Speaker 1: Hey, everybody, just a quick note before we get started
Speaker 1: with today's episode. We recorded this one before the June
Speaker 1: sev attack on Emmanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church in Charleston,
Speaker 1: South Carolina. That mass shooting put the former colony of
Speaker 1: Rhodesia in the national spotlight in the United States. We
Speaker 1: mentioned Rhodesia in this episode almost as an aside. That
Speaker 1: was a coincidence, and we definitely would have approached it
Speaker 1: differently if we had recorded even a couple of days later.
Speaker 1: So if you get to our brief mentioned of Rhodesia
Speaker 1: and wonder why we didn't include a more thorough or
Speaker 1: detailed explanation, that's why our focus was really on Australia
Speaker 1: as we were preparing this episode, and a full episode
Speaker 1: related to Rhodija will be coming in the near future.
Speaker 1: Welcome to Stuff You Missed in History Class from housetop
Speaker 1: Works dot com. Hello, and welcome to the podcast. And
Speaker 1: I'm Tracy D. Wilson and I'm Holly Frying. A lot
Speaker 1: of our listeners probably like the BBC drama called The Midwife.
Speaker 1: I know I like it very much. It is for
Speaker 1: those who are not familiar set in the impoverished neighborhood
Speaker 1: of Poplar in London's East End in the nineteen fifties
Speaker 1: and sixties, and it tells the story of these nuns
Speaker 1: and midwives who are basically providing healthcare and delivering babies
Speaker 1: in people's homes. And it's based on the memoirs of
Speaker 1: Jennifer Wirth, who was one of the midwives who did
Speaker 1: this work during this time period. So every episode of
Speaker 1: Called the Midwife tells these stories of women in their
Speaker 1: neighborhood and lots of babies and uh and family stories,
Speaker 1: but because of when they're set, they are also peppered
Speaker 1: with horrific other happenings in the world. Um there are
Speaker 1: stories of women who have survived work houses and the
Speaker 1: eugenics movement. There are ones about teenage mothers who had
Speaker 1: their babies taken away from them without their consent or
Speaker 1: the chance to say goodbye. One of the most recent
Speaker 1: episodes that aired in the US, I was literally yelling
Speaker 1: at my television to a pregnant woman who was having
Speaker 1: extreme morning sickness. Don't take that it's the litamide, because
Speaker 1: we know now the litamide caused many many children to
Speaker 1: be born without their limbs and with all kinds of
Speaker 1: other physical problems. For the most part, when like when
Speaker 1: Called the Midwife drops one of these things on the viewer,
Speaker 1: I know that story already, right, I already knew about
Speaker 1: work houses and teenage moms who had their babies taken
Speaker 1: away and all this stuff. But there's one episode that
Speaker 1: alluded to a horror that was entirely news to me.
Speaker 1: The first episode of the most recent season, which is
Speaker 1: series four. It's about a family of four young children
Speaker 1: who have just been woefully neglected, neglected by their mother,
Speaker 1: and the oldest one is trying to look after the siblings,
Speaker 1: but he's just a little boy. In the end, they
Speaker 1: are taken from their mother's care. The baby, who was
Speaker 1: just in very horrible condition from all this neglect, was
Speaker 1: adopted by another family um and then the rest of
Speaker 1: the children are sent to Australia as part of the
Speaker 1: Child Migrants program, where, according to Vanessa redgraves narration, they
Speaker 1: faced a life of hard labor. And then I was like,
Speaker 1: I'm wait, I'm sorry, the what the what program are
Speaker 1: we talking about right now? Then I basically tweeted that
Speaker 1: I just wanted to thank Called the Midwife for telling
Speaker 1: me some horrible thing from the past that I didn't
Speaker 1: know about that now I was going to have to
Speaker 1: do a podcast episode on because that's exactly what happened.
Speaker 1: We have before on the show talked about a number
Speaker 1: of government attempts to populate their various colonies throughout encouraged
Speaker 1: or more accurately forced migrations. Before in the fairly recent archives,
Speaker 1: we have episodes on Lefi Duroi, who were the women
Speaker 1: sent to New France which is now Canada as potential
Speaker 1: wives and the hope that they would even out the
Speaker 1: gender ratio and boost population there. And we've also talked
Speaker 1: about the Lady Juliana, which was a ship of female
Speaker 1: prisoners sent on a similar mission from Britain to Australia.
Speaker 1: And in the US there were the Offen trains, which
Speaker 1: transported children, some of which were orphans, some of which
Speaker 1: were not from densely populated cities in the east to
Speaker 1: country out west where they would have it was hoped,
Speaker 1: a better life. So the fielding wat migrated in the
Speaker 1: late seventeenth century. The Lady Juliana sailed in seventeen eighty nine.
Speaker 1: The Orphan trains ran in the United States from the
Speaker 1: eighteen fifties until nineteen twenty nine, although that last train
Speaker 1: only carried three children on it. In Britain, child migration
Speaker 1: efforts started as early as the sixteen hundreds, when children
Speaker 1: were sent to the American colony of Virginia was about
Speaker 1: a hundred children, but these efforts didn't really get going
Speaker 1: until the eighteen hundreds. From then until the nineteen twenties,
Speaker 1: about one hundred thousand children were sent from the British
Speaker 1: Isles to Canada to live. For the most part, these
Speaker 1: Canadian children were sent through processing centers and then they
Speaker 1: were divided by gender. Boys went to farms to do
Speaker 1: farm work and girls went to homes to act as
Speaker 1: domestic servants. So this phase of child migration from Britain
Speaker 1: did have some things in common with the orphan train
Speaker 1: movement that we've had a whole episode on. People thought
Speaker 1: that the children were going to be better off in
Speaker 1: their new circumstances, that they were getting access to a
Speaker 1: better life than they would have had in an institution
Speaker 1: in Britain, and that they were also learning to work
Speaker 1: in their new placements. But in reality, British children sent
Speaker 1: to Canada wound up doing manual labor for little to
Speaker 1: no money. Once in Canada, home children, as they came
Speaker 1: to be known, were usually stigmatized, and they were treated
Speaker 1: as second class citizens, regardless of whether they were working
Speaker 1: on a farm or in a home or somewhere else,
Speaker 1: so much so that many of them hid this part
Speaker 1: of their childhood when they became adults. It's estimated that
Speaker 1: a little more than ten percent of Canada's population is
Speaker 1: actually descended from child migrants. I kept find in a
Speaker 1: statistic that more than half of these children had also
Speaker 1: been abused in some way, but I could not figure
Speaker 1: out how that statistic was determined. Uh, and some of
Speaker 1: the children who were sent to Canada did wind up
Speaker 1: back in orphanages and other institutions when placements for them
Speaker 1: could not be found in homes and farms and other places.
Speaker 1: So in these cases, children had basically been sent from
Speaker 1: one institution to another institution, with the second one being
Speaker 1: on the other side of an entire ocean, so they
Speaker 1: basically lost the connections they had had to friends and
Speaker 1: family and the people who were caring for them where
Speaker 1: they came from, to have to start all over somewhere
Speaker 1: on the other side of the world. Many of the
Speaker 1: surviving British child migrants to Canada were tracked down in
Speaker 1: the nineteen eighties, and by that point the ones that
Speaker 1: were still alive were elderly, and the stories that they
Speaker 1: told were also very similar to what we talked about
Speaker 1: in the Orphan Trains episode. Many had been sent to
Speaker 1: Canada far too young to really know what was going on,
Speaker 1: and most were told that their parents had id but
Speaker 1: many had siblings, cousins and other family, all of whom
Speaker 1: were separated from one another. Child migration efforts from Britain
Speaker 1: to Canada ended with the Great Depression, but a new
Speaker 1: wave of migration followed, and this was to Australia and
Speaker 1: New Zealand. We're going to talk about that more after
Speaker 1: a brief word from a sponsor. So the Department of
Speaker 1: Health estimates that in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries a
Speaker 1: hundred and fifty thousand child migrants were sent from Britain
Speaker 1: to other countries. A hundred thousand of them, as we
Speaker 1: just talked about before the break, went to Canada. The
Speaker 1: rest of them went to Australia, New Zealand and Rhodesia
Speaker 1: which is now Zimbabwe. In the wake of World War Two,
Speaker 1: the British Empire feared for the stability of its territory
Speaker 1: in Australia and New Zealand. Having such an expansive, largely
Speaker 1: unpopulated territory, so far away from Britain and so much
Speaker 1: closer to nations with which Britain had just been at war,
Speaker 1: seemed very threatening. Plus there were some overall population and
Speaker 1: worries in general, there had been a great loss of
Speaker 1: life that had come along with the war. And then
Speaker 1: there was the fact that the white colonists in Australia
Speaker 1: were basically a minority in that hemisphere. In the words
Speaker 1: of the Archbishop of Perth in quote, if we do
Speaker 1: not supply from our own stock, we are leaving ourselves
Speaker 1: all the more exposed to the menace of the teeming
Speaker 1: millions of our neighboring Asiatic races. So the British government
Speaker 1: decided to send children to Australia and New Zealand. Australia
Speaker 1: also invited other European nations to participate in this scheme,
Speaker 1: and about a hundred children came from Malta, but that
Speaker 1: really seems to be the extent of participation from elsewhere
Speaker 1: in Europe. About five hundred and fifty British children were
Speaker 1: sent to New Zealand and placed in foster homes. Although
Speaker 1: many of those placements turned out to be temporary, they
Speaker 1: just didn't work out for one reason or another, and
Speaker 1: that whole process was not really supervised very well by
Speaker 1: local authorities or child child welfare organization, And once the
Speaker 1: children were in New Zealand, many more children were sent
Speaker 1: to Australia. The British and Australian governments took on this
Speaker 1: scheme with a collection of religious charities and other charitable organizations,
Speaker 1: including the Salvation Army, Bernardo's, the Fairbridge Society and National
Speaker 1: Children's Homes. There were organizations affiliated with the Roman Catholic
Speaker 1: Church and the Church of England that also were involved
Speaker 1: in this plan. So at least in some cases, there
Speaker 1: seems to have been a genuine desire to provide a
Speaker 1: better life for children who were living in poverty, or
Speaker 1: were being neglected or mistreated by their families, or were
Speaker 1: for some other reason living in some kind of unsafe condition.
Speaker 1: So there were definitely people involved in this who were
Speaker 1: envisioning that these children would have an idyllic life on
Speaker 1: a farm with warm weather and lots of sunshine once
Speaker 1: they got to Australia. When you look at the pictures
Speaker 1: of these children as they're leaving Britain or arriving in Australia,
Speaker 1: they often look really happy, like they're about to involve
Speaker 1: embark on this wonderful adventure. But the reality was much different.
Speaker 1: Between the nineteen thirties and nineteen sixty seven, between seven
Speaker 1: thousand and ten thousand children between the ages of three
Speaker 1: and fourteen were moved from Britain to Australia, and they
Speaker 1: were described in the press at the time as quote
Speaker 1: war orphans, and newspaper coverage praised these efforts as being charitable.
Speaker 1: But even though they had generally been told that their
Speaker 1: parents had died, most of these children were not orphans.
Speaker 1: Many of them were children whose families had fallen on
Speaker 1: hard times during the war, and they had consequently put
Speaker 1: their children into care, hoping to come back for them
Speaker 1: later when they had their their finances under control. Many
Speaker 1: of them were children of unmarried women and other parents
Speaker 1: who had placed their children up for adoption and thought
Speaker 1: that their children had been adopted by families who were
Speaker 1: going to be better off that way. For the children
Speaker 1: who still had living families, which was a lot of
Speaker 1: the children who were sent to Australia. This basically deportation
Speaker 1: was done without their parents knowledge or consent. So at
Speaker 1: this point we have children who were told they were
Speaker 1: orphans but in fact they were not, and parents who
Speaker 1: were told their children were going to be placed with
Speaker 1: an adoptive family, but in fact that they were not.
Speaker 1: And instead these children, who were as young as three
Speaker 1: years old, were sent twelve thousand miles away on a
Speaker 1: sea voyage that took up to twelve weeks, giving them
Speaker 1: very little hope of ever returning to Britain. Let's make
Speaker 1: things worse. Once the children were in Australia, they were
Speaker 1: not families waiting to care for them. That the whole
Speaker 1: plan was pretty much abandoned almost immediately as being too
Speaker 1: much trouble. They went back into institutions. So for a
Speaker 1: lot of children, even if they had started out at
Speaker 1: an institution in Britain, this meant being uprooted from a
Speaker 1: setting that was familiar, where they had relationship with relationships
Speaker 1: with staff and other children, and being sent to the
Speaker 1: literal other side of the world once again to start
Speaker 1: over at a different in the tuition, with different staff
Speaker 1: and different surroundings and different peers living with them. Although
Speaker 1: some children who were relocated to Australia did well there,
Speaker 1: many wound up feeling rejected by Britain and never really
Speaker 1: at home in Australia. A couple of the institutions where
Speaker 1: these children were placed became notorious for abuse and neglect.
Speaker 1: In particular beIN Dune, Boys Town, which is north of Perth,
Speaker 1: was literally built by the boys who were to live there.
Speaker 1: It was heavy manual labor and they were children as adults.
Speaker 1: Many of the boys who lived there reported being physically
Speaker 1: and sexually abused, and this was by far not the
Speaker 1: only place where abuses were reported, but reports of abuse
Speaker 1: at ben Dune were widespread and extremely horrifying. So apart
Speaker 1: from the news coverage that had happened as children were
Speaker 1: being sent which was generally favorable, this whole process fell
Speaker 1: out of you for a lot of people for a
Speaker 1: long time. We're going to talk about when and how
Speaker 1: that changed. After another brief word from a sponsor, so
Speaker 1: as we just alluded to before the break, after all
Speaker 1: this favorable news coverage in the post war years, this
Speaker 1: program kind of faded away from the public consciousness. In
Speaker 1: the British Empire. That started to change in when a
Speaker 1: woman known as Madeline wrote a letter to a British
Speaker 1: social worker named Margaret Humphries. Humphries had been running a
Speaker 1: support service called Triangle, which was for birth parents, adoptive
Speaker 1: parents and adults who had been adopted as children. So
Speaker 1: it was for all three pieces of the adoption Triangle
Speaker 1: to kind of get to know each other and have
Speaker 1: a support group and that sort of a thing. Madeline
Speaker 1: was living in Adelaide and had heard about the service
Speaker 1: from a friend who had taken a trip to Britain.
Speaker 1: Madeline's letter said that she had been taken from a
Speaker 1: children's home where she had been living because her parents
Speaker 1: had died when she was four, and sent to Australia.
Speaker 1: So when Humphreys read this letter, she thought Madeline must
Speaker 1: be mistaken or misremembering that there had to be some
Speaker 1: other explanation, because the idea of a four year old
Speaker 1: being sent from Britain's to Australia without a guardian there
Speaker 1: was just frankly unbelievable. Not long after that, though, another
Speaker 1: woman at a Triangle meeting who had been adopted as
Speaker 1: a child, told a story of basically remembering as an
Speaker 1: adult that she had had a brother. When she managed
Speaker 1: to track this brother down, it turned out he also
Speaker 1: had been sent to Australia. Even as she started searching
Speaker 1: for birth records and the records of Madeline's parents deaths,
Speaker 1: Humphrey thought this must all have been some kind of misunderstanding,
Speaker 1: But after looking for birth records one day at St
Speaker 1: Catherine's House, which is where all the birth, death and
Speaker 1: marriage records were kept, she walked to the nearby Australian
Speaker 1: High Commission House and asked about the records of children
Speaker 1: who had been sent to Australia after World War Two,
Speaker 1: and the wording of the answer that she got sent
Speaker 1: off some alarm bells quote the records of the children
Speaker 1: had been sent to Canberra that made it sound like
Speaker 1: there were many, So she started to do some more investigating,
Speaker 1: put ads in Australian newspapers asking for people who had
Speaker 1: been sent to Australia from children's homes in the forties
Speaker 1: and fifties to write to her, and soon it became
Speaker 1: clear that there was just a vast tangle to uncover.
Speaker 1: She teamed up with Annabelle Fareman, who traveled to Australia
Speaker 1: to do more research, and Bell Fareman was a journalist
Speaker 1: who was going to write articles about what they discovered.
Speaker 1: While she was in Australia, Humphries meant more people who
Speaker 1: had been sent to Australia as children, and once they
Speaker 1: were in Australia, they had wound up in institutions and
Speaker 1: all of them believed that their parents had died. They
Speaker 1: had no birth certificates, they had no other ties to
Speaker 1: their home, and many of them weren't even sure of
Speaker 1: what their own birthdays were. Eventually, Humphries worked to establish
Speaker 1: the Child Migrants Trust to help reconnect these now grown
Speaker 1: children with their families back in Britain. This became an
Speaker 1: actual organization and working there became her full time job.
Speaker 1: Many of the children's records were destroyed as schools closed
Speaker 1: down or charities ceased to oper rate. Some of these
Speaker 1: records were falsified or even lost when the children were
Speaker 1: originally sent to Australia, and one of the difficulties that
Speaker 1: arose was that once children were reconnected with their birth parents,
Speaker 1: they had trouble traveling to Britain to meet in person.
Speaker 1: With no birth certificates or other documentation, they couldn't get passports.
Speaker 1: Humphries really worked just she worked herself to exhaustion repeatedly
Speaker 1: doing all this. She also got as the allegations of
Speaker 1: abuse became more public. She got death threats and multiple
Speaker 1: death threats, threats to her family. Um Like, she really
Speaker 1: continued to do this work as people were uh showing
Speaker 1: up at her hotel rooms trying to break in because
Speaker 1: she was speaking out against abuse that children had suffered
Speaker 1: at the hands of religious care institutions. The whole thing
Speaker 1: is pretty horrifying. Um. In addition to many many trips
Speaker 1: to Australia, she also traveled to Canada and to Zimbabwe,
Speaker 1: which was during the time of the migrations known as Rhodesia,
Speaker 1: to meet with former child migrants in both of those places.
Speaker 1: And we haven't talked as much about child migration to Rhodesia,
Speaker 1: but based on the accounts that she heard there, most
Speaker 1: of the child migrants that were sent to Rhodesia were
Speaker 1: sent to school and treated as a privileged class, although
Speaker 1: they still did not know who their families were. The
Speaker 1: migration to Rhodesia seems to have been orchestrated, at least
Speaker 1: in part to make sure that there was an ongoing
Speaker 1: white upper class in British African territory. A documentary drawing
Speaker 1: from Humphrey's work came out in It was called Lost
Speaker 1: Children of the Empire. A drama followed which was called
Speaker 1: The Leaving of Liverpool. And as each of these aired
Speaker 1: in Australia and in Great Britain, people just came out
Speaker 1: of the woodwork in both places trying to connect with
Speaker 1: their lost children and their lost parents. Humphries also wrote
Speaker 1: a book which was originally called Empty Cradles. It is
Speaker 1: now retitled as Oranges in Sunshine after the movie that
Speaker 1: was made based on it. Kevin Rudd, who was then
Speaker 1: the Premiere of Australia, publicly apologized for the child migration
Speaker 1: in two thousand and nine, saying we are sorry sorry
Speaker 1: that as children you were taken from your families and
Speaker 1: placed and institutions were so often you were abused. Sorry
Speaker 1: for the physical suffering, the emotional starvation and the cold
Speaker 1: absence of love, of tenderness of care. Prime Minister Gordon
Speaker 1: Brown apologized for the program also in he said to
Speaker 1: all those former child migrants and their families, we are
Speaker 1: truly sorry they were let down. We are sorry they
Speaker 1: were allowed to be sent away at the time when
Speaker 1: they were most vulnerable. We are sorry that, instead of
Speaker 1: caring for them, this country turned its back, and we
Speaker 1: are sorry that the voices of these children were not
Speaker 1: always heard, their cries for help not always heeded. And
Speaker 1: we are sorry that it has taken so long for
Speaker 1: this important day to come and for the full and
Speaker 1: unconditional apology that is justly deserved. Uh, that's so long,
Speaker 1: Like literally twentysomething years. Margaret Humphreys had been trying to
Speaker 1: get someone to acknowledge what was going on before the
Speaker 1: official apology came, and in that same statement, Brown announced
Speaker 1: a six million pound fund which has kept the Child
Speaker 1: Migrants Trust working to connect children with their families. Humphries
Speaker 1: and the Child Migrants Trust continue to do this work today.
Speaker 1: She was actually named to the Order of Australia. She
Speaker 1: was the first British citizen outside of the Royal family
Speaker 1: to be so named. She was later named the Commander
Speaker 1: of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire. Thanks
Speaker 1: called The Midway for making us have to talk about
Speaker 1: I do love that show, but especially with Christmas episodes,
Speaker 1: there's always just this like some kind of social or
Speaker 1: historical horror that stabs you in your heart part while
Speaker 1: you're watching See I'm safe because I'm I'm phobic about
Speaker 1: all babies and childbirth. Things I don't watch Call the Deadlights,
Speaker 1: so I am safe for these cruel, cruel episodes. Do
Speaker 1: you have a spot of a listener mail for us?
Speaker 1: I do have a spot of listener mail. Uh, and
Speaker 1: it is about time capsules. It's from John. John says,
Speaker 1: first off, love the podcast. Now let's talk about time capsules.
Speaker 1: Time capsules are actually the reason why I started listening
Speaker 1: to your podcast. Well an art project that deals with
Speaker 1: time capsules, about six hundred and ten of them. I
Speaker 1: currently work in the archives at the Andy Warhol Museum
Speaker 1: as an imaging technician. Starting in nineteen seventy four and
Speaker 1: until seven, Andy Warhol field containers made like cardboard boxes
Speaker 1: with different items from his life. He had a few
Speaker 1: possible plans for them. One was to turn all the
Speaker 1: items into an art show someday, and another was to
Speaker 1: sell each box off as a piece of art, but unfortunately,
Speaker 1: he unexpectedly died before any of that could happen. They
Speaker 1: consist of newspapers, photographs, artwork, letters, invitations, uncash checks, an
Speaker 1: inflated birthday cake, a picture of Rob Low wrapped only
Speaker 1: in a stuffed animal snake, probably the best thing ever.
Speaker 1: John Michelle Bosciot's birth certificate, and countless other items, including
Speaker 1: stuff from when he was a child growing up in
Speaker 1: Pittsburgh until his death. In these boxes contain more than
Speaker 1: three hundred thousand items. The museum has been working to
Speaker 1: archive and catalog everything they're in these time capsules. There's
Speaker 1: a great This American Life about the project. My job
Speaker 1: at work, My job is to work at trying to
Speaker 1: digitize this entire collection of items. A pretty cool job,
Speaker 1: if I must say. But I do spend a lot
Speaker 1: of time just mind loosely scanning things. So I started
Speaker 1: to listen to podcasts. It was a few months in
Speaker 1: before I found yours, but when I did, I was hooked.
Speaker 1: That's exactly what I was looking for. My favorite episode
Speaker 1: being The Night Witches, well one of my favorites. When
Speaker 1: I saw the Time Capsule Capsule episode, I've perked up
Speaker 1: with delight. I didn't think that you would touch on
Speaker 1: Andy Warhol, but it was still exciting for me. Thank
Speaker 1: you for providing me with such joy through history. And
Speaker 1: then He finishes up with an episode suggestion, I had
Speaker 1: no idea that that was even a thing. Well, I
Speaker 1: feel stupid because I really love Andy Warhol, and you know,
Speaker 1: curse Valerie Salonas for robbing us of the eventual plan
Speaker 1: for this one. But I had completely forgotten about it
Speaker 1: as well, So it was a nice like, oh my gosh,
Speaker 1: I totally forgot that. Yeah, I. Um. We've gotten quite
Speaker 1: a number of letters from people about specific time capsules
Speaker 1: or specific projects of this nature. Um, and some of
Speaker 1: them are like, I'm surprised you didn't mention this. There
Speaker 1: was just there was way too much stuff for us
Speaker 1: to mention every time capsule, even just every super interesting
Speaker 1: cool one. There are lacks of them. Yeah, So if
Speaker 1: you would like to write to us about this or
Speaker 1: any other uh episode, we were at History podcast at
Speaker 1: how Stuffworks dot com. We're also on Facebook at Facebook
Speaker 1: dot com slash miss in history and on Twitter at
Speaker 1: miss in History. Are tumbler is missed in History dot
Speaker 1: tumbler dot com, and we're also on interest at pinterest
Speaker 1: dot com slash missed in History. You can come to
Speaker 1: our parent company's website, which is how Stuffworks dot com,
Speaker 1: and you can look up all kinds of stuff about
Speaker 1: the history of foster care and adoption, which, as we
Speaker 1: have learned through some episodes in this podcast, was not
Speaker 1: always a great history. You can also come to our website,
Speaker 1: which is missed in history dot com, to find show
Speaker 1: notes and archive of every episode that we have ever done,
Speaker 1: and other cool stuff. You can do all that and
Speaker 1: a whole lot more at how stuff works dot com
Speaker 1: or missed in history dot com for more on this
Speaker 1: and thousands of other topics because it has stuff works
Speaker 1: dot com.