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Speaker 4: The most anticipated live music events of the.

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Speaker 6: Year this Friday and Saturday, starting at ten thirty pm Eastern,

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Speaker 6: seven thirty Pacific.

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Speaker 1: Hey, Jorge, do you know what today is? Is it

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Speaker 1: a special day? Today? Oh? My god, I can't believe

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Speaker 1: you forgot? Oh? Is it your birthday? Noup tray? And

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Speaker 1: is it the anniversary of the Higgs Boson closer? It's

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Speaker 1: actually our anniversary. Today is our two hundredth episode of

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Speaker 1: Daniel and Jorge Explain the Universe.

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Speaker 7: Two hundred episodes. Oh my gosh. It's a lot of

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Speaker 7: physics and a lot of banana jokes.

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Speaker 1: It's a whole universe of banana physics.

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Speaker 7: I am Orhammad, cartoonists and the creator of PhD comics.

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Speaker 1: Hi, I'm Daniel. I'm a particle physicist, and I know

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Speaker 1: at least two hundred things about physics, and I know

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Speaker 1: at least two hundred bad jokes about physics. I've made

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Speaker 1: ten to the two hundred bad jokes about physics, but

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Speaker 1: our editor has removed.

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Speaker 7: Most And Welcome to our podcast, Daniel and Jorge Explain

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Speaker 7: the Universe, a production of iHeartRadio.

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Speaker 1: A project we started to explain to you all the

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Speaker 1: amazing and crazy things out there in the universe, all

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Speaker 1: the things we do know, the facts we've learned about

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Speaker 1: the universe, the secret truth that we've revealed, and also

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Speaker 1: the incredible questions, the things that science still has to

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Speaker 1: figure out, the questions that scientists are asking, and the

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Speaker 1: questions that you are asking, the deep mysteries of the

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Speaker 1: universe around us.

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Speaker 7: Because it turns out that there are more than two

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Speaker 7: hundred questions you can ask about the universe and more

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Speaker 7: than two hundred amazing facts to learn and to discover

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Speaker 7: about how this crazy cosmos works.

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Speaker 1: At least that's what we've discovered in doing this podcast.

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Speaker 1: We had no idea how long we could keep going on. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: today is a very special episode. It's our two hundredth episode.

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Speaker 1: What does that make it, Daniel? Is it like a birthday,

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Speaker 1: a broadcast day, a pod day. I don't know, but

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Speaker 1: you know, if you look up anniversaries, like you know,

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Speaker 1: the fifth anniversary's paper, and the tenth anniversary is silver

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Speaker 1: or whatever, the fiftieth anniversary is diamond. There is no

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Speaker 1: culturally acceptable gift for two hundredth anniversary because nobody ever

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Speaker 1: lasted that long.

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Speaker 7: I think they give you a noble price if you

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Speaker 7: somehow manage to celebrate a two hundredth year anniversary.

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Speaker 1: Maybe it should be the fossil anniversary something, because you've

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Speaker 1: become fossilized. But congratulations Daniel episode. Did you ever think

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Speaker 1: we would get to two hundred episodes?

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Speaker 5: No?

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Speaker 1: I thought you'd get sick of talking to me about

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Speaker 1: physics after about ten or twenty. No, congratulations to you. Also,

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Speaker 1: it's been a really fun ride, and thank you to

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Speaker 1: all of our listeners who have listened to us talking

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Speaker 1: about science and joking about bananas and shared your goofy

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Speaker 1: curiosity with us. That's really what's powered us forward. So

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Speaker 1: thanks for listening, and thanks for all the feedback and support.

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Speaker 7: Well, I have definitely not gotten tired of listening to

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Speaker 7: amazing physics, and to listen to you explain it, I

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Speaker 7: feel like I could go another two hundred episodes.

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Speaker 1: Let's do it well in honor of our two hundredth episode.

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Speaker 1: I put out a tweet asking folks what we should

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Speaker 1: do to celebrate our two hundredth episode, and as usual,

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Speaker 1: I put out some silly suggestions, and we did a

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Speaker 1: little Twitter poll.

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Speaker 7: Yeah, and so Daniel asked what should we do for

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Speaker 7: a two hundred episode? And the options were one, eat

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Speaker 7: two hundred bananas, two, answer two hundred questions, three to

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Speaker 7: two hundred different accents, and number four just shut up

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Speaker 7: and explain.

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Speaker 1: That's right, And clearly I was going to do the explaining,

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Speaker 1: but I was hoping that you would do the bananas

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Speaker 1: in the accents seems a little lopsided. Daniel, Well, you're

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Speaker 1: the creative one, right. How can I eat bananas and

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Speaker 1: do accents at the same time? Those counts different accents,

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Speaker 1: you know, like Scottish or Scottish with a banana in

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Speaker 1: your mouth sound very different.

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Speaker 7: It was a close poll. It was a close poll, yes, exactly.

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Speaker 7: Was it dramatic like as you saw the numbers come in.

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Speaker 1: Well, bananas was racing to the lead in the beginning,

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Speaker 1: but eventually people voted for answer two hundred questions got

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Speaker 1: about thirty five percent. Eat two hundred bananas in second place,

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Speaker 1: And you know, In last place was Doe two hundred accents,

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Speaker 1: which I was sort of hoping for.

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Speaker 7: I think we have to trust the wisdom of the

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Speaker 7: crowd here and not offend two hundred countries.

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Speaker 1: There aren't two hundred countries to offend, so that would

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Speaker 1: be pretty impressive if we could offend non existing countries. Yeah.

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Speaker 7: So the top option was answer two hundred questions, which

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Speaker 7: when danil you told me, I said, was a little

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Speaker 7: impractical for a fifty minute podcast.

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Speaker 1: That's right. They'd have to be like tru or false questions,

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Speaker 1: or you know, yes or no or something, which wouldn't

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Speaker 1: be too satisfying. Right. I started to think, if we

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Speaker 1: take five minutes to answer each question, that's a thousand

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Speaker 1: minute episode. That's basically the next two hundred episodes.

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Speaker 7: Yeah, basically we'd be done. We could celebrate our four

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Speaker 7: hundredth anniversary next week.

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Speaker 1: Then, well, this podcast is really accelerating the logarith next scales.

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Speaker 1: We'll be doing our four thousand and one in a month,

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Speaker 1: that's right. And I started looking through the list of

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Speaker 1: questions we'd answered over email, because I answered hundreds of

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Speaker 1: questions a week from listeners, and there's a lot of

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Speaker 1: common things in there, but then Jorge had a better

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Speaker 1: idea something else we could do to celebrate our two

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Speaker 1: hundredth episode.

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Speaker 7: Yeah, so to on the podcast, we'll be asking two

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Speaker 7: hundred questions, but not two hundred number of questions, but

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Speaker 7: a couple of questions about the number two hundred.

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Speaker 1: That's right, because while the number ten in the number

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Speaker 1: one hundred and therefore the number two hundred are really

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Speaker 1: just artifacts and the number of fingers we have in

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Speaker 1: the way the human mind works is also an interesting

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Speaker 1: way to ask questions about the universe, to think about

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Speaker 1: like how far away are things or what happened in

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Speaker 1: certain moments of time in the universe. It gives you

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Speaker 1: like a fixed window to examine the universe.

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Speaker 7: We'll be asking coincidentally, two two hundred questions here in

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Speaker 7: the podcast, and the first question has to do with

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Speaker 7: what happened at the beginning of the universe. So the

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Speaker 7: question is what happened in the first two hundred microseconds

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Speaker 7: of the universe. And then later on we'll tackle another

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Speaker 7: question about with the number two hundred, which is what

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Speaker 7: can we find within two hundred light years of Earth,

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Speaker 7: So a little bit of time and a little bit

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Speaker 7: of space, A little bit of space time, Danny.

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Speaker 1: That's right. What can you find within two hundred light

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Speaker 1: years of Earth? Makes me think, like, are you looking

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Speaker 1: for your keys? Are they somewhere out there in space?

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Speaker 7: I do lose my keys a lot, even in a

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Speaker 7: pen where you don't go anywhere. Somehow I managed to

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Speaker 7: lose my keys like every day.

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Speaker 1: Well, we'll see if we can find them.

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Speaker 7: All right, we'll taggle this first question first, which is

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Speaker 7: what happened in the first two hundred microseconds of the universe. Now,

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Speaker 7: two hundred microseconds, that's like, boy, that's like zero point

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Speaker 7: two milliseconds.

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Speaker 1: It's not a lot of time. But it turns out

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Speaker 1: a whole lot of stuff happened in the first two

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Speaker 1: hundred microseconds of the universe. Basically everything's been boring ever since.

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Speaker 7: Well, two hundred microseconds. That's that's shorter than a blink, right,

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Speaker 7: Like a blink is maybe a couple of microseconds, a

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Speaker 7: couple of milliseconds.

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Speaker 1: It's a very small amount of time.

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Speaker 7: Absolutely, Yeah, so a lot happened in those first microseconds.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, a lot happened. And one of the most interesting

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Speaker 1: questions really is how you even define like moment zero

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Speaker 1: if you're going to say, let's take a window of

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Speaker 1: time from the very beginning of the universe to two

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Speaker 1: hundred microseconds afterwards, it's interesting to think about, like how

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Speaker 1: the universe expands and cools, and we'll get into all

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Speaker 1: of that. But then you have to wonder, like where

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Speaker 1: does T equals zero? How do you define that moment?

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Speaker 1: Do we even know that there was a te equal zero?

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Speaker 1: So already, like anchoring the left side the early side

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Speaker 1: of that window is very very difficult, right.

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Speaker 7: It makes me think like was there a T minus

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Speaker 7: one or like a countdown to the universe.

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Speaker 1: Nobody really knows. And the problem is that we don't

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Speaker 1: think about the history of the universe in that sort

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Speaker 1: of forward way because we don't really have anything to

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Speaker 1: build on. We don't know what was in the beginning

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Speaker 1: or when the beginning was. Usually we think about it

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Speaker 1: sort of in the reverse. We look at the universe

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Speaker 1: now and we look backwards in time as we look

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Speaker 1: further further out into space, right, because remember the further

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Speaker 1: out in space, you look older the universe is so

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Speaker 1: we can see how the universe looked a one hundred

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Speaker 1: years ago, a thousand years ago, a million years ago,

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Speaker 1: a billion years ago, et cetera, and we can project

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Speaker 1: backwards in time. So we tend to think of the

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Speaker 1: history of the universe sort of from now in running

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Speaker 1: the clock backwards, and we can do it pretty well,

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Speaker 1: you know, back about thirteen billion years or so. But

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Speaker 1: then it it's pretty murky, and we have trouble extrapolating back.

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Speaker 1: We don't know if there was a T equal zero,

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Speaker 1: if there was like a T equals question mark, or

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Speaker 1: who knows what was happening at the very beginning. That's interesting.

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Speaker 7: Now, why does the picture get fuzzy beyond if you

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Speaker 7: rewind back to more than a few hundred thousand years

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Speaker 7: from what would might be the beginning of time, like

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Speaker 7: what actually mrksview.

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Speaker 1: Well, the reason is that things change. Things get really

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Speaker 1: hot and dense. Right, the overall history of the universe

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Speaker 1: is cooling and expanding, and so if you run that

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Speaker 1: backwards from now we have a cold, large universe. You

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Speaker 1: run that backwards, things get hotter and denser. And of

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Speaker 1: course you could just do that naively, like assume that

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Speaker 1: the laws of physics we have learned today from our

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Speaker 1: cold universe still work back then, and just run the

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Speaker 1: clock backwards and you get infinite density and you call

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Speaker 1: that te equal zero. You could do that, but we

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Speaker 1: don't think that's right. We don't think the laws we

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Speaker 1: have work anymore as things get that hot and dense,

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Speaker 1: just like you know, the physics of gases is different

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Speaker 1: from the physics of liquids and the physics of solids,

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Speaker 1: and so things change as you get hotter and denser,

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Speaker 1: and then it becomes difficult to extrapolate because we're reaching

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Speaker 1: into regions that we can't see anymore and we have

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Speaker 1: no experience of. Because there's a moment in the early

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Speaker 1: universe when the universe cooled. It was a hot, dense, nastiness,

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Speaker 1: we'll talk about it, and it cooled to a place

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Speaker 1: where light could fly through. It became transparent, and that's

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Speaker 1: the last moment in the early universe that we can

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Speaker 1: actually see. Beyond that, we're just really sort of guessing

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Speaker 1: and extrapolating and using models, but those models are very uncertain.

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Speaker 1: We really don't know what we're talking about. So a

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Speaker 1: lot of the details we'll talk through today in this

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Speaker 1: episode are really speculative. They're like, maybe it was this,

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Speaker 1: and maybe it was that, and under various assumptions to

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Speaker 1: it seem reasonable but could be totally wrong. You know,

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Speaker 1: maybe this happened, but it's really guessworks.

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Speaker 7: Is a guesswork because we don't know, like our simulations

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Speaker 7: don't own are very definitive, or like the physics of

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Speaker 7: the universe might actually change it in those kind of conditions.

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Speaker 1: We don't know how the physics of the universe operates

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Speaker 1: in those very hot and dense environments. You know, we've

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Speaker 1: only experienced it when it's pretty cold and separated. And

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Speaker 1: so we're extrapolating back. We think we have ideas or

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Speaker 1: how it might work, and we can simulate various ones

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Speaker 1: of them, but we can't necessarily like tell the difference

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Speaker 1: between if it's like this or if it's like that,

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Speaker 1: And so we just were extrapolating into the unknown, and

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Speaker 1: that's always very dangerous and delicate.

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Speaker 7: Now, even the concept of time equals zero is weird, right,

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Speaker 7: because I've heard people say that, you know, like it's

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Speaker 7: it's almost like asking what is more north than the

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Speaker 7: north pole? Because once it gets to the north pole,

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Speaker 7: there's no more north? And is it the same? Also

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Speaker 7: that you know, maybe time started at tequals zero and

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Speaker 7: there was no time before that.

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Speaker 1: It sounds bonkers to say that, right, like, there was

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Speaker 1: no time before that, because what is before mean? If

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Speaker 1: there was no time? Right, it's confusing. It's hard to

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Speaker 1: really get these ideas into your head. But it's true

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Speaker 1: that some theories of the universe say that space and

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Speaker 1: time were created at some moment and things have expanded

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Speaker 1: and cooled since then, and before that point, there was

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Speaker 1: no time, There was no space, there was no before

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Speaker 1: that point. That's really hard to grasp your mind around

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Speaker 1: because your mind lives in that space and that time.

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Speaker 1: It's all you've experienced. And so that's all you can

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Speaker 1: really imagine is how you organize your thinking. It's how

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Speaker 1: we think about causality and logic, and a that happens,

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Speaker 1: then B happens, then C happens. But it doesn't mean

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Speaker 1: it's the only way the universe can be. And so

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Speaker 1: it's extraordinarily difficult to sort of extrapolate your brain and

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Speaker 1: your thinking into something completely unfamiliar, right, And so what

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Speaker 1: we do is we have these frameworks like general relativity

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Speaker 1: and quantum mechanics that try to tell us about what

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Speaker 1: might have happened, But those aren't very conclusive either. I

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Speaker 1: guess the North Pole. Analogy kind of works also in that,

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Speaker 1: you know, like here where we are. You know, if

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Speaker 1: you have like a compass, it's pretty clear how to

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Speaker 1: use it, Like, you know, it tells you north and

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Speaker 1: right and south and east and west, and you can

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Speaker 1: walk around pretty easy. Blue.

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Speaker 7: But if you were like near the North Pole, it

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Speaker 7: might be a little tricky to use a compass.

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Speaker 1: Right, Yeah, if you're at the North Pole, you'd be

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Speaker 1: a little disoriented. Yeah, if you're at the North Pole,

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Speaker 1: there is no more north to go, right, you can't

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Speaker 1: go any northier than that. But we don't know if

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Speaker 1: time works that way. It could be that there was

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Speaker 1: stuff before, you know, these early moments, these singularities. There

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Speaker 1: was a whole other universe perhaps which came down into

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Speaker 1: a big crunch or something else totally different. It's some

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Speaker 1: sort of other weird kind of thing which gave birth

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Speaker 1: to our space and time, you know, our entire universe.

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Speaker 1: Our space and time could be a bubble of that

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Speaker 1: other pre universe stuff like decaying into a universe. There

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Speaker 1: could be a whole spectrum of other universes also that

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Speaker 1: were created in the same moment, or could that are

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Speaker 1: still being created now. There could be like, you know,

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Speaker 1: moments of creation happening right now now, really far away

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Speaker 1: in this other meta space. It sounds like bonker speculation

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Speaker 1: because it is mostly because we're so clueless.

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Speaker 7: I mean, like now, like as we speak, there could

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Speaker 7: be some time equal zero moments right now for other

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Speaker 7: universes in this universe.

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Speaker 1: Yeah. One idea of how our universe got started is

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Speaker 1: that there was some sort of like pre universe stuff,

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Speaker 1: some Inflanton Fields, and that our universe is essentially some

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Speaker 1: random spontaneous decay of that, and that's when our universe began.

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Speaker 1: And that Inflanton Field is just like expanding and creating

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Speaker 1: and eternally inflating. But all the time it's parts of

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Speaker 1: it are decaying and starting whole new universes. There are

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Speaker 1: universes that haven't even gotten started yet, universes that are

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Speaker 1: trillions of years old. And none of this is anything

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Speaker 1: we know. It's just like it's a crazy idea, and

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Speaker 1: in a thousand years people will read about these ideas

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Speaker 1: the way we think about you know, the Greeks ideas

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Speaker 1: about air, water, fire and earth. We're like, well that's cute,

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Speaker 1: totally wrong, you know, and it could have been I

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Speaker 1: suppose yeah, it's it's well meaning, carefully thought out, totally wrong,

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Speaker 1: and that could be the way we describe all of

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Speaker 1: our current ideas about what happened to tequals zero and

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Speaker 1: whether t equals zero even makes sense.

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Speaker 7: It could be like cute to future physicists, exactly lessly

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Speaker 7: cute to future five year olds.

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Speaker 1: Man, five year olds in a thousand years will laugh

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Speaker 1: at our ideas. They'll be like, oh, you're ridiculous, that's silly.

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Speaker 7: Oh man, Well, a five year olds already laugh at me, Daniel,

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Speaker 7: So that's not.

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Speaker 1: Going to be easy. We'll pretend that's on purpose though.

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Speaker 7: All right, so it seems like, okay, so we can't

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Speaker 7: see that well beyond a few hundred thousand years into

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Speaker 7: the universe. So really asking like what happened in the

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Speaker 7: first two hundred microseconds is really speculative, then that's right.

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Speaker 1: All you can do is say, like, you know, extrapolate

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Speaker 1: backwards from where we are, it gets hotter and denser,

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Speaker 1: hotter and denser, and pretend that you know how to

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Speaker 1: extrapolate back to some point like general relativity says you

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Speaker 1: can extrapolate all the way back to a point of

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Speaker 1: infinite density and temperature. But you know, we know that

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Speaker 1: general relativity is probably wrong when it talks about singularities

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Speaker 1: and stuff like that, because it ignores important things like

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Speaker 1: quantum mechanics, which tells us that you can't have an

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Speaker 1: infinite amount of stuff in a tiny zero volume point

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Speaker 1: and know all about it. So definitely something wonky happens.

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Speaker 1: But you know, you can extrapolate sort of naively and

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Speaker 1: say we'll call this T equal zero and we'll move

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Speaker 1: forward from there. I see, I see.

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Speaker 7: So we're going to plant the flag and say this

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Speaker 7: is tequal zero, and then we're going to see what

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Speaker 7: can the universe do to get us to where we

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Speaker 7: are today?

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Speaker 1: Kind of yeah, yeah, exactly.

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Speaker 7: All right, Well, let's get into that and to the

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Speaker 7: question of what is within two hundred light years of Earth.

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Speaker 7: But first let's take a quick break.

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Speaker 7: All right, Daniel, we're celebrating our two hundredth birthday. Does

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00:20:30,160 --> 00:20:32,199
Speaker 7: that mean that I'm two hundred years old and you're

406
00:20:32,200 --> 00:20:34,600
Speaker 7: two hundred years old, or we're each one hundred years old.

407
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Speaker 1: It means we should have retired one hundred and thirty

408
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Speaker 1: years ago. I feel like this podcast has aged me

409
00:20:41,119 --> 00:20:43,040
Speaker 1: two hundred years. I feel like I'm two hundred light

410
00:20:43,080 --> 00:20:44,719
Speaker 1: years from where I started. Hey, there you go.

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Speaker 7: All right, Well, so we're talking about the first two

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Speaker 7: hundred microseconds of the universe, and so we'll start with

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Speaker 7: time equals zero.

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Speaker 1: What happened at time equol zero? Daniel, We don't know,

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Speaker 1: but one idea is that there was a singularity that

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Speaker 1: you know, the universe was super hot and super dense.

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Speaker 1: And I think a lot of people imagine this as

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Speaker 1: a single point. They hear singularity, they think a single point.

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Speaker 1: They think one hot, dense spot.

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Speaker 7: Like the entire energy and all the matter of the

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Speaker 7: universe was in a really tiny thought.

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Speaker 1: But it's better not to think about it as one place,

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Speaker 1: but more to think about it as the density, because

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Speaker 1: we don't know if the universe is finite or infinite.

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Speaker 1: Possible that when the universe started, it was already infinite,

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Speaker 1: and that this singularity we're talking about was everywhere like

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Speaker 1: multiple singularity, yes, yes, precisely like a non singular singularity. Yes.

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Speaker 1: Like the singularity refers not to how many of them

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Speaker 1: there were, but the fact that the density becomes infinite

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Speaker 1: the singularity refers to what happens to the equations, that

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Speaker 1: the equations get infinities in them because the density becomes infinite,

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Speaker 1: not the size of it. And there's I think a

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Speaker 1: very common misconception that the Big Bang or pre Big

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Speaker 1: Bang starts with a dot and that dot smaller than

435
00:21:59,359 --> 00:22:02,240
Speaker 1: an atom. Because the entire universe, and because we don't

436
00:22:02,280 --> 00:22:04,160
Speaker 1: know how big the universe is, it could have been

437
00:22:04,440 --> 00:22:06,560
Speaker 1: a little blob, it could have been an infinite extent.

438
00:22:06,840 --> 00:22:08,880
Speaker 1: It's better to think about it in terms of infinite

439
00:22:08,960 --> 00:22:12,240
Speaker 1: density I see, or like an infinite number of dots,

440
00:22:12,400 --> 00:22:14,639
Speaker 1: an infinite number of dots. Yeah. The thing we do

441
00:22:14,760 --> 00:22:18,240
Speaker 1: know is that the universe was denser and hotter back then.

442
00:22:18,320 --> 00:22:20,480
Speaker 1: We don't know how much of it there was, could

443
00:22:20,520 --> 00:22:23,040
Speaker 1: have been infinite, could be finite, and loop all around

444
00:22:23,080 --> 00:22:25,879
Speaker 1: on itself. That's a whole other episode about the size

445
00:22:25,920 --> 00:22:28,280
Speaker 1: and shape of the universe, which is fascinating. But to

446
00:22:28,320 --> 00:22:30,280
Speaker 1: think through the history of the universe is mostly to

447
00:22:30,320 --> 00:22:32,280
Speaker 1: think about the density changing, okay.

448
00:22:32,080 --> 00:22:34,359
Speaker 7: And the idea is that's, you know, there's no real

449
00:22:34,480 --> 00:22:38,240
Speaker 7: reason for this to exist, just somehow the universe what

450
00:22:38,280 --> 00:22:41,840
Speaker 7: we know was really dance, almost like infinitely dance.

451
00:22:41,920 --> 00:22:43,760
Speaker 1: Yeah, there must have been a reason for it to exist,

452
00:22:43,880 --> 00:22:46,640
Speaker 1: because it does. And we think the universe follows reasons

453
00:22:46,680 --> 00:22:48,800
Speaker 1: and laws. We just don't know what they are. We

454
00:22:48,840 --> 00:22:51,000
Speaker 1: can't argue for it. We don't know why there was

455
00:22:51,040 --> 00:22:53,320
Speaker 1: something instead of nothing, and why there was this and

456
00:22:53,359 --> 00:22:55,520
Speaker 1: could there have been other things? And you know, just

457
00:22:55,600 --> 00:22:59,320
Speaker 1: really shockingly basic questions that we have really no clue about.

458
00:22:59,359 --> 00:23:02,760
Speaker 7: Okay, So we had this super dense state, almost infinitely dense,

459
00:23:02,840 --> 00:23:05,800
Speaker 7: maybe everywhere, maybe just one dot, and then what's the

460
00:23:05,840 --> 00:23:07,879
Speaker 7: next thing that happened? And what happened in the first

461
00:23:08,000 --> 00:23:10,439
Speaker 7: ten to the minus you know, forty three seconds.

462
00:23:10,480 --> 00:23:12,480
Speaker 1: So the picture you should have in your mind is

463
00:23:12,480 --> 00:23:15,719
Speaker 1: that we have space, and space is really really hot,

464
00:23:15,920 --> 00:23:18,720
Speaker 1: like there's a huge amount of energy. Right. The density

465
00:23:18,720 --> 00:23:21,959
Speaker 1: we're really talking about there is energy density, And if

466
00:23:22,000 --> 00:23:23,919
Speaker 1: you've been following the podcast, you know that we like

467
00:23:23,960 --> 00:23:26,800
Speaker 1: to think about space in terms of quantum fields. Every

468
00:23:26,840 --> 00:23:30,040
Speaker 1: point in space has fields in it, the electron fields,

469
00:23:30,080 --> 00:23:33,640
Speaker 1: the quark fields, the photon fields, et cetera. And particles

470
00:23:33,680 --> 00:23:36,640
Speaker 1: that we think about today are little blobs of excitations

471
00:23:36,680 --> 00:23:39,280
Speaker 1: of those fields. Now, today most of those fields are

472
00:23:39,400 --> 00:23:42,040
Speaker 1: very very low energy. Most of space is empty and

473
00:23:42,080 --> 00:23:45,760
Speaker 1: those fields are zero. But back then, infinite density really

474
00:23:45,840 --> 00:23:48,600
Speaker 1: means all those fields are going nuts. They're going crazy,

475
00:23:48,640 --> 00:23:52,119
Speaker 1: they're oscillating, they're just full of energy. And so instead

476
00:23:52,119 --> 00:23:55,720
Speaker 1: of thinking about individual particles, it's like having an ocean, Right,

477
00:23:55,720 --> 00:23:58,199
Speaker 1: you don't think about a drop of water when you

478
00:23:58,200 --> 00:24:00,520
Speaker 1: have an ocean. You can just think about the entire crazy,

479
00:24:00,680 --> 00:24:03,639
Speaker 1: turbulent blob and it's doing all sorts of stuff. So

480
00:24:03,680 --> 00:24:06,560
Speaker 1: the first ten to the minus forty three seconds of

481
00:24:06,600 --> 00:24:09,840
Speaker 1: the universe we call this the Plank epoch, everything was

482
00:24:09,880 --> 00:24:12,119
Speaker 1: hot and dense and these fields were just going crazy.

483
00:24:12,600 --> 00:24:15,080
Speaker 7: Now I have a question though somebodys talk about that.

484
00:24:15,280 --> 00:24:18,719
Speaker 7: It's not just like stuff that was crammed in together

485
00:24:18,840 --> 00:24:24,120
Speaker 7: really tightly. It's also that space itself was smaller, much smaller.

486
00:24:25,119 --> 00:24:27,720
Speaker 7: So it's like it's both those things. It's like everything

487
00:24:27,800 --> 00:24:30,680
Speaker 7: was crammed in together, and also space was smaller.

488
00:24:30,720 --> 00:24:33,080
Speaker 1: That's right. There's two kinds of expansion we're going to

489
00:24:33,080 --> 00:24:36,040
Speaker 1: talk about later. One is the expansion of stuff through

490
00:24:36,240 --> 00:24:39,920
Speaker 1: space as things spread out into existing space. The other

491
00:24:40,000 --> 00:24:43,919
Speaker 1: is the expansion of space that you create more space

492
00:24:43,960 --> 00:24:47,480
Speaker 1: than new space itself is created. Because remember that space

493
00:24:47,600 --> 00:24:50,359
Speaker 1: is not just like a backdrop on which things happen.

494
00:24:50,720 --> 00:24:55,200
Speaker 1: There's a dynamical connection between space and energy. Space curves

495
00:24:55,240 --> 00:24:58,240
Speaker 1: and bends and expands in response to the mass and

496
00:24:58,359 --> 00:25:01,440
Speaker 1: energy that's in it, and then it shapes the motion

497
00:25:01,640 --> 00:25:04,679
Speaker 1: of that mass and energy. So space and mass and

498
00:25:04,800 --> 00:25:07,040
Speaker 1: energy are two things that are very tightly coupled and

499
00:25:07,119 --> 00:25:08,320
Speaker 1: respond to each other.

500
00:25:09,040 --> 00:25:12,000
Speaker 7: Okay, so in the first you know, point zero zero

501
00:25:12,040 --> 00:25:16,680
Speaker 7: zero zero down to forty three zeros one seconds, you said,

502
00:25:16,760 --> 00:25:18,000
Speaker 7: that's called the plant epoch.

503
00:25:18,119 --> 00:25:19,640
Speaker 1: Yeah, and back there we had a bunch of really

504
00:25:19,680 --> 00:25:22,280
Speaker 1: hot fields. And the thing to think about here is

505
00:25:22,280 --> 00:25:23,399
Speaker 1: that there are no particles.

506
00:25:23,520 --> 00:25:27,040
Speaker 7: What it's like too hot for particles, like particles just

507
00:25:27,119 --> 00:25:28,800
Speaker 7: kind of everything is just crazy.

508
00:25:28,880 --> 00:25:31,399
Speaker 1: That's right. There are no isolated particles because everything is

509
00:25:31,480 --> 00:25:34,359
Speaker 1: just too hot and too intense. It's all just energy

510
00:25:34,400 --> 00:25:37,159
Speaker 1: in these fields. It's sloshing around. You know, later on

511
00:25:37,240 --> 00:25:40,199
Speaker 1: things will cool down enough for particles to form. But

512
00:25:40,240 --> 00:25:42,320
Speaker 1: particles are like you know, when you have a few

513
00:25:42,400 --> 00:25:45,080
Speaker 1: little isolated blobs of energy in a field. Here we

514
00:25:45,160 --> 00:25:48,119
Speaker 1: have like an incredible turbulent ocean. So it makes no

515
00:25:48,200 --> 00:25:50,360
Speaker 1: sense to think about in terms of particles. I mean,

516
00:25:50,560 --> 00:25:53,360
Speaker 1: technically you could, you could say this field has ten

517
00:25:53,400 --> 00:25:56,280
Speaker 1: kajillion particles in it, but it doesn't really make any sense.

518
00:25:56,359 --> 00:25:59,560
Speaker 1: It's really just energy. It's not discrete packets moving around

519
00:25:59,600 --> 00:26:02,320
Speaker 1: through space. It's just a huge blob of energy slashing

520
00:26:02,320 --> 00:26:03,640
Speaker 1: around in the field. Oh, I see.

521
00:26:03,680 --> 00:26:05,840
Speaker 7: There's no moment where you're like, oh, there's an electron.

522
00:26:06,000 --> 00:26:08,440
Speaker 7: It's just that the whole field is just set on fire.

523
00:26:08,520 --> 00:26:11,280
Speaker 1: Yeah, precisely. You can't follow a drop of water in

524
00:26:11,320 --> 00:26:13,840
Speaker 1: the ocean. Right. And the other thing to think about

525
00:26:13,920 --> 00:26:16,800
Speaker 1: is that the fields here behave differently, just like the

526
00:26:16,840 --> 00:26:20,600
Speaker 1: way materials on Earth have phases. As you cool them

527
00:26:21,280 --> 00:26:24,440
Speaker 1: or heat them up, the physics of them changes completely, Right,

528
00:26:24,520 --> 00:26:26,880
Speaker 1: The same thing happens for fields. They tend to act

529
00:26:26,920 --> 00:26:30,639
Speaker 1: in different ways at different temperatures, a different energy densities.

530
00:26:31,040 --> 00:26:33,200
Speaker 1: And this is not like the laws of physics changing,

531
00:26:33,400 --> 00:26:35,600
Speaker 1: It's just like how you can think about it, how

532
00:26:35,600 --> 00:26:38,960
Speaker 1: you can describe it. The effective the emergent results of

533
00:26:38,960 --> 00:26:41,880
Speaker 1: it are very different at different temperatures, just the same

534
00:26:41,920 --> 00:26:42,879
Speaker 1: way they are for solids.

535
00:26:42,880 --> 00:26:45,399
Speaker 7: Okay, but can we still use the same equations we have, Like,

536
00:26:45,560 --> 00:26:46,960
Speaker 7: do our equations still work?

537
00:26:47,119 --> 00:26:49,600
Speaker 1: We don't think they do. We think the equations that

538
00:26:49,640 --> 00:26:53,640
Speaker 1: we have now only describe physics sort of at lower temperatures,

539
00:26:53,920 --> 00:26:56,359
Speaker 1: that they're sort of like the falling out the effective

540
00:26:56,400 --> 00:26:59,800
Speaker 1: equations for what happens when things are cold. We don't

541
00:26:59,800 --> 00:27:03,399
Speaker 1: think we have like the fundamental equations. Our equations should

542
00:27:03,400 --> 00:27:07,040
Speaker 1: be like the low temperature limit of the true equations,

543
00:27:07,040 --> 00:27:10,040
Speaker 1: which we haven't found yet. But for example, we think

544
00:27:10,080 --> 00:27:12,639
Speaker 1: that at very hot temperature is the early moments, all

545
00:27:12,680 --> 00:27:18,120
Speaker 1: of the forces acted like one gravity, electromagnetism, the weak force,

546
00:27:18,160 --> 00:27:20,480
Speaker 1: and the strong force. We think they're probably all just

547
00:27:20,720 --> 00:27:23,399
Speaker 1: one force that acted together. What do you mean a force?

548
00:27:23,560 --> 00:27:25,360
Speaker 1: Don't forces depend on particles too?

549
00:27:25,520 --> 00:27:25,560
Speaker 7: No?

550
00:27:25,720 --> 00:27:28,639
Speaker 1: Forces are also just fields, right, But we think that

551
00:27:28,680 --> 00:27:32,200
Speaker 1: there was a single field that represents all those forces.

552
00:27:32,240 --> 00:27:34,399
Speaker 1: But combined it to one. And we think when it

553
00:27:34,440 --> 00:27:37,000
Speaker 1: was really hot and dense, that they acted together. They

554
00:27:37,080 --> 00:27:39,000
Speaker 1: all had the same strength, and they were all just

555
00:27:39,160 --> 00:27:43,600
Speaker 1: different components of one mega force which exists in the universe. Well,

556
00:27:43,800 --> 00:27:46,040
Speaker 1: I think you just coined the term right there, the

557
00:27:46,040 --> 00:27:49,440
Speaker 1: mega force. This is like to call it the grand

558
00:27:49,560 --> 00:27:54,040
Speaker 1: unified theory. I like megaphorce better mega force it is.

559
00:27:54,080 --> 00:27:57,240
Speaker 7: Then go all right, So those are the first ten

560
00:27:57,359 --> 00:27:59,160
Speaker 7: to the minus forty three seconds.

561
00:27:59,240 --> 00:28:01,400
Speaker 1: Then what happened? Then things start to cool, things start

562
00:28:01,400 --> 00:28:05,000
Speaker 1: to expand a little bit, and the first breaking happens

563
00:28:05,240 --> 00:28:08,480
Speaker 1: here are the force splits into two. You have gravity

564
00:28:08,520 --> 00:28:12,399
Speaker 1: on one side, and then all the other forces electromagnetism,

565
00:28:12,520 --> 00:28:15,240
Speaker 1: the weak force, and the strong force combined still into

566
00:28:15,240 --> 00:28:19,080
Speaker 1: one single force, which we call electro strong. And so

567
00:28:19,320 --> 00:28:22,000
Speaker 1: here the temperature has dropped enough that the force has split.

568
00:28:22,040 --> 00:28:25,400
Speaker 1: It's like cracked. You know. Sometimes when you cool something,

569
00:28:25,680 --> 00:28:28,080
Speaker 1: you can freeze, or it can crack, or it can

570
00:28:28,240 --> 00:28:31,160
Speaker 1: end them in some weird configuration. As the universe cooled,

571
00:28:31,240 --> 00:28:33,680
Speaker 1: gravity is sort of like froze and split off from

572
00:28:33,760 --> 00:28:34,639
Speaker 1: the other forces.

573
00:28:34,680 --> 00:28:38,000
Speaker 7: Interesting like inevitably or is it like a random you know,

574
00:28:38,080 --> 00:28:40,720
Speaker 7: like an ice when you freeze eyes, you sometimes get

575
00:28:40,760 --> 00:28:42,920
Speaker 7: crystals here or crystals there. Is it random like that

576
00:28:43,080 --> 00:28:45,800
Speaker 7: or is it like inevitable? You think that the equations

577
00:28:45,800 --> 00:28:47,760
Speaker 7: were like we were always going to get gravity and

578
00:28:47,800 --> 00:28:48,640
Speaker 7: these other forces.

579
00:28:48,640 --> 00:28:52,280
Speaker 1: We don't know. We call it spontaneous symmetry breaking because

580
00:28:52,320 --> 00:28:55,040
Speaker 1: we think there's a random element in it and all

581
00:28:55,040 --> 00:28:57,200
Speaker 1: the forces. You'll see as we go through time, all

582
00:28:57,200 --> 00:28:59,720
Speaker 1: the forces split off, and we think that those splittings

583
00:28:59,760 --> 00:29:03,400
Speaker 1: are spontaneous, that they're essentially the result of one little

584
00:29:03,520 --> 00:29:07,160
Speaker 1: quantum fluctuation which then gets propagated through the universe. You know,

585
00:29:07,240 --> 00:29:10,000
Speaker 1: like when everybody sits down at a dinner table, do

586
00:29:10,040 --> 00:29:12,600
Speaker 1: you drink from the glass to your left to your right? Well,

587
00:29:12,640 --> 00:29:15,400
Speaker 1: if one person chooses left, then you know, everybody around

588
00:29:15,440 --> 00:29:17,680
Speaker 1: them starts to choose left, and it spreads across the

589
00:29:17,680 --> 00:29:20,280
Speaker 1: whole dinner table. Right, they could have chosen to drink

590
00:29:20,280 --> 00:29:22,240
Speaker 1: from the one to their right and then everyone would

591
00:29:22,320 --> 00:29:25,360
Speaker 1: use that one. So one little fluctuation like that can

592
00:29:25,440 --> 00:29:28,720
Speaker 1: propagate itself through the whole universe. And we don't know

593
00:29:29,240 --> 00:29:33,160
Speaker 1: if gravity splitting off was inevitable, or at what temperature

594
00:29:33,160 --> 00:29:35,360
Speaker 1: it should have split off. We just don't know. We

595
00:29:35,400 --> 00:29:38,640
Speaker 1: think gravity split off first because it's the weakest force,

596
00:29:39,000 --> 00:29:41,280
Speaker 1: and so we think it would take the hottest temperature

597
00:29:41,560 --> 00:29:43,440
Speaker 1: to combine all the forces together.

598
00:29:43,520 --> 00:29:45,600
Speaker 7: And then fourteen billion years later, everyone's like, is this

599
00:29:45,680 --> 00:29:48,080
Speaker 7: my glass? This is your glass?

600
00:29:48,720 --> 00:29:50,400
Speaker 1: Did you drink from mine? Because I thought I had

601
00:29:50,400 --> 00:29:52,880
Speaker 1: more wine left over?

602
00:29:53,320 --> 00:29:57,600
Speaker 7: People are splitting up what it's yours? And then it's

603
00:29:57,680 --> 00:30:00,520
Speaker 7: like back to the Big Bang, all right. Things start

604
00:30:00,560 --> 00:30:02,600
Speaker 7: to split off and cool down, and then we start

605
00:30:02,640 --> 00:30:06,920
Speaker 7: to get more forces defined, and then what happens.

606
00:30:06,640 --> 00:30:08,880
Speaker 1: Next and then the next thing to split off is

607
00:30:08,920 --> 00:30:11,880
Speaker 1: the strong force. So gravity split off, and then the

608
00:30:11,880 --> 00:30:14,600
Speaker 1: strong force splits off. So now we have gravity, we

609
00:30:14,640 --> 00:30:17,080
Speaker 1: have the strong force, and we have the electro weak

610
00:30:17,160 --> 00:30:21,040
Speaker 1: force electrowek being the combination of electromagnetism and the weak force.

611
00:30:21,160 --> 00:30:23,720
Speaker 1: But remember still we have no particles, so these things

612
00:30:23,720 --> 00:30:26,640
Speaker 1: aren't like forces we think of today that are bouncing

613
00:30:26,680 --> 00:30:30,000
Speaker 1: particles around. It's just the fields now have different properties.

614
00:30:30,040 --> 00:30:34,400
Speaker 1: They operate differently, they contain energy differently, they have different strength.

615
00:30:34,800 --> 00:30:36,360
Speaker 1: As the universe is coolest.

616
00:30:36,040 --> 00:30:38,480
Speaker 7: So gravity split off, but it's not like bringing anything

617
00:30:38,480 --> 00:30:39,920
Speaker 7: together because there is no thing.

618
00:30:40,080 --> 00:30:42,400
Speaker 1: Well, gravity is doing what gravity does, it's you know,

619
00:30:42,480 --> 00:30:45,640
Speaker 1: the bending of space. But you know, even talking about

620
00:30:45,720 --> 00:30:49,000
Speaker 1: merging gravity with these other forces requires a conceptual leap

621
00:30:49,040 --> 00:30:51,840
Speaker 1: that we haven't made yet, which is thinking about gravity

622
00:30:51,880 --> 00:30:54,680
Speaker 1: as a quantum field, which we don't know how to do,

623
00:30:54,880 --> 00:30:57,920
Speaker 1: especially in the early universe. So we are really out

624
00:30:57,960 --> 00:31:02,520
Speaker 1: on very thin ice here conceptually. Maybe if gravity can

625
00:31:02,600 --> 00:31:05,280
Speaker 1: be unified with the other forces, then it was the

626
00:31:05,320 --> 00:31:07,480
Speaker 1: first thing to split off of some mega force which

627
00:31:07,560 --> 00:31:08,080
Speaker 1: might exist.

628
00:31:08,320 --> 00:31:08,400
Speaker 8: Right.

629
00:31:08,480 --> 00:31:12,320
Speaker 1: I can't emphasize enough how much we're speculating cluelessly here.

630
00:31:12,440 --> 00:31:15,280
Speaker 7: Okay, right, right, if gravity is a quantum field, this

631
00:31:15,400 --> 00:31:16,800
Speaker 7: is kind of what we might expect.

632
00:31:17,240 --> 00:31:19,560
Speaker 1: Yeah, yeah, exactly. But it's not like we have a

633
00:31:19,600 --> 00:31:22,920
Speaker 1: firm prediction that we can like interrogate and explore. It's

634
00:31:22,920 --> 00:31:25,800
Speaker 1: just like, hopefully somebody clever comes along and figures out

635
00:31:25,800 --> 00:31:28,120
Speaker 1: how to make gravity quantum field, and maybe it would

636
00:31:28,120 --> 00:31:28,720
Speaker 1: work like this.

637
00:31:28,800 --> 00:31:31,320
Speaker 7: All right, So now that we split off the strong force,

638
00:31:31,400 --> 00:31:34,840
Speaker 7: now we have more forces, and then something dramatic happens

639
00:31:34,840 --> 00:31:37,960
Speaker 7: at around ten to the minus thirty two seconds, right.

640
00:31:37,880 --> 00:31:40,880
Speaker 1: Yeah, here's where the excitement really happens. And we don't

641
00:31:40,960 --> 00:31:44,080
Speaker 1: know why, but we think at this point, for some reason,

642
00:31:44,280 --> 00:31:49,720
Speaker 1: the universe started to expand extraordinarily rapidly, like space itself expanded,

643
00:31:49,840 --> 00:31:53,160
Speaker 1: not just stuff flying through space slashing around, but space

644
00:31:53,200 --> 00:31:57,400
Speaker 1: itself got stretched. Remember that space can expand based on

645
00:31:57,520 --> 00:31:59,800
Speaker 1: the mass that's in it, Like we know the space

646
00:31:59,880 --> 00:32:02,960
Speaker 1: is expanding right now. In their current universe is something

647
00:32:03,000 --> 00:32:06,080
Speaker 1: called dark energy, which is creating new space, not just

648
00:32:06,400 --> 00:32:09,920
Speaker 1: pulling on space, not pushing things further apart through space,

649
00:32:09,960 --> 00:32:13,520
Speaker 1: but actually like adding new bits of space between galaxies.

650
00:32:14,120 --> 00:32:16,760
Speaker 1: So that can definitely happen, and we know that it

651
00:32:16,840 --> 00:32:18,640
Speaker 1: did happen in the very early years.

652
00:32:18,560 --> 00:32:21,560
Speaker 7: Just created more space the universe used to started just

653
00:32:21,640 --> 00:32:22,959
Speaker 7: creating at a crazy rate.

654
00:32:23,040 --> 00:32:24,600
Speaker 1: Right. This is the kind of this kind of the

655
00:32:24,640 --> 00:32:26,720
Speaker 1: bang in the Big Bang theory. Yeah, this is sort

656
00:32:26,760 --> 00:32:28,760
Speaker 1: of the bang and the Big Bang theory. I mean,

657
00:32:28,800 --> 00:32:31,040
Speaker 1: originally people thought of the Big Bang as like a

658
00:32:31,080 --> 00:32:34,280
Speaker 1: dot and things explode through space. These days, we have

659
00:32:34,440 --> 00:32:36,920
Speaker 1: this period we're talking about now, which we call inflation,

660
00:32:37,440 --> 00:32:39,040
Speaker 1: and then we think of the hot Big Bang as

661
00:32:39,080 --> 00:32:41,880
Speaker 1: basically at the very end of inflation. But you know,

662
00:32:42,000 --> 00:32:44,920
Speaker 1: the terms are a little fuzzy, but essentially here you

663
00:32:45,000 --> 00:32:48,440
Speaker 1: have the biggest Bang. I mean, the universe expands by

664
00:32:48,480 --> 00:32:51,640
Speaker 1: a ridiculous amount it's ten to the seventy eight ten,

665
00:32:52,160 --> 00:32:55,320
Speaker 1: ten to the seventy eight seventy eight zero. So you

666
00:32:55,360 --> 00:32:58,680
Speaker 1: take a piece of space that's like a nanometer across,

667
00:32:59,040 --> 00:33:01,600
Speaker 1: and very very quickly, in like ten to the minus

668
00:33:01,640 --> 00:33:05,720
Speaker 1: thirty two seconds, you expanded to one hundred trillion kilometers.

669
00:33:05,840 --> 00:33:06,480
Speaker 1: That's crazy.

670
00:33:06,640 --> 00:33:09,360
Speaker 7: So in ten to the minus thirty two like point

671
00:33:09,480 --> 00:33:13,320
Speaker 7: zero zero zero thirty two zeros one seconds, the universe

672
00:33:13,360 --> 00:33:17,080
Speaker 7: for some reason just was like I'm out of here.

673
00:33:17,000 --> 00:33:20,600
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly, and grow and we don't know why. We

674
00:33:20,600 --> 00:33:23,280
Speaker 1: We have, like you know, given fancy names to this

675
00:33:23,360 --> 00:33:25,480
Speaker 1: theory to make it sound like it's a thing we

676
00:33:25,560 --> 00:33:28,320
Speaker 1: know how to deal with. We call it the inflation theory.

677
00:33:28,360 --> 00:33:31,080
Speaker 1: We think maybe it was generated by the infloton field,

678
00:33:31,440 --> 00:33:33,600
Speaker 1: but that's really just like saying, oh, you know, the

679
00:33:33,680 --> 00:33:37,640
Speaker 1: answer is a fluctuation in my cluelessness field, Like I

680
00:33:37,720 --> 00:33:40,920
Speaker 1: really just don't know. Force this into the framework of

681
00:33:41,000 --> 00:33:43,880
Speaker 1: ideas so it sounds clever. They reached two hundred episodes,

682
00:33:43,920 --> 00:33:48,400
Speaker 1: so they're like, oh, they blew up, and it could be,

683
00:33:48,520 --> 00:33:51,360
Speaker 1: you know, that it's triggered by the electri week breaking

684
00:33:51,400 --> 00:33:54,080
Speaker 1: that like maybe breaking off the strong force from the

685
00:33:54,080 --> 00:33:58,080
Speaker 1: electroweak force created the infloton field or settled the infloton

686
00:33:58,120 --> 00:34:01,200
Speaker 1: field into a way that made it to this crazy expansion.

687
00:34:01,640 --> 00:34:04,440
Speaker 1: But this is guessing upon guessing. I see, we are

688
00:34:04,640 --> 00:34:07,640
Speaker 1: very confident that inflation happened. I mean the things that

689
00:34:07,680 --> 00:34:11,400
Speaker 1: it predicts are very specific and very concrete. You know,

690
00:34:11,520 --> 00:34:15,240
Speaker 1: like before inflation, the universe is very hot and dense,

691
00:34:15,320 --> 00:34:18,560
Speaker 1: but not totally uniform because it's quantum mechanical, and so

692
00:34:18,880 --> 00:34:21,640
Speaker 1: you get some spots to have like little quantum fluctuations

693
00:34:21,760 --> 00:34:23,960
Speaker 1: of a little bit more density, and quantum fluctuation is

694
00:34:23,960 --> 00:34:27,279
Speaker 1: a little bit less density, really really tiny variations. But

695
00:34:27,320 --> 00:34:31,480
Speaker 1: then this inflation is stretching, turns those little seeds of

696
00:34:31,520 --> 00:34:35,480
Speaker 1: over densities into big structures which then form the structure

697
00:34:35,480 --> 00:34:38,040
Speaker 1: of the universe. And we can do all those simulations

698
00:34:38,040 --> 00:34:40,320
Speaker 1: and it describes very well what we see today.

699
00:34:41,280 --> 00:34:43,600
Speaker 7: And I guess one question is where did all the

700
00:34:43,640 --> 00:34:46,359
Speaker 7: space come from? Like when you make space, does it

701
00:34:46,400 --> 00:34:47,200
Speaker 7: require energy?

702
00:34:47,360 --> 00:34:49,560
Speaker 1: Yeah, we don't really know. I mean we know that

703
00:34:49,640 --> 00:34:53,120
Speaker 1: the universe is not closed, and so an energy conservation

704
00:34:53,200 --> 00:34:56,640
Speaker 1: is not required by general relativity. Oh to make space,

705
00:34:56,719 --> 00:34:59,720
Speaker 1: you don't need energy? Maybe, well, you know space is energy,

706
00:34:59,800 --> 00:35:02,280
Speaker 1: like space has energy in it. When you create space,

707
00:35:02,280 --> 00:35:04,800
Speaker 1: it has all these fields, and those fields have energy

708
00:35:04,840 --> 00:35:07,360
Speaker 1: in them, and so when you create space, it's like

709
00:35:07,440 --> 00:35:10,359
Speaker 1: creating energy. So it's not something that we understand. It's

710
00:35:10,400 --> 00:35:12,600
Speaker 1: not something we know how to do or that we

711
00:35:12,680 --> 00:35:15,480
Speaker 1: understand the rules about. We see it happening in our

712
00:35:15,480 --> 00:35:18,279
Speaker 1: current universe. We don't understand the mechanism behind it. We

713
00:35:18,320 --> 00:35:20,920
Speaker 1: call it dark energy because we're clueless. We know that

714
00:35:20,960 --> 00:35:23,640
Speaker 1: it happened in the very early universe. Maybe it's the

715
00:35:23,680 --> 00:35:27,120
Speaker 1: same mechanism, maybe it's something totally different. We really just

716
00:35:27,160 --> 00:35:27,960
Speaker 1: don't know, all right.

717
00:35:28,000 --> 00:35:31,000
Speaker 7: So now we're getting almost to the two hundred microsecond mark,

718
00:35:31,200 --> 00:35:33,920
Speaker 7: so let's finish off what happens in the first two

719
00:35:33,960 --> 00:35:36,400
Speaker 7: hundred microseconds, and then we'll go on to our next question.

720
00:35:36,680 --> 00:35:43,319
Speaker 1: But first let's take a quick break. When you pop

721
00:35:43,360 --> 00:35:45,239
Speaker 1: a piece of cheese into your mouth, or enjoy a

722
00:35:45,320 --> 00:35:48,719
Speaker 1: rich spoonful of Greek yogurt, you're probably not thinking about

723
00:35:48,719 --> 00:35:52,160
Speaker 1: the environmental impact of each and every bite. But the

724
00:35:52,160 --> 00:35:55,000
Speaker 1: people in the dairy industry are US Dairy has set

725
00:35:55,000 --> 00:35:59,560
Speaker 1: themselves some ambitious sustainability goals, including being greenhouse gas neutral

726
00:35:59,600 --> 00:36:02,279
Speaker 1: by twin fifty. That's why they're working hard every day

727
00:36:02,320 --> 00:36:05,200
Speaker 1: to find new ways to reduce waste, conserve natural resources,

728
00:36:05,239 --> 00:36:08,760
Speaker 1: and drive down greenhouse gas emissions. Take water, for example,

729
00:36:08,840 --> 00:36:11,920
Speaker 1: most dairy farms reuse water up to four times the

730
00:36:11,960 --> 00:36:15,200
Speaker 1: same water cools the milk, cleans equipment, washes the barn,

731
00:36:15,320 --> 00:36:19,040
Speaker 1: and irrigates the crops. How is US dairy tackling greenhouse gases?

732
00:36:19,080 --> 00:36:22,040
Speaker 1: Many farms use anaerobic digestors that turn the methane from

733
00:36:22,080 --> 00:36:25,480
Speaker 1: maneuver into renewable energy that can power farms, towns, and

734
00:36:25,520 --> 00:36:27,759
Speaker 1: electric cars. So the next time you grab a slice

735
00:36:27,760 --> 00:36:29,680
Speaker 1: of pizza or lick an ice cream cone, know that

736
00:36:29,760 --> 00:36:32,400
Speaker 1: dairy farmers and processors around the country are using the

737
00:36:32,480 --> 00:36:36,240
Speaker 1: latest practices and innovations to provide the nutrient dense dairy

738
00:36:36,239 --> 00:36:38,920
Speaker 1: products we love with less of an impact. Visit us

739
00:36:39,000 --> 00:36:41,520
Speaker 1: dairy dot com slash sustainability to learn more.

740
00:36:41,719 --> 00:36:45,680
Speaker 2: We're just days away from our twenty twenty four iHeartRadio

741
00:36:45,840 --> 00:36:48,440
Speaker 2: Music Festival, preceded by Capital Water.

742
00:36:48,640 --> 00:36:51,839
Speaker 3: The biggest headliners in live music will be taking over

743
00:36:51,960 --> 00:36:54,120
Speaker 3: to Mobile Arena, Las Vegas lost some.

744
00:36:54,160 --> 00:36:56,879
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745
00:36:56,920 --> 00:36:57,520
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746
00:36:57,600 --> 00:36:59,040
Speaker 1: Stream only on Hulu.

747
00:36:59,040 --> 00:37:01,560
Speaker 4: The I already on Music Festival.

748
00:37:01,200 --> 00:37:05,759
Speaker 5: And listen on iHeartRadio the most anticipated live music events

749
00:37:05,800 --> 00:37:06,359
Speaker 5: of the.

750
00:37:06,880 --> 00:37:10,480
Speaker 6: Year this Friday and Saturday, starting at ten thirty pm Eastern,

751
00:37:10,560 --> 00:37:11,680
Speaker 6: seven thirty Pacific.

752
00:37:12,040 --> 00:37:14,640
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753
00:37:14,640 --> 00:37:17,800
Speaker 9: wheel of an exciting new Toyota Hybrid. With the largest

754
00:37:17,840 --> 00:37:21,160
Speaker 9: lineup of hybrid, plug in, hybrid and electrified vehicles to

755
00:37:21,239 --> 00:37:24,120
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756
00:37:24,160 --> 00:37:28,600
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757
00:37:28,800 --> 00:37:34,000
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758
00:37:34,160 --> 00:37:38,000
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759
00:37:38,239 --> 00:37:48,920
Speaker 9: See your local Toyota dealer for hybrid battery warranty details.

760
00:37:50,400 --> 00:37:54,640
Speaker 7: Right, Daniel, we just exploded the universe. We just went

761
00:37:54,680 --> 00:37:57,120
Speaker 7: through inflation. In the first ten to the minus thirty

762
00:37:57,120 --> 00:38:01,680
Speaker 7: two seconds, one nimeter became a one hundred trillion kilometers.

763
00:38:02,440 --> 00:38:06,719
Speaker 7: Now things are expanding like crazy. Quantum fluctuations make a

764
00:38:06,800 --> 00:38:08,560
Speaker 7: huge difference. Now it happens.

765
00:38:08,719 --> 00:38:12,360
Speaker 1: Now we finally get particles. Things have cooled down enough

766
00:38:12,719 --> 00:38:16,439
Speaker 1: that the energy that's in the field is distinct and discretized,

767
00:38:16,480 --> 00:38:18,600
Speaker 1: and you can follow it around. You can say, oh,

768
00:38:18,719 --> 00:38:21,640
Speaker 1: this little blob of energy in the electron field is

769
00:38:21,719 --> 00:38:24,680
Speaker 1: moving through space in a coherent way. You can call

770
00:38:24,760 --> 00:38:27,600
Speaker 1: this an electron and the same for the other fields.

771
00:38:27,800 --> 00:38:30,759
Speaker 1: And so you start to get particles made and you

772
00:38:30,800 --> 00:38:33,239
Speaker 1: get the last moment of breaking that we're aware of

773
00:38:33,680 --> 00:38:37,200
Speaker 1: the electroweak force, which at the time was just one force.

774
00:38:37,320 --> 00:38:40,240
Speaker 1: You know, there wasn't like a separate photon and WNC

775
00:38:40,400 --> 00:38:44,080
Speaker 1: bosons acting separately. It was a single force with four

776
00:38:44,160 --> 00:38:47,560
Speaker 1: of its own bosons. This field now breaks, and it

777
00:38:47,600 --> 00:38:51,520
Speaker 1: breaks into electromagnetism and the weak force. It becomes two forces.

778
00:38:51,840 --> 00:38:54,359
Speaker 1: It becomes two forces that are still closely connected. I mean,

779
00:38:54,560 --> 00:38:57,000
Speaker 1: there are two broken pieces of a larger force. You

780
00:38:57,040 --> 00:38:59,200
Speaker 1: can sort of like fit them together roughly the way

781
00:38:59,239 --> 00:39:01,719
Speaker 1: you can fit content. You know, like you can think

782
00:39:01,760 --> 00:39:04,920
Speaker 1: of the mega continent breaks into little continents and now

783
00:39:04,920 --> 00:39:07,200
Speaker 1: they're a little different, but the contours sort of match,

784
00:39:07,480 --> 00:39:09,920
Speaker 1: and so you can think about their history, right, And

785
00:39:09,960 --> 00:39:13,520
Speaker 1: this is another example of spontaneous symmetry. Breaking the Higgs

786
00:39:13,520 --> 00:39:16,560
Speaker 1: field gives the photon no mass, and it gives the

787
00:39:16,680 --> 00:39:19,040
Speaker 1: ws and z's a lot of mass, So all of

788
00:39:19,080 --> 00:39:22,320
Speaker 1: a sudden, the weak force becomes really really weak.

789
00:39:22,560 --> 00:39:25,960
Speaker 7: Interesting, and so then that's what kind of gives rise

790
00:39:26,040 --> 00:39:28,360
Speaker 7: to the Higgs field, which is the one that gives

791
00:39:28,440 --> 00:39:29,480
Speaker 7: mass to everything.

792
00:39:29,640 --> 00:39:31,760
Speaker 1: Yeah, so the Higgs field, like all the other fields,

793
00:39:31,760 --> 00:39:35,359
Speaker 1: started out really hot and was cooling down and cooling down,

794
00:39:35,400 --> 00:39:37,239
Speaker 1: and most of the other fields, they like, settled down

795
00:39:37,239 --> 00:39:40,400
Speaker 1: to zero, but the Higgs field got stuck, got stuck

796
00:39:40,440 --> 00:39:42,520
Speaker 1: at a certain point where it couldn't go any lower

797
00:39:42,560 --> 00:39:44,560
Speaker 1: because it has a really weird shape to it. It's

798
00:39:44,560 --> 00:39:46,400
Speaker 1: like you know, on the edge of a canyon wall.

799
00:39:46,680 --> 00:39:49,000
Speaker 1: It's got a little like dip in it, so you

800
00:39:49,000 --> 00:39:51,160
Speaker 1: can get stuck in a little like on the precipice,

801
00:39:51,200 --> 00:39:54,480
Speaker 1: like a little buzz and it got stuck there. And

802
00:39:54,560 --> 00:39:57,480
Speaker 1: because it got stuck there and not somewhere else, it

803
00:39:57,560 --> 00:39:59,840
Speaker 1: gave mass to the w's and z's but not the

804
00:40:00,600 --> 00:40:03,359
Speaker 1: and also to the other particles. So all the other

805
00:40:03,400 --> 00:40:06,439
Speaker 1: particles their mass then gets fixed because the Higgs field

806
00:40:06,520 --> 00:40:07,800
Speaker 1: got stuck at this value.

807
00:40:08,040 --> 00:40:10,480
Speaker 7: And so before that we didn't have mass, or we

808
00:40:10,600 --> 00:40:13,319
Speaker 7: just didn't have like consistent mass, or you can't even

809
00:40:13,360 --> 00:40:14,120
Speaker 7: talk about mass.

810
00:40:14,160 --> 00:40:16,560
Speaker 1: It's harder to talk about mass before the particles really

811
00:40:16,640 --> 00:40:19,640
Speaker 1: are like separate identifiable spots. But the mass of the

812
00:40:19,640 --> 00:40:22,239
Speaker 1: particles depends on the energy of the Higgs field. So

813
00:40:22,360 --> 00:40:24,520
Speaker 1: as the universe is cooling down and the Higgs field

814
00:40:24,560 --> 00:40:26,239
Speaker 1: is cooling down, you can think of it as like

815
00:40:26,560 --> 00:40:29,200
Speaker 1: the masses of the particles are decreasing because the Higgs

816
00:40:29,239 --> 00:40:30,399
Speaker 1: field is cooling down.

817
00:40:31,440 --> 00:40:33,920
Speaker 7: All right, So now all of our forces are in

818
00:40:34,000 --> 00:40:37,360
Speaker 7: motion now and they're in play, and particles now exist,

819
00:40:37,840 --> 00:40:39,279
Speaker 7: which is crazy to think about that.

820
00:40:39,360 --> 00:40:40,720
Speaker 1: We didn't have particles before.

821
00:40:41,000 --> 00:40:44,040
Speaker 7: Yeah, yeah, yeah, and now they have mass or they

822
00:40:44,040 --> 00:40:47,080
Speaker 7: interact with the Higgs field, and so is that then

823
00:40:47,320 --> 00:40:49,840
Speaker 7: kind of is that it like is it a straight

824
00:40:49,880 --> 00:40:52,560
Speaker 7: line from there to hear or are there still things

825
00:40:52,560 --> 00:40:53,000
Speaker 7: we don't know?

826
00:40:53,200 --> 00:40:54,719
Speaker 1: There are a lot of things we don't know, but

827
00:40:54,760 --> 00:40:57,120
Speaker 1: it's basically a straight line. I mean, now you have particles,

828
00:40:57,320 --> 00:40:59,839
Speaker 1: and the interactions in place are the ones we're familiar with.

829
00:41:00,160 --> 00:41:03,960
Speaker 1: There's electromagnetic fields, the weak force, the strong force, there's gravity,

830
00:41:04,320 --> 00:41:06,120
Speaker 1: but you know, it's still pretty hard to understand, Like

831
00:41:06,160 --> 00:41:09,640
Speaker 1: it's a hot, dense, nasty mess, like it's mostly quarks

832
00:41:09,680 --> 00:41:12,399
Speaker 1: and leftons, but there are too hot to form any

833
00:41:12,480 --> 00:41:15,400
Speaker 1: larger particles like you don't have protons and neutrons and

834
00:41:15,440 --> 00:41:18,040
Speaker 1: stuff like that, which are bound states of books. Every

835
00:41:18,040 --> 00:41:21,360
Speaker 1: thing's just quarks quarks, and yeah, I'm just flying around

836
00:41:21,360 --> 00:41:25,359
Speaker 1: annihilating each other constantly turning into photons, turning back into particles.

837
00:41:25,600 --> 00:41:28,799
Speaker 1: It's still hot and dense, and then things are cooling off,

838
00:41:28,840 --> 00:41:32,399
Speaker 1: so like you know, about after one microsecond you get

839
00:41:32,400 --> 00:41:35,160
Speaker 1: this quark glue on plasma. Things start to cool off,

840
00:41:35,160 --> 00:41:37,880
Speaker 1: and then you get things like protons and neutrons and whatever.

841
00:41:38,200 --> 00:41:40,960
Speaker 1: And there's a really interesting mystery there about like what

842
00:41:41,200 --> 00:41:45,000
Speaker 1: happened to all the antimatter. If everything was symmetric, you

843
00:41:45,040 --> 00:41:47,320
Speaker 1: would expect the fields to create like as much matter

844
00:41:47,360 --> 00:41:50,680
Speaker 1: and antimatter all annihilate into a universe filled with lights.

845
00:41:51,239 --> 00:41:53,719
Speaker 1: But instead there was some asymmetry there. We ended up

846
00:41:53,719 --> 00:41:56,640
Speaker 1: with like a little bit more matter than antimatter. Most

847
00:41:56,640 --> 00:41:58,680
Speaker 1: of it is gone, but a little bit of matter

848
00:41:58,800 --> 00:42:01,120
Speaker 1: was left, and that's what led in a straight line

849
00:42:01,120 --> 00:42:02,120
Speaker 1: to where we are today.

850
00:42:02,840 --> 00:42:04,719
Speaker 7: I think the lesson here is a lot happened in

851
00:42:04,760 --> 00:42:06,520
Speaker 7: the first two hundred microseconds.

852
00:42:07,560 --> 00:42:08,760
Speaker 1: We missed the big party.

853
00:42:08,960 --> 00:42:11,680
Speaker 7: I just feel like we went through an hour of

854
00:42:12,280 --> 00:42:14,600
Speaker 7: just to cover a two hundred micro seconds that's amazing.

855
00:42:14,880 --> 00:42:17,239
Speaker 7: So a lot happened, right, and a lot it could

856
00:42:17,280 --> 00:42:17,760
Speaker 7: have happened.

857
00:42:17,840 --> 00:42:20,240
Speaker 1: Yeah, the history of the universe has been pretty boring

858
00:42:20,320 --> 00:42:23,040
Speaker 1: ever since. You know, like most of the excitement was

859
00:42:23,040 --> 00:42:27,160
Speaker 1: in the first few tiny slices of time, and ever

860
00:42:27,200 --> 00:42:28,600
Speaker 1: since then it's been pretty slow.

861
00:42:28,680 --> 00:42:28,879
Speaker 5: Wow.

862
00:42:29,040 --> 00:42:32,200
Speaker 1: But you know, think about it, like on the cosmic timescale,

863
00:42:32,200 --> 00:42:36,040
Speaker 1: like trillions and quadrillions of years, it could be that,

864
00:42:36,440 --> 00:42:40,680
Speaker 1: you know, intelligent species in septillion years. Think about the

865
00:42:40,680 --> 00:42:43,560
Speaker 1: first few billion years of the universe as like, you know,

866
00:42:43,680 --> 00:42:46,600
Speaker 1: the first moments, because you know, it could be that

867
00:42:46,680 --> 00:42:49,040
Speaker 1: the universe is very different in a trillion years, that

868
00:42:49,080 --> 00:42:52,400
Speaker 1: it's all just black holes separated by vast distances or

869
00:42:52,440 --> 00:42:56,240
Speaker 1: something else forms. You know, there's so many fascinating emergent

870
00:42:56,280 --> 00:43:00,560
Speaker 1: phenomena that are really hard to anticipate, and so who knows,

871
00:43:00,680 --> 00:43:03,160
Speaker 1: maybe this will seem exciting to people who come much

872
00:43:03,239 --> 00:43:03,719
Speaker 1: much later.

873
00:43:03,800 --> 00:43:05,839
Speaker 7: Yeah, I'm sure they'll say, like, you know, that day

874
00:43:05,880 --> 00:43:08,160
Speaker 7: where they polished the two hundredth episode of Daniel and

875
00:43:08,200 --> 00:43:12,880
Speaker 7: Jhore explain the universe, that's t equal zero to us.

876
00:43:12,719 --> 00:43:16,279
Speaker 1: That's when the party really started. Before then, it's not

877
00:43:16,400 --> 00:43:17,360
Speaker 1: even really worth.

878
00:43:17,160 --> 00:43:21,920
Speaker 7: There all right, Well, I think the answer is a

879
00:43:21,960 --> 00:43:25,280
Speaker 7: lot happened in the first two hundred microseconds of the universe,

880
00:43:25,480 --> 00:43:28,280
Speaker 7: which is amazing. All right, we have one more question here.

881
00:43:28,640 --> 00:43:30,920
Speaker 7: I think we might have to talk about it in

882
00:43:30,920 --> 00:43:34,960
Speaker 7: two hundred microseconds Daniel. But the question is pretty interesting.

883
00:43:35,200 --> 00:43:38,239
Speaker 7: It's something I thought about as we try to brainstorm

884
00:43:38,280 --> 00:43:41,120
Speaker 7: ideas for this episode. But the question is what can

885
00:43:41,160 --> 00:43:44,880
Speaker 7: we find within two hundred light years of Earth? So

886
00:43:45,800 --> 00:43:47,520
Speaker 7: I guess, first of all, how much is two hundred

887
00:43:47,600 --> 00:43:50,239
Speaker 7: light years? Like a few bazillion kilometers?

888
00:43:50,400 --> 00:43:53,080
Speaker 1: Yeah, a light year is really far. So a light

889
00:43:53,160 --> 00:43:56,160
Speaker 1: year is like nine point five times ten to the

890
00:43:56,320 --> 00:43:59,840
Speaker 1: twelfth kilometers. That's why we use light years, because the

891
00:44:00,040 --> 00:44:03,439
Speaker 1: distances in the universe are so vast that kilometers become

892
00:44:03,480 --> 00:44:04,600
Speaker 1: an absurd unit. I see.

893
00:44:04,600 --> 00:44:07,600
Speaker 7: So it's like two hundred million million kilometers. So if

894
00:44:07,600 --> 00:44:09,640
Speaker 7: you could hop in a spaceship and go two hundred

895
00:44:09,760 --> 00:44:12,719
Speaker 7: million million kilometers, where could we go visit?

896
00:44:13,080 --> 00:44:15,799
Speaker 1: Yeah? So mostly the universe is empty. You know, you

897
00:44:15,840 --> 00:44:19,399
Speaker 1: pick a random spot outside of the Solar system and

898
00:44:19,440 --> 00:44:21,680
Speaker 1: you go in a straight line, you'll see nothing for

899
00:44:21,760 --> 00:44:24,319
Speaker 1: two hundred light years. Like, it's just not much there.

900
00:44:24,400 --> 00:44:27,640
Speaker 1: The universe is not very dense anymore. And you know,

901
00:44:27,840 --> 00:44:30,399
Speaker 1: I read these science fiction novels about people flying through

902
00:44:30,400 --> 00:44:33,760
Speaker 1: space and like hitting asteroid fields and bumping into stars,

903
00:44:33,800 --> 00:44:36,160
Speaker 1: and I'm like, it's just not that much stuff out there.

904
00:44:36,320 --> 00:44:39,239
Speaker 1: Not likely. No, It's like swimming in the ocean. How

905
00:44:39,239 --> 00:44:41,520
Speaker 1: often do you really encounter a desert island?

906
00:44:41,600 --> 00:44:41,680
Speaker 8: Like?

907
00:44:41,880 --> 00:44:43,080
Speaker 1: Really not that often?

908
00:44:43,360 --> 00:44:45,279
Speaker 7: Oh, I see, that's a good analogy. Like if you

909
00:44:45,280 --> 00:44:47,560
Speaker 7: were in the middle of the ocean and you went

910
00:44:47,640 --> 00:44:50,560
Speaker 7: a few hundred kilometers, you know, what are the chances

911
00:44:50,600 --> 00:44:52,200
Speaker 7: that you'll hit another island? Pretty small?

912
00:44:52,320 --> 00:44:55,360
Speaker 1: Yeap, pretty small. It's mostly just ocean out there. But

913
00:44:55,520 --> 00:44:57,919
Speaker 1: there are things out there, and mostly within two hundred

914
00:44:57,960 --> 00:44:59,840
Speaker 1: light years of Earth. There are a bunch of stars,

915
00:45:00,200 --> 00:45:03,000
Speaker 1: but you know, not that close. Like the closest star really,

916
00:45:03,080 --> 00:45:05,840
Speaker 1: once you leave our Solar system, the closest thing that

917
00:45:05,920 --> 00:45:08,439
Speaker 1: you can find to our Solar system is a star

918
00:45:08,560 --> 00:45:12,120
Speaker 1: called Proxima Centauri. It's about four point two light years away.

919
00:45:12,400 --> 00:45:15,400
Speaker 7: It's not the name of an Avengers villain. I feel

920
00:45:15,400 --> 00:45:16,759
Speaker 7: like I've heard that name before.

921
00:45:16,800 --> 00:45:18,959
Speaker 1: Are you auditioning to be in the next Marvel movie?

922
00:45:19,000 --> 00:45:22,160
Speaker 1: That's what happening here? To be the voiceover? I think

923
00:45:22,280 --> 00:45:25,400
Speaker 1: proximate centauri. The Marvel villain can do two hundred accents.

924
00:45:25,560 --> 00:45:27,520
Speaker 1: So if you really want to audition, then we've got

925
00:45:27,520 --> 00:45:27,920
Speaker 1: to hear.

926
00:45:27,800 --> 00:45:30,480
Speaker 7: Some accents with bananas. Yeah, all right, so that's the

927
00:45:30,560 --> 00:45:32,879
Speaker 7: nearest star. I guess how many stars can we find

928
00:45:32,920 --> 00:45:33,919
Speaker 7: within two hundred light years?

929
00:45:33,960 --> 00:45:36,759
Speaker 1: Do you know? Surprisingly, you can find a lot of stars. Now,

930
00:45:36,960 --> 00:45:39,719
Speaker 1: on one hand, stars are not very dense. I mean,

931
00:45:39,880 --> 00:45:43,120
Speaker 1: in our galactic neighborhood, this is about one star per

932
00:45:43,200 --> 00:45:47,920
Speaker 1: two hundred and fifty cubic light years. But as the

933
00:45:48,040 --> 00:45:51,080
Speaker 1: radius of your sphere grows, the volume of it goes

934
00:45:51,120 --> 00:45:54,040
Speaker 1: up very quickly. It goes up with radius cube. So

935
00:45:54,080 --> 00:45:57,279
Speaker 1: a sphere with radius two hundred light years has a

936
00:45:57,440 --> 00:46:01,359
Speaker 1: lot of cubic light years, like thirty million. If you

937
00:46:01,360 --> 00:46:03,680
Speaker 1: go out to about two hundred light years, there's something like,

938
00:46:03,719 --> 00:46:06,480
Speaker 1: you know, tens of thousands or maybe one hundred thousand

939
00:46:06,560 --> 00:46:08,200
Speaker 1: stars in that volume.

940
00:46:08,200 --> 00:46:11,680
Speaker 7: Really, yeah, I could visit one hundred thousand stars within

941
00:46:11,680 --> 00:46:12,720
Speaker 7: two hundred light years.

942
00:46:13,160 --> 00:46:14,920
Speaker 1: Yes, but you know, if you travel in a straight

943
00:46:15,000 --> 00:46:17,680
Speaker 1: line two hundred light years, you'll probably find very small

944
00:46:17,760 --> 00:46:21,520
Speaker 1: number of stars. If you completely visited a sphere with

945
00:46:21,680 --> 00:46:24,600
Speaker 1: radius two hundred light years, Yes, it'd be one hundred

946
00:46:24,600 --> 00:46:25,319
Speaker 1: thousand stars there.

947
00:46:25,360 --> 00:46:27,799
Speaker 7: But you know, like the list of destinations I can

948
00:46:27,840 --> 00:46:30,400
Speaker 7: go is it's like one hundred thousand stars.

949
00:46:30,480 --> 00:46:32,319
Speaker 1: Yeah, there's a lot of options. I mean, if you

950
00:46:32,400 --> 00:46:35,160
Speaker 1: like decisions and you like choices, then there's a lot

951
00:46:35,200 --> 00:46:37,399
Speaker 1: of options. Most of them are pretty far away. I mean,

952
00:46:37,640 --> 00:46:40,200
Speaker 1: the vast majority of those hundred thousand are on a

953
00:46:40,280 --> 00:46:43,919
Speaker 1: thin shell on the outside of that sphere, mostly because

954
00:46:43,920 --> 00:46:45,359
Speaker 1: that's where most of the volume is.

955
00:46:45,440 --> 00:46:47,840
Speaker 7: But they say that, you know, about one in five

956
00:46:47,880 --> 00:46:50,800
Speaker 7: star has an earth like planet, So we're talking about

957
00:46:50,920 --> 00:46:53,719
Speaker 7: like there's twenty thousand earthlike planets I could visit.

958
00:46:53,880 --> 00:46:55,800
Speaker 1: Yeah, there are definitely a lot of Earth like planets.

959
00:46:55,800 --> 00:46:58,520
Speaker 1: And we think that most of those solar systems have

960
00:46:58,600 --> 00:47:01,839
Speaker 1: planets like multiple plant which is fascinating. We don't know

961
00:47:01,880 --> 00:47:04,319
Speaker 1: a lot about like what those solar systems look like,

962
00:47:04,360 --> 00:47:06,520
Speaker 1: and how often do you get big gas giants and

963
00:47:06,600 --> 00:47:09,440
Speaker 1: rocky inner worlds, And is our solar system unusual or

964
00:47:09,440 --> 00:47:12,920
Speaker 1: totally typical. Something that is unusual about our solar system

965
00:47:12,960 --> 00:47:15,920
Speaker 1: that you'll discover as you look around in the solar

966
00:47:15,920 --> 00:47:20,000
Speaker 1: system is how many solar systems have multiple stars in

967
00:47:20,040 --> 00:47:23,960
Speaker 1: the closest fifteen light years, there's like fifty somethings stars,

968
00:47:24,320 --> 00:47:26,560
Speaker 1: and about half of them are single stars, just like

969
00:47:26,600 --> 00:47:29,319
Speaker 1: a star with planets around it. But there's like ten

970
00:47:29,400 --> 00:47:32,560
Speaker 1: of them that are binary systems, like two stars orbiting

971
00:47:32,600 --> 00:47:35,560
Speaker 1: each other and then planets around those. Wow, that's common.

972
00:47:35,680 --> 00:47:39,239
Speaker 1: That's common. And even within fifteen light years there are

973
00:47:39,480 --> 00:47:43,600
Speaker 1: four systems that are trinary systems that have three stars

974
00:47:43,640 --> 00:47:44,799
Speaker 1: in orbit around each other.

975
00:47:44,880 --> 00:47:47,239
Speaker 7: Oh, that's pretty cool. So in Star Wars when Luke

976
00:47:47,360 --> 00:47:49,400
Speaker 7: is looking out at the two suns on the horizon,

977
00:47:49,640 --> 00:47:52,200
Speaker 7: that's like maybe more common than you think.

978
00:47:52,360 --> 00:47:54,520
Speaker 1: That's not rare. It's a lot more common than you think.

979
00:47:54,560 --> 00:47:56,959
Speaker 1: And if you think about how things form, you start

980
00:47:56,960 --> 00:47:59,600
Speaker 1: from a big cloud and things coalesce, and so it's

981
00:47:59,640 --> 00:48:03,120
Speaker 1: not necessary for it all coalesceson to one really big

982
00:48:03,160 --> 00:48:05,440
Speaker 1: blob in the center of a solar system. If you

983
00:48:05,520 --> 00:48:06,960
Speaker 1: have like a little bit of density here and a

984
00:48:07,000 --> 00:48:09,560
Speaker 1: little bit of density there, it can form two. Or

985
00:48:09,600 --> 00:48:12,320
Speaker 1: if two stars form close enough to each other, they'll

986
00:48:12,320 --> 00:48:15,080
Speaker 1: pull on each other and form one of these systems.

987
00:48:15,520 --> 00:48:18,319
Speaker 1: Some listeners send me an awesome question recently. He said,

988
00:48:18,360 --> 00:48:20,799
Speaker 1: are there any stars out there that have sort of

989
00:48:20,880 --> 00:48:25,120
Speaker 1: two planetary discs, like one planetary disc aligned in one

990
00:48:25,160 --> 00:48:27,120
Speaker 1: way and then a second one aligned you know, at

991
00:48:27,160 --> 00:48:30,480
Speaker 1: an angle to it, like two hula hoops. Yeah, like

992
00:48:30,520 --> 00:48:33,200
Speaker 1: two hula hoops. And I don't know of one, but

993
00:48:33,239 --> 00:48:35,560
Speaker 1: there's no reason to think there couldn't be. Like if

994
00:48:35,560 --> 00:48:38,120
Speaker 1: you had two solar systems that sort of merged and

995
00:48:38,200 --> 00:48:40,400
Speaker 1: the stars combined in the center, or you get a

996
00:48:40,400 --> 00:48:43,160
Speaker 1: binary star system in the center, they could keep each

997
00:48:43,200 --> 00:48:46,080
Speaker 1: of their planetary discs and it would be at different angles,

998
00:48:46,440 --> 00:48:48,560
Speaker 1: and so that could totally happen. I think that would

999
00:48:48,560 --> 00:48:50,600
Speaker 1: be an awesome setting for a science fiction.

1000
00:48:50,600 --> 00:48:52,480
Speaker 7: Right, But every year you go around the Sun, you'd

1001
00:48:52,480 --> 00:48:54,920
Speaker 7: be like, watch out for those other other planets.

1002
00:48:54,920 --> 00:48:58,319
Speaker 1: It'd be a some drama every year. Yeah, it would

1003
00:48:58,360 --> 00:49:00,600
Speaker 1: have to work like clockwork, but it might make for

1004
00:49:00,680 --> 00:49:03,120
Speaker 1: some pretty cool nighttime observations. All right, cool.

1005
00:49:03,120 --> 00:49:05,799
Speaker 7: So there's about one hundred thousand stars within two hundred

1006
00:49:05,880 --> 00:49:08,440
Speaker 7: light years. What else can we find in this bubble?

1007
00:49:08,600 --> 00:49:11,600
Speaker 1: Well, it's mostly it. I mean in the galaxy we

1008
00:49:11,719 --> 00:49:15,399
Speaker 1: have stars. Of course, we have gas clouds, which are

1009
00:49:15,440 --> 00:49:18,040
Speaker 1: the birthplace of stars, but there aren't any of those

1010
00:49:18,080 --> 00:49:20,400
Speaker 1: within two hundred light years. Like the closest one is

1011
00:49:20,440 --> 00:49:24,080
Speaker 1: about four hundred and something light years away. It's called Taurus,

1012
00:49:24,360 --> 00:49:26,560
Speaker 1: and it's where stars are being born. There are stars

1013
00:49:26,640 --> 00:49:29,280
Speaker 1: in there that are like one or two million years old,

1014
00:49:29,600 --> 00:49:32,160
Speaker 1: but we don't have any of those big blobs inside

1015
00:49:32,280 --> 00:49:34,000
Speaker 1: our like two hundred light year window.

1016
00:49:34,120 --> 00:49:38,279
Speaker 7: Oh I see, because like a cluster itself is pretty big.

1017
00:49:38,400 --> 00:49:40,200
Speaker 7: It's almost as big as two hundred light years.

1018
00:49:40,280 --> 00:49:42,600
Speaker 1: Yeah. Some of these gas clouds are are hundreds of

1019
00:49:42,640 --> 00:49:45,840
Speaker 1: light years across. They're really vast. It's like the birthing

1020
00:49:45,920 --> 00:49:49,560
Speaker 1: regions of stars. But there is a cluster of stars,

1021
00:49:49,560 --> 00:49:51,839
Speaker 1: like there's a big major cluster of stars. It's called

1022
00:49:51,840 --> 00:49:55,120
Speaker 1: the Hyades cluster, and it's about one hundred and fifty

1023
00:49:55,200 --> 00:49:58,200
Speaker 1: light years away. It's like six hundred something million years old,

1024
00:49:58,600 --> 00:50:00,840
Speaker 1: and it's just like a big block of stars that

1025
00:50:00,880 --> 00:50:03,880
Speaker 1: are all together. It's probably comes from a really dense

1026
00:50:03,960 --> 00:50:07,719
Speaker 1: region of gas and molecules that got formed early on,

1027
00:50:08,239 --> 00:50:10,600
Speaker 1: and so that's like a big blob of stars. Oh

1028
00:50:10,600 --> 00:50:13,000
Speaker 1: I see. Oh wow, that must be pretty amazing to

1029
00:50:13,080 --> 00:50:15,400
Speaker 1: go near or to visit there. Yeah. And you know,

1030
00:50:15,440 --> 00:50:16,880
Speaker 1: if you're looking to visit a lot of stars and

1031
00:50:16,880 --> 00:50:19,280
Speaker 1: a lot of planets at once, it's probably a good destination.

1032
00:50:19,520 --> 00:50:21,440
Speaker 1: On the other hand, it's one hundred and fifty light

1033
00:50:21,520 --> 00:50:23,799
Speaker 1: years away, so it could take you a while to

1034
00:50:23,840 --> 00:50:24,279
Speaker 1: get there.

1035
00:50:24,400 --> 00:50:26,239
Speaker 7: Well, I think this kind of tells you how big

1036
00:50:26,280 --> 00:50:28,719
Speaker 7: the universe is, you know, two hundred light years Like

1037
00:50:28,960 --> 00:50:33,280
Speaker 7: that's even like if we prolong human life and double

1038
00:50:33,320 --> 00:50:35,520
Speaker 7: it and was able to go at the speed of light,

1039
00:50:35,560 --> 00:50:38,040
Speaker 7: that's as far as like any one person could probably

1040
00:50:38,120 --> 00:50:42,000
Speaker 7: go without any kind of special warspeat or wormhole.

1041
00:50:42,160 --> 00:50:45,120
Speaker 1: Right. Yeah, And you know the thing that's furthest away,

1042
00:50:45,160 --> 00:50:48,000
Speaker 1: the human device that's furthest away from the Solar system

1043
00:50:48,360 --> 00:50:51,960
Speaker 1: right now is Voyager one. It's traveling at sixty one

1044
00:50:52,000 --> 00:50:55,600
Speaker 1: thousand kilometers per hour and if it kept going, it

1045
00:50:55,640 --> 00:51:00,279
Speaker 1: would take another seventy thousand years to reach the nearest star. Like,

1046
00:51:00,360 --> 00:51:05,040
Speaker 1: these distances are just incredible. Yeah, and it's already eighteen

1047
00:51:05,280 --> 00:51:08,640
Speaker 1: billion kilometers away from us, but that's just like a

1048
00:51:08,680 --> 00:51:11,680
Speaker 1: tiny fraction of the distance to proximate centauri.

1049
00:51:11,840 --> 00:51:15,480
Speaker 7: I see, seventy thousand years, that's like what three hundred

1050
00:51:15,480 --> 00:51:17,239
Speaker 7: thousand more episodes, Daniel.

1051
00:51:18,440 --> 00:51:22,239
Speaker 1: I got all those ideas. Yeah, I've sketched them out already.

1052
00:51:23,000 --> 00:51:26,040
Speaker 1: Do you like to work ahead? Yeah? And you know,

1053
00:51:26,040 --> 00:51:28,400
Speaker 1: if you think about the larger context, you know, of

1054
00:51:28,440 --> 00:51:31,680
Speaker 1: our galaxy. Our galaxy is one hundred thousand light years across,

1055
00:51:31,680 --> 00:51:34,440
Speaker 1: so a bubble two hundred light years is really a

1056
00:51:34,480 --> 00:51:37,239
Speaker 1: tiny neighbor. You know, the Sun itself is just like

1057
00:51:37,600 --> 00:51:40,360
Speaker 1: it is twenty something thousand light years from the center

1058
00:51:40,440 --> 00:51:41,120
Speaker 1: of the galaxy.

1059
00:51:41,840 --> 00:51:44,279
Speaker 7: So even like the most we might right now could

1060
00:51:44,320 --> 00:51:48,240
Speaker 7: imagine traveling to for a single human is a drop

1061
00:51:48,239 --> 00:51:50,520
Speaker 7: in the bucket of the size of our galaxy.

1062
00:51:50,600 --> 00:51:52,480
Speaker 1: Yeah, if you're looking at a map of the galaxy,

1063
00:51:52,600 --> 00:51:55,160
Speaker 1: you wouldn't even notice that distance, right.

1064
00:51:55,360 --> 00:51:58,080
Speaker 7: Wow, All right, Well, I feel like we covered a

1065
00:51:58,120 --> 00:52:02,120
Speaker 7: lot in the first two hundred seconds on this podcast,

1066
00:52:02,160 --> 00:52:06,120
Speaker 7: and we also got this kind of amazing view of

1067
00:52:06,160 --> 00:52:09,080
Speaker 7: how big the galaxy is and space is, and how

1068
00:52:09,080 --> 00:52:09,560
Speaker 7: empty it is.

1069
00:52:09,600 --> 00:52:12,200
Speaker 1: It's incredible how dense and hot the universe used to

1070
00:52:12,200 --> 00:52:15,239
Speaker 1: be and how big and cold it is today, and

1071
00:52:15,320 --> 00:52:18,440
Speaker 1: yet it's still filled with mystery and our whole concept

1072
00:52:18,480 --> 00:52:20,760
Speaker 1: to the universe, where it came from, how it began,

1073
00:52:21,160 --> 00:52:23,799
Speaker 1: what it looks like now, what's out there could be

1074
00:52:23,840 --> 00:52:27,319
Speaker 1: totally rocked by discoveries that are coming, discoveries made by

1075
00:52:27,440 --> 00:52:30,640
Speaker 1: scientists working today or by somebody out there listening to

1076
00:52:30,680 --> 00:52:33,799
Speaker 1: this podcast right now, that's thinking, Hey, maybe I could

1077
00:52:33,880 --> 00:52:36,600
Speaker 1: crack one of the biggest questions in the universe, because

1078
00:52:36,640 --> 00:52:37,480
Speaker 1: you know you could.

1079
00:52:37,600 --> 00:52:39,759
Speaker 7: Yeah, yeah, and then we'll cover it here in our

1080
00:52:40,000 --> 00:52:41,080
Speaker 7: ten thousand episodes.

1081
00:52:42,520 --> 00:52:44,600
Speaker 1: That's right, And so I want to say a personal

1082
00:52:44,640 --> 00:52:47,120
Speaker 1: thank you to all the fans and listeners for tuning

1083
00:52:47,120 --> 00:52:49,960
Speaker 1: into all these episodes, for sending us supportive messages, for

1084
00:52:50,040 --> 00:52:52,520
Speaker 1: letting us know that you're enjoying what you're hearing, and

1085
00:52:52,560 --> 00:52:55,839
Speaker 1: for sharing with us all of your wonder and your curiosity,

1086
00:52:55,920 --> 00:52:57,919
Speaker 1: and for going on this crazy journey with us.

1087
00:52:58,040 --> 00:53:01,400
Speaker 7: Absolutely, we wouldn't be doing this without you. And thanks

1088
00:53:01,440 --> 00:53:03,640
Speaker 7: also for letting all your friends know and all your

1089
00:53:03,680 --> 00:53:06,319
Speaker 7: contexts know, because the more people that are listening, the

1090
00:53:06,400 --> 00:53:09,760
Speaker 7: more episodes we can meet. All right, well, thanks again

1091
00:53:10,120 --> 00:53:12,440
Speaker 7: for helping us celebrate our two hundredth episode.

1092
00:53:12,800 --> 00:53:23,280
Speaker 1: We hope you enjoyed that. See you next time. Thanks

1093
00:53:23,280 --> 00:53:25,960
Speaker 1: for listening, and remember that Daniel and Jorge Explain the

1094
00:53:26,000 --> 00:53:30,799
Speaker 1: Universe is a production of iHeartRadio. For more podcasts from iHeartRadio,

1095
00:53:30,920 --> 00:53:35,080
Speaker 1: visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you listen

1096
00:53:35,160 --> 00:53:49,000
Speaker 1: to your favorite shows. When you pop a piece of

1097
00:53:49,080 --> 00:53:51,400
Speaker 1: cheese into your mouth. You're probably not thinking about the

1098
00:53:51,520 --> 00:53:54,880
Speaker 1: environmental impact, but the people in the dairy industry are.

1099
00:53:55,120 --> 00:53:57,640
Speaker 1: That's why they're working hard every day to find new

1100
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Speaker 1: ways to reduce waste, conserve natural resources, and drive down

1101
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Speaker 1: greenhouse gas emissions. How is us dairy tackling greenhouse gases?

1102
00:54:05,440 --> 00:54:08,560
Speaker 1: Many farms use anaerobic digestors to turn the methane from

1103
00:54:08,600 --> 00:54:12,520
Speaker 1: manure into renewable energy that can power farms, towns, and

1104
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Speaker 1: electric cars. Visit you as dairy dot COM's Last Sustainability

1105
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Speaker 1: to learn more.

1106
00:54:18,040 --> 00:54:22,040
Speaker 2: We're just days away from our twenty twenty four iHeartRadio

1107
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Speaker 2: Music Festival, presented by Capital On.

1108
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Speaker 3: The biggest headliners in live music will be taking over

1109
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Speaker 3: to Mobile Arena, Las Vegas.

1110
00:54:30,120 --> 00:54:32,719
Speaker 4: Lost some special surprises of moments you are not going

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Speaker 4: to want to miss. Stream only on Hulu the Ihar

1112
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Speaker 4: Radio Music Festival.

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Speaker 5: And listen on iHeartRadio the most anticipated live music events

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Speaker 6: This Friday and Saturday, starting at ten thirty pm Eastern.

1116
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Speaker 1: Seven thirty Pacific.

1117
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Speaker 9: Guess what Will?

1118
00:54:49,160 --> 00:54:51,320
Speaker 1: What's that Mango? I've been trying to write a promo

1119
00:54:51,400 --> 00:54:54,000
Speaker 1: for our podcast, Part Time Genius, but even though we've

1120
00:54:54,040 --> 00:54:55,840
Speaker 1: done over two hundred and fifty episodes.

1121
00:54:56,040 --> 00:54:58,400
Speaker 9: We don't really talk about murders or cults.

1122
00:54:58,520 --> 00:55:00,960
Speaker 10: I mean, we did just cover the Luminati of Cheese,

1123
00:55:00,960 --> 00:55:03,160
Speaker 10: so I feel like that makes us pretty edgy. We

1124
00:55:03,200 --> 00:55:06,480
Speaker 10: also solve mysteries like how Chinese is your Chinese food?

1125
00:55:06,600 --> 00:55:07,520
Speaker 1: And how do.

1126
00:55:07,360 --> 00:55:10,120
Speaker 10: Dollar stores make money? And then of course can you

1127
00:55:10,280 --> 00:55:13,080
Speaker 10: game a dog show? So what you're saying is everyone

1128
00:55:13,120 --> 00:55:15,640
Speaker 10: should be listening. Listen to part Time Genius on the

1129
00:55:15,680 --> 00:55:18,120
Speaker 10: iHeartRadio app or wherever you get your podcasts