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Speaker 1: Hello and Happy Saturday. Shakespearean actor Irah Frederick Aldridge came

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Speaker 1: up a couple of times in our recent episode on

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Speaker 1: our Turo Alfonso Schaumberg. As I was writing that episode,

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Speaker 1: I thought our episode on I Frederick Aldridge is so recent,

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Speaker 1: everyone will surely remember it. Uh turns out though that

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Speaker 1: episode came out more than four years ago. This happens

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Speaker 1: to me all the time. But the important thing is

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Speaker 1: that we're bringing that episode out. Is today's Saturday classic,

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Speaker 1: so enjoy. Welcome to Stuff you missed in History Class,

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Speaker 1: a production of I Heart Radio. Hello and welcome to

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Speaker 1: the podcast. I'm Tracy B. Wilson and I'm Holly Fry.

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Speaker 1: Today we have someone I first learned about from the

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Speaker 1: people of Color in European art history Tumbler also known

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Speaker 1: as medieval poc. It is Irah Frederick Aldridge. He was

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Speaker 1: a Shakespearean actor in the eighteen hundreds, and you might

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Speaker 1: even call him the first famous American Shakespearean actor, although

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Speaker 1: there was another American named Edwin Forrest who was popular

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Speaker 1: in both the United States and Britain at about the

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Speaker 1: same time. There is actual debate over which of them

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Speaker 1: should be called the first famous American Shakespearean actor, which

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Speaker 1: amuses me. But to return to the story, uh Aldredge

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Speaker 1: has largely been excluded from biographies of Shakespearean actors and

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Speaker 1: from histories of the theaters where he performed and the like.

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Speaker 1: In some cases there were even like histories of the

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Speaker 1: theater written in in France, for example, that were then

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Speaker 1: translated into English, and in the English language versions from

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Speaker 1: you know, the late nineteenth early twentieth century just kind

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Speaker 1: of excluded from the translated version. He's a little hard

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Speaker 1: to and information about. There not that many books about him.

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Speaker 1: But he was one of the first Americans to achieve

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Speaker 1: fame as a Shakespearean actor, as we said, and he

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Speaker 1: was definitely the first black man to really do so.

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Speaker 1: He had. There were a couple of other black actors

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Speaker 1: performing Shakespeare at about the same time, but none of

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Speaker 1: them got nearly the international renown that he did. He

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Speaker 1: became a really famous figure on the Victorian Shakespeare stage.

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Speaker 1: And there is some haziness about Aldridge's parents in his

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Speaker 1: early life, and part of it is thanks to the

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Speaker 1: holes and records and documentation that come up pretty often

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Speaker 1: on our show, especially the farther back you go. But

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Speaker 1: Complicating that was a heavily romanticized story of his ancestry

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Speaker 1: that floated around as part of the publicity for his

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Speaker 1: acting career, and that kind of nebulous version was also

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Speaker 1: picked up by biographers. The most basic version of this

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Speaker 1: story was just that Aldridge was from Senegal and descended

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Speaker 1: from royalty there. An African prince newly arrived from Senegal

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Speaker 1: would have been at the time somewhat more acceptable to

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Speaker 1: white theater audiences than an American black man descended from slaves,

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Speaker 1: So it's possible that, however this story came to be,

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Speaker 1: it was motivated at least in part by appeasing the

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Speaker 1: white theater crowds sensibilities, logically probably also just as a

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Speaker 1: publicity move, But at least one biographer went so far

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Speaker 1: as to detail a whole saga of IRA's father, whose

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Speaker 1: named Daniel, being brought to the United States by a

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Speaker 1: missionary to be educated and to flee a conspiracy playing

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Speaker 1: out among the Senegalese nobility. And in this story, Daniel

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Speaker 1: Aldridge married while he was in the States and then

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Speaker 1: returned to Senegal with his wife after the danger had passed,

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Speaker 1: and that would be just before IRA's birth. As this

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Speaker 1: is told, this is a very very dramatic story. It's

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Speaker 1: probably also just a story, although it's really unclear at

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Speaker 1: this point exactly when Aldred's ancestors were brought to North

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Speaker 1: America or how they ultimately came to be free people

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Speaker 1: living in New York. Daniel Aldrig's birthplace was either New

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Speaker 1: York or Baltimore. His death certificate says New York, and

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Speaker 1: his obituary says Baltimore. Yeah, We've had a few of

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Speaker 1: those where like different documents say completely different things. Uh,

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Speaker 1: And at that point, all you can kind of do

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Speaker 1: is shrug. Ira himself was born in New York on

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Speaker 1: July eighteen oh seven. He had several siblings, but only

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Speaker 1: one older brother, Joshua, survived. Their mother, Laurna, was either

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Speaker 1: from North Carolina or Delaware, depending on which record you're

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Speaker 1: looking at, and she died in eighteen seventeen, when Ira

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Speaker 1: was ten and Joshua was approximately twelve. Although New York

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Speaker 1: had passed a gradual Emancipation Act in seventeen ninety nine,

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Speaker 1: many enslaved people born before that year weren't freed until

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Speaker 1: eighteen twenty seven, and census records reported that about seventy five.

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Speaker 1: Enslaved people were still living in New York in eighteen thirty,

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Speaker 1: so while Ira and his family were free, there were

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Speaker 1: also enslaved people as well as people who were working

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Speaker 1: out in dentures that were required by the Gradual Emancipation

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Speaker 1: Act living in New York City at the same time,

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Speaker 1: and in addition to this stratification in terms of freedom

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Speaker 1: for the black community, public facilities were segregated, including the

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Speaker 1: schools and the theaters that Ira would attend as a

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Speaker 1: young man. Iris early education was at the African Free School,

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Speaker 1: which had been founded by the New York Manumission Society.

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Speaker 1: The African Free School was open to children up until

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Speaker 1: the age of fifteen, but it seems as though Ira

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Speaker 1: stayed until he was fifteen or possibly sixteen, perhaps because

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Speaker 1: he had enrolled when he was already a young teenager.

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Speaker 1: In about eighteen twenty, William Alexander Brown, who had previously

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Speaker 1: worked as a steward on a ship that sailed from

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Speaker 1: New York to Liverpool, opened a theater. This was the

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Speaker 1: African Groves, sometimes just called Brown's Theater or the African Theater.

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Speaker 1: In this theater, which was in Manhattan's West Side, he

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Speaker 1: was building on the success of an ice cream garden

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Speaker 1: he had previously opened, and this ice cream garden serves

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Speaker 1: tea and ice cream and also functioned as a performance space.

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Speaker 1: It was one of the very very few such venues

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Speaker 1: in the city that was open to black patrons, and

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Speaker 1: it was one of a string of Brown's social and

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Speaker 1: performing arts venues that he opened over the years. At first,

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Speaker 1: the coverage of the African Grove Theater from the white

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Speaker 1: press was largely negative and dismissive, but eventually it grew

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Speaker 1: so popular that it had to designate a section for

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Speaker 1: white audience members. It was certainly not the only New

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Speaker 1: York theater that was run by and for its black residents,

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Speaker 1: but it was the most ambitious and successful. In addition

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Speaker 1: to other works, its stage adaptations of Shakespeare, and one

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Speaker 1: of its star performers was a man named James Hewlett.

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Speaker 1: So when Aldridge most likely both watched from the audience

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Speaker 1: and of untually acted alongside. In eighteen or eighteen two,

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Speaker 1: Ira and Joshua Brown both landed roles at the theater.

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Speaker 1: Ira would have been fifteen or sixteen at that point,

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Speaker 1: but their father was not a fan of this idea.

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Speaker 1: He pulled them out of the show, possibly because he

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Speaker 1: wanted them to become ministers instead of actors, but Ira

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Speaker 1: would not be deterred. At the age of about seventeen,

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Speaker 1: he started trying to build a career as a professional

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Speaker 1: actor full time, and this was a difficult time to

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Speaker 1: be a black actor, both in New York specifically and

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Speaker 1: in the United States in general. The African Grove burned

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Speaker 1: down under mysterious circumstances about three years after its opening,

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Speaker 1: and that had followed a general theater closure during a

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Speaker 1: yellow fever outbreak, and even before that, the African Grove

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Speaker 1: had been the target of complaints from white neighbors about

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Speaker 1: noise and crowds, as well as sabotage attempts from a

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Speaker 1: rival theater company. It strikes me as so star change

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Speaker 1: that there were theater rivalries, including sabotage outside of New York.

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Speaker 1: Opportunities for black entertainers, which had not been all that

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Speaker 1: numerous in the first place, were really dwindling. In the

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Speaker 1: early mid eighteen hundreds, menstrel shows performed by white actors

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Speaker 1: and black face, often in a way that offensively lampooned

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Speaker 1: and caricatured black characters, were becoming more and more popular.

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Speaker 1: The stock character Jim Crow became part of menstrel shows

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Speaker 1: by eighteen twenty eight, and the name Jim Crow would

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Speaker 1: be used as a racist slur. Within a decade, menstrel

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Speaker 1: shows performed by white people in black face started crowding

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Speaker 1: out opportunities for black performers, sometimes while simultaneously copying those

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Speaker 1: performers original work. With all of this going on, not

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Speaker 1: long after his decision to become a professional actor, Aldridge

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Speaker 1: also decided that he would do so in Europe and

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Speaker 1: not in the United States. According to a pamphlet about

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Speaker 1: Aldred which was published during his lifetime, one of his

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Speaker 1: former classmates quote was in the habit of taking Mr

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Speaker 1: Henry Wallack's dresses to the Chatham Theater. Henry Wallack and

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Speaker 1: his brother James were both British actors who had become

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Speaker 1: a staple in New York's white theaters. At this point,

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Speaker 1: the theater scene in New York was thriving so much

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Speaker 1: that a lot of British actors are being drawn to

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Speaker 1: New York to perform there, much to the chagrin of

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Speaker 1: the theaters, especially in London. This was the case with

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Speaker 1: the Wallack brothers. So Ira Aldridge renewed his acquaintance with

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Speaker 1: this former classmate who had been delivering the costumes to

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Speaker 1: the theater for the Wallacks, and through his friend he

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Speaker 1: got an introduction to the two men. Both of them

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Speaker 1: took an interest in Aldridge in his career, and even

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Speaker 1: though his acting opportunities had been limited at this point,

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Speaker 1: he seemed to have already shown some clear talent. Henry

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Speaker 1: wrote him a letter of introduction, and Jane, possibly by coincidence,

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Speaker 1: booked passage on the same ship to Liverpool that Aldridge

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Speaker 1: had secured employment on. He was going to work as

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Speaker 1: a steward, basically to get across the Atlantic Ocean into

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Speaker 1: England once they were on board, though James requested Aldred

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Speaker 1: does his personal assistant. And Aldridge got to Liverpool in

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Speaker 1: eighteen twenty four, and in a year he would make

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Speaker 1: his debut with top Billing. And we're going to talk

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Speaker 1: about that, but first we are going to pause for

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Speaker 1: a moment and uh talk about one of the sponsors

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Speaker 1: that keeps the show going. In the fall of eighteen

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Speaker 1: twenty five, Irah Frederick Aldridge made his London debut, starring

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Speaker 1: in West Indian and African melodramas at the Royal Cobrag

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Speaker 1: Theater under the pseudonym Mr. Keene. He would have a

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Speaker 1: variety of pseudonyms, especially early in his career, and at

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Speaker 1: this point he was only eighteen, and we don't really

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Speaker 1: know the story of how Aldridge went from a new

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Speaker 1: arrival in London to securing top billing in his debut performance,

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Speaker 1: albeit at one of London's minor theaters. It's likely that

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Speaker 1: Henry Wallack's letter of introduction really helped, as well as

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Speaker 1: the novelty of having a black actor on the stage.

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Speaker 1: Aldridge was, we should be clear, certainly not the first

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Speaker 1: actor of color in Britain, but there weren't that many

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Speaker 1: before this point. Audiences seemed to love him in these

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Speaker 1: first performances at the Coburg. Newspaper reports uh talk about

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Speaker 1: really long and loud applause for his performances and audiences

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Speaker 1: who just seemed enraptured with him. Some of the reviews

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Speaker 1: were positive, but a lot of them, though, were frankly

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Speaker 1: just hostile. They painted a caricatured picture of his appearance,

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Speaker 1: exaggerating his facial features and his skin color, and in

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Speaker 1: one case claimed that the shape of his lips made

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Speaker 1: it impossible for him to pronounce proper English if you

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Speaker 1: read like the His biographies lacked a lot of these,

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Speaker 1: and if you read them, they are terrible. While performing

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Speaker 1: at the cobourg Aldridge met the woman that he would

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Speaker 1: soon marry, Margaret gil who was from a laboring family.

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Speaker 1: Similarly to the story that Aldridge was really descended from

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Speaker 1: African royalty, Margaret was often presented as the daughter of

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Speaker 1: a Member of Parliament, and while the faux history of

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Speaker 1: Aldridge's parentage made him more appealing to the audience, the

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Speaker 1: idea that she was the daughter of an MP gave

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Speaker 1: Margaret a little more social protection than she had as

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Speaker 1: the daughter of a poor family. Soon after his engagement

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Speaker 1: at the Coburg ended, Aldridge and his new wife moved

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Speaker 1: on to Brighton, and then they went on a tour

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Speaker 1: through the UK's provinces. He took on both comedic and

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Speaker 1: dramatic roles, and since he could sing, he performed in

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Speaker 1: variety shows. Most of his roles were those of black characters,

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Speaker 1: who at that point had typically been played by white

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Speaker 1: actors in black face. Some of his most common roles

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Speaker 1: were Othello, which is probably the most obvious at the time,

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Speaker 1: and another was Orinoco in the Revolt of Surinam. Almost

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Speaker 1: immediately he was being billed as the African Roscius, and

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Speaker 1: Roscius was a Roman actor who became sort of the

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Speaker 1: go to nickname for particularly successful actors later on. I

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Speaker 1: wonder why that fell out of favor. We could be

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Speaker 1: using that today, I know, and I it was one

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Speaker 1: of those things where I was so many people were

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Speaker 1: referring to it, uh in the in you know, articles

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Speaker 1: about him and things like that. I had to go

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Speaker 1: look it up because I was like, but contextually, this

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Speaker 1: is a nickname for a famous actor, but it is

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Speaker 1: not really in common use. Now, let's bring it back.

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Speaker 1: Even though his performances were well received and he found

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Speaker 1: work really often, he and his wife really struggled financially

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Speaker 1: at first. His engagements only gave him a lot of

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Speaker 1: the times a few days of work at a time,

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Speaker 1: and without a steady employment or a patron, at times

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Speaker 1: he would go for weeks without pay, especially in the

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Speaker 1: earlier parts of his career. Aldridge falls in and out

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Speaker 1: of the historical record. Sometimes the only trace we really

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Speaker 1: have of him is in playbills and theater advertisements. We

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Speaker 1: do know that he returned to London in eighteen thirty

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Speaker 1: three to take over the role of Othello at the

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Speaker 1: Covent Garden Theater. He was picking up the role from

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Speaker 1: another famous actor, Edmund Keane, who had unexpectedly died, and

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Speaker 1: once again he got a generally warm reception from the

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Speaker 1: audience and a fairly vicious one from critics. Before he

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Speaker 1: even performed, there were articles attacking him as being unfit

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Speaker 1: for the stage because of his color. Reviews were filled

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Speaker 1: with racist descriptions of his voice and appearance, and an outraged,

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Speaker 1: pitying response to his co star Ellen Tree and the

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Speaker 1: quote indignity of being pawed about by him in her

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Speaker 1: role of Desdemona. Although he was at this point still

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Speaker 1: a relatively in experienced actor, the critical response was really

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Speaker 1: just truly cruel and frequently threaded through with very thinly

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Speaker 1: veiled racism. Is veiled at all? Yeah? Sometimes it was

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Speaker 1: very explicit and written before he had even performed the part.

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Speaker 1: Isn't that how reviews? Yeah, it's It's somewhat unclear why

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Speaker 1: the critical reception to his work was somewhat kinder outside

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Speaker 1: of London. I'm not suggesting that there was none of

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Speaker 1: that in the reviews from other parts of the UK,

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Speaker 1: but it seemed to be at least toned down a

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Speaker 1: little bit. Also not totally clear why the reviews seemed

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Speaker 1: so vastly out of step with the audience response to

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Speaker 1: his performances. One theory is that in London, the critics

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Speaker 1: knew that he was really an American from New York

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Speaker 1: and not a prince from Senegal. Another is that social

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Speaker 1: conditions in London, including the rise of trade unions and

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Speaker 1: class consciousness among workers, was priming working class audiences to

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Speaker 1: really like the idea of an actor who was struggling

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Speaker 1: against oppression in a way that journalists weren't quite in

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Speaker 1: touch with. Regardless of what the causes were for this

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Speaker 1: sort of disparity between critics and theater goers, After his

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Speaker 1: run as a Fellow, Aldrich returned to acting in London's

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Speaker 1: minor theaters as well as in smaller British towns and cities,

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Speaker 1: and he started to get more steady work, developing a

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Speaker 1: following of passionate fans and building up in a steady

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Speaker 1: income at multiple venues. Critics wrote about his having to

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Speaker 1: basically carry along cast members who were not as skilled

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Speaker 1: in their performance or didn't even know their lines. Eventually,

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Speaker 1: he began to expand his repertoire into Shakespearean roles that

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Speaker 1: were typically cast with white men, including Shylock Richard, the

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Speaker 1: Third Hamlet, Macbeth, and Lear. Using makeup to lighten his skin,

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Speaker 1: he basically became a Victorian era equivalent of a movie star,

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Speaker 1: complete with a legion of adoring fans and a steady

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Speaker 1: stream of female admirers. And this was mainly a true

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Speaker 1: still outside of London. He never really caught on in

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Speaker 1: the eye of London society, but outside of it he

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Speaker 1: was incredibly popular, including developing a string of patrons who

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Speaker 1: made his financial life a lot more comfortable. In July

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Speaker 1: of eighteen fifty two, he started his first major European tour,

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Speaker 1: including royal performances and heads of state in the Audience,

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Speaker 1: which was again incredibly well received, but still did not

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Speaker 1: win critics over to his side. When he made yet

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Speaker 1: another go in London. He also started adapting works of

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Speaker 1: his own, including a complete redoing of Titus Andronicus, in

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Speaker 1: which It's Moorish character is the hero. I would love

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Speaker 1: to see that, right, I'm kind of intrigued. Apparently it

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Speaker 1: was kind of uneven in his execution. Uh. And if

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Speaker 1: you're familiar with Titus andronics, like the Moorish character in

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Speaker 1: that is not a hero at all. So uh yeah,

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Speaker 1: I I have not. I don't even know if an

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Speaker 1: adapt tate, like a copy of that adaptation even still exists,

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Speaker 1: but I am quite intrigued. This tour of the continent

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Speaker 1: also came just a few months after Harriet beecher Stowe's

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Speaker 1: Uncle Tom's Cabin had first been published, first in the

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Speaker 1: United States and then in Britain. And this book stoked

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Speaker 1: anti slavery sent sentiment on both sides of the Atlantic,

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Speaker 1: and it started to further shift the perceptions of Aldridge's performance,

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Speaker 1: particularly in the role of Othello. While that eighteen thirty

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Speaker 1: three Coming Garden Theater performance had been met with pamphlets

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Speaker 1: saying that a black man was unfit to be on

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Speaker 1: the stage in Russia, in eighteen fifty eight, one review

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Speaker 1: read quote, I am firmly convinced that after Aldridge, it

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Speaker 1: is impossible to see Othello performed by a white actor,

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Speaker 1: be it Garrick himself. And that's a reference to David Garrick,

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Speaker 1: who was a famous British Shakespearean actor, Although he would

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Speaker 1: briefly return to Britain and even be granted British citizenship

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Speaker 1: on November seven, eighteen sixty three. His overwhelmingly positive receptions

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Speaker 1: in France and Russia meant that he spent most of

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Speaker 1: the last six years of his career there, ultimately making

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Speaker 1: a name for himself as one of history's great tragedians

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Speaker 1: and becoming a bigger draw than Russia's most famous actors. Apparently,

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Speaker 1: Russia in particular loved him a lot. France also, especially

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Speaker 1: especially Russia, although shifting perceptions of race and of the

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Speaker 1: institution of slavery had also changed the way audiences and

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Speaker 1: the press were regarding him. Uh that doesn't mean that

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Speaker 1: the racism was magically over. The later part of his

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Speaker 1: career was beset by unfounded rumors that on stage he

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Speaker 1: had stabbed Iago's and suffocated Desdemona's for real. This led

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Speaker 1: to his co star in Moscow refusing to take the

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Speaker 1: stage with him and her role as Desdemona. His response

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Speaker 1: was quote, I have played that role more than three

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Speaker 1: hundred times in my life, and in all these times,

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Speaker 1: I have suffocated possibly two maximum three Desdemonas, and I

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Speaker 1: stabbed I think one Iago obviously was a joke. It

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Speaker 1: riled people up more uh. Biographers Herbert Marshall and Mildred Stock,

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Speaker 1: who wrote the first really definitive biography of him in

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Speaker 1: the nineteen fifties, described this whole incident as quote an

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Speaker 1: out and out case of color prejudice. It was like,

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Speaker 1: really a completely unfounded rumor based on nothing, because people

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Speaker 1: were scared. If he had been an actor at the

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Speaker 1: Glonguignol it would have made him more popular. Oh yeah, no,

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Speaker 1: he's really he's really smothering people. Al Dredge continued to

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Speaker 1: tour and perform for the rest of his life, although

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Speaker 1: his wife, Margaret eventually stopped accompanying him a few years

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Speaker 1: before her death on March eighteen sixty four. She was

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Speaker 1: about a decade older than Ira, and her health had

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Speaker 1: been poor at that point. Aldridge had been supporting her

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Speaker 1: and an illegitimate son, Ira Daniel, who had been born

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Speaker 1: in May of eighteen forty seven and who Margaret raised

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Speaker 1: as her own. It's also unclear whether she knew about this,

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Speaker 1: but he had been supporting a second family as well.

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Speaker 1: He'd had two more children with a Swedish woman named

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Speaker 1: Amanda Pauline von Brandt. These were Irene Laurna Pauline, who

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Speaker 1: was born in eighteen sixty and Ira Frederick Olaff known

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Speaker 1: as Fritz, who was born in eighteen sixty two. And

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Speaker 1: similarly to how Margaret had been described as the daughter

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Speaker 1: of an MP, Amanda Pauline was said to be a baroness,

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Speaker 1: she was definitely not. She was the daughter of a fairier.

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Speaker 1: Over the course of his life, Aldridge had actually fathered

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Speaker 1: several other children as well. In eighteen fifty five, another actor,

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Speaker 1: William Stothard, sued him over an affair with his wife Emma,

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Speaker 1: after she'd delivered a biracial baby. Aldridge was found guilty

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Speaker 1: of criminal conversation and sentenced to pay a fine. Ira

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Speaker 1: married Amanda Pauline in eighteen sixty five, and after that

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Speaker 1: they had two more children, Amanda Christina Elizabeth, born in

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Speaker 1: March of eighteen sixty six, and Rachel Margaret Fredrika, who

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Speaker 1: was born four and a half months after aldridge death.

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Speaker 1: Ira died in Poland on August seventh, eighteen sixty seven,

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Speaker 1: and he was buried there. Although he made specific plans

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Speaker 1: to return to the United States at various points, it

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Speaker 1: seems that he never did. When the new Memorial Theater

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Speaker 1: reopened at Stratford upon Avon in ninety two, Aldridge's name

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Speaker 1: was included among other great Shakespearean actors commemorated with plaques

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Speaker 1: among the seats. He is the only black actor of

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Speaker 1: the thirty three included. As I noted, Aldridge became quite

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Speaker 1: successful in his career and he developed a pretty healthy income.

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Speaker 1: He started giving a significant portion of that income to

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Speaker 1: abolitionist causes, and he also played a part in an

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Speaker 1: abolitionist work of art outside of the theater, which we

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Speaker 1: will talk about after another brief sponsor break. Irah Frederick

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Speaker 1: Aldridge was the subject of several works of art during

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Speaker 1: his lifetime. One was head of a Negro in the

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Speaker 1: character of Othello, which was painted by James Northcote in

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Speaker 1: the first year that Ira himself appeared as Othello on stage.

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Speaker 1: So although the artist didn't specifically say this is Ira Aldridge,

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Speaker 1: the widespread conclusion is that that's who paint the painting

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Speaker 1: is of. But another came back into the public eye

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Speaker 1: only very recently after having been in private collections for

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Speaker 1: a hundred and eighty years. It's by John Phillips Simpson,

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Speaker 1: and it's called the Captive Slave, and it was acquired

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Speaker 1: by the Art Institute of Chicago in two thousand nine. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: before this, people knew that the that it existed, and

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Speaker 1: there was a really poor quality reproduction of it, but

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Speaker 1: the original painting had been out of the public eye.

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Speaker 1: The Captive Slave was painted sometime in the late eighteen twenties,

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Speaker 1: and it's a painting of a young black man sitting

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Speaker 1: on a bench wearing manacles. He's wearing an orange jumpsuit

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Speaker 1: and for modern viewers it will probably immediately bring to

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Speaker 1: mind the idea of a prison jumpsuit. He's looking upward

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Speaker 1: and his face carries this impression of nearly tearful sorrow

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Speaker 1: and lost. This is the painting that first went on

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Speaker 1: exhibition at the Royal Academy of the Arts in eight

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Speaker 1: and its entry in the exhibition catalog included lines from Charity,

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Speaker 1: which is an anti slavery poem by William Cowper. It's

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Speaker 1: clearly meant as an anti slavery work, and the man

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Speaker 1: portraying the slave in the painting is Irah Frederick Aldridge. Um.

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Speaker 1: A lot of people don't know that there was an

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Speaker 1: incredibly famous black actor doing Shakespeare in Victorian Europe and

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Speaker 1: especially England, even though they didn't love him in London,

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Speaker 1: but everywhere else they super Thanks so much for joining

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Speaker 1: us on this Saturday. Since this episode is out of

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Speaker 1: the archive, if you heard an email address or a

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Speaker 1: Facebook U r L or something similar over the course

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Speaker 1: of the show, that could be obsolete now. Our current

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Speaker 1: email address is History Podcast at i heart radio dot com.

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Speaker 1: Our old health stuff works email address no longer works,

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Speaker 1: and you can find us all over social media at

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Speaker 1: missed in History. And you can subscribe to our show

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Speaker 1: on Apple podcasts, Google podcasts, the I heart Radio app,

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Speaker 1: and wherever else you listen to podcasts. Stuff you Missed

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Speaker 1: in History Class is a production of I heart Radio.

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