1 00:00:04,320 --> 00:00:07,600 Speaker 1: Get in test with technology with text stuff from stuff 2 00:00:08,039 --> 00:00:15,600 Speaker 1: coming either everyone, and welcome to tech stuff. I'm Jonathan 3 00:00:15,640 --> 00:00:20,200 Speaker 1: Strickland and today's topic comes to us courtesy of a listener. 4 00:00:20,239 --> 00:00:23,599 Speaker 1: Actually I had blogged about this topic. It's the ice 5 00:00:23,680 --> 00:00:28,639 Speaker 1: cube neutrino telescope, and I wrote a little Twitter message about, Hey, 6 00:00:28,720 --> 00:00:30,800 Speaker 1: I got to write about this telescope that's buried a 7 00:00:30,840 --> 00:00:34,800 Speaker 1: mile beneath the ice, And immediately Nick on Twitter said 8 00:00:35,400 --> 00:00:37,760 Speaker 1: you should do a podcast about that, And I thought 9 00:00:38,159 --> 00:00:41,120 Speaker 1: I should do a podcast about that because I've already 10 00:00:41,120 --> 00:00:43,839 Speaker 1: done the research for that thing. That's why you got 11 00:00:43,840 --> 00:00:48,240 Speaker 1: this research out so quickly. Well, you know, repurposing. No, No, 12 00:00:48,400 --> 00:00:51,840 Speaker 1: it's actually here's the thing. Well one, it's buried under 13 00:00:51,880 --> 00:00:55,800 Speaker 1: the ice, so already it's super cool. But I'm sorry 14 00:00:56,400 --> 00:01:01,880 Speaker 1: it's already started. But I genuinely find this absolutely fascinating. 15 00:01:01,880 --> 00:01:05,920 Speaker 1: I mean, it's it's the world's largest neutrino detector, it's 16 00:01:06,040 --> 00:01:11,039 Speaker 1: buried a mile under the ice. It's this is something 17 00:01:11,080 --> 00:01:13,080 Speaker 1: that if you had told me was in a science 18 00:01:13,080 --> 00:01:16,280 Speaker 1: fiction story, I would have said, that's just silly, that's 19 00:01:16,319 --> 00:01:19,680 Speaker 1: a that's a lame bond villain's layer. Yeah, there's no 20 00:01:19,800 --> 00:01:23,839 Speaker 1: way that would really exist, and it totally exists. So 21 00:01:24,240 --> 00:01:28,240 Speaker 1: what is it looking for. It's looking for evidence of neutrinos, 22 00:01:28,400 --> 00:01:33,600 Speaker 1: which are these massless or nearly massless particles with no 23 00:01:33,840 --> 00:01:36,640 Speaker 1: electrical charge. And we'll talk more about them a little 24 00:01:36,640 --> 00:01:40,160 Speaker 1: bit later. Yeah, because specifically it's looking for for interactions 25 00:01:40,200 --> 00:01:44,039 Speaker 1: of neutrinos with stuff. But but well, yes, yeah, because 26 00:01:44,160 --> 00:01:47,200 Speaker 1: as it turns out, neutrinos are a little tricky. But 27 00:01:47,319 --> 00:01:50,280 Speaker 1: they It is at the South Pole, or really it's 28 00:01:50,440 --> 00:01:56,160 Speaker 1: underneath it. It's in Antarctica, and specifically, like I said, 29 00:01:56,200 --> 00:01:59,640 Speaker 1: it's about a mile beneath the surface of the ice, 30 00:02:00,040 --> 00:02:04,240 Speaker 1: between between one and two thousand meters or one to 31 00:02:04,280 --> 00:02:08,280 Speaker 1: one point five miles. Yeah, it's pretty incredible. That's and 32 00:02:08,320 --> 00:02:12,040 Speaker 1: it takes up about a cubic kilometer of ice, which 33 00:02:12,040 --> 00:02:13,840 Speaker 1: is about two thirds of a mile on each side. 34 00:02:14,280 --> 00:02:18,000 Speaker 1: So just imagine an area underneath the surface of the 35 00:02:18,000 --> 00:02:21,680 Speaker 1: ice and Antarctica that is this kilometer by a kilometer 36 00:02:21,680 --> 00:02:25,760 Speaker 1: by a kilometer in in in proportions, and that is 37 00:02:25,800 --> 00:02:30,120 Speaker 1: a telescope. And the reason why it's there is because well, 38 00:02:30,160 --> 00:02:32,160 Speaker 1: there's a couple of reasons. One is that the ice 39 00:02:32,240 --> 00:02:36,720 Speaker 1: provides a medium through which the neutrinos travel, and an 40 00:02:36,720 --> 00:02:39,960 Speaker 1: exceptionally clear medium at that the pressure of the ice 41 00:02:40,040 --> 00:02:43,160 Speaker 1: that deep has has pushed all the air bubbles out, right, 42 00:02:43,200 --> 00:02:45,920 Speaker 1: so it's incredibly clear. And also when you get to 43 00:02:46,000 --> 00:02:49,680 Speaker 1: be about a mile down below the surface, things get 44 00:02:49,680 --> 00:02:53,000 Speaker 1: a little dark, especially when sunlight isn't hitting you for 45 00:02:53,120 --> 00:02:55,799 Speaker 1: what seven or eight months out of the year, right, Right, 46 00:02:55,880 --> 00:02:59,000 Speaker 1: So it's already in a part of the world where, yeah, 47 00:02:59,000 --> 00:03:00,959 Speaker 1: for eight months of the or you have no sun 48 00:03:01,720 --> 00:03:05,360 Speaker 1: and it's a mile down and so it's really really dark. 49 00:03:05,520 --> 00:03:07,360 Speaker 1: The medium it's in is really clear. And both of 50 00:03:07,400 --> 00:03:12,239 Speaker 1: those things are incredibly important. So when was this thing 51 00:03:12,760 --> 00:03:16,800 Speaker 1: actually built? Well, it was proposed in yeah, but um, 52 00:03:17,200 --> 00:03:20,360 Speaker 1: it wasn't actually approved as a project until May first, 53 00:03:20,480 --> 00:03:24,760 Speaker 1: two thousand four. Right, They began building it in December 54 00:03:24,760 --> 00:03:27,360 Speaker 1: two thousand four. They started melting the holes they would 55 00:03:27,360 --> 00:03:30,680 Speaker 1: need to drill down to put the various censors that 56 00:03:30,720 --> 00:03:33,440 Speaker 1: are part of this telescope. Uh, they started drilling those 57 00:03:33,480 --> 00:03:37,440 Speaker 1: on on December one, two thousand four. The very last 58 00:03:37,440 --> 00:03:42,960 Speaker 1: censor was placed in a December, Yes, so six years 59 00:03:43,000 --> 00:03:45,920 Speaker 1: to do a complete telescope. Now they had already started 60 00:03:45,960 --> 00:03:50,160 Speaker 1: to gather information from the censors they had placed up 61 00:03:50,160 --> 00:03:52,560 Speaker 1: to that point, but it wasn't until they did that 62 00:03:52,680 --> 00:03:55,200 Speaker 1: last row in two thousand ten for it to be 63 00:03:55,280 --> 00:04:00,480 Speaker 1: a completed project. So pretty cool. And um, we cost 64 00:04:00,720 --> 00:04:04,360 Speaker 1: you know, a couple of bucks, right, easily two seventy 65 00:04:04,440 --> 00:04:06,520 Speaker 1: one million, as we would say in the old days 66 00:04:06,520 --> 00:04:10,440 Speaker 1: of tech stuff, a princely some most of that money 67 00:04:10,680 --> 00:04:14,120 Speaker 1: was provided by the National Science Foundation. They footed the 68 00:04:14,160 --> 00:04:17,359 Speaker 1: bill for a tune of two forty two million, and 69 00:04:17,400 --> 00:04:20,560 Speaker 1: the rest came from funders from all well, all around 70 00:04:20,560 --> 00:04:25,640 Speaker 1: the world. Really, so it's truly an international effort. It's 71 00:04:25,640 --> 00:04:30,720 Speaker 1: not something that is controlled by one entity. Uh. There's 72 00:04:30,760 --> 00:04:34,440 Speaker 1: a kind of a consortium called the ice Cube Collaboration 73 00:04:34,520 --> 00:04:38,520 Speaker 1: that sort of represents all the different parties involved. Right. 74 00:04:38,600 --> 00:04:40,760 Speaker 1: It has a total staff of about two hundred and 75 00:04:40,760 --> 00:04:45,400 Speaker 1: fifty people from forty one institutions in twelve countries overall. Um, 76 00:04:45,400 --> 00:04:48,680 Speaker 1: it's all led out of the University of Wisconsin Madison, right, 77 00:04:48,800 --> 00:04:51,039 Speaker 1: and some of the institutions that are part of this 78 00:04:51,080 --> 00:04:53,920 Speaker 1: include the University of Delaware. Uh. They designed some of 79 00:04:53,920 --> 00:04:57,279 Speaker 1: the key elements for the project, the Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, 80 00:04:57,640 --> 00:05:00,839 Speaker 1: Clark Atlanta University. Shout out to a low cool school. Hey, 81 00:05:00,880 --> 00:05:06,320 Speaker 1: how about my rival college, Georgia Tech. Uh I of 82 00:05:06,360 --> 00:05:08,400 Speaker 1: course went to the University of Georgia. Georgia Tech are 83 00:05:08,440 --> 00:05:10,599 Speaker 1: are hated enemies. They were part of this as well. 84 00:05:10,960 --> 00:05:13,200 Speaker 1: So we could actually we could literally go down the 85 00:05:13,200 --> 00:05:16,480 Speaker 1: street and probably find someone who works work on the project, 86 00:05:16,640 --> 00:05:19,080 Speaker 1: works on this project, which is kind of exciting. The 87 00:05:19,160 --> 00:05:22,440 Speaker 1: Neils Bore Institute. You might have heard of us talking 88 00:05:22,440 --> 00:05:25,839 Speaker 1: about that when we did our Heisenberg episode. There's also 89 00:05:25,920 --> 00:05:32,080 Speaker 1: Ohio State University, Pennsylvania State University, Stockholm University, University of Alberta, Edmonton, 90 00:05:32,760 --> 00:05:37,520 Speaker 1: University of Canterbury in New Zealand, and Oxford, so among 91 00:05:37,600 --> 00:05:40,400 Speaker 1: lots of others. So, I mean, it's a it's it's 92 00:05:40,400 --> 00:05:42,240 Speaker 1: a really big project and it's something that a lot 93 00:05:42,279 --> 00:05:46,279 Speaker 1: of people, you know, physicists and engineers and computer science 94 00:05:46,360 --> 00:05:48,960 Speaker 1: kids have been really excited to get in on exactly 95 00:05:49,080 --> 00:05:52,720 Speaker 1: and when you start looking into what this telescope does 96 00:05:52,880 --> 00:05:57,080 Speaker 1: and the hesitated used the word, but the scope of 97 00:05:57,120 --> 00:06:00,400 Speaker 1: the project, it's it's you know, it's understandable why people 98 00:06:00,440 --> 00:06:02,400 Speaker 1: are so eager to be part of it. Lauren is 99 00:06:02,600 --> 00:06:06,599 Speaker 1: judging me and grinning and shaking your head. Uh So, 100 00:06:07,160 --> 00:06:09,360 Speaker 1: let's talk about what it is they're looking for. Let's 101 00:06:09,400 --> 00:06:15,560 Speaker 1: talk about these neutrinos, these nearly massless particles. So there's 102 00:06:15,600 --> 00:06:19,120 Speaker 1: sub atomic particles, meaning that they're smaller than actual atoms. 103 00:06:19,960 --> 00:06:22,440 Speaker 1: And what's really interesting about them is is that they're 104 00:06:22,480 --> 00:06:26,120 Speaker 1: they're electrically neutral, yeah, which means that they aren't affected 105 00:06:26,120 --> 00:06:31,240 Speaker 1: by electro magnetic fields or forces exactly. They they So 106 00:06:31,279 --> 00:06:34,719 Speaker 1: if you were to have, say, a positively charged particle 107 00:06:34,800 --> 00:06:38,880 Speaker 1: and ion flying through space, and it happened to come 108 00:06:38,920 --> 00:06:42,640 Speaker 1: either close to another positively charged body, it would be 109 00:06:42,960 --> 00:06:45,560 Speaker 1: repulsed by that and its direction would change, or if 110 00:06:45,600 --> 00:06:48,240 Speaker 1: it came close to a negatively charged body, would be 111 00:06:48,279 --> 00:06:51,279 Speaker 1: attracted to that, and again its course would change, meaning 112 00:06:51,320 --> 00:06:54,039 Speaker 1: that there'd be no way for you to tell where 113 00:06:54,080 --> 00:06:57,720 Speaker 1: that particle originated from because they bounce around. Yeah, they 114 00:06:57,720 --> 00:07:00,280 Speaker 1: could have been moving all over the place. It would 115 00:07:00,279 --> 00:07:04,040 Speaker 1: look kind of like the old Family Circus cartoons where 116 00:07:04,080 --> 00:07:07,680 Speaker 1: Billy's pathway does the little dotted line over the entire neighborhood. 117 00:07:07,680 --> 00:07:10,840 Speaker 1: You just don't know where it came from. But neutrinos 118 00:07:10,920 --> 00:07:14,160 Speaker 1: don't have that charge, so they're not affected by positive 119 00:07:14,200 --> 00:07:17,360 Speaker 1: or negative charges. That won't change the pathway. So to 120 00:07:17,640 --> 00:07:20,080 Speaker 1: you know that they're traveling in a straight line, and 121 00:07:20,160 --> 00:07:23,960 Speaker 1: they're traveling extremely fast. Because they are massless or near massless, 122 00:07:24,000 --> 00:07:26,840 Speaker 1: they can travel right up nosing up to the to 123 00:07:26,920 --> 00:07:29,160 Speaker 1: the speed of light right now. Obviously, if they were 124 00:07:29,200 --> 00:07:30,920 Speaker 1: to travel to the speed of light, that would be 125 00:07:30,960 --> 00:07:33,440 Speaker 1: a problem. According to the theory of relativity, anything with 126 00:07:33,560 --> 00:07:37,160 Speaker 1: mass would require infinite energy to get to the speed 127 00:07:37,160 --> 00:07:39,559 Speaker 1: of light. So it's close but not quite the speed 128 00:07:39,560 --> 00:07:42,760 Speaker 1: of light. And uh, depending upon the medium, it can 129 00:07:42,760 --> 00:07:46,840 Speaker 1: actually travel faster than light within that media, not within 130 00:07:46,840 --> 00:07:49,840 Speaker 1: the vacuum of space, but within the medium of say, 131 00:07:49,880 --> 00:07:53,000 Speaker 1: I don't know ice. This will be important later on. Um. 132 00:07:53,040 --> 00:07:55,120 Speaker 1: But but back to the basics here. Okay, So, so 133 00:07:55,200 --> 00:07:57,480 Speaker 1: we think that they're the second most common particle in 134 00:07:57,520 --> 00:08:00,560 Speaker 1: the entire universe, the first being photons. Right, So the 135 00:08:00,960 --> 00:08:04,520 Speaker 1: fundamental unit of light is more there's more of that 136 00:08:04,600 --> 00:08:07,080 Speaker 1: than neutrinos. But that's the only thing out there besides 137 00:08:07,480 --> 00:08:11,240 Speaker 1: the stuff we can't identify, like dark matter, but we'll 138 00:08:11,280 --> 00:08:14,080 Speaker 1: get into that too, yes, um. And and there's there's 139 00:08:14,080 --> 00:08:17,600 Speaker 1: three basic types of neutrinos or um or flavors as 140 00:08:17,640 --> 00:08:20,920 Speaker 1: they are legitimately called in physics, right, which makes me 141 00:08:21,000 --> 00:08:24,680 Speaker 1: just so excited. So it's vanilla chocolate and rocky road. 142 00:08:25,000 --> 00:08:29,920 Speaker 1: Is that it U close electron, muon, and taw neutrinos alright, 143 00:08:29,960 --> 00:08:35,040 Speaker 1: So electrons, muans and taw are all negatively charged particles. 144 00:08:35,240 --> 00:08:39,560 Speaker 1: Electrons are subatomic particles, thank you. Uh they are the 145 00:08:39,559 --> 00:08:42,000 Speaker 1: electrons I would say are the most familiar to people. 146 00:08:42,120 --> 00:08:45,360 Speaker 1: Everyone who has taken basic science knows the electrons the 147 00:08:45,360 --> 00:08:48,520 Speaker 1: negatively charged particle that you find in atoms. They have 148 00:08:49,120 --> 00:08:53,480 Speaker 1: uh energy shells that they stay in and orbit around 149 00:08:53,520 --> 00:08:57,040 Speaker 1: a eight an atomic nucleus um. So you know those 150 00:08:57,080 --> 00:09:01,160 Speaker 1: were familiar with. Muans and taw are a little more exotic. 151 00:09:01,320 --> 00:09:04,640 Speaker 1: They are actually heavier than electrons, but they also have 152 00:09:04,679 --> 00:09:07,600 Speaker 1: a negative charge. Right, Mulons have about twice the mass 153 00:09:07,600 --> 00:09:11,360 Speaker 1: of electrons, and how have almost four times the massive electrons. 154 00:09:11,520 --> 00:09:15,160 Speaker 1: And now most of what we know about neutrinos really 155 00:09:15,160 --> 00:09:17,560 Speaker 1: only comes from research done in the past couple of decades. 156 00:09:17,720 --> 00:09:20,520 Speaker 1: But we will get to that. Yeah, well you've got 157 00:09:20,520 --> 00:09:23,760 Speaker 1: a whole timeline that was actually really fascinating to me too. 158 00:09:24,520 --> 00:09:27,320 Speaker 1: Once again, it's one of those examples how people way 159 00:09:27,360 --> 00:09:29,920 Speaker 1: smarter than I am are able to figure out things 160 00:09:30,040 --> 00:09:33,080 Speaker 1: about the universe without ever actually seeing any proof of it, 161 00:09:33,559 --> 00:09:36,480 Speaker 1: which is phenomenal with with answers to questions that we 162 00:09:36,520 --> 00:09:38,400 Speaker 1: have not even thought of. Yeah, I would just think 163 00:09:38,720 --> 00:09:42,120 Speaker 1: my equations must be wrong because things aren't equaling out. 164 00:09:42,200 --> 00:09:44,439 Speaker 1: These are people are saying, my equations can't be wrong. 165 00:09:44,480 --> 00:09:46,400 Speaker 1: So something's going on that I don't know about. I 166 00:09:46,400 --> 00:09:48,880 Speaker 1: need to invent a new particle to explain it exactly. 167 00:09:48,960 --> 00:09:51,400 Speaker 1: And it turned out it works. So where do they 168 00:09:51,400 --> 00:09:54,800 Speaker 1: come from? Well, from from a bunch of different places. 169 00:09:54,920 --> 00:09:58,520 Speaker 1: They can come from lots of cosmological events like um 170 00:09:58,640 --> 00:10:02,280 Speaker 1: like like supernova more or even the Sun. Okay, so 171 00:10:02,280 --> 00:10:05,640 Speaker 1: so you know weak stuff, right, this little low power 172 00:10:06,000 --> 00:10:10,640 Speaker 1: now obviously black holes, no big yeah, exactly, little stuff, 173 00:10:10,679 --> 00:10:14,640 Speaker 1: you know, just the things that can rip a galaxy apart. Yeah. 174 00:10:15,000 --> 00:10:17,640 Speaker 1: It turns out that neutrinos can be generated lots of 175 00:10:17,640 --> 00:10:21,000 Speaker 1: different ways. But the ones that we are particularly interested 176 00:10:21,040 --> 00:10:25,400 Speaker 1: in are these high energy neutrinos that would be so 177 00:10:25,520 --> 00:10:28,640 Speaker 1: high energy as to be it would be impossible for 178 00:10:28,640 --> 00:10:31,520 Speaker 1: them to have originated in our solar system, right, because 179 00:10:31,559 --> 00:10:35,960 Speaker 1: we can detect the neutrinos that come to us courtesy 180 00:10:36,000 --> 00:10:38,040 Speaker 1: of the Sun or the ones that are formed within 181 00:10:38,080 --> 00:10:42,520 Speaker 1: the Earth's atmosphere, but the more elusive ones are neutrinos 182 00:10:42,559 --> 00:10:46,719 Speaker 1: that might come from a cosmological event that happened on 183 00:10:46,760 --> 00:10:49,680 Speaker 1: the other side of the galaxy millions of years ago. 184 00:10:49,920 --> 00:10:54,440 Speaker 1: Well and and those those larger events create vastly more 185 00:10:54,480 --> 00:10:56,920 Speaker 1: neutrinos than say, the Sun would create on any given day. 186 00:10:56,960 --> 00:10:58,560 Speaker 1: But since the Sun is so much closer to us, 187 00:10:58,679 --> 00:11:02,040 Speaker 1: we're basically in and did with with neutrinos from the Sun, 188 00:11:02,120 --> 00:11:06,400 Speaker 1: Electron neutrinos specifically um as a byproduct of the nuclear 189 00:11:06,440 --> 00:11:10,080 Speaker 1: fusion that goes on in in the sun where uh 190 00:11:10,160 --> 00:11:11,600 Speaker 1: you know, if you if you hold up your hand 191 00:11:11,600 --> 00:11:14,280 Speaker 1: to sunlight, billions of neutrinos passed through it in a 192 00:11:14,320 --> 00:11:17,240 Speaker 1: single second. Yeah. Now, remember, because these are sub atomic 193 00:11:17,280 --> 00:11:20,320 Speaker 1: particles and they have no mass, these things, they're so 194 00:11:20,400 --> 00:11:23,320 Speaker 1: small and they're moving so quickly, they can pass right 195 00:11:23,880 --> 00:11:27,360 Speaker 1: through what would appear to be completely solid matter. Because 196 00:11:27,400 --> 00:11:29,319 Speaker 1: I don't know if you know this or not, solid 197 00:11:29,320 --> 00:11:31,720 Speaker 1: matter still has gaps in it at the atomic level, 198 00:11:32,280 --> 00:11:34,760 Speaker 1: and so a neutrino can pass right through that, right 199 00:11:34,760 --> 00:11:38,079 Speaker 1: through the Earth, and in fact, billions do every single day. 200 00:11:38,120 --> 00:11:42,120 Speaker 1: So being able to detect these these neutrinos that came 201 00:11:42,120 --> 00:11:46,120 Speaker 1: from cosmological events would tell us more about our universe, 202 00:11:46,120 --> 00:11:49,160 Speaker 1: which is why we're so interested in them. All Right, 203 00:11:49,200 --> 00:11:52,319 Speaker 1: So we've already talked a little bit about how neutrinos 204 00:11:52,400 --> 00:11:55,079 Speaker 1: behave They aren't affected by electrical charge, they move nearly 205 00:11:55,120 --> 00:11:57,800 Speaker 1: at the speed of light. And the nice thing is 206 00:11:57,800 --> 00:12:00,200 Speaker 1: is that if we detect a neutrino and we're able 207 00:12:00,280 --> 00:12:03,440 Speaker 1: to observe the effects that the neutrino has had on 208 00:12:03,559 --> 00:12:08,360 Speaker 1: other atomic particles, then we can draw some information about 209 00:12:08,400 --> 00:12:11,400 Speaker 1: that neutrino, for example, where it may have come from 210 00:12:11,440 --> 00:12:15,520 Speaker 1: and how powerful it was. And so that is why 211 00:12:15,720 --> 00:12:19,120 Speaker 1: we're looking at the cosmological ones versus the ones that 212 00:12:19,160 --> 00:12:23,960 Speaker 1: we would say are emanating from our son um because 213 00:12:24,040 --> 00:12:28,880 Speaker 1: they are so they're they're nearly massless. They're also barely 214 00:12:28,920 --> 00:12:32,319 Speaker 1: affected by gravity, so because that's one thing that things 215 00:12:32,320 --> 00:12:35,000 Speaker 1: with mass do get affected by his gravity. But gravity, 216 00:12:35,000 --> 00:12:37,680 Speaker 1: out of the four fundamental forces of the universe, is 217 00:12:37,679 --> 00:12:41,240 Speaker 1: the weakest, right, So the only real force that tends 218 00:12:41,280 --> 00:12:44,280 Speaker 1: to affect neutrinos is the weak atomic force, but that 219 00:12:45,000 --> 00:12:49,000 Speaker 1: only takes effect at incredibly short distances. We're talking on 220 00:12:49,040 --> 00:12:51,760 Speaker 1: the atomic scale. So this is the kind of stuff 221 00:12:51,800 --> 00:12:55,520 Speaker 1: that holds atoms together. And so unless you're unless you're 222 00:12:55,600 --> 00:12:58,040 Speaker 1: is close to and I forget the exact distances that 223 00:12:58,080 --> 00:13:01,800 Speaker 1: we're that we're talking about here, but it's it's it's like, yeah, 224 00:13:01,880 --> 00:13:04,080 Speaker 1: as close as you can possibly get without being the 225 00:13:04,120 --> 00:13:09,679 Speaker 1: same thing pretty much plunk is what we're talking about here. Uh, 226 00:13:09,800 --> 00:13:13,400 Speaker 1: incredibly short distances. So you know, otherwise they just like 227 00:13:13,440 --> 00:13:17,160 Speaker 1: I said, our fly through uh uninhibited. They just go 228 00:13:17,320 --> 00:13:20,240 Speaker 1: straight in a straight line. So by seeing the direction 229 00:13:20,280 --> 00:13:22,960 Speaker 1: that they traveled in through the evidence they leave, which 230 00:13:23,000 --> 00:13:25,720 Speaker 1: we'll talk about in a second, then we can determine 231 00:13:25,800 --> 00:13:28,520 Speaker 1: where they came from. And and if we are able 232 00:13:28,559 --> 00:13:31,400 Speaker 1: to measure how much energy there was in that neutrino, 233 00:13:32,000 --> 00:13:34,920 Speaker 1: then that can give us an idea of what might 234 00:13:35,040 --> 00:13:37,400 Speaker 1: have eventually spawned it. For example, if we are able 235 00:13:37,440 --> 00:13:39,080 Speaker 1: to see what direction it came from and we figure 236 00:13:39,120 --> 00:13:42,280 Speaker 1: it was pretty powerful and we end up kind of 237 00:13:42,320 --> 00:13:45,560 Speaker 1: tracing back that pathway and we see that that pathway 238 00:13:45,640 --> 00:13:48,079 Speaker 1: takes it through to what used to be a supernova, 239 00:13:48,520 --> 00:13:53,959 Speaker 1: you could potentially say, hey, this neutrino was uh, it 240 00:13:54,080 --> 00:13:57,280 Speaker 1: came to us from that supernova. That's pretty phenomenal stuff. 241 00:13:57,280 --> 00:14:01,040 Speaker 1: That means we can learn more about a thing that 242 00:14:01,080 --> 00:14:03,520 Speaker 1: happens in our universe that otherwise we would never be 243 00:14:03,559 --> 00:14:07,120 Speaker 1: close enough to observe. Pretty mysterious. Yeah, you know, Unfortunately, 244 00:14:07,240 --> 00:14:11,080 Speaker 1: since they don't interact with matter all that much. You know, 245 00:14:11,160 --> 00:14:13,960 Speaker 1: you know, there's for for about every hundred billion neutrinos 246 00:14:14,000 --> 00:14:17,040 Speaker 1: that paths of the Earth, only one or so is 247 00:14:17,080 --> 00:14:20,240 Speaker 1: going to interact with anything. And since it's really the 248 00:14:20,320 --> 00:14:24,080 Speaker 1: interactions with stuff that we're looking for, not the neutrinos themselves, 249 00:14:24,600 --> 00:14:26,360 Speaker 1: that that is part of why they are a so 250 00:14:26,520 --> 00:14:30,360 Speaker 1: elusive and be so attractive as a field of scientific study. 251 00:14:30,400 --> 00:14:33,480 Speaker 1: And exactly, and that's also an explanation of why the 252 00:14:33,520 --> 00:14:36,920 Speaker 1: ice cube telescope is so enormous. If you were to 253 00:14:36,960 --> 00:14:40,680 Speaker 1: create a human sized neutrino detector, it would take you 254 00:14:40,720 --> 00:14:44,720 Speaker 1: a century before you would be likely to detect a neutrino, 255 00:14:44,760 --> 00:14:48,400 Speaker 1: Whereas if you make it a cubic kilometer, you have 256 00:14:48,520 --> 00:14:51,840 Speaker 1: increased your odds of that happening, uh like, quite a bit, 257 00:14:51,880 --> 00:14:54,160 Speaker 1: as it turns out, yea, by more than two. So 258 00:14:54,440 --> 00:14:57,120 Speaker 1: when did we first figure out that there were these things, 259 00:14:57,160 --> 00:15:00,360 Speaker 1: or at least suspect that they existed that That first 260 00:15:00,360 --> 00:15:05,560 Speaker 1: suspicion was in nineteen one. Um. That was theorist Wolfgang Polly. Yeah, 261 00:15:06,000 --> 00:15:10,880 Speaker 1: he was looking at some radioactive decay equations and saw 262 00:15:10,920 --> 00:15:13,520 Speaker 1: that there was some missing energy and energy k be 263 00:15:13,560 --> 00:15:16,760 Speaker 1: created or destroyed. Right, So he figured there has to 264 00:15:16,800 --> 00:15:20,720 Speaker 1: be something responsible for this, and and therefore there there 265 00:15:20,720 --> 00:15:25,440 Speaker 1: has to be a particle that's being given off. There's 266 00:15:25,480 --> 00:15:28,440 Speaker 1: some undetectable particle that is making off with some of 267 00:15:28,480 --> 00:15:34,480 Speaker 1: this energy. It must be an electrically neutral right and yeah, 268 00:15:34,560 --> 00:15:37,400 Speaker 1: so he figured out the basics of what must have 269 00:15:37,440 --> 00:15:41,360 Speaker 1: been there, but had no way of detecting it. And uh, 270 00:15:41,440 --> 00:15:44,120 Speaker 1: you know, this is again something that sounds phenomenal to me. 271 00:15:44,160 --> 00:15:47,200 Speaker 1: I can't imagine coming up with this conclusion. But if 272 00:15:47,200 --> 00:15:49,280 Speaker 1: you look at particle physics, this is a story that 273 00:15:49,320 --> 00:15:52,120 Speaker 1: we see happen over and over again, where people see something, 274 00:15:52,560 --> 00:15:57,000 Speaker 1: they theorize or hypothesize what must be happening, and then 275 00:15:57,560 --> 00:16:01,520 Speaker 1: future experiments end up bearing that out right. Um. Now, 276 00:16:01,640 --> 00:16:05,360 Speaker 1: the term neutrino wasn't coined until ninety four by by 277 00:16:05,480 --> 00:16:09,400 Speaker 1: Enrico Fermi. Oh for me, we've talked about for me before. Yeah, 278 00:16:09,560 --> 00:16:13,280 Speaker 1: so neutrino is an Italian word, and I think it 279 00:16:13,360 --> 00:16:18,120 Speaker 1: means enormous pasta dish, little neutral one, I think is 280 00:16:18,160 --> 00:16:22,000 Speaker 1: the more common translation. Well, I was using poetic license. 281 00:16:22,600 --> 00:16:26,280 Speaker 1: Uh yeah, so it's you know, it was it still 282 00:16:26,320 --> 00:16:30,200 Speaker 1: had not been actually seen or observed, right right, Um, 283 00:16:30,240 --> 00:16:33,320 Speaker 1: but this this was just a kind of formal equation 284 00:16:33,440 --> 00:16:37,480 Speaker 1: that he was using that incorporated Polly's ideas. Right, So 285 00:16:37,920 --> 00:16:40,040 Speaker 1: you have to skip from nineteen thirty four all the 286 00:16:40,080 --> 00:16:42,640 Speaker 1: way to nineteen fifty nine before you get to some 287 00:16:42,800 --> 00:16:46,240 Speaker 1: scientists who observed a new trino, and that would be 288 00:16:46,280 --> 00:16:50,360 Speaker 1: Clyde Cowen and Fred Rens, who discovered a particle that 289 00:16:50,480 --> 00:16:54,280 Speaker 1: fit all the expected characteristics of what was being called 290 00:16:54,640 --> 00:16:57,800 Speaker 1: the new trino. So now it was no longer hypothetical. 291 00:16:57,880 --> 00:16:59,920 Speaker 1: Now they actually had a particle they could point to 292 00:17:00,040 --> 00:17:02,560 Speaker 1: and say, that's it. This thing that we found in 293 00:17:02,560 --> 00:17:05,960 Speaker 1: the lab, that thing is probably a neutrino UM. And 294 00:17:06,000 --> 00:17:08,920 Speaker 1: specifically what they found was an electron neutrino, which is UM. 295 00:17:09,400 --> 00:17:12,120 Speaker 1: And I think that we forgot to explain this part earlier. 296 00:17:12,119 --> 00:17:14,720 Speaker 1: But the three different kinds of neutrinos pair with three 297 00:17:14,720 --> 00:17:17,880 Speaker 1: different kinds of particles, so it's the electron neutrinos pair 298 00:17:17,880 --> 00:17:21,280 Speaker 1: with electrons, right, and muon neutrinos pair with muan, so 299 00:17:21,320 --> 00:17:23,879 Speaker 1: they're heavier, they have more mass. You guys tell us 300 00:17:24,320 --> 00:17:26,800 Speaker 1: the tal neutrinos are a little heavier than the muans. 301 00:17:26,960 --> 00:17:30,280 Speaker 1: So yeah, each new trino has a mass that is equivalent, 302 00:17:30,640 --> 00:17:34,719 Speaker 1: well not not equivalent. It matches in a sense the 303 00:17:34,840 --> 00:17:38,239 Speaker 1: size of the other subatomic particle, because actually a an 304 00:17:38,240 --> 00:17:41,680 Speaker 1: electron new trino has less mass than an electronic way 305 00:17:41,760 --> 00:17:45,760 Speaker 1: less mass, but but they scale up as the negatively 306 00:17:45,840 --> 00:17:48,960 Speaker 1: charged subatomic particles scale up as well. So I don't 307 00:17:48,960 --> 00:17:51,480 Speaker 1: mean to suggest that an electron and electron new trino 308 00:17:51,600 --> 00:17:54,479 Speaker 1: are equivalent in the sense of mass. They are not. 309 00:17:55,119 --> 00:17:58,160 Speaker 1: But now we get up to nineteen sixty two when 310 00:17:58,480 --> 00:18:03,040 Speaker 1: another UH organization we're familiar with CERN along with the 311 00:18:03,119 --> 00:18:07,440 Speaker 1: Brookhaven National Laboratory. Yet they independently conducted experiments and discovered 312 00:18:07,440 --> 00:18:10,720 Speaker 1: a second type of neutrino, which was the muon neutrino, 313 00:18:11,200 --> 00:18:13,800 Speaker 1: and it behaved differently from the electron neutrino. That's what 314 00:18:13,960 --> 00:18:16,480 Speaker 1: first gave them a little bit of confusion, in fact, 315 00:18:16,480 --> 00:18:19,520 Speaker 1: to a point where they would expect to observe a 316 00:18:19,520 --> 00:18:23,160 Speaker 1: certain number of neutrinos coming from the Sun on any 317 00:18:23,240 --> 00:18:25,840 Speaker 1: given day, and they had a certain number that they 318 00:18:25,840 --> 00:18:29,119 Speaker 1: expected for electron neutrinos and a certain number for muon neutrinos, 319 00:18:29,440 --> 00:18:31,720 Speaker 1: and for some reason that wasn't working out, and they 320 00:18:31,720 --> 00:18:34,600 Speaker 1: could not figure out why that was, and they couldn't 321 00:18:34,600 --> 00:18:37,200 Speaker 1: figure out why that was for a long time, very 322 00:18:37,280 --> 00:18:42,600 Speaker 1: long time. So you have the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, 323 00:18:42,920 --> 00:18:46,720 Speaker 1: and they discovered the twel subatomic particle, which was the 324 00:18:46,840 --> 00:18:50,480 Speaker 1: negatively charged sub atomic particle that's heavier than electron or muan, 325 00:18:51,200 --> 00:18:53,760 Speaker 1: and that led the scientist to hypothesize that perhaps there 326 00:18:53,840 --> 00:18:57,000 Speaker 1: was in fact a third type of neutrino, because there 327 00:18:57,040 --> 00:19:00,119 Speaker 1: already were neutrino counterparts for the other two negative lee 328 00:19:00,200 --> 00:19:03,320 Speaker 1: charged particles. So now they had the new the tow 329 00:19:03,520 --> 00:19:06,879 Speaker 1: new trino um, but they could not directly observe it. 330 00:19:07,760 --> 00:19:10,280 Speaker 1: And at that point they were still kind of wondering 331 00:19:10,400 --> 00:19:13,159 Speaker 1: why there seems to be this new trino shortage, you know, 332 00:19:13,200 --> 00:19:16,240 Speaker 1: based upon their calculations, there should be more than what 333 00:19:16,320 --> 00:19:19,960 Speaker 1: they were detecting. Yeah, like like twice again as much, right, 334 00:19:20,520 --> 00:19:24,320 Speaker 1: And then we get up to in nine seven, an 335 00:19:24,520 --> 00:19:29,080 Speaker 1: enormous newtrino detector is built, the Cameo conde, and I'm 336 00:19:29,200 --> 00:19:32,520 Speaker 1: sure I'm mispronouncing that newtrino detector. It was a large 337 00:19:32,520 --> 00:19:35,240 Speaker 1: water detector, not meaning that I don't mean that it 338 00:19:35,280 --> 00:19:37,679 Speaker 1: was detecting large amounts of water. I meant that it 339 00:19:37,760 --> 00:19:39,920 Speaker 1: had a large amount of water and that used as 340 00:19:39,960 --> 00:19:45,399 Speaker 1: the detector. Now, this water was incredibly pure and incredibly clear, 341 00:19:46,160 --> 00:19:50,000 Speaker 1: so clear that sunlight could pass through it without slowing 342 00:19:50,080 --> 00:19:54,840 Speaker 1: down for something like seventy meters, which is far longer 343 00:19:54,880 --> 00:19:56,560 Speaker 1: than it could if it were passing through the water 344 00:19:56,640 --> 00:20:01,840 Speaker 1: of say, your typical swimming pool. Yeah, in in your 345 00:20:01,880 --> 00:20:04,199 Speaker 1: typical swimming pool, you might get a couple of meters 346 00:20:04,200 --> 00:20:07,800 Speaker 1: if you're lucky, right, So it was very very clear, 347 00:20:07,840 --> 00:20:11,120 Speaker 1: and that was important to detect these tiny little reactions 348 00:20:11,119 --> 00:20:14,000 Speaker 1: that the neutrino would cause if it collided with another 349 00:20:14,040 --> 00:20:16,880 Speaker 1: sub atomic particle. And it also had more than eleven 350 00:20:16,920 --> 00:20:21,359 Speaker 1: thousand light collectors that were called photo multiplier tubes in 351 00:20:21,440 --> 00:20:24,040 Speaker 1: the water itself, and those were what we're looking for, 352 00:20:24,080 --> 00:20:26,359 Speaker 1: these these reactions that we're going to talk about in 353 00:20:26,359 --> 00:20:30,040 Speaker 1: the second So that was a huge advance. It was 354 00:20:30,080 --> 00:20:33,760 Speaker 1: an enormous neutrino detector, one of the largest until the 355 00:20:33,800 --> 00:20:38,800 Speaker 1: ice cube one comes along. Certain starts to experiment and 356 00:20:38,840 --> 00:20:41,680 Speaker 1: determine that no other types of neutrinos beyond the three 357 00:20:41,800 --> 00:20:45,080 Speaker 1: types that already been identified could exist based upon what 358 00:20:45,160 --> 00:20:48,240 Speaker 1: we know. So maybe one day we'll find out we're 359 00:20:48,240 --> 00:20:51,080 Speaker 1: wrong about that, but based upon everything we know right now, 360 00:20:51,119 --> 00:20:54,680 Speaker 1: it appears that only those three types of neutrinos, the electron, muan, 361 00:20:54,800 --> 00:20:58,080 Speaker 1: and tao, are the ones that exist. UM now in 362 00:20:58,119 --> 00:21:01,439 Speaker 1: two thousand one was that was when we finally solved 363 00:21:01,480 --> 00:21:04,439 Speaker 1: that solar neutrino problem that we were talking about earlier. 364 00:21:04,600 --> 00:21:08,320 Speaker 1: UM experiments that were conducted at the Canadian Solar Neutrino 365 00:21:08,400 --> 00:21:13,200 Speaker 1: Observatory or snow UM showed because it's in Canada, there's 366 00:21:13,640 --> 00:21:16,440 Speaker 1: anyway showed that it could be solved with the explanation 367 00:21:16,520 --> 00:21:19,600 Speaker 1: that okay, So so even though the Sun releases only 368 00:21:19,680 --> 00:21:24,000 Speaker 1: electron neutrinos, they oscillate sometimes while they travel through space 369 00:21:24,040 --> 00:21:26,840 Speaker 1: to become a pretty even mix of muan, tao, and 370 00:21:27,040 --> 00:21:31,680 Speaker 1: electron neutrinos, So that that explains like if they're oscillating 371 00:21:31,760 --> 00:21:34,040 Speaker 1: and some of them are town neutrinos, which we have 372 00:21:34,160 --> 00:21:36,720 Speaker 1: not been able to observe directly, that would that would 373 00:21:36,720 --> 00:21:41,800 Speaker 1: explain the apparent shortage of neutrinos right, previous experiments. Most 374 00:21:41,840 --> 00:21:45,760 Speaker 1: previous experiments were really only looking for electron neutrinos, especially 375 00:21:45,760 --> 00:21:49,400 Speaker 1: coming from the Sun, and the instruments were not calibrated 376 00:21:49,440 --> 00:21:53,200 Speaker 1: to be detecting Muon and tao. So, and that's because 377 00:21:53,280 --> 00:21:55,919 Speaker 1: if it's if it's oscillating, it has to have mass. 378 00:21:55,960 --> 00:22:00,719 Speaker 1: It's one of those things fundamental nature. Yeah, so you know, 379 00:22:01,960 --> 00:22:05,320 Speaker 1: they're still really tiny. An electron neutrino would be about 380 00:22:05,400 --> 00:22:08,720 Speaker 1: one one million the mass of an electron. Yeah, that's 381 00:22:08,760 --> 00:22:13,359 Speaker 1: that's incredibly that's inconceivably tiny, at least in my mind. 382 00:22:13,600 --> 00:22:17,639 Speaker 1: But but something so inconceivably tiny is very important on 383 00:22:17,680 --> 00:22:22,199 Speaker 1: a universal level because this could possibly explain why, uh, 384 00:22:23,040 --> 00:22:26,240 Speaker 1: why the universe contains more matter than antimatter. Why we 385 00:22:26,280 --> 00:22:29,879 Speaker 1: think that this could explain dark matter basically exactly. It 386 00:22:29,880 --> 00:22:32,760 Speaker 1: could well, when you get to why more matter than 387 00:22:32,800 --> 00:22:35,840 Speaker 1: antimatter that explained. That would explain why the universe is 388 00:22:35,880 --> 00:22:37,439 Speaker 1: the way it is, because if there had been an 389 00:22:37,440 --> 00:22:39,560 Speaker 1: equal amount of matter and antimatter, it would have all 390 00:22:39,560 --> 00:22:42,440 Speaker 1: annihilated itself and we wouldn't have a universe, which would 391 00:22:42,480 --> 00:22:45,399 Speaker 1: be terrible because that's where I keep all my stuff. Now, 392 00:22:45,720 --> 00:22:49,159 Speaker 1: how do we actually create neutrinos ourselves. Well, it's mostly 393 00:22:49,200 --> 00:22:52,280 Speaker 1: through particle accelerators. You know, you moved some subatomic particles 394 00:22:52,320 --> 00:22:54,840 Speaker 1: fast enough and smash them to see what happens. And 395 00:22:54,880 --> 00:22:56,879 Speaker 1: some of the stuff that gets spun off tends to 396 00:22:56,960 --> 00:23:01,600 Speaker 1: be these other subatomic particles and energy that we would 397 00:23:01,640 --> 00:23:05,080 Speaker 1: otherwise not have been able to observe, and neutrinos are 398 00:23:05,080 --> 00:23:08,399 Speaker 1: one of those. Although again we don't directly observe the neutrinos, 399 00:23:08,480 --> 00:23:12,320 Speaker 1: we observe the reactions that they have with other stuff, right, 400 00:23:12,400 --> 00:23:14,520 Speaker 1: And these neutrinos that we can create here on Earth 401 00:23:14,560 --> 00:23:16,600 Speaker 1: are much lower in energy than most of the ones 402 00:23:16,680 --> 00:23:19,920 Speaker 1: that we're seeing from from from the Sun, and way 403 00:23:20,040 --> 00:23:23,720 Speaker 1: lower than anything that would be produced from a cosmological event. 404 00:23:23,840 --> 00:23:28,320 Speaker 1: So yeah, if you compare the neutrinos from the ones 405 00:23:28,359 --> 00:23:31,520 Speaker 1: that have been detected at the ice cube detector versus 406 00:23:31,560 --> 00:23:33,560 Speaker 1: the ones that have been created in the lab, it's 407 00:23:33,800 --> 00:23:36,639 Speaker 1: worlds of difference. So we've got a lot more we 408 00:23:36,720 --> 00:23:39,760 Speaker 1: want to talk about with the ice cube detector, including 409 00:23:39,800 --> 00:23:42,720 Speaker 1: how it actually detects these new trinos, or at least 410 00:23:42,760 --> 00:23:45,920 Speaker 1: the interactions and the neutrinos are having with other particles. 411 00:23:45,960 --> 00:23:48,639 Speaker 1: But before we do that, let's take a quick break 412 00:23:48,680 --> 00:23:52,359 Speaker 1: to thank our sponsor. All right, let's get back into 413 00:23:52,440 --> 00:23:56,200 Speaker 1: the discussion about as cube. What is this thing actually 414 00:23:56,280 --> 00:23:58,080 Speaker 1: made of? Okay, so we've talked about there are these 415 00:23:58,080 --> 00:24:01,199 Speaker 1: sensors that are buried a mile beneath the ice, but 416 00:24:01,359 --> 00:24:03,879 Speaker 1: what are the sensors actually Well, first of all, I 417 00:24:03,920 --> 00:24:06,120 Speaker 1: like your verbal suggestion that we are talking in fact 418 00:24:06,160 --> 00:24:10,359 Speaker 1: about the rapper ice cube. Well, but what was that? 419 00:24:10,400 --> 00:24:13,040 Speaker 1: Not it? Man? The second half of this episode is 420 00:24:13,080 --> 00:24:17,800 Speaker 1: going to be so confusing. Okay, that the main components 421 00:24:17,880 --> 00:24:21,639 Speaker 1: of of ice cube are these these digital optical modules 422 00:24:21,760 --> 00:24:24,840 Speaker 1: or doms, and each one is about the size of 423 00:24:24,840 --> 00:24:29,560 Speaker 1: a basketball and they are specifically looking for a very 424 00:24:29,920 --> 00:24:33,560 Speaker 1: um peculiar kind of light. And I'll talk more about 425 00:24:33,640 --> 00:24:35,880 Speaker 1: that in the second but you know now they are 426 00:24:36,880 --> 00:24:40,960 Speaker 1: deep within the ice. That means that we can't really 427 00:24:41,359 --> 00:24:43,600 Speaker 1: fix them if something goes wrong. Yeah, there's really no 428 00:24:43,720 --> 00:24:47,560 Speaker 1: diving down into a mile of ice to fix the 429 00:24:48,080 --> 00:24:50,639 Speaker 1: wet dom. Number four hundred and seventy three is on 430 00:24:50,680 --> 00:24:54,520 Speaker 1: the fritz. C oll. We can actually we being the 431 00:24:54,520 --> 00:24:58,080 Speaker 1: people who are actually working on and no, we're not 432 00:24:58,160 --> 00:25:00,800 Speaker 1: giving access to this sort of thing but they can 433 00:25:00,880 --> 00:25:03,600 Speaker 1: make software updates and firmware updates. Each one of those 434 00:25:03,640 --> 00:25:06,040 Speaker 1: doms is wired to the headquarters, which is at the 435 00:25:06,040 --> 00:25:09,280 Speaker 1: South Pole. Uh. The South Pole headquarters houses lots of 436 00:25:09,320 --> 00:25:12,280 Speaker 1: different stuff, not just the ice cube project. There are 437 00:25:12,320 --> 00:25:15,119 Speaker 1: other projects that are at the South Pole as well, 438 00:25:15,520 --> 00:25:17,800 Speaker 1: but that's one of the ones, and they're all wired 439 00:25:17,800 --> 00:25:21,280 Speaker 1: in there so that you can administer commands to the 440 00:25:21,320 --> 00:25:26,240 Speaker 1: doms and update their software as needed. So there are 441 00:25:26,320 --> 00:25:31,399 Speaker 1: a few of them. There's actually sixty uh doms per hole, 442 00:25:31,680 --> 00:25:35,359 Speaker 1: and there are holes if we do a little bit 443 00:25:35,400 --> 00:25:37,639 Speaker 1: of math, that comes up with about five thousand, one 444 00:25:37,680 --> 00:25:41,280 Speaker 1: hundred sixty of these things. Uh. These holes were drilled 445 00:25:41,359 --> 00:25:45,040 Speaker 1: by UM by shooting hot, pressurized water down into the ice, 446 00:25:45,080 --> 00:25:48,399 Speaker 1: which then froze back over UM through a very careful 447 00:25:48,440 --> 00:25:50,919 Speaker 1: engineering process, into that very clear ice that we were 448 00:25:51,000 --> 00:25:53,399 Speaker 1: looking for. Right. Yeah, I'll have to, uh see if 449 00:25:53,440 --> 00:25:55,439 Speaker 1: I can find some photos that we can link to, 450 00:25:55,560 --> 00:25:58,480 Speaker 1: because the photos of these holes where they just they 451 00:25:58,480 --> 00:26:00,760 Speaker 1: shot a picture straight down the whole after it was drilled, 452 00:26:01,280 --> 00:26:04,480 Speaker 1: is vertigo inducing. It's pretty amazing stuff to be looking 453 00:26:04,520 --> 00:26:07,920 Speaker 1: down a a you know, a perfect circle that goes 454 00:26:08,000 --> 00:26:10,480 Speaker 1: down a mile. It reminded me very much of all 455 00:26:10,520 --> 00:26:12,280 Speaker 1: the things that I didn't want to jump down into 456 00:26:12,320 --> 00:26:15,679 Speaker 1: in silent hill too, that having to jump down into. 457 00:26:15,960 --> 00:26:18,760 Speaker 1: Now on top of the literally on top of these 458 00:26:18,800 --> 00:26:22,040 Speaker 1: five thousand one sixty doms on the surface of the 459 00:26:22,080 --> 00:26:27,399 Speaker 1: ice itself are an additional three twenty four digital operating modules, 460 00:26:27,480 --> 00:26:31,280 Speaker 1: and that is part of a second detector called ice top. 461 00:26:32,080 --> 00:26:35,600 Speaker 1: So you have the five thousand one or sixty underneath 462 00:26:35,600 --> 00:26:38,320 Speaker 1: the surface and three four on the surface, all of 463 00:26:38,320 --> 00:26:42,880 Speaker 1: which are looking for these new trino interactions. Okay, so 464 00:26:42,920 --> 00:26:46,280 Speaker 1: how exactly are are they looking for these interactions? All right? 465 00:26:46,359 --> 00:26:50,040 Speaker 1: So when a new trino meets another sub atomic particle 466 00:26:50,080 --> 00:26:53,919 Speaker 1: that really likes it's traveling at a pretty high amount 467 00:26:53,920 --> 00:26:58,800 Speaker 1: of energy, uh, you tend to have a mouon emitted 468 00:26:59,320 --> 00:27:02,760 Speaker 1: as part of this interaction, and it's going to be 469 00:27:02,800 --> 00:27:05,280 Speaker 1: moving in the same direction as the neutrino. So, when 470 00:27:05,280 --> 00:27:09,200 Speaker 1: a neutrino makes contact with a subatomic particle in the ice, 471 00:27:09,520 --> 00:27:13,200 Speaker 1: within an ice molecule, uh, a muan is given off 472 00:27:13,359 --> 00:27:17,800 Speaker 1: and that ends up producing something called cheren CoV radiation. Now, 473 00:27:17,880 --> 00:27:22,399 Speaker 1: cheren CoV radiation is emitted whenever a particle moves through 474 00:27:22,520 --> 00:27:26,840 Speaker 1: a medium faster than light. Could move through that same medium. 475 00:27:26,880 --> 00:27:28,919 Speaker 1: So in this case, the neutrino is moving through that 476 00:27:29,040 --> 00:27:32,480 Speaker 1: ice faster than light could travel through that ice, and 477 00:27:32,520 --> 00:27:35,919 Speaker 1: it makes contact with the subatomic particle. You end up 478 00:27:35,960 --> 00:27:39,080 Speaker 1: having this MoU on uh given off as a result, 479 00:27:39,400 --> 00:27:43,600 Speaker 1: and you get this light blue radiation. This is typical 480 00:27:43,840 --> 00:27:48,639 Speaker 1: of any kind of nuclear radioactive process. You get this 481 00:27:48,720 --> 00:27:52,479 Speaker 1: blue glow as a result. So what these detectors are 482 00:27:52,520 --> 00:27:56,120 Speaker 1: looking for is evidence of that blue glow, and when 483 00:27:56,160 --> 00:27:59,399 Speaker 1: they detect it, they record it and then it's measured, 484 00:27:59,480 --> 00:28:02,640 Speaker 1: so you can it an entire track of this through 485 00:28:02,720 --> 00:28:06,960 Speaker 1: the the kilometer of ice and find out where it 486 00:28:07,040 --> 00:28:10,280 Speaker 1: came from and get an idea from the intensity of 487 00:28:10,320 --> 00:28:13,840 Speaker 1: the light how much energy that neutrino had. So you're 488 00:28:13,880 --> 00:28:16,040 Speaker 1: looking at the direction of the light and the intensity 489 00:28:16,080 --> 00:28:19,680 Speaker 1: of it to infer the information about this subatomic particle, 490 00:28:20,080 --> 00:28:24,080 Speaker 1: which is awesome. I just think that's so amazing that 491 00:28:24,160 --> 00:28:28,359 Speaker 1: you can learn so much from just a pattern of light. 492 00:28:29,040 --> 00:28:32,119 Speaker 1: And uh, it really is a lot. It's a ton 493 00:28:32,440 --> 00:28:35,320 Speaker 1: of light uh and ton of information that they are 494 00:28:35,320 --> 00:28:39,320 Speaker 1: gathering each year, something like a terabyte of data per 495 00:28:39,480 --> 00:28:42,320 Speaker 1: day that they're gathering. Uh. The ends up being just 496 00:28:42,400 --> 00:28:44,440 Speaker 1: about a hundred gigabytes but all the time they're done 497 00:28:44,440 --> 00:28:48,920 Speaker 1: with this. Yeah it's tiny, tiny, but yeah, hundred gigabytes 498 00:28:48,960 --> 00:28:51,720 Speaker 1: once they filter through all the data. But uh, that's 499 00:28:51,760 --> 00:28:54,600 Speaker 1: exactly what they're looking for. And that's why these detectors 500 00:28:54,600 --> 00:28:58,000 Speaker 1: have to be so far underground in such dark, clear 501 00:28:58,200 --> 00:29:00,040 Speaker 1: conditions for it to be able to detect this of 502 00:29:00,080 --> 00:29:03,560 Speaker 1: these very small little packets of life that are just yeah, 503 00:29:03,560 --> 00:29:06,440 Speaker 1: it happens in an instant and they are so faint 504 00:29:06,480 --> 00:29:08,520 Speaker 1: that if it were not that dark, you would never 505 00:29:08,520 --> 00:29:11,600 Speaker 1: be able to detect it. So that's the that's the 506 00:29:11,640 --> 00:29:16,040 Speaker 1: whole purpose of this thing. And because neutrinos are given 507 00:29:16,080 --> 00:29:19,240 Speaker 1: off by lots of stuff besides just the Sun or 508 00:29:19,360 --> 00:29:23,240 Speaker 1: by particle accelerators, we can if we detect the right types, 509 00:29:23,480 --> 00:29:26,640 Speaker 1: learn more about stuff like cosmic rays, gamma ray bursts, 510 00:29:26,680 --> 00:29:30,600 Speaker 1: supernova um We might also be able to start to 511 00:29:31,120 --> 00:29:34,480 Speaker 1: infer things about dark matter and dark energy, things that 512 00:29:34,560 --> 00:29:37,400 Speaker 1: we do not We we know have to exist based 513 00:29:37,440 --> 00:29:40,560 Speaker 1: upon our understanding of our universe, but we have no evidence. 514 00:29:40,760 --> 00:29:44,360 Speaker 1: But again, yeah, right now, they're really just just mathematical placeholders, right, yeah, 515 00:29:44,400 --> 00:29:46,640 Speaker 1: Because when I say we have no evidence for it, 516 00:29:46,680 --> 00:29:49,280 Speaker 1: we have no direct evidence. We have lots of indirect 517 00:29:49,320 --> 00:29:52,360 Speaker 1: evidence by the way that the universe behaves, and the 518 00:29:52,360 --> 00:29:55,600 Speaker 1: way it behaves is different from how we would understand 519 00:29:55,600 --> 00:29:57,760 Speaker 1: it based upon the matter and energy we are able 520 00:29:57,840 --> 00:30:00,920 Speaker 1: to observe. So this might be able to give us 521 00:30:00,920 --> 00:30:04,320 Speaker 1: more clues about that and learn more about our our universe. 522 00:30:04,520 --> 00:30:08,360 Speaker 1: Pretty cool stuff. So, like we said, it's gathering lots 523 00:30:08,360 --> 00:30:13,360 Speaker 1: of information every single day. It's already detected several interesting neutrinos. 524 00:30:13,560 --> 00:30:17,000 Speaker 1: In May two thousand thirteen, they reported that they had 525 00:30:17,040 --> 00:30:20,760 Speaker 1: detected twenty eight neutrinos that had higher energy levels than 526 00:30:20,800 --> 00:30:23,400 Speaker 1: what they would expect from any neutrinos that would be 527 00:30:23,440 --> 00:30:28,480 Speaker 1: omitted by the Sun or any other nearby system within 528 00:30:28,520 --> 00:30:31,240 Speaker 1: our solar system. So it must be that these came 529 00:30:31,240 --> 00:30:35,360 Speaker 1: from outside the Solar system, assuming everything else is correct, 530 00:30:35,920 --> 00:30:39,120 Speaker 1: which is incredibly exciting. In fact, two of them had 531 00:30:39,160 --> 00:30:42,200 Speaker 1: so much high energy that they broke all records of 532 00:30:42,240 --> 00:30:45,400 Speaker 1: all neutrinos ever detected, and they got nicknames they got 533 00:30:45,520 --> 00:30:49,640 Speaker 1: They were nicknamed Bertie, Bert and Ernie. So yeah, I 534 00:30:49,720 --> 00:30:52,360 Speaker 1: assume one of them has an affinity for rubber duckies 535 00:30:52,880 --> 00:30:56,000 Speaker 1: and the other one is a neat freak, So yeah, 536 00:30:56,040 --> 00:30:59,280 Speaker 1: It's really exciting though, that these could possibly have come 537 00:30:59,320 --> 00:31:02,920 Speaker 1: from outside our solar system and could be evidence for 538 00:31:03,000 --> 00:31:07,040 Speaker 1: something that happened light years away, millions of years ago. 539 00:31:07,160 --> 00:31:11,920 Speaker 1: That's that's incredible. So we're still waiting to hear more 540 00:31:12,080 --> 00:31:15,040 Speaker 1: about that. As of the recording of this podcast, there 541 00:31:15,040 --> 00:31:18,640 Speaker 1: are plenty of scientists still poring over this information. Of course, 542 00:31:18,640 --> 00:31:23,200 Speaker 1: scientists are very careful before saying definitively whether or not 543 00:31:23,320 --> 00:31:26,520 Speaker 1: something came from outside the solar system. That seems to 544 00:31:26,560 --> 00:31:29,600 Speaker 1: be the indication, but they won't want to. I don't 545 00:31:29,600 --> 00:31:31,479 Speaker 1: want to jump to conclusions. You don't want to have 546 00:31:31,520 --> 00:31:34,200 Speaker 1: another Hey, the voyager left the solar system. No, wait, 547 00:31:34,240 --> 00:31:36,560 Speaker 1: no it didn't. No, no, it totally did. No it didn't. Okay, 548 00:31:36,560 --> 00:31:39,920 Speaker 1: it did, but it did it a year ago. We 549 00:31:39,920 --> 00:31:41,920 Speaker 1: don't want another one of those, right, No, no, no. 550 00:31:42,120 --> 00:31:44,520 Speaker 1: I I think it's much preferable in the scientific community 551 00:31:44,560 --> 00:31:46,640 Speaker 1: to be like, we're not sure about this thing, then 552 00:31:46,680 --> 00:31:50,320 Speaker 1: like we're sure. Oh we're wrong. Yeah. So this is 553 00:31:50,400 --> 00:31:53,840 Speaker 1: what we call exploratory science in the sense that there's 554 00:31:53,880 --> 00:31:57,800 Speaker 1: not like a specific practical application, there's no particular end goal. 555 00:31:57,920 --> 00:32:00,440 Speaker 1: It's just learning for the sake of learning, which is 556 00:32:01,320 --> 00:32:05,240 Speaker 1: invaluable because even though I mean there there are some 557 00:32:05,280 --> 00:32:09,040 Speaker 1: philosophies that say that science needs to be goal oriented, 558 00:32:09,040 --> 00:32:12,240 Speaker 1: like there needs to be an actual practical goal to 559 00:32:12,320 --> 00:32:16,680 Speaker 1: whatever scientific exploration you're doing. But that kind of puts 560 00:32:16,720 --> 00:32:19,800 Speaker 1: blinders on, right, because just by learning stuff, you never 561 00:32:19,880 --> 00:32:23,120 Speaker 1: know what kind of useful applications can come out of that. Yeah, 562 00:32:23,240 --> 00:32:25,840 Speaker 1: people hadn't been studying sub atomic particles, we would never 563 00:32:25,880 --> 00:32:29,640 Speaker 1: have come up with transistors, right, So, yeah, you can't 564 00:32:29,680 --> 00:32:34,480 Speaker 1: predict what sort of world changing discoveries can come out 565 00:32:34,520 --> 00:32:38,120 Speaker 1: of exploratory science. So personally, I find this to be 566 00:32:38,200 --> 00:32:42,480 Speaker 1: an absolutely fascinating use of resources to learn more about 567 00:32:42,520 --> 00:32:45,560 Speaker 1: our universe, and you never know how that information is 568 00:32:45,560 --> 00:32:47,560 Speaker 1: going to play out in ways that we just can't 569 00:32:47,600 --> 00:32:52,600 Speaker 1: anticipate right now, right, So I think it's pretty darn awesome. 570 00:32:52,880 --> 00:32:56,120 Speaker 1: But but more practically, what what exactly is it like 571 00:32:57,000 --> 00:33:02,440 Speaker 1: living and working? You know the South Pole. Yeah, there's 572 00:33:02,440 --> 00:33:05,640 Speaker 1: a great with a giant ice telescope. I have to 573 00:33:05,680 --> 00:33:08,760 Speaker 1: give a shout out. The ice cube website is fantastic. 574 00:33:08,800 --> 00:33:12,720 Speaker 1: It's tons of information and a lot of great video interviews. 575 00:33:12,760 --> 00:33:15,640 Speaker 1: Oh yeah, yes, so it is highly recommended. You'll have 576 00:33:15,720 --> 00:33:17,000 Speaker 1: to go and check it out. But one of the 577 00:33:17,040 --> 00:33:20,120 Speaker 1: sections is about what's it like at the South Pole? 578 00:33:20,480 --> 00:33:23,040 Speaker 1: So first of all, it describes what your experience would 579 00:33:23,040 --> 00:33:25,600 Speaker 1: be like just to get to the South Pole. Because first, 580 00:33:25,880 --> 00:33:30,560 Speaker 1: assuming you don't live in New Zealand or Australia, you've 581 00:33:30,560 --> 00:33:32,560 Speaker 1: got a little bit of a trip ahead of you. Yeah. Well, 582 00:33:32,600 --> 00:33:34,600 Speaker 1: I mean first you need to be issued some clothing 583 00:33:34,600 --> 00:33:36,680 Speaker 1: that will keep you from freezing to death. Yeah. That 584 00:33:36,680 --> 00:33:39,360 Speaker 1: that you can probably pick up somewhere in New Zealand. 585 00:33:39,400 --> 00:33:42,400 Speaker 1: Maybe you know, because they're the that's the only way 586 00:33:42,480 --> 00:33:46,880 Speaker 1: to get from UH at least by air to the 587 00:33:46,920 --> 00:33:49,920 Speaker 1: antar to the Antarctic. I mean you could go by boat, 588 00:33:50,160 --> 00:33:51,640 Speaker 1: but still you would have to pick up a lot 589 00:33:51,640 --> 00:33:55,560 Speaker 1: of clothing to keep you from freezing. Um. So yeah, 590 00:33:55,640 --> 00:33:58,200 Speaker 1: you would fly to Australia, fly to New Zealand get 591 00:33:58,200 --> 00:34:01,240 Speaker 1: all this clothing because you want to keep all your 592 00:34:01,360 --> 00:34:04,440 Speaker 1: fingers and toes and your nose, and I actually do. 593 00:34:04,520 --> 00:34:06,480 Speaker 1: I don't want to speak for all of humanity. Okay, 594 00:34:06,480 --> 00:34:09,959 Speaker 1: that's fair, that's fair, um, but so many of you 595 00:34:10,160 --> 00:34:12,800 Speaker 1: would like to keep your fingers and toes. From New Zealand, 596 00:34:12,960 --> 00:34:16,359 Speaker 1: you bought a military transport to the U S Station McMurdo. Oh, 597 00:34:16,440 --> 00:34:20,920 Speaker 1: not just a military transport, a Lockheed Hercules, Lauren, we 598 00:34:21,040 --> 00:34:24,560 Speaker 1: just talked about those, we did. Yeah, it's a Lockheed 599 00:34:24,600 --> 00:34:28,600 Speaker 1: Hercules military transport that you would board. Clearly not one 600 00:34:28,680 --> 00:34:33,120 Speaker 1: of the ones that the CIA is operating. Probably, yeah, 601 00:34:33,239 --> 00:34:36,640 Speaker 1: question as far as you know, uh if it if 602 00:34:36,680 --> 00:34:40,560 Speaker 1: it has you know, non standard Lockheed Hercules equipment on it, 603 00:34:40,640 --> 00:34:42,759 Speaker 1: maybe it's one of the CIA ones. But anyway, Yeah, 604 00:34:42,760 --> 00:34:45,560 Speaker 1: that takes you to to McMurdo, which is on the 605 00:34:45,600 --> 00:34:49,360 Speaker 1: coast of Antarctica, and from there you would have to 606 00:34:49,480 --> 00:34:53,200 Speaker 1: wait for a while, um and get another flight out 607 00:34:53,280 --> 00:34:56,800 Speaker 1: to the South Pole where you would land, walk outside 608 00:34:56,920 --> 00:35:01,600 Speaker 1: and immediately shield your eyes on ski Yes, that's my 609 00:35:01,640 --> 00:35:05,040 Speaker 1: favorite part. Honestly. For some reason, landing on skis just 610 00:35:05,080 --> 00:35:08,000 Speaker 1: makes me incredibly happy. Yeah, this Hercules has skis instead 611 00:35:08,000 --> 00:35:10,360 Speaker 1: of wheels, because you know, you can not so useful 612 00:35:10,480 --> 00:35:14,399 Speaker 1: in the Antarctic. So that South Pole station has two 613 00:35:14,920 --> 00:35:18,080 Speaker 1: people in it, um, only only about fifty of those 614 00:35:18,080 --> 00:35:21,160 Speaker 1: would be during during the height of study. During any 615 00:35:21,160 --> 00:35:23,960 Speaker 1: given year through the winter, about fifty people are are 616 00:35:24,000 --> 00:35:27,120 Speaker 1: going to be stationed right right, and only a couple 617 00:35:27,239 --> 00:35:30,680 Speaker 1: are there year round. Like stay for the full year 618 00:35:31,920 --> 00:35:34,239 Speaker 1: and uh and so it has h it's got a 619 00:35:34,280 --> 00:35:36,960 Speaker 1: couple of amenities. It's got a kitchen, it's got a gym, 620 00:35:37,000 --> 00:35:41,760 Speaker 1: it's got greenhouse, dining room. Uh. So it's got actually 621 00:35:42,080 --> 00:35:44,080 Speaker 1: meeting rooms and things like that. They have a lot 622 00:35:44,120 --> 00:35:47,839 Speaker 1: of extracurricular activities for people, so they don't go snow crazy. 623 00:35:48,200 --> 00:35:51,399 Speaker 1: Is that is that the scientific term? I would call 624 00:35:51,440 --> 00:35:55,600 Speaker 1: it that. If you will watch the Shining, I would 625 00:35:55,640 --> 00:35:58,440 Speaker 1: call that snow crazy. They don't want any Jack torrans 626 00:35:58,480 --> 00:36:00,799 Speaker 1: is running around the South Pole, so so they don't 627 00:36:00,800 --> 00:36:03,680 Speaker 1: have a lot of topiary in the greens. I'm guessing 628 00:36:03,680 --> 00:36:06,400 Speaker 1: no hedge mazes over at the South Pole, but they do. 629 00:36:06,560 --> 00:36:08,920 Speaker 1: They do have lots of different lectures you can attend. 630 00:36:09,040 --> 00:36:12,319 Speaker 1: Apparently the people will show up and find out that 631 00:36:12,360 --> 00:36:15,520 Speaker 1: they have complementary musical skills and a lot of bands 632 00:36:15,600 --> 00:36:18,759 Speaker 1: end up forming at the South Pole. Um. You know, 633 00:36:18,840 --> 00:36:20,880 Speaker 1: it's it's kind of interesting stuff and there's I was. 634 00:36:21,080 --> 00:36:23,520 Speaker 1: I was actually very much entertained. I love the idea 635 00:36:23,960 --> 00:36:25,759 Speaker 1: one of the things that you could take classes and 636 00:36:26,120 --> 00:36:32,399 Speaker 1: totally nonrelated things like lately unscientific like Scottish dance that 637 00:36:33,000 --> 00:36:35,239 Speaker 1: I just love the idea of all these scientists doing 638 00:36:35,239 --> 00:36:40,320 Speaker 1: a Scottish Highland dance in the South Pole. Yeah, parkas 639 00:36:40,320 --> 00:36:44,279 Speaker 1: and lab coats. So it did say that things like 640 00:36:44,440 --> 00:36:47,000 Speaker 1: preparing food at the South Pole is a little different 641 00:36:47,040 --> 00:36:49,640 Speaker 1: from other places in the world because it can take 642 00:36:50,080 --> 00:36:52,959 Speaker 1: anywhere from several hours to like a couple of weeks. Yeah. 643 00:36:53,040 --> 00:36:55,800 Speaker 1: They said that if you wanted to, say, serve ice cream, 644 00:36:56,080 --> 00:36:58,319 Speaker 1: you would take it out of the freezer and let's 645 00:36:58,360 --> 00:37:01,120 Speaker 1: sit out for no half a day or else you 646 00:37:01,120 --> 00:37:04,440 Speaker 1: would need a hack saw to uh to make us serving. 647 00:37:04,520 --> 00:37:07,000 Speaker 1: So I thought that was pretty interesting too. They have 648 00:37:07,160 --> 00:37:10,799 Speaker 1: lots of educational outreach programs to various high schools and 649 00:37:10,880 --> 00:37:15,600 Speaker 1: colleges throughout the world, and uh, they have programs where 650 00:37:15,719 --> 00:37:19,120 Speaker 1: schools can have someone talk to them about the project 651 00:37:19,440 --> 00:37:22,080 Speaker 1: via webcast or even come in. Yeah. Yeah, because not 652 00:37:22,120 --> 00:37:24,080 Speaker 1: that all these scientists are working at the South Pole. 653 00:37:24,160 --> 00:37:26,360 Speaker 1: Some of them are working remotely. They get the data 654 00:37:26,480 --> 00:37:29,959 Speaker 1: sent up to them via satellite and then they work 655 00:37:30,000 --> 00:37:32,520 Speaker 1: on that. But they're still doing very important work in 656 00:37:32,520 --> 00:37:35,520 Speaker 1: in the whole experiment, and they can talk at length 657 00:37:35,560 --> 00:37:37,440 Speaker 1: about what it is they do and why it's important. 658 00:37:37,480 --> 00:37:39,360 Speaker 1: So lots of schools if your school is interested in 659 00:37:39,360 --> 00:37:41,080 Speaker 1: that sort of thing, go to the ice Cube website. 660 00:37:41,080 --> 00:37:44,560 Speaker 1: You can totally check it out there. And if your 661 00:37:44,560 --> 00:37:50,240 Speaker 1: school has high aspirations and and a high budget, yeah, 662 00:37:50,280 --> 00:37:53,359 Speaker 1: they can actually look into paying a visit to the 663 00:37:53,400 --> 00:37:56,480 Speaker 1: South Pole headquarters and finding out more about the ice 664 00:37:56,520 --> 00:37:59,520 Speaker 1: Cube detector. I think paying is probably the operative word, 665 00:37:59,520 --> 00:38:03,960 Speaker 1: because it is expensive to Antarctica, you know, I noticed 666 00:38:04,320 --> 00:38:07,359 Speaker 1: I saw that between for an average person, if you're 667 00:38:07,400 --> 00:38:09,760 Speaker 1: just talking about a tour, you're not even talking about 668 00:38:09,960 --> 00:38:12,440 Speaker 1: going down to the South Pole to see the headquarters, 669 00:38:12,520 --> 00:38:15,640 Speaker 1: just just to look at Antarctica, can be between four 670 00:38:15,680 --> 00:38:18,520 Speaker 1: thousand and eleven thousand dollars per person, so it is 671 00:38:18,560 --> 00:38:21,239 Speaker 1: a bit dear. However, I think you know, it's a 672 00:38:21,280 --> 00:38:24,200 Speaker 1: once in a lifetime kind of opportunity, right except for 673 00:38:24,239 --> 00:38:26,400 Speaker 1: the people who live there where it's every day. But 674 00:38:26,440 --> 00:38:28,240 Speaker 1: for most of us, it's a once in a lifetime 675 00:38:28,239 --> 00:38:31,640 Speaker 1: type thing. So I think it would be absolutely cool 676 00:38:31,960 --> 00:38:35,120 Speaker 1: to go visit it. To bring things back around again, Lauren, 677 00:38:35,560 --> 00:38:38,200 Speaker 1: you can't really start or endo tech stuff episode without 678 00:38:38,239 --> 00:38:41,480 Speaker 1: having you judge me, so we have to you already, 679 00:38:42,000 --> 00:38:43,680 Speaker 1: you already did that pun. You should come up with 680 00:38:43,719 --> 00:38:50,640 Speaker 1: some fresh new puns. Flash freeze waters, look, stop, collaborate 681 00:38:50,680 --> 00:38:54,200 Speaker 1: and listen. Ice is back with a brand new invention. 682 00:38:54,239 --> 00:38:56,879 Speaker 1: Al Right, guys, that wraps up this topic. Thank you, 683 00:38:57,320 --> 00:39:00,000 Speaker 1: thank you. It's time to go solo. No, not really, 684 00:39:00,200 --> 00:39:03,400 Speaker 1: not really. Alright, guys, if you enjoyed this episode, or 685 00:39:03,480 --> 00:39:06,239 Speaker 1: maybe you have something you want to add to the discussion, 686 00:39:06,280 --> 00:39:09,919 Speaker 1: perhaps about particle physics, or maybe it's just that there's 687 00:39:09,920 --> 00:39:12,360 Speaker 1: another related topic you've always wanted to hear about, or 688 00:39:12,400 --> 00:39:15,480 Speaker 1: maybe it's something we just never ever mentioned right to us. 689 00:39:15,560 --> 00:39:18,120 Speaker 1: Let us know what you think. Text stuff at Discovery 690 00:39:18,200 --> 00:39:21,160 Speaker 1: dot com is our email address, and you can also 691 00:39:21,280 --> 00:39:24,520 Speaker 1: let us know on Facebook, Twitter, or tumbler. We are 692 00:39:24,719 --> 00:39:27,319 Speaker 1: a tech stuff hs W at all three of those, 693 00:39:27,680 --> 00:39:29,960 Speaker 1: and Lauren and I will talk to you again really 694 00:39:30,000 --> 00:39:36,760 Speaker 1: soon for more on this and thousands of other topics. 695 00:39:36,840 --> 00:39:44,000 Speaker 1: Does it has stuff works dot com