Speaker 1: less subtle, less subtle problem solved. Isn't that what you

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Speaker 1: do to your students? You like walking? This is not good? Yeah. No,

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Speaker 1: I'm definitely not like a physics gladiator, and that's what

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Speaker 1: you mean. I think I meself more as a physics architect,

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Speaker 1: trying to build interesting stuff in physics and find interesting puzzles. Cool. Well,

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Speaker 1: thank you Kelly Smith for submitting this idea, and it's

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Speaker 1: a pretty interesting one. Just the idea that there are

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Speaker 1: things out there that you might somebody might call weird stars. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: and you know, you know that our sun is a star,

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Speaker 1: and lots of other stars out there, and a lot

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Speaker 1: of them are sort of vanilla. You know, they're out there,

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Speaker 1: they're fusing hydrogen, they're enormous burning balls of gas. We

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Speaker 1: can see them from billions of miles away, you know.

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Speaker 1: But there's so many of them that becomes a little plain, right,

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Speaker 1: like you're bored by that. Um. But it turns out

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Speaker 1: there's a lot of stars out there that are weird,

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Speaker 1: that are strained, that do incredible stuff that blows your mind.

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Speaker 1: And so this episode is dedicated to talking all about

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Speaker 1: those kinds of stars. Yeah, because it's it's funny to

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Speaker 1: think that our star, our sun, is this giant, enormous,

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Speaker 1: continual in men's atomic bomb. That's just that it's exploding

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Speaker 1: all the time, and it's but it's it's weird. I

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Speaker 1: think that that's the vanilla version. That there are versions

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Speaker 1: of stars out there that would make art Star look boring. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: you've gotta be pretty jaded to think an enormous, constantly

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Speaker 1: exploding fugion bomb is the size of yesterday's news. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: the size of the sun is yesterday's news, right that, um,

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Speaker 1: But that's the world we live in, you know, you

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Speaker 1: always need something more exciting, something as you're scrolling down

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Speaker 1: your Internet feed, right, you need something to catch your eye.

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Speaker 1: And so yesterday's ball of enormous plasma is boring, and

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Speaker 1: you need something news, something exciting, and so that's what

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Speaker 1: we're providing to you today. Yeah, so let's break it down.

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Speaker 1: What do you what do you mean by weird stars

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Speaker 1: or stars that are not like the typical star that

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Speaker 1: you see out in the universe. Yeah, you know, astronomers

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Speaker 1: like to look out in the sky and see what

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Speaker 1: they look at and try to understand it. And they

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Speaker 1: look at the population they see. Do the stars have

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Speaker 1: the distribution of brightness that we expect, We see the

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Speaker 1: sizes that we expect, the distances we expect, and they

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Speaker 1: start to ask questions, you know, and when they do so,

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Speaker 1: they find some odd balls. They find some stars out

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Speaker 1: there that don't quite um act the way they might

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Speaker 1: have expected, and it gives some clues that there's different

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Speaker 1: stuff going on in the universe that's producing these weird stars.

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Speaker 1: And so specifically today we're interested in things like neutron

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Speaker 1: stars and pulsars and weird things called magnetars. Magnetars sounds

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Speaker 1: like a Greek mythology monster. Yeah, I wonder what a

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Speaker 1: magnetar would do against the physics ninja. Who do you

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Speaker 1: think they like? Epic battle? That would be an epic battle.

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Speaker 1: Would love to see some fan art if anyone's listening,

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Speaker 1: who knows it draw magnetars, I'd I'd love to see

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Speaker 1: that done. That would be awesome. Yes, so we are

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Speaker 1: going to dig into what's weird and fascinating and interesting

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Speaker 1: about all these kinds of stars. But of course, before

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Speaker 1: we do so, I went around and I asked people

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Speaker 1: what they knew about these weird categories of stars. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: we ask people what they thought was a neutron star

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Speaker 1: or a pulsar or a magnetar. That's right. So before

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Speaker 1: you listen to these answers, think to yourself, do you

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Speaker 1: know what a neutron star is? How's it made? Why

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Speaker 1: is it weird? Do you know what a magnetari is

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Speaker 1: other than a comic book villain in Jorge's imagination? Think

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Speaker 1: about it for yourself, then listen to these answers. Here's

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Speaker 1: what people have to say. Kind of, I don't know

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Speaker 1: so much about it. I don't know big stars I've

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Speaker 1: heard days before, but nothing about like amation, and I

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Speaker 1: feel like I've heard about a neutron stars but not

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Speaker 1: the other two. Make a guess what a neutron star is? Um.

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Speaker 1: Neutrons are like um, it's like the atom, right, like

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Speaker 1: the protons, electrons and neutrons. So I would assume it

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Speaker 1: has to do something that that I know. Well, if

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Speaker 1: you have to guess what a quasar was, what would

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Speaker 1: you guess? It is like a type of star or

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Speaker 1: something something like that, a fireball for the fun there.

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Speaker 1: A pulsar, to my understanding, would be like a black hole.

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Speaker 1: When a black hole is and I could be very wrong,

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Speaker 1: but a black hole is like eating or you know,

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Speaker 1: or just breaking apart like a planet, and as it's

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Speaker 1: doing that, it's spewing you know, stuff out, And as

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Speaker 1: the black hole spins, it kind of emits um like

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Speaker 1: what it is like radiation or you know, frequencies that

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Speaker 1: when we see it here on Earth, it seems like

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Speaker 1: it pulses or flashes something that's like given emitting like

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Speaker 1: a energy. I'm not sure al R p U L

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Speaker 1: S A R I have, but as wach, I can't

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Speaker 1: remember what it is, all right, how about a neutron star,

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Speaker 1: I'm sure just like a at this star so far

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Speaker 1: of energy that now he emits a sense of light

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Speaker 1: as far as neutron I mean, that's that's actually my

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Speaker 1: best guess. I mean they're from the newtron star because

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Speaker 1: it's probably more neutrons than like what positrons and those

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Speaker 1: other things. So what do you think of those answers for? Yeah? No,

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Speaker 1: I think they demonstrated as much knowledge as me about

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Speaker 1: these topics. I see, so like them, you're fascinated to

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Speaker 1: learn more about neutron stars and pulstars and that. Like them,

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Speaker 1: I would have just said, yeah, it's like a fireball,

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Speaker 1: right or a big ball of energy. Yeah. So a

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Speaker 1: lot of people seem to have heard the term, right

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Speaker 1: neutron star is um not unfamiliar people. I think one

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Speaker 1: reason is that Thor's hammer is supposed to be made

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Speaker 1: out of neutron star material. Isn't that right? Oh? Is

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Speaker 1: that true? I think so. I'm not an expert on

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Speaker 1: the Marvel universe. I'm sure somebody's gonna write in and

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Speaker 1: correct me, but please do um. I think it was

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Speaker 1: forged by the energy of a neutron star ran according

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Speaker 1: to the movie, but I'm not sure if it's comic booklore.

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Speaker 1: Isn't it super heavy? Though? It's super heavy? Right, it's

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Speaker 1: as dense as a neutron star. Right, I don't know

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Speaker 1: if it's super heavy. I know that only four can

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Speaker 1: pick it up. Yeah, there's some complicated physics rules and

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Speaker 1: the Marvel universe there. Well, this is not Dale and

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Speaker 1: Jorge explain the Marvel universe. So let's get back to

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Speaker 1: our universe. Although that sounds like a great podcast, that's

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Speaker 1: our spinoff podcast. Yeah, um exactly. Um yeah, I thought

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Speaker 1: people you know, mostly had heard of this stuff, but

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Speaker 1: they didn't really know a lot of details about what

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Speaker 1: pulsars were, and nobody had any idea what a magnetard was.

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Speaker 1: I mean, it sounds like it's magnetic. Yes, that's a

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Speaker 1: good clue. Magnets oars are super magnetic, like a star

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Speaker 1: that will stick to your fridge, or it's a star

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Speaker 1: that will erase your credit cards. So the idea is

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Speaker 1: that when you look out into the sky at night,

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Speaker 1: you see a whole bunch of stars, but some of

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Speaker 1: the ones that you're looking at are not like the others.

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Speaker 1: That's right, Some of them are pretty weird and they're

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Speaker 1: not always easy to spot. So let's dig into it.

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Speaker 1: The first category of weird stars we want to talk

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Speaker 1: about is neutron stars. Yeah, so what's a neutron star

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Speaker 1: besides you know, a plot element in the in the

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Speaker 1: Avengers movie. Um, well, I don't think they were created

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Speaker 1: just for that purpose. Neutron star is some what happens

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Speaker 1: after some stars go super nova. Right, So, the typical

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Speaker 1: life cycle of a star is gas and dust come together,

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Speaker 1: they're compressed by gravity. It starts to ignite in the center.

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Speaker 1: It burns for billions of years. Right. Eventually it runs

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Speaker 1: out of that fuel and and and the and the

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Speaker 1: burning slows down and it can't any longer prevent itself

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Speaker 1: from collapsing gravitationally, right, all this stuff gravity is trying

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Speaker 1: to pull the star into as small adut as possible.

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Speaker 1: But during its whole life, it's burning, and that's causing

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Speaker 1: this outward pressure. Eventually that burning fades and fades and fades,

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Speaker 1: and the star gives way to the inevitable forces of

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Speaker 1: gravity and collapses like it's nuts out and and all

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Speaker 1: that stuff to suddenly crunches down in the into the center. Yeah. Well,

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Speaker 1: usually you get an implosion followed by an explosion which

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Speaker 1: is a supernova, so a huge amount of light is

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Speaker 1: emitted and then you have what's left over is a

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Speaker 1: very very very dense, very small core. And if it's

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Speaker 1: big enough, if it's like massive enough, then it can

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Speaker 1: form a black hole, right, and and that's how a

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Speaker 1: lot of black holes are made. But it's not quite

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Speaker 1: massive enough. Sometimes it doesn't form a black hole. It

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Speaker 1: just forms a super dense blob of stuff. So a

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Speaker 1: neutron star is like a failed black hole. I don't

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Speaker 1: want to pass any value judgments on neutron stars. I

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Speaker 1: think neutron stars should be happy with how they look,

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Speaker 1: you know, and not be aspiring to anything else. Um.

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Speaker 1: But yeah, neutron stars are black holes that didn't go black.

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Speaker 1: This is a stellar positive podcast. That's right. That's sorry.

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Speaker 1: I love your body, stars, love who you are, But

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Speaker 1: yeah they are. There are blobs of matter that weren't

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Speaker 1: big enough, weren't dense enough to turn into black holes.

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Speaker 1: What are you left with? This huge blob of matter

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Speaker 1: and it's amazing amount of gravitational pressure and it's squeezes,

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Speaker 1: squeezes down and in the end, you know, you start

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Speaker 1: it out with this thing. It's millions of kilometers wide.

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Speaker 1: All that stuff gets compressed into a little blob that's

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Speaker 1: like ten kilometers in radius, which is pretty small. It's

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Speaker 1: it's like the size of Manhattan. Yeah, exactly. And these

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Speaker 1: things start out often much bigger than our son. Remember,

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Speaker 1: our son is fairly small compared to a lot of

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Speaker 1: suns out there. So this thing comes out to be

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Speaker 1: like ten kilometers wide, but still have like one or

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Speaker 1: two times the mass of our sun. So imagine taking

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Speaker 1: our son and squeezing it down to like the size

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Speaker 1: of Manhattan. And and what's holding it together is the gravity, right,

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Speaker 1: that's right. Gravity is pulling this thing together, and nothing

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Speaker 1: else is capable of sustaining it anymore. There's no pressure

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Speaker 1: left to to keep it larger. So what's keeping it

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Speaker 1: from becoming a black hole? We're din't it just keep

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Speaker 1: compressing because of gravity? Yeah, well there's not enough gravity, right,

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Speaker 1: There is some pressure there, and so the news what happens.

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Speaker 1: The reason it's called the neutron star is that gravity

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Speaker 1: is compressed it. And you know mostly these atoms have

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Speaker 1: neutrons and protons and electrons, right, Well, it's so compressed

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Speaker 1: that the protons and the electrons they have this interaction,

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Speaker 1: and they turn into neutrons. Right, so you turn all

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Speaker 1: the protons and electrons into neutrons. Member protons or plus

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Speaker 1: one electrons are minus one. Wait waits there? Usually there

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Speaker 1: one is plus and one is negative. So they attract

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Speaker 1: each other. But you're saying, what if they get close

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Speaker 1: enough they become a neutron, they turn into a neutron. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: and it's not like, don't be confused, and neutron is

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Speaker 1: not just a proton and electron stuck together, right, is

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Speaker 1: the transformation of the quirks that are inside the proton.

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Speaker 1: One of the corks inside the protons gets flipped from

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Speaker 1: being like a down cork to an up cork, and

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Speaker 1: that turns the proton into a neutron. And also it

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Speaker 1: emits a neutrino. And so you turn all the protons

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Speaker 1: and electrons inside these atoms into neutrons, so that all

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Speaker 1: you're left with is neutrons. Why doesn't that collact into

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Speaker 1: a black hole. Well, neutrons don't like to be on

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Speaker 1: top of each other, right, And there's still gluons and things.

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Speaker 1: The neutrons don't want to be like literally on top

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Speaker 1: of each other, so there's still enough pressure there to

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Speaker 1: prevent it from collapsing into a black hole. If there

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Speaker 1: was more push each other out to you, don't they

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Speaker 1: crowd each other out. Yeah, you know, it's like a

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Speaker 1: bag of pink pong balls, right. You squeeze it and

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Speaker 1: squeeze and squeeze it, and eventually they pack so tightly

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Speaker 1: that they can't get any closer. And if you had

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Speaker 1: enough neutrons you added another you know, if you double

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Speaker 1: the mass or something, there'd be enough gravitational pressure it

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Speaker 1: would form a black hole. But these are ones where

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Speaker 1: there isn't enough gravitational pressure to overcome the neutrons pushing

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Speaker 1: against each other. It's just stuck in this really dense state. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: super dense. You know, if you had like a spoonful

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Speaker 1: of this stuff, it would weigh three billion tons. It's

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Speaker 1: hard to even really fathom, like how heavy this stuff is.

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Speaker 1: A spoonful wigs three billion tons? Yeah, I mean you've

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Speaker 1: taken something twice the size of the sun and compressed

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Speaker 1: it to a sphere ten kilometers wide. Like it adds

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Speaker 1: really dense stuff. Wow. So that's why it's called a neutron.

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Speaker 1: Start said, it's mostly made out of neutrons. Yeah, it's

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Speaker 1: a base eically just neutrons. Like you know, what is

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Speaker 1: a neutron star? It's a star of neutrons. Right. For once,

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Speaker 1: we have a great name in science that's compact, it's crisp,

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Speaker 1: and it's totally accurate. Right, So kudos to the anonymous

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Speaker 1: Physics naming Committee that we are often um crapping on

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Speaker 1: their work, but today they did a great job. But

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Speaker 1: why is it still called the star? Wouldn't it just

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Speaker 1: be like a a neutron ball, wouldn't Why wouldn't you

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Speaker 1: just call it a neutron ball. You don't even give it,

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Speaker 1: You don't even want to give them this one. Huh?

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Speaker 1: Why is it called the star? Yeah? Well, okay, that's

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Speaker 1: a good question. I mean, let's talk about how you

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Speaker 1: see them, right, A neutron star isn't actively fusing anymore,

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Speaker 1: so it's not giving off a lot of lights. You

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Speaker 1: can't see neutron stars in the sky the way you

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Speaker 1: see other stars, right, just by seeing the light that

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Speaker 1: comes off them. They're more like black holes, um in

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Speaker 1: that they're intense sources of gravity and the stuff around

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Speaker 1: them is getting sort of rubbed and compressed. They have

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Speaker 1: an accretion disc, right, it's the stuff that's about to

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Speaker 1: fall into the black hole of the neutron star, and

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Speaker 1: that's giving off a lot of radiation. So you see

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Speaker 1: the neutron stars not to but if they happen to

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Speaker 1: have an accretion disc, it gives off a lot of

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Speaker 1: ratian your radiation. So yeah, that's a fair point. That's

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Speaker 1: a fair point. Maybe they shouldn't be called star that

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Speaker 1: should be called like neutron rocks or scoops, oh neutron

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Speaker 1: or something neutron balls. I feel like I should just

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Speaker 1: get a Nobel price just for figuring out the Nobel

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Speaker 1: Prize for star naming. Yeah. Nice, Maybe you can get

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Speaker 1: a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for naming stars.

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Speaker 1: At least a sticker, you know, like a little gold star.

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Speaker 1: That would be nice. I'll make you a gold neutron

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Speaker 1: star or a ball technically, Okay, so I see what

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Speaker 1: you're saying. So it's not like the thing itself, that

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Speaker 1: super dense core is glowing itself. It's just that it's

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Speaker 1: it's almost acting like a black hole that it's so

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Speaker 1: heavy and stuff that's surrounded. It's such an intense gravitational

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Speaker 1: field that the stuff around it kind of burns and

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Speaker 1: and and gets shredded, and that's what gives us the

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Speaker 1: light that we see. Yeah, exactly, it's a lot like

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Speaker 1: a baby cole, Right, but it's cool because it's a black,

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Speaker 1: baby black hole you can see into, right, the stuff

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Speaker 1: is not hidden behind the gravitational event horizon. You can

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Speaker 1: see it. You can study, you can ask questions like

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Speaker 1: how fast it's spinning. You know, what is it like

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Speaker 1: to be on the surface, And uh, it's pretty crazy

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Speaker 1: because these neutron stars, you know, they contain the all

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Speaker 1: the angular momentum of the original star. Right, So imagine,

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Speaker 1: for example, think about like being a figure skater or

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Speaker 1: being on the ice. If you're spinning any of your

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Speaker 1: arms out wide, and then you bring your arms in

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Speaker 1: closer and closer together, you go faster and faster. Right.

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Speaker 1: The reason is angular momentum. You have to have the

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Speaker 1: same amount of spinning momentum when your arms are out

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Speaker 1: wide as when you're they're close in, Right, But having

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Speaker 1: things close in means they have to go faster to

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Speaker 1: have the same amount of angler momentum because it depends

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Speaker 1: on the radius. So like it shrinks, like as a shrinks,

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Speaker 1: it goes faster and it spins faster and faster until

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Speaker 1: exactly it gets so small that it's it's probably spinning,

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Speaker 1: spinning at a crazy speed. Yeah exactly. Some neutron stars

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Speaker 1: we found spin like they rotate. The entire star takes

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Speaker 1: like five or six hundred times per second. Five times

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Speaker 1: per second per second, yeah, which means if you're like

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Speaker 1: standing on the surface of the star, the surface is

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Speaker 1: moving it like a quarter of the speed of light. Wow.

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Speaker 1: But technically you could sort of like land on it, right,

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Speaker 1: like if you maybe, right, if you match the speed maybe,

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Speaker 1: And I don't know what would be like to be

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Speaker 1: on the surface of a neutron star. I think it

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Speaker 1: would be pretty hot and unpleasant. There's definitely a huge

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Speaker 1: amount of radiation from all the stuff nearby. But yeah,

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Speaker 1: technically you could. I mean, it's a thing, right, you

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Speaker 1: could land on it, you could touch it would just

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Speaker 1: send you a robotic probe first, but yeah, go for it. Well,

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Speaker 1: I mean I think if you were spinning that fast,

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Speaker 1: you would probably just get squitched against your chair, right,

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Speaker 1: yeah exactly. I mean imagine landing on something that's spinning

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Speaker 1: really really fast, right, You'd have to catch up to

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Speaker 1: it in order to land on it, so you'd have

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Speaker 1: to be orbiting it at a quarter of the speed

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Speaker 1: of light. It would be pretty tricky maneuver. Okay, So,

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Speaker 1: so how rare are these neutron stars? How many are

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Speaker 1: there in the in the universe or in our galaxy? Yeah, well,

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Speaker 1: we've identified a bunch of them, you know, we've seen

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Speaker 1: We've identified pretty confidently, like thousands of them in our neighborhood,

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Speaker 1: and the closest one we've ever seen is like four

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Speaker 1: hundred light years away. And then we can extrapolate, We say, well,

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Speaker 1: if there's a certain density of neutron stars around here

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Speaker 1: that we've seen, you know, how many do we expect

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Speaker 1: to see? And we can have models of stars and

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Speaker 1: supernova collapses and and their's and their masses, and the

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Speaker 1: estimates are that there are tens of millions of these

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Speaker 1: things in the galaxy. Um. But and you know, that's

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Speaker 1: a tiny fraction of the hundreds billions of stars that

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Speaker 1: are in our galaxy. But it's not a small number.

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Speaker 1: And right there's a lot of these crazy dense, super

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Speaker 1: spinning um little tiny what do you call them, neutron balls?

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Speaker 1: Neutron balls. Yeah, that sounds like something you'd order for dessert.

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Speaker 1: You know, I'd like two neutron balls with chocolate syrup. Please,

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Speaker 1: Can I get our ninja physics physics ninja to cook

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Speaker 1: up the balls? Said, oh, no, you should have a

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Speaker 1: dessert that's not quite so dense. Yeah. So they're they're

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Speaker 1: a lot of them, and they spend really fast. They're

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Speaker 1: super dance. They can't actually see them. Can you actually

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Speaker 1: see them in the night scout? You can, right, because

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Speaker 1: I heard they don't give a visible light. Yeah, exactly.

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Speaker 1: They're like anything else that doesn't glow, you know, just

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Speaker 1: like an asteroid. Right, You can't see an asteroid unless

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Speaker 1: the sun shines on it. These things are too far

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Speaker 1: away from any start to shine on them. We have to.

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Speaker 1: We can only see them from the radiation that comes

390
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Speaker 1: from nearby them because the gravitational pressure they exert on

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Speaker 1: like gas and dust that's orbiting them. So you can't

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Speaker 1: see them directly. You can't point your telescope and a

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Speaker 1: neutron star and expect to see it. Just be like

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Speaker 1: a black rock, but not a black hole, you see,

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Speaker 1: like the chaos it's that it's causing around itself. Yeah, exactly,

396
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Speaker 1: just the way if you see a star walk, you know,

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Speaker 1: through the through the crowd of photographers at the oscars, right,

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Speaker 1: you probably don't see the star directly. You just see

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Speaker 1: like all the flashes of light from the cameras and

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Speaker 1: all the whispering and all the people jockeying to get

401
00:20:52,920 --> 00:20:55,920
Speaker 1: a quote right, and so often it's the secondary stuff

402
00:20:55,920 --> 00:20:57,920
Speaker 1: that you see more directly. Yeah, and probably if you

403
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Speaker 1: try to reach you and go into and touch touch them,

404
00:21:00,119 --> 00:21:04,359
Speaker 1: probably also die, right. Probably. Yes, some of the stars

405
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Speaker 1: are spinning at a quarter of this peaceful like burned myself.

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Speaker 1: All right, cool, So those are neutron stars or neutron balls.

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Speaker 1: So let's get into the other kinds of weird stars

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Speaker 1: that we're gonna talked about today. But first let's take

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Speaker 1: a quick break, all right. So let's keep going down

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Speaker 1: our list of weird stars in the universe. And we

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Speaker 1: already talked about neutron stars. Now, what's Daniel, what's our

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Speaker 1: second kind of weird star in the universe. The second

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Speaker 1: kind of weird star is one of my favorites. And

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Speaker 1: this is something called a pulsar. That's that that sounds

415
00:21:50,119 --> 00:21:53,280
Speaker 1: like a like a like a watch. They're very expensive.

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Speaker 1: They're only made in Geneva and they cost like fifty

417
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Speaker 1: dollars each because they're made by like tiny little dwarfs

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Speaker 1: that are kept underground, never see the Sun or anything. Right,

419
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Speaker 1: there's my strange watch fantasy pulsars. Pul Stars are actually

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Speaker 1: a type of neutron star. Right, So neutron stars we

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Speaker 1: just talked about, and neutron stars have strong magnetic fields,

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Speaker 1: like really really powerful magnetic field because, as we talked

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00:22:17,960 --> 00:22:20,359
Speaker 1: about in our episode about why the Earth has a

424
00:22:20,359 --> 00:22:23,639
Speaker 1: magnetic field, anything that has like a fluid inside of

425
00:22:23,680 --> 00:22:26,440
Speaker 1: it that can conduct the electricity and is active is

426
00:22:26,440 --> 00:22:29,320
Speaker 1: going to have a magnetic field. And neutron stars already

427
00:22:29,600 --> 00:22:33,359
Speaker 1: have magnetic fields that are like billions of times as

428
00:22:33,400 --> 00:22:35,919
Speaker 1: strong as the Earth's magnetic field. Because it's spinning. Is

429
00:22:35,920 --> 00:22:39,560
Speaker 1: that why yet spinning? And because it has activity inside

430
00:22:39,560 --> 00:22:41,480
Speaker 1: of it, So you know there must be stuff going

431
00:22:41,520 --> 00:22:44,199
Speaker 1: on inside the neutron star. It's not just neutrons like

432
00:22:44,200 --> 00:22:47,000
Speaker 1: crammed in and then and quiet right there moving around.

433
00:22:47,000 --> 00:22:49,680
Speaker 1: There's like some fluid and some flow in order to

434
00:22:49,720 --> 00:22:53,359
Speaker 1: get the magnetic field. So inside of this ten kilometer

435
00:22:53,640 --> 00:22:57,919
Speaker 1: to Sun's mass, super dense thing, there's actually stuff going

436
00:22:58,000 --> 00:23:01,360
Speaker 1: on inside of it, that's creating a magnetic field. Yeah,

437
00:23:01,400 --> 00:23:03,280
Speaker 1: but we don't understand that very well. Like we even

438
00:23:03,280 --> 00:23:06,080
Speaker 1: don't understand the magnetic field of our sun very well.

439
00:23:06,119 --> 00:23:08,439
Speaker 1: You know, our son has this very strong magnetic field

440
00:23:08,760 --> 00:23:11,280
Speaker 1: and it flips every eleven years, which is really weird,

441
00:23:11,320 --> 00:23:13,760
Speaker 1: and we don't understand very well. So we have a

442
00:23:13,880 --> 00:23:16,959
Speaker 1: very tentative understanding of the magnetic fields inside neutron stars.

443
00:23:17,320 --> 00:23:20,760
Speaker 1: And even weirder is that some neutron stars have even

444
00:23:20,840 --> 00:23:24,760
Speaker 1: stronger magnetic fields. Like alright, neutron stars already crazy hot,

445
00:23:25,000 --> 00:23:29,560
Speaker 1: crazy dense, crazy fast, crazy, small, crazy, spinning, crazy magnetic fields.

446
00:23:29,600 --> 00:23:32,560
Speaker 1: And in this category of them called pulsars, have extra

447
00:23:32,600 --> 00:23:35,639
Speaker 1: powerful magnetic fields like a thousand or a million times

448
00:23:35,680 --> 00:23:39,560
Speaker 1: more powerful, and and so. But other some stars don't

449
00:23:39,600 --> 00:23:42,240
Speaker 1: have this magnetic field. Yes, some neutron stars have weaker

450
00:23:42,280 --> 00:23:45,520
Speaker 1: magnetic fields. All neutron stars, we think, have magnetic fields,

451
00:23:45,520 --> 00:23:47,919
Speaker 1: but some of them have such a strong magnetic field

452
00:23:48,080 --> 00:23:51,680
Speaker 1: that something really weird happens. And remember that magnetic fields

453
00:23:51,920 --> 00:23:54,560
Speaker 1: interact with charge particles, so a charge particle gets bent

454
00:23:54,640 --> 00:23:56,920
Speaker 1: by magnetic field. And you know on Earth we see

455
00:23:56,920 --> 00:23:59,560
Speaker 1: this all the time in the northern lights. Northern lights

456
00:23:59,600 --> 00:24:01,760
Speaker 1: are just charge particles from the Sun or from some

457
00:24:02,160 --> 00:24:05,119
Speaker 1: from somewhere else that got carried up to the north

458
00:24:05,320 --> 00:24:08,240
Speaker 1: part of the Earth by the magnetic field. Right, we

459
00:24:08,240 --> 00:24:10,600
Speaker 1: have these lines and the magnetic then the charge particles

460
00:24:10,600 --> 00:24:12,520
Speaker 1: get bent by them and sent to the north or

461
00:24:12,560 --> 00:24:15,840
Speaker 1: to the south. So something weird happens on a pulsar.

462
00:24:15,920 --> 00:24:18,159
Speaker 1: That's sort of the inverse, which is that a lot

463
00:24:18,200 --> 00:24:22,200
Speaker 1: of charge particles get shot out from the pulsar around

464
00:24:22,200 --> 00:24:24,320
Speaker 1: the north pole and the south pole of the pulsar.

465
00:24:25,280 --> 00:24:28,320
Speaker 1: It becomes like a like a death ray, yes, exactly

466
00:24:28,359 --> 00:24:30,439
Speaker 1: two death rays, right, one from the north and one

467
00:24:30,520 --> 00:24:32,560
Speaker 1: from the top of the south. And you know, there's

468
00:24:32,600 --> 00:24:35,000
Speaker 1: all this radiation produced and it gets funneled up to

469
00:24:35,040 --> 00:24:37,280
Speaker 1: the north and the south magnetic poles and then shot

470
00:24:37,280 --> 00:24:40,040
Speaker 1: out into space. So it's not just like um sent

471
00:24:40,080 --> 00:24:42,480
Speaker 1: everywhere like a glowing sun. It's like you take all

472
00:24:42,480 --> 00:24:45,600
Speaker 1: this crazy radiation and you focus it into just two beams,

473
00:24:45,800 --> 00:24:47,960
Speaker 1: one from the top and one from the bottom. Right.

474
00:24:48,040 --> 00:24:50,480
Speaker 1: And the crazy thing is that this magnetic field is

475
00:24:50,560 --> 00:24:53,960
Speaker 1: moving right relative to the star. Well sometimes, like on Earth,

476
00:24:54,000 --> 00:24:56,880
Speaker 1: the magnetic field is not pointing the same direction as

477
00:24:56,920 --> 00:24:59,959
Speaker 1: the rotation axis, right, So the Earth for example, right

478
00:25:00,080 --> 00:25:02,720
Speaker 1: spins around one axis, and the north pole, as we

479
00:25:02,720 --> 00:25:05,440
Speaker 1: talked about in that other episode, is not aligned right,

480
00:25:05,800 --> 00:25:08,600
Speaker 1: So the direction of the north pole doesn't always point

481
00:25:08,640 --> 00:25:11,320
Speaker 1: the same way as the direction of the magnetic north pole.

482
00:25:11,680 --> 00:25:14,200
Speaker 1: So there's a it drifts in like an Earth. The

483
00:25:14,359 --> 00:25:17,560
Speaker 1: magnetic are north poll is drifting into Russia right now,

484
00:25:17,760 --> 00:25:20,040
Speaker 1: that's right, And as long as they're not aligned, then

485
00:25:20,040 --> 00:25:22,239
Speaker 1: the magnetic north pole sort of like sweeping out a

486
00:25:22,280 --> 00:25:25,480
Speaker 1: circle in space, right, like a cone in space. Now,

487
00:25:25,520 --> 00:25:28,360
Speaker 1: imagine if you're blasting a hugely powerful laser, and that's

488
00:25:28,359 --> 00:25:31,760
Speaker 1: basically what pulsars are doing. A hugely powerful laser out

489
00:25:31,800 --> 00:25:35,200
Speaker 1: into space from your magnetic north pole. But the spinning

490
00:25:35,240 --> 00:25:37,880
Speaker 1: north pole is in another direction. So the magnetic north

491
00:25:37,880 --> 00:25:40,760
Speaker 1: pole is going to sweep through space, um, sending this

492
00:25:40,920 --> 00:25:44,960
Speaker 1: huge blast of radiation in different places. And that's why

493
00:25:44,960 --> 00:25:48,000
Speaker 1: it's called a pulse are because um it doesn't always

494
00:25:48,080 --> 00:25:51,760
Speaker 1: point towards Earth. For example, sometimes that radiation sweeps across

495
00:25:51,800 --> 00:25:53,679
Speaker 1: Earth and we're like, whoa, what was that? And then

496
00:25:53,680 --> 00:25:55,800
Speaker 1: it turns black again, and it waits for the pulse

497
00:25:55,840 --> 00:25:57,960
Speaker 1: are to spin around and then it covers us again.

498
00:25:58,000 --> 00:26:00,600
Speaker 1: It's like a like a lighthouse, right, this spinning around

499
00:26:00,720 --> 00:26:03,159
Speaker 1: you only see it sometimes it's always shining, but you

500
00:26:03,200 --> 00:26:05,160
Speaker 1: don't always see it. It's kind of like the Death

501
00:26:05,160 --> 00:26:09,359
Speaker 1: Star in Star Wars, right, like, um, how is it

502
00:26:09,400 --> 00:26:11,679
Speaker 1: like the Death Star? Exactly? Yeah, No, follow me on

503
00:26:11,680 --> 00:26:15,200
Speaker 1: this one, Daniel. You know the little circle that shoots

504
00:26:15,240 --> 00:26:17,399
Speaker 1: the beam out of the death Star, that's kind of

505
00:26:17,440 --> 00:26:21,920
Speaker 1: like the north pole of the pulsar, and so you

506
00:26:21,960 --> 00:26:24,800
Speaker 1: can imagine the death Star kind of spinning along its access.

507
00:26:24,840 --> 00:26:27,399
Speaker 1: Then that that that laser beam is going to be

508
00:26:27,480 --> 00:26:31,080
Speaker 1: also rotating around kind of like a yeah yeah, Like

509
00:26:31,080 --> 00:26:32,840
Speaker 1: like if you can shine a flash light out into

510
00:26:32,840 --> 00:26:34,600
Speaker 1: the sky and you move your hand, it's going to

511
00:26:34,680 --> 00:26:37,320
Speaker 1: be sweeping around, right, yeah, exactly. You know, I think

512
00:26:37,400 --> 00:26:39,719
Speaker 1: a better name for pulsars would have been death stars,

513
00:26:39,760 --> 00:26:43,159
Speaker 1: because they really are death stars. There are these big blobs,

514
00:26:43,320 --> 00:26:47,520
Speaker 1: right fully operational battle stations, capable of delivering incredible amounts

515
00:26:47,520 --> 00:26:50,240
Speaker 1: of radiation. Well, you know, this is our podcast, Daniel,

516
00:26:50,320 --> 00:26:53,920
Speaker 1: we can name things whatever we want. Neutron balls, death

517
00:26:53,960 --> 00:26:59,880
Speaker 1: stars exactly. In our little universe, we are in charge.

518
00:27:02,640 --> 00:27:05,600
Speaker 1: The first pulsar ever discovered actually has a pretty cool name.

519
00:27:05,680 --> 00:27:10,640
Speaker 1: It's called l G M. It stands for Little Green Men.

520
00:27:12,040 --> 00:27:15,639
Speaker 1: That's because it was an exciting discovery, the first pulsar

521
00:27:15,760 --> 00:27:18,200
Speaker 1: ever seen. You know, they saw it in their data

522
00:27:18,240 --> 00:27:20,000
Speaker 1: and they saw it was bright and then dark and

523
00:27:20,000 --> 00:27:21,800
Speaker 1: then bright and then dark and then bright and then dark,

524
00:27:21,840 --> 00:27:24,320
Speaker 1: and it was regular. Right, It's not random. It's not

525
00:27:24,359 --> 00:27:26,480
Speaker 1: like the pulse are just shines on you sometimes and

526
00:27:26,760 --> 00:27:29,560
Speaker 1: sometimes it doesn't. It follows a very specific pattern, so

527
00:27:29,720 --> 00:27:33,600
Speaker 1: like somebody was trying to um send us a signal, yes, exactly.

528
00:27:33,920 --> 00:27:35,840
Speaker 1: So the first time they saw this, they thought, what

529
00:27:35,960 --> 00:27:38,800
Speaker 1: are we getting a message from aliens? I mean, it's

530
00:27:38,840 --> 00:27:41,760
Speaker 1: like Morse code or something, right, And so that's why

531
00:27:41,800 --> 00:27:44,040
Speaker 1: they called it l g M one because they thought, well,

532
00:27:44,160 --> 00:27:46,480
Speaker 1: maybe this is the first time we're hearing from aliens.

533
00:27:46,600 --> 00:27:49,760
Speaker 1: And for the real little hesitant to publish, that's the

534
00:27:49,800 --> 00:27:53,359
Speaker 1: real name, it's the l l g M. Yeah, the

535
00:27:53,440 --> 00:27:56,040
Speaker 1: real scientific name of the first pulsar ever discovered was

536
00:27:56,080 --> 00:27:59,560
Speaker 1: called l g M one. And they thought for a while, Wow,

537
00:27:59,640 --> 00:28:01,560
Speaker 1: maybe the of sa this aliens. I mean, I love

538
00:28:01,600 --> 00:28:03,879
Speaker 1: reading about those moments in science when people thought they

539
00:28:03,920 --> 00:28:07,760
Speaker 1: discovered aliens, right, because maybe there are aliens out there,

540
00:28:07,800 --> 00:28:11,159
Speaker 1: and usually aliens like in science are relegated to like

541
00:28:11,320 --> 00:28:15,200
Speaker 1: the fringe of you know, the extremes, the crazy people, etcetera.

542
00:28:15,600 --> 00:28:19,080
Speaker 1: But one day we might actually find aliens, and some

543
00:28:19,280 --> 00:28:22,159
Speaker 1: like actual scientists doing careful work is going to stumble

544
00:28:22,200 --> 00:28:24,520
Speaker 1: across evidence of it or hear a message from space

545
00:28:24,600 --> 00:28:27,399
Speaker 1: or something. So I love hearing about those moments when

546
00:28:27,440 --> 00:28:30,280
Speaker 1: a scientist is like, am I that person? Am I?

547
00:28:30,400 --> 00:28:31,840
Speaker 1: The person is going to call it my colleagues and

548
00:28:31,840 --> 00:28:33,760
Speaker 1: be like, no, I know this sounds crazy, but I

549
00:28:33,760 --> 00:28:36,480
Speaker 1: think I found aliens. Well, they must have felt pretty

550
00:28:36,480 --> 00:28:39,480
Speaker 1: confident if they named it LGM. I think that was

551
00:28:40,000 --> 00:28:43,040
Speaker 1: mostly a joke between them. But then they found a

552
00:28:43,080 --> 00:28:46,320
Speaker 1: second one coming from a totally different direction in the sky,

553
00:28:46,480 --> 00:28:48,640
Speaker 1: and so they were like, oh, let's call this one

554
00:28:48,720 --> 00:28:53,400
Speaker 1: little Blue Men, Big Green Men or something. Um, So

555
00:28:53,520 --> 00:28:55,120
Speaker 1: they find a second one, so they thought, oh, there

556
00:28:55,200 --> 00:28:59,000
Speaker 1: must be It can just be. There can be two

557
00:28:59,160 --> 00:29:02,000
Speaker 1: civilizations of little green men sending us signals. It must

558
00:29:02,040 --> 00:29:05,600
Speaker 1: be some natural phenomenon. Yeah, exactly. And the thing that

559
00:29:05,680 --> 00:29:07,760
Speaker 1: made it seem like maybe it was aliens was just

560
00:29:07,800 --> 00:29:09,960
Speaker 1: the fact that it was regular. And that's not that

561
00:29:10,040 --> 00:29:12,960
Speaker 1: hard to explain, right, There's not that much information content

562
00:29:13,000 --> 00:29:15,160
Speaker 1: in a regular message. If somebody wants to send you

563
00:29:15,160 --> 00:29:17,960
Speaker 1: a message saying, hi, we're here, we're alive, come talk

564
00:29:18,000 --> 00:29:20,120
Speaker 1: to us. You don't just send regular beeps, right, you

565
00:29:20,120 --> 00:29:23,400
Speaker 1: want to send some information and uh. And so that's

566
00:29:23,800 --> 00:29:26,520
Speaker 1: it wasn't very convincing as an alien message anyway. Yeah,

567
00:29:26,560 --> 00:29:28,920
Speaker 1: So then they found the second one and uh. And

568
00:29:28,960 --> 00:29:30,600
Speaker 1: then they found a bunch And so now we found

569
00:29:30,600 --> 00:29:32,320
Speaker 1: lots of these things. So if we were to look

570
00:29:32,320 --> 00:29:34,120
Speaker 1: at these out into you wouldn't see them in the

571
00:29:34,200 --> 00:29:36,000
Speaker 1: night sky, right, You only see them in X ray

572
00:29:36,280 --> 00:29:38,800
Speaker 1: the X ray spectrum. Right, that's right. I think they're

573
00:29:38,800 --> 00:29:40,520
Speaker 1: mostly an X ray and you would see them as

574
00:29:40,640 --> 00:29:44,239
Speaker 1: as kind of these blinking lights. Mhmm exactly. And some

575
00:29:44,320 --> 00:29:46,680
Speaker 1: of them blink slow because they rotate slowly, and some

576
00:29:46,720 --> 00:29:50,320
Speaker 1: of them blink really fast because they rotate like crazy fast.

577
00:29:50,800 --> 00:29:54,959
Speaker 1: Like some of them blink on and off every millisecond. Wow.

578
00:29:55,240 --> 00:29:59,080
Speaker 1: So it's like there's something ten kilometer is big with

579
00:30:00,000 --> 00:30:05,040
Speaker 1: the massive two sons spinning once every millisecond. Yes, exactly.

580
00:30:05,080 --> 00:30:08,560
Speaker 1: I mean, this is an enormous cosmic object doing these

581
00:30:08,600 --> 00:30:12,880
Speaker 1: really extreme maneuvers um just to send us this blinking radiation.

582
00:30:12,920 --> 00:30:16,360
Speaker 1: It's really crazy. And there's a mystery to them, right,

583
00:30:16,360 --> 00:30:19,120
Speaker 1: like we don't really know why they're sending this how

584
00:30:19,200 --> 00:30:22,240
Speaker 1: or how they're sending these beams of radiation. Yeah, you know,

585
00:30:22,320 --> 00:30:24,600
Speaker 1: the how the magnetic field is generated and how the

586
00:30:24,600 --> 00:30:27,080
Speaker 1: magnetic field turns into this beam of radiation is not

587
00:30:27,200 --> 00:30:29,520
Speaker 1: something that's well understood. It's an area of active research.

588
00:30:29,560 --> 00:30:31,600
Speaker 1: And you know, there's some models here and there, but

589
00:30:31,760 --> 00:30:34,680
Speaker 1: nobody is really fully confident that they that they understand it.

590
00:30:34,680 --> 00:30:37,080
Speaker 1: It's pretty weird. I think it's pretty clear there's probably

591
00:30:37,080 --> 00:30:40,880
Speaker 1: some some guys in black helmets inside turning a lever

592
00:30:41,560 --> 00:30:44,680
Speaker 1: and that's what's costing these beams. I mean, obviously it's

593
00:30:44,680 --> 00:30:47,720
Speaker 1: a death star. I find your lack of faith in

594
00:30:47,760 --> 00:30:54,440
Speaker 1: science disturbing horhe um. And you know it costs these

595
00:30:54,440 --> 00:30:56,760
Speaker 1: guys energy. Right, you can just beam a huge amount

596
00:30:56,760 --> 00:30:59,720
Speaker 1: of energy into space for free. That energy comes from

597
00:30:59,760 --> 00:31:02,200
Speaker 1: some where. So what happens is as the years and

598
00:31:02,240 --> 00:31:04,680
Speaker 1: the millions of years go by, these pulsars start to

599
00:31:04,680 --> 00:31:08,480
Speaker 1: slow down. Essentially shooting out all this energy into space

600
00:31:08,600 --> 00:31:11,080
Speaker 1: is like friction on the on the pulsar and it

601
00:31:11,160 --> 00:31:13,320
Speaker 1: slows down and they last, Like you know, we think

602
00:31:13,400 --> 00:31:16,840
Speaker 1: like ten to a hundred million years, so only a

603
00:31:16,840 --> 00:31:21,760
Speaker 1: little while in Yeah, only a little while. And they're unique,

604
00:31:21,760 --> 00:31:23,880
Speaker 1: you know, each one has its own pattern, and that

605
00:31:23,960 --> 00:31:26,200
Speaker 1: makes it really cool because you can use them for

606
00:31:26,240 --> 00:31:31,160
Speaker 1: things like um cosmic locations, kind of like beacons. Yeah,

607
00:31:31,240 --> 00:31:34,040
Speaker 1: you can say I'm this distance from that pulsar, and

608
00:31:34,040 --> 00:31:36,200
Speaker 1: I'm that distance from this other pulsar, and I'm this

609
00:31:36,240 --> 00:31:38,680
Speaker 1: distance from this third pulsar, and that's enough to say

610
00:31:38,840 --> 00:31:43,160
Speaker 1: uniquely where you are in the galaxy. That's pretty cool.

611
00:31:43,720 --> 00:31:46,080
Speaker 1: It is cool. We actually we used it because when

612
00:31:46,080 --> 00:31:48,440
Speaker 1: we sent out some of those early satellites that we

613
00:31:48,520 --> 00:31:51,280
Speaker 1: just sort of like lofted out into space, thinking maybe

614
00:31:51,280 --> 00:31:53,959
Speaker 1: one day they'll crash land on an alien planet, we

615
00:31:54,040 --> 00:31:57,600
Speaker 1: included on on that spacecraft a plaque that describes our

616
00:31:57,720 --> 00:32:01,680
Speaker 1: location using pulsars. So then what happens after a hundred

617
00:32:01,720 --> 00:32:04,480
Speaker 1: million years, after they run out of energy, they just

618
00:32:04,520 --> 00:32:08,280
Speaker 1: become regular neutrons neutron balls, Yeah, yeah, exactly, they start

619
00:32:08,320 --> 00:32:12,480
Speaker 1: to slow down, They just become dark neutron balls, yeah exactly.

620
00:32:13,320 --> 00:32:19,720
Speaker 1: Hopefully the aliens find us before our address becomes obsolete. Yeah, alright,

621
00:32:19,800 --> 00:32:22,360
Speaker 1: let's get into the last type of weird star out

622
00:32:22,360 --> 00:32:38,560
Speaker 1: there in New universe. But first let's take another break. Okay,

623
00:32:38,600 --> 00:32:41,760
Speaker 1: So the last kind of weird star that our listener

624
00:32:42,040 --> 00:32:45,440
Speaker 1: our physics ninja, our physics ninja. Yeah, Kelly Smiths suggests

625
00:32:45,440 --> 00:32:49,600
Speaker 1: that we talked about is something called a magnetar. Yeah, magnetar.

626
00:32:50,160 --> 00:32:53,960
Speaker 1: Magnetars are like the extreme version of pulsars. So pulsars

627
00:32:53,960 --> 00:32:57,040
Speaker 1: are the extreme version of neutron stars, which are already extreme,

628
00:32:57,560 --> 00:33:01,120
Speaker 1: and magnetars are like the crazy of the crazy. Huh.

629
00:33:01,440 --> 00:33:04,520
Speaker 1: But wait, if we're naming neutron stars neutron balls, you're

630
00:33:04,520 --> 00:33:07,040
Speaker 1: saying this is the bossiest of all the neutron balls.

631
00:33:07,680 --> 00:33:11,000
Speaker 1: That's right, these are the ballsiest balls of all um

632
00:33:11,120 --> 00:33:13,360
Speaker 1: and a C d C would love these. Um, we

633
00:33:13,400 --> 00:33:16,760
Speaker 1: have neutron stars sometimes have crazy magnetic fields, and they

634
00:33:16,760 --> 00:33:19,600
Speaker 1: call them a pulsar. But when they have super crazy

635
00:33:19,640 --> 00:33:23,160
Speaker 1: magnetic fields, like ridiculous, then you call it a magnetar.

636
00:33:23,680 --> 00:33:26,240
Speaker 1: And so these are things that are spinning incredibly fast

637
00:33:26,480 --> 00:33:29,719
Speaker 1: and have incredibly powerful magnetic fields. We think these are

638
00:33:29,760 --> 00:33:33,720
Speaker 1: the most powerful magnetic fields basically anywhere in the universe.

639
00:33:35,000 --> 00:33:36,720
Speaker 1: What do you mean, So it's just something, It's just

640
00:33:36,760 --> 00:33:40,000
Speaker 1: a neutron star or neutron balls. It just happens for

641
00:33:40,040 --> 00:33:44,560
Speaker 1: some reason to have started off with a giant magnetic

642
00:33:44,600 --> 00:33:47,600
Speaker 1: field and rotation. Is there something that would you know?

643
00:33:47,640 --> 00:33:52,360
Speaker 1: How do you what what causes um a neutron ball

644
00:33:52,440 --> 00:33:56,040
Speaker 1: to to have these higher or higher energy and fields.

645
00:33:56,280 --> 00:33:58,440
Speaker 1: I think Thor's hammer has to strike at it just

646
00:33:58,600 --> 00:34:02,560
Speaker 1: the right moment. Now it was it was bitten by

647
00:34:02,560 --> 00:34:05,880
Speaker 1: a microwave spider. Now, um, we don't know, you know,

648
00:34:05,920 --> 00:34:08,239
Speaker 1: we don't understand. We know that it's not super rare.

649
00:34:08,600 --> 00:34:12,360
Speaker 1: You know, something like one inten um of these pulsars

650
00:34:12,800 --> 00:34:15,359
Speaker 1: is a magnetar, so it's not super rare, but they're

651
00:34:15,400 --> 00:34:17,640
Speaker 1: super powerful. And you know, we don't even really have

652
00:34:17,680 --> 00:34:20,880
Speaker 1: a strong grasp on magnetic fields of ordinary stars. So

653
00:34:21,000 --> 00:34:24,279
Speaker 1: understanding like the crazy extreme magnetic fields of some really

654
00:34:24,320 --> 00:34:27,360
Speaker 1: strange neutron stars is definitely an area of active research

655
00:34:27,400 --> 00:34:29,600
Speaker 1: and not something that we understand very well. So wait,

656
00:34:29,640 --> 00:34:32,400
Speaker 1: are these things are made out of pure neutrons? They like,

657
00:34:32,640 --> 00:34:34,920
Speaker 1: there aren't There aren't any more atoms, basically, is what

658
00:34:34,960 --> 00:34:38,200
Speaker 1: you're saying. It's just pure neutrons clump together. That's right.

659
00:34:38,239 --> 00:34:39,799
Speaker 1: If you want to source of pure neutrons, you want

660
00:34:39,800 --> 00:34:41,360
Speaker 1: to go to whole foods and like go in the

661
00:34:41,360 --> 00:34:43,719
Speaker 1: both food sections, they don't have neutrons. You gotta go

662
00:34:43,760 --> 00:34:46,480
Speaker 1: out to the neutron stars to get a pure spoonful

663
00:34:46,520 --> 00:34:49,680
Speaker 1: of neutrons. Because remember Adams started out with protons and

664
00:34:49,719 --> 00:34:52,880
Speaker 1: electrons and neutrons. But in the vicinity of a neutron

665
00:34:52,960 --> 00:34:56,600
Speaker 1: star and the internal crazy compressed bits of a neutron star,

666
00:34:56,880 --> 00:35:00,960
Speaker 1: the protons and electrons react to give neutrons. Then also neutrinos,

667
00:35:01,000 --> 00:35:03,719
Speaker 1: which fly out into outer space and are not kept

668
00:35:03,760 --> 00:35:07,200
Speaker 1: inside the star. But neutrons don't have any electric charge, right,

669
00:35:07,239 --> 00:35:10,239
Speaker 1: They're not neither positive nor negative. So how can they

670
00:35:10,280 --> 00:35:13,799
Speaker 1: have a magnetic field. Well, there are quarks inside the neutron, right,

671
00:35:13,800 --> 00:35:17,719
Speaker 1: which have charge. So it's the spinning of spinning of

672
00:35:17,760 --> 00:35:21,200
Speaker 1: those it's causing maybe these fields. Yeah, exactly, And as

673
00:35:21,200 --> 00:35:23,920
Speaker 1: I said, we don't really understand it very well. Um,

674
00:35:23,960 --> 00:35:26,480
Speaker 1: but these things are crazy and they're moving really fast,

675
00:35:26,560 --> 00:35:29,000
Speaker 1: and they're moving so fast that they don't last very long.

676
00:35:29,360 --> 00:35:31,680
Speaker 1: Like we said that pulsars take like a hundred or

677
00:35:31,880 --> 00:35:33,759
Speaker 1: ten to a hundred million years to give up all

678
00:35:33,800 --> 00:35:36,439
Speaker 1: their energy because they're spinning and beaming all this energy

679
00:35:36,480 --> 00:35:39,279
Speaker 1: into space. Magnetars use of all their energy in like

680
00:35:39,440 --> 00:35:42,120
Speaker 1: ten thousand years or something. Wow, that's super quick. That's

681
00:35:42,120 --> 00:35:45,040
Speaker 1: like a like a it's like a blink in the

682
00:35:45,120 --> 00:35:47,960
Speaker 1: in the age of the universe. Yeah, exactly, it's hardly anything, right,

683
00:35:48,000 --> 00:35:50,799
Speaker 1: It's it's basically an explosion right from the from the

684
00:35:50,840 --> 00:35:52,839
Speaker 1: time scale of the universe. It's an explosion. And they

685
00:35:52,840 --> 00:35:55,640
Speaker 1: basically don't last at all. It's like a flash. Yeah, exactly,

686
00:35:55,840 --> 00:35:58,879
Speaker 1: the flash. Um, but you know before they before they die,

687
00:35:58,920 --> 00:36:02,040
Speaker 1: they do even weird or stuff. So the surface of

688
00:36:02,080 --> 00:36:05,160
Speaker 1: the of this magnetar is very intense, right, it's a

689
00:36:05,239 --> 00:36:07,919
Speaker 1: huge amount of pressure, and we think that maybe it's

690
00:36:07,920 --> 00:36:11,120
Speaker 1: not stable, and that sometimes what happens is the same

691
00:36:11,120 --> 00:36:13,920
Speaker 1: thing that happens on Earth when you have huge dense

692
00:36:14,000 --> 00:36:16,560
Speaker 1: bits of matter pushed against each other, which on Earth

693
00:36:16,600 --> 00:36:18,759
Speaker 1: you get an earthquake. So on the surface of this

694
00:36:18,840 --> 00:36:22,880
Speaker 1: magnetar you might get a star quake. Huge blobs of

695
00:36:22,880 --> 00:36:25,840
Speaker 1: these neutrons like push against each other and slide and slip,

696
00:36:25,880 --> 00:36:29,719
Speaker 1: and you get cracks and the thing reforms. And yeah,

697
00:36:29,840 --> 00:36:32,080
Speaker 1: I know it sounds like science fiction, right, but we

698
00:36:32,120 --> 00:36:35,839
Speaker 1: think it's actually literally happening in this universe. Because they're

699
00:36:35,840 --> 00:36:38,520
Speaker 1: spinning faster, you're seeing these spin even faster than a

700
00:36:38,560 --> 00:36:41,120
Speaker 1: thousand times a second. Yeah, some of them do exactly,

701
00:36:41,360 --> 00:36:43,840
Speaker 1: and they have crazy magnetic fields. And the reason we

702
00:36:43,880 --> 00:36:46,680
Speaker 1: think that sometimes they have these star quakes is that

703
00:36:46,719 --> 00:36:50,080
Speaker 1: we see these really strong flashes of light, these gamma

704
00:36:50,160 --> 00:36:54,360
Speaker 1: ray bursts that we think are essentially like light escaping

705
00:36:54,360 --> 00:36:57,279
Speaker 1: from the inside the neutron star during one of these starquakes,

706
00:36:57,960 --> 00:37:00,759
Speaker 1: and so it releases this huge out of energy. And

707
00:37:00,840 --> 00:37:02,600
Speaker 1: you know, we should do a whole podcast episode on

708
00:37:02,640 --> 00:37:05,360
Speaker 1: gamma ray bursts. They're fascinating. They're not very well understood.

709
00:37:05,680 --> 00:37:07,879
Speaker 1: But one idea is that they might be caused by

710
00:37:08,360 --> 00:37:13,000
Speaker 1: star quakes on the surface of magnetars. Wait, so doesn't

711
00:37:13,000 --> 00:37:15,319
Speaker 1: that sound like fiction. It just sounds like fiction. Star

712
00:37:15,440 --> 00:37:18,399
Speaker 1: quakes on the surface of magnetars. Well, it doesn't sound

713
00:37:18,440 --> 00:37:21,080
Speaker 1: that impressive if you switch to balls, right, ball quakes

714
00:37:21,200 --> 00:37:24,640
Speaker 1: and the surface of neutron balls. And that's why we're

715
00:37:24,640 --> 00:37:29,640
Speaker 1: not using balls because it doesn't sound as good. Um, alright,

716
00:37:29,680 --> 00:37:33,279
Speaker 1: so them, then how do we see these magnetars? Are

717
00:37:33,320 --> 00:37:36,160
Speaker 1: they do they also see them blinking like the pulsars. Yes,

718
00:37:36,200 --> 00:37:38,200
Speaker 1: they also admit a lot of radiation. That's why they

719
00:37:38,200 --> 00:37:41,600
Speaker 1: slow down. So they're essentially like the super duper version

720
00:37:41,600 --> 00:37:44,600
Speaker 1: of pulsars, and pulsars are super duper neutron stars, then

721
00:37:44,680 --> 00:37:47,040
Speaker 1: magnetars are super duper pulsars, and we can see them

722
00:37:47,080 --> 00:37:49,319
Speaker 1: in that same way. And then also sometimes they admit

723
00:37:49,400 --> 00:37:54,440
Speaker 1: these huge flashes of gamma rays, which coincidently is what

724
00:37:54,560 --> 00:38:00,440
Speaker 1: gave another Avenger his superpowers. What which one? You don't, uh,

725
00:38:00,440 --> 00:38:04,040
Speaker 1: I'm not of my moral universe details. It's the it's

726
00:38:04,040 --> 00:38:07,560
Speaker 1: the Hug. The Hug everyone knows got his powers from

727
00:38:07,640 --> 00:38:10,680
Speaker 1: gamma rad Yeah, but not from gamma ray burst from

728
00:38:10,719 --> 00:38:13,359
Speaker 1: outer space, right, that would affected everybody? Well, we don't

729
00:38:13,360 --> 00:38:16,640
Speaker 1: we When he was getting one of his seven pH ds,

730
00:38:16,680 --> 00:38:20,480
Speaker 1: he was doing an experiment that immersed him in gamma rays, right, yeah,

731
00:38:20,719 --> 00:38:23,120
Speaker 1: all right, so um so those our magnetars are like

732
00:38:23,160 --> 00:38:27,319
Speaker 1: super charged pulsars, which are like supercharged neutron stars, which

733
00:38:27,320 --> 00:38:32,160
Speaker 1: are like actually neutron balls exactly exactly. And you know

734
00:38:32,239 --> 00:38:34,920
Speaker 1: these things are not just ideas, right, these things they

735
00:38:34,960 --> 00:38:37,160
Speaker 1: are out there there, literally there. You could take a

736
00:38:37,160 --> 00:38:39,279
Speaker 1: spaceship and go and look at one and visit them

737
00:38:39,280 --> 00:38:42,360
Speaker 1: and interact with them. Right. The universe really has this

738
00:38:42,440 --> 00:38:45,600
Speaker 1: stuff in it, right, And I always try to remind

739
00:38:45,600 --> 00:38:48,440
Speaker 1: myself in astronomy that we've only seen the tip of

740
00:38:48,440 --> 00:38:51,520
Speaker 1: the iceberg. You know, every decade we find something else

741
00:38:51,640 --> 00:38:54,680
Speaker 1: super weird that astronomers twenty years ago would have thought, No,

742
00:38:54,920 --> 00:38:58,640
Speaker 1: that's incredible, that's crazy, that's too weird to exist, Which

743
00:38:58,719 --> 00:39:01,400
Speaker 1: means that there must be lots of stuff out there.

744
00:39:01,440 --> 00:39:04,120
Speaker 1: We haven't even imagined crazy stuff to trip over. We

745
00:39:04,160 --> 00:39:06,279
Speaker 1: haven't even begun to think about. Well, there are even

746
00:39:06,360 --> 00:39:08,480
Speaker 1: crazier things that we think might be out there, right,

747
00:39:08,560 --> 00:39:12,919
Speaker 1: hypothetical crazy stars. Yeah, there's no shortage theorists out there

748
00:39:13,000 --> 00:39:16,520
Speaker 1: thinking up other crazy stars that might exist. So let's

749
00:39:16,560 --> 00:39:21,160
Speaker 1: transition from talking about real weird stuff to hypothetical weird stuff.

750
00:39:26,160 --> 00:39:29,120
Speaker 1: What are some of the things that physicists think might

751
00:39:29,120 --> 00:39:31,600
Speaker 1: be out there that are even weirder. Well, one of

752
00:39:31,600 --> 00:39:34,600
Speaker 1: them is called a quark star, And so we talked

753
00:39:34,600 --> 00:39:37,239
Speaker 1: about how the neutron has quirks inside of it, right,

754
00:39:37,600 --> 00:39:39,800
Speaker 1: and that in a neutron star is really compressed and

755
00:39:39,840 --> 00:39:42,480
Speaker 1: the neutrons are all pushed up against each other. Well,

756
00:39:42,480 --> 00:39:44,799
Speaker 1: it might be that you get a neutron star that's

757
00:39:44,840 --> 00:39:47,200
Speaker 1: so dense that has enough gravity not to become a

758
00:39:47,239 --> 00:39:50,560
Speaker 1: black hole. But to break up the neutrons right where

759
00:39:50,560 --> 00:39:53,480
Speaker 1: the bond between the quarks um is weaker than the

760
00:39:53,600 --> 00:39:55,879
Speaker 1: energy of the gravity and so basically breaks them up.

761
00:39:56,120 --> 00:39:59,520
Speaker 1: And then you just have a ball of quarks, a

762
00:39:59,600 --> 00:40:02,319
Speaker 1: quirk ball, a cork ball. And you know, we don't

763
00:40:02,360 --> 00:40:04,920
Speaker 1: see even though we're made out of protons and neutrons,

764
00:40:04,920 --> 00:40:07,160
Speaker 1: which are made out of quarks, we never see quarks

765
00:40:07,200 --> 00:40:09,640
Speaker 1: by themselves. Even in particle colliders, we never see that

766
00:40:09,719 --> 00:40:12,839
Speaker 1: because corks have really really strong bonds with each other.

767
00:40:13,280 --> 00:40:15,799
Speaker 1: They have this really strange kind of force. You know

768
00:40:15,840 --> 00:40:20,040
Speaker 1: how gravity, How gravity gets weaker as things get further apart. Well,

769
00:40:20,040 --> 00:40:22,879
Speaker 1: the bonds between quarks is really weird. He get stronger

770
00:40:23,000 --> 00:40:26,080
Speaker 1: as things get further apart, which means it's very very

771
00:40:26,120 --> 00:40:28,760
Speaker 1: difficult to pull things apart because the amount of energy

772
00:40:28,800 --> 00:40:31,560
Speaker 1: stored in that bond becomes enormous. But where would this

773
00:40:31,600 --> 00:40:33,640
Speaker 1: pressure come from, Like, what would be the difference between

774
00:40:33,640 --> 00:40:36,799
Speaker 1: a regular neutron star and a quark star. I don't know,

775
00:40:36,880 --> 00:40:38,759
Speaker 1: that's a great question. I think it must just have

776
00:40:38,840 --> 00:40:41,839
Speaker 1: to do with the mass of it and the gravitational pressure. Right,

777
00:40:41,920 --> 00:40:44,759
Speaker 1: So if it's bigger than if it's enough mass to

778
00:40:44,800 --> 00:40:46,879
Speaker 1: form a neutron star, but not quite enough to form

779
00:40:46,920 --> 00:40:49,919
Speaker 1: a black hole. Then under some conditions it might break

780
00:40:49,960 --> 00:40:52,520
Speaker 1: down those neutrons into corks, but that's not something we've

781
00:40:52,560 --> 00:40:55,720
Speaker 1: ever seen. So you would just see like a ball

782
00:40:55,760 --> 00:40:58,400
Speaker 1: of solid quarks, yes, exactly. And I'm not sure how

783
00:40:58,440 --> 00:41:01,040
Speaker 1: you would observe that, right, that's a great question. How

784
00:41:01,040 --> 00:41:03,560
Speaker 1: would you tell the difference between a neutron star and

785
00:41:03,840 --> 00:41:06,320
Speaker 1: a star with the neutrons have broken down into quarks.

786
00:41:06,719 --> 00:41:09,040
Speaker 1: There must be some sort of strange radiation that that's

787
00:41:09,080 --> 00:41:11,719
Speaker 1: generated from that kind of star you just asked, right,

788
00:41:11,760 --> 00:41:15,839
Speaker 1: like on on the red carpet here over here, over here,

789
00:41:16,520 --> 00:41:18,840
Speaker 1: that's right. And the kinds of quirks that are in

790
00:41:19,160 --> 00:41:22,560
Speaker 1: um neutrons are just up corks and down corks, but

791
00:41:22,640 --> 00:41:25,439
Speaker 1: there are other kinds of corks. There's the strange cork,

792
00:41:25,480 --> 00:41:27,640
Speaker 1: and the bottom cork and the charm cork. And so

793
00:41:27,760 --> 00:41:29,600
Speaker 1: some people thought of like, well, what if you had

794
00:41:29,600 --> 00:41:33,960
Speaker 1: a star made exclusively of strange quirks, for example, And

795
00:41:34,000 --> 00:41:36,960
Speaker 1: so they called that, of course, the strange stars. And

796
00:41:37,280 --> 00:41:40,680
Speaker 1: that's another just crazy hypothetical example of something. But it

797
00:41:40,719 --> 00:41:43,160
Speaker 1: could be out there, right, It could be this enormous

798
00:41:43,200 --> 00:41:45,960
Speaker 1: ball of pure strange corks just out there floating in

799
00:41:46,000 --> 00:41:48,520
Speaker 1: the universe. Well, that's a different that's a whole different avenger.

800
00:41:48,640 --> 00:41:52,840
Speaker 1: I think that's right, that's the strange hulk, right. But

801
00:41:53,080 --> 00:41:56,080
Speaker 1: I also read that there is something that might be

802
00:41:56,120 --> 00:42:00,280
Speaker 1: called a dark matter star. Yeah, exactly. Remember that stars

803
00:42:00,320 --> 00:42:03,480
Speaker 1: are formed from gravity, right, it's gravity pulling stuff together

804
00:42:03,520 --> 00:42:06,279
Speaker 1: and squeezing it, making denser and denser. Well, we know

805
00:42:06,360 --> 00:42:08,600
Speaker 1: that dark matters out there. In fact, there's more dark

806
00:42:08,640 --> 00:42:10,880
Speaker 1: matter than anything else, and we do know that it's

807
00:42:10,880 --> 00:42:13,759
Speaker 1: affected by gravity. That's how we discovered it. So it's

808
00:42:13,880 --> 00:42:17,120
Speaker 1: entirely possible that in every star this dark matter, but

809
00:42:17,160 --> 00:42:19,520
Speaker 1: that there are some stars that have huge fractions of

810
00:42:19,600 --> 00:42:22,880
Speaker 1: dark matter, or that in the early universe some of

811
00:42:22,880 --> 00:42:25,680
Speaker 1: these uh, some of these stars were formed primarily from

812
00:42:25,760 --> 00:42:28,680
Speaker 1: dark matter, or even you might have stars that are

813
00:42:28,800 --> 00:42:32,880
Speaker 1: pure dark matter, like a dark star, a dark star exactly.

814
00:42:32,920 --> 00:42:34,759
Speaker 1: That that sounds like a science fiction novel. I'd like

815
00:42:34,800 --> 00:42:38,000
Speaker 1: to me. You could get enough dark matter condensed in

816
00:42:38,040 --> 00:42:40,120
Speaker 1: the same spot that it might actually start to like

817
00:42:40,280 --> 00:42:42,400
Speaker 1: combust or burn. Well, that's a question. We don't know,

818
00:42:42,440 --> 00:42:44,680
Speaker 1: the institute, because we don't know if dark matter has

819
00:42:44,719 --> 00:42:48,520
Speaker 1: any interactions with itself other than gravity, so gravity can

820
00:42:48,520 --> 00:42:51,560
Speaker 1: cluster together. The reason that normal matter starts to burn

821
00:42:51,680 --> 00:42:54,080
Speaker 1: is because of the other forces, right, the strong force

822
00:42:54,160 --> 00:42:56,759
Speaker 1: and fusion. All that stuff comes from the other interactions.

823
00:42:57,040 --> 00:42:59,160
Speaker 1: We don't know anything about dark matters interactions. If it

824
00:42:59,200 --> 00:43:02,359
Speaker 1: has some sort of crazy interaction with itself, then yeah,

825
00:43:02,600 --> 00:43:04,840
Speaker 1: it could combust and start to burn. But then it

826
00:43:04,920 --> 00:43:07,440
Speaker 1: might admit some sort of radiation we can't see, right,

827
00:43:07,480 --> 00:43:10,200
Speaker 1: It might admit dark photons, for example. So again you're

828
00:43:10,239 --> 00:43:13,840
Speaker 1: just talking about dark matter balls. Back to the balls

829
00:43:13,880 --> 00:43:20,360
Speaker 1: as always, dark balls. Welcome to Daniel Jorge, explain the

830
00:43:20,360 --> 00:43:23,400
Speaker 1: balls now. But do you know what I mean? Like

831
00:43:23,400 --> 00:43:26,759
Speaker 1: you're you're really just talking about clumps super danse dark

832
00:43:26,760 --> 00:43:29,640
Speaker 1: matter clumps, Yes, exactly, But they might be so dnse

833
00:43:29,680 --> 00:43:33,040
Speaker 1: and so crazy that they might uh amid some sort

834
00:43:33,080 --> 00:43:36,320
Speaker 1: of lighter radiation. They might that part of pure speculation.

835
00:43:36,600 --> 00:43:39,240
Speaker 1: I would not be surprised if dark matter formed clumps.

836
00:43:39,440 --> 00:43:41,920
Speaker 1: That was at least his dances stars, right, so you

837
00:43:41,920 --> 00:43:44,719
Speaker 1: could call that a star. I think, Um, we don't

838
00:43:44,719 --> 00:43:47,680
Speaker 1: know anything about dark matter interactions for generating radiation, so

839
00:43:47,719 --> 00:43:50,360
Speaker 1: that is just pure wild guesses. It might be the

840
00:43:50,440 --> 00:43:53,359
Speaker 1: dark matter has no other kind of interaction, in which

841
00:43:53,440 --> 00:43:55,680
Speaker 1: case it just sort of quietly gets clumped together by

842
00:43:55,680 --> 00:43:59,480
Speaker 1: gravity to form these structures but never radiates anything. It

843
00:43:59,480 --> 00:44:01,600
Speaker 1: could be, I don't think so. I think dark matter

844
00:44:01,680 --> 00:44:04,480
Speaker 1: must have some kind of interaction with normal matter, otherwise

845
00:44:04,480 --> 00:44:06,840
Speaker 1: it wouldn't have come into equilibrium in the early universe.

846
00:44:07,360 --> 00:44:08,960
Speaker 1: But we haven't figured that out at all. That's like

847
00:44:09,000 --> 00:44:11,279
Speaker 1: one of the biggest questions in science right now is

848
00:44:11,520 --> 00:44:15,239
Speaker 1: doesn't dark matter feel any forces other than gravity? Does

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00:44:15,280 --> 00:44:18,279
Speaker 1: it feel anything? It's so cold and distant, just like

850
00:44:18,320 --> 00:44:22,480
Speaker 1: all those other stars so em so full of itself,

851
00:44:26,239 --> 00:44:28,480
Speaker 1: all right? Or those are the all the weird stars

852
00:44:28,480 --> 00:44:31,040
Speaker 1: that um Kelly Smith wanted us to talk about. And

853
00:44:31,280 --> 00:44:33,400
Speaker 1: I think the lesson is here is that the universe

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00:44:33,440 --> 00:44:36,279
Speaker 1: always has more surprises waiting for us. That's right. Don't

855
00:44:36,280 --> 00:44:38,840
Speaker 1: be bored by the universe. It's always got something on

856
00:44:38,880 --> 00:44:41,640
Speaker 1: the next page to just turn the page, dial that

857
00:44:41,719 --> 00:44:43,960
Speaker 1: telescope up one more notch and you'll see something else

858
00:44:44,000 --> 00:44:47,400
Speaker 1: to entertain you. All right, Thanks everybody, Thanks for listening everybody,

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00:44:47,480 --> 00:44:50,000
Speaker 1: and tune in next time. And if you have questions

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00:44:50,040 --> 00:44:52,480
Speaker 1: about something we said, or you have questions about something else,

861
00:44:52,640 --> 00:44:55,760
Speaker 1: or you on an episode where we talk about your questions.

862
00:44:55,880 --> 00:44:59,319
Speaker 1: Just send us your suggestions to Questions at Daniel and

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00:44:59,440 --> 00:45:11,680
Speaker 1: Jorge com. All right, see you next time. If you

864
00:45:11,760 --> 00:45:14,640
Speaker 1: still have a question after listening to all these explanations,

865
00:45:14,719 --> 00:45:17,680
Speaker 1: please drop us a line. We'd love to hear from you.

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00:45:17,680 --> 00:45:20,520
Speaker 1: You can find us at Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram at

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00:45:20,840 --> 00:45:23,960
Speaker 1: Daniel and Jorge That's one word, or email us at

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00:45:24,239 --> 00:45:27,920
Speaker 1: Feedback at Daniel and Jorge dot com. Thanks for listening,

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00:45:27,960 --> 00:45:30,680
Speaker 1: and remember that Daniel and Jorge Explain the Universe is

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00:45:30,719 --> 00:45:34,239
Speaker 1: a production of I Heart Radio. From more podcast from

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00:45:34,239 --> 00:45:37,960
Speaker 1: my Heart Radio, visit the I Heart Radio Apple podcasts,

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00:45:38,120 --> 00:45:40,480
Speaker 1: or wherever you listen to your favorite shows.