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Speaker 1: Hey Orgey, do you have strong opinions about pasta MMM?

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Speaker 4: I mean, like, am I pro pasta or anti pasta?

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Speaker 1: Yeah? But I want to dig a little deeper, like,

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Speaker 1: do you have opinions about all of the varieties?

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Speaker 4: Yeah? No, I love that there are so many kinds

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Speaker 4: of pasta. The more the tastier.

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Speaker 1: So then in the opinion of an artist, what is

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Speaker 1: the prettiest pasta there is?

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Speaker 4: I try not to judge pasta bytes looks. You know,

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Speaker 4: that seems kind of rude, so I just go by taste.

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Speaker 1: Well, to me, it all tastes the same. I mean, fundamentally,

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Speaker 1: it's all made of the same stuff, though my kids

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Speaker 1: insist that some of them are tastier than others.

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Speaker 4: I think it's your kiss in an entire country called

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Speaker 4: Italy would argue the same thing.

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Speaker 1: I mean, it's all made of dough, right, which is

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Speaker 1: in the end just made of like protons, neutrons and electrons.

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Speaker 1: How can it taste different? It can.

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Speaker 4: We'll probably get a lot of hate mail from Italians

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Speaker 4: because you know, you're a physicists, right, Like each pasta

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Speaker 4: has a different cross section and a different ratio of

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Speaker 4: volume to surf area.

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Speaker 1: Right, Welcome to the Physics of Pasta podcasting.

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Speaker 4: That's right, We're all possicists. I am Jorge. I'm a

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Speaker 4: cartoonist and the co author of Frequently Asked Questions about

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Speaker 4: the Universe.

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Speaker 1: Hi, I'm Daniel. I'm a particle physicist and a professor

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Speaker 1: at UC Irvine. And I seriously can't taste the difference

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Speaker 1: between different kinds of pasta.

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Speaker 4: And I'm sure there are a lot of Italians right

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Speaker 4: now feeling kind of sorry for you. You can't see.

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Speaker 4: It's like not being able to see colors.

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Speaker 1: I mean, I don't even understand the chemistry of it.

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Speaker 1: Right once it gets into your mouth, it's just sauce

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Speaker 1: and noodle. What does it matter what the shape of

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Speaker 1: the noodle was when it was on your plate. Explain

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Speaker 1: it to me. What's the science of it?

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Speaker 4: Are you one of those people that just blends all

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Speaker 4: their food into movies? You know, salmon, steak, rice, whatever, said.

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Speaker 4: It's all gonna get digested, so might as well blend

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Speaker 4: it together.

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Speaker 1: You know, I'm a big fan of texture. I get

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Speaker 1: that absolutely, But you know, in the end, the noodles,

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Speaker 1: they don't taste different, they don't have different texture when

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Speaker 1: they go into your mouth. Maybe I'm overcooking them. I

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Speaker 1: don't know.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, I think if you overcook them's kind of a big

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Speaker 4: giant globe. But you know, it's like the ratio between

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Speaker 4: the volume and the surface area, you know, mikes. The

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Speaker 4: sauces kind of coat the pasta a little differently. Right,

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Speaker 4: taste makes it makes it taste different, I guess.

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Speaker 1: So it definitely makes it look different, and it gives

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Speaker 1: my kids an excuse to refuse to eat something like

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Speaker 1: my son will not eat or Kieta and my daughter

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Speaker 1: will not eat Farfalla. And I'm like, look, it's just pasta,

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Speaker 1: but sauce on it. What's the big deal.

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Speaker 4: Wow, your kids are pretty picky there.

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Speaker 1: Maybe I should just blend it into smoothie before I

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Speaker 1: serve it to them.

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Speaker 4: There you go. You could blend it and then make

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Speaker 4: your own pasta.

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Speaker 1: We do make our own pasta. Actually, sometimes we start

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Speaker 1: from scratch. We make the dough, we roll it out.

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Speaker 1: It's pretty fun.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, it's kind of I guess. It's kind of like bread, right,

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Speaker 4: Like all breads are basically flour and water, but you know,

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Speaker 4: you can have a whole range of different breads and

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Speaker 4: they all taste different.

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Speaker 1: Oh my gosh, don't get into bread with me. Breads

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Speaker 1: have very different mixtures of flower water. You got your

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Speaker 1: moist breads, you got your dryer breads, you got breads

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Speaker 1: with more fat or less fat. It's totally different ingredients.

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Speaker 1: That's what makes different kind of breads delicious.

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Speaker 4: It's the same ingredients, isn't it?

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Speaker 1: With different proportions?

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Speaker 4: Oh, different proportions you mean, like different proportions of surface

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Speaker 4: area and volume.

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Speaker 1: All right, good point, But.

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Speaker 4: Anyway, welcome to our I guess Culinary podcast. Daniel and

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Speaker 4: Jorge Explain the Universe, a production of iHeartRadio.

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Speaker 1: In which two total nonexperts argue about pasta when we

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Speaker 1: really should be talking about the deepest questions in the universe.

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Speaker 1: What shape do fundamental objects take? How do they come

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Speaker 1: together to make this incredible universe with all of its

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Speaker 1: amazing and different shapes. How do we get baseballs and

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Speaker 1: fish and clouds and farfala and our kieta and spaghetti

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Speaker 1: and cappellini and all the incredible shapes that we find

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Speaker 1: here on our planet and the insane things going on

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Speaker 1: inside our planet and inside stars and inside neutron stars

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Speaker 1: and inside black holes. We dig into all of it

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Speaker 1: for you. We code it with a delicious sauce of

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Speaker 1: explanations and banana jokes and serve it up to you.

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Speaker 4: That's right. It is a big, beautiful and delicious universe

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Speaker 4: full of noodles and noodles of interesting things to learn

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Speaker 4: and discover and to figure out how it works. Because

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Speaker 4: somehow we are able to discover how things work in

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Speaker 4: this universe using science.

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Speaker 1: Absolutely, we think that it's possible to sit here on

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Speaker 1: the crust of our planet and to just use our

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Speaker 1: minds and our eyeballs to explore what's going on deep

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Speaker 1: within our planet in conditions we could never replicate in

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Speaker 1: our laboratories, and also what's going on inside crazy things

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Speaker 1: out there in the universe. These are minds to try

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Speaker 1: to extrapolate from the situations we can explore from the

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Speaker 1: laws we have discovered, and wonder if those ideas and

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Speaker 1: understandings hold up under very extreme conditions.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, because that is one way to do science, is

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Speaker 4: to observe things, and especially observe the crazy and the

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Speaker 4: wild and the extreme situations out there in the universe,

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Speaker 4: because they do teach us a lot about what can

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Speaker 4: happen in the universe, even if you don't see it

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Speaker 4: in every day.

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Speaker 1: Because one of our goals in physics is not to

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Speaker 1: have a special set of rules for every situation. We

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Speaker 1: don't want the physics of laundry and the physics of pasta,

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Speaker 1: and the physics of air and the physics of water.

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Speaker 4: Wait, that sounds like a great podcast. Actually, maybe we

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Speaker 4: should do more of those rather than amply tuohedrons.

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Speaker 1: The physics of laundry.

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Speaker 4: I'll listen to. That might give me some pointers, you know,

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Speaker 4: like what are the physics of taking out pasta stains

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Speaker 4: out of your white shirt?

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Speaker 1: Wow? Crossover episode with our culinary podcast series. Yeah, well,

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Speaker 1: that's fascinating. You know. All the different applications of physics

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Speaker 1: in different conditions are interesting how these things emerge. But physics,

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Speaker 1: you know, in the end, is reductionist. We want to

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Speaker 1: go down to the lowest level. We want to understand

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Speaker 1: a general theory about the universe that applies everywhere. That

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Speaker 1: you could take to your laundry or pasta or neutron

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Speaker 1: star and say I can start from these rules and

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Speaker 1: I can understand what's going on here, and the way

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Speaker 1: to test that, the way to make sure that the

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Speaker 1: ideas you have are not just specific to your pasta

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Speaker 1: stains or to the experiences you do in your laboratory,

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Speaker 1: but our general is to test them under extreme conditions,

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Speaker 1: to say what happens if I make this really really

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Speaker 1: dense or really really hot, or we go really really fast.

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Speaker 1: So that's why the extreme conditions are the best places

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Speaker 1: to learn where your rules break down and to get

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Speaker 1: clues about how to make new rules about the universe.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, we like to look at extremes here on the podcast,

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Speaker 4: and we have a whole series of extreme things that

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Speaker 4: we've looked at in the universe, like the brightest things

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Speaker 4: in the universe or the hottest things in the universe,

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Speaker 4: and it usually comes down to only a couple of candidates.

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Speaker 4: One of them are neutron stars.

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Speaker 1: Neutron stars are one of the most amazing laboratories for

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Speaker 1: physics in the universe because it's one of the few

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Speaker 1: places where all of the forces are important. We talk

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Speaker 1: a lot in this podcast about quantum field theory and

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Speaker 1: understanding three of the forces electromagnetism, the weak force, and

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Speaker 1: the strong force. But we don't have many situations where

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Speaker 1: we can put those three forces up against gravity because

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Speaker 1: gravity is so weak. It's only really in the heart

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Speaker 1: of black holes that gravity dominates and takes over. But

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Speaker 1: in the inside of neutron stars, we think that gravity

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Speaker 1: is just about as strong as these other forces. So

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Speaker 1: it's a great laboratory for understanding how gravity and these

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Speaker 1: other forces talk to each other and play together or

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Speaker 1: don't play together.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, we've talked about neutron stars before, but we've never

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Speaker 4: sort of dug deeper into them to find out what

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Speaker 4: it's all made out of on the inside. So to

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Speaker 4: be on the program, we'll be asking the question what

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Speaker 4: is inside a neutron star?

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Speaker 1: And what would Italians call it?

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Speaker 4: Neutrinos? No, that's taken. I think I know what the

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Speaker 4: answer to this question is, though, Daniel, what's inside a

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Speaker 4: neutron star? Isn't it just neutrons? Done? Thanks for joining us,

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Speaker 4: see you next time.

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Speaker 1: I thought you were going to say, what's inside a

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Speaker 1: neutron star? One neutron star? I mean, that's like the ingredients, right, It's.

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Speaker 4: Like what is pasta made out of pasta? Is that

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Speaker 4: what you're saying? Is that what physics has come down to,

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Speaker 4: giving up?

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Speaker 1: Giving up? Yes, exactly. No, of course neutrons are inside

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Speaker 1: a neutron star. But what are they doing? Man? What's

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Speaker 1: the conditions? How dense? Are they do they form weird

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Speaker 1: objects and shapes when they're in that crazy conditions? Are

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Speaker 1: they even really still neutrons? Or are they squeezed down

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Speaker 1: into some other weird kind of matter, maybe even a

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Speaker 1: quark gluon plasma.

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Speaker 4: Wait wait, neutron stars might not be made out of neutrons.

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Speaker 4: I smell some misnaming here exactly.

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Speaker 1: That is the question of the podcast. Are neutron stars

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Speaker 1: fundamentally misnamed?

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Speaker 4: That seems to be the mission of the entire program here.

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Speaker 1: You're just trying to undermine people's confidence in physics, man

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Speaker 1: or physicists.

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Speaker 4: Is there confidence in physics?

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Speaker 1: I mean, think about all the technology you're using to

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Speaker 1: make this podcast and to listen to this podcast. All

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Speaker 1: of that is based on fundamental physics that we understood

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Speaker 1: through basic research. So I think, on one hand, we've

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Speaker 1: been doing a pretty good job of exploring the universe

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Speaker 1: and learning how to manipulate it for our benefit. On

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Speaker 1: the other hand, we definitely don't understand a lot about

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Speaker 1: the universe, so there's a huge amount left to discover. Yeah.

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Speaker 4: I know, if it's it's just a big confidence game, right.

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Speaker 1: That's right. I keep paying us and we'll keep teaching

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Speaker 1: you the secrets of the universe, except in this confidence game,

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Speaker 1: the secrets are true.

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Speaker 4: Or at least as true as you think they can be.

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Speaker 4: But I think maybe what you're saying that the question

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Speaker 4: is in this episode is actually more like what's it

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Speaker 4: like inside a neutron star? What's it like? You know, like,

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Speaker 4: what's going on inside a neutron star?

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Speaker 1: Yeah? Exactly. We did an episode on what's it like

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Speaker 1: inside the Earth when we dug into the crust and

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Speaker 1: talked about, you know, the different layers. You could have

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Speaker 1: answered that question what's inside the Earth by saying Earth,

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Speaker 1: but that's not as satisfactory an answer. So, yeah, we

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Speaker 1: want to understand like, are there layers? There is it

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Speaker 1: one big soup of neutrons? You know? Are there different

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Speaker 1: phases of matter as you get the crazy hot and dense?

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Speaker 1: What is going on inside a neutron star?

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Speaker 4: Can you find pasta inside? And apparently the answer is yes,

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Speaker 4: there is pasta inside of neutron stars.

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Speaker 5: Mm hmm.

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Speaker 1: If Michael Bay could film a movie about journey to

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Speaker 1: the center of a neutron star, what would he show

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Speaker 1: you on the screen?

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Speaker 4: You would have to bring in some Italian consultants, because

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Speaker 4: apparently the answer is pasta.

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Speaker 1: Pasta is everywhere turns out to be the fundamental bilding

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Speaker 1: block of the universe.

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Speaker 4: Well, as usually, we were wondering how many people out

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Speaker 4: there had thought about this question, what's going on inside

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Speaker 4: of a neutron star? So Daniel went out there to

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Speaker 4: the wilds of the internet to get people's opinions.

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Speaker 1: And I'm eternally grateful to our volunteers to answer these

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Speaker 1: random questions and give us a sense for what people

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Speaker 1: know and what they might be curious to learn about.

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Speaker 1: Thank you very much. And if you are out there

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Speaker 1: listening and have never been on the podcast, we would

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Speaker 1: love to have your voice to add it to our library,

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Speaker 1: so please write to us to questions at Danielandjorge dot com.

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Speaker 1: It's free, it's easy, it's fun.

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Speaker 4: So think about it for a second. What kind of

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Speaker 4: process would you like to see inside of a neutron star?

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Speaker 4: And what do you think it's doing. Here's what people

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Speaker 4: had to say.

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Speaker 6: I've heard you guys talk about this in the past.

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Speaker 6: I know, like there is a crust and then as

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Speaker 6: you go down deeper towards the core, there's like I

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Speaker 6: think they call it quantum spaghetti, and then at the

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Speaker 6: very center I've heard you guys talk about hlu ons,

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Speaker 6: and the neutrons are are no longer associated, so it's

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Speaker 6: just like the soup of quarks and gluons floating around.

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Speaker 7: Well, I would say it's pretty tight. I wouldn't want

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Speaker 7: to be in there, actually, And neutron stars are made

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Speaker 7: out of nutrons, and the core.

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Speaker 1: I would think is the.

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Speaker 7: Densest part of a star, So I would say there's

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Speaker 7: a lot of nutrients, really really packed with neutrons.

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Speaker 2: I would imagine it's hot and bright and chaotic, and

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Speaker 2: if it had a high enough mass and you were

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Speaker 2: actually inside it, then you might be able to find

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Speaker 2: out what's in a black hole.

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Speaker 6: Oh boy, very hot, very dense, very angry.

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Speaker 8: I wouldn't want to be inside of a neutron star.

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Speaker 9: A neutron star, other than a black hole, is the

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Speaker 9: densest known object in the universe. It is so dense,

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Speaker 9: in fact, that it has high enough pressure to merge

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Speaker 9: to push all of the electrons and the protons together

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Speaker 9: to form neutrons. Fusion is over, but it is very hot,

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Speaker 9: and it is emanating very high frequency black body radiation,

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Speaker 9: and I know it must be spinning very fast due

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Speaker 9: to the laws of the conservation of angular momentum.

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Speaker 8: Well, it's very compressed, extreme pressure, lots of heat, radiation,

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Speaker 8: extreme electromagnetic fields, dizzying, spinning, and death.

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Speaker 10: I can only imagine that being inside a neutron star

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Speaker 10: is like being inside of a bag of popcorn that

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Speaker 10: is being cooked in the microwave. There's a lot of pressure,

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Speaker 10: a lot of build up, it's hot, and there's no escape.

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Speaker 10: Seems like a prison.

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Speaker 4: All right. People aren't painting a very pleasant picture here

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Speaker 4: of neutron stars.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, but they're reaching for a lot of food analogies.

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Speaker 1: You know, we got soup, we got spaghetti, We even

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Speaker 1: got popcorn.

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Speaker 4: I guess did you pull people right before lunch or something.

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Speaker 1: I think there's a deep and unexplored connection between physics

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Speaker 1: and food, you know. I think that's what we're discovering

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Speaker 1: here today.

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Speaker 4: Because physicists like to eat a lot of food. Or

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Speaker 4: is that just your personal perspective, Daniel.

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Speaker 1: You know I'm not a big eater. I don't eat

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Speaker 1: anything actually during the day. I only eat at night.

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Speaker 1: So you know, I can do physics all day long

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Speaker 1: on an empty stomach. But I think that people reach

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Speaker 1: for these analogies because they're trying to explain something weird

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Speaker 1: and unfamiliar in terms of something that's familiar. And in

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Speaker 1: the end, that's what physics is, right. We explain the

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Speaker 1: unknown in terms of the known. So when you see

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Speaker 1: something weird and new, you try to say that reminds

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Speaker 1: me of and then you look for something familiar around you,

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Speaker 1: like whatever you're having for lunch.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, and most people here seem to have an idea

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Speaker 4: that neutron stars are really hot and dense and compressed.

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Speaker 4: A lot of the answers were sort of people describing

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Speaker 4: a pretty intense environment inside of a neutron star.

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Speaker 1: Yes, exactly, And that's what get physicists excited, right, because

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Speaker 1: we think it's a situation unlike any other in the universe,

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Speaker 1: one that's very hard, if not impossible, to recreate in

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Speaker 1: our laboratory, and yet there it sits out there, actually

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Speaker 1: doing its thing. And if we could know what was

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Speaker 1: going on inside those neutron stars, we would have the

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Speaker 1: answers to lots of questions about crazy conditions that we're

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Speaker 1: curious about. You know, what happens when you squeeze these

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Speaker 1: particles really close to each other, because remember that at

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Speaker 1: the heart of a neutron star, these things are dominated

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Speaker 1: by the strong force battling it out with gravity, and

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Speaker 1: these are two forces that we do not understand very well.

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Speaker 1: Of all the fundamental forces in the universe. We understand

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Speaker 1: the weak force and electromagnetism the best. We understand the

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Speaker 1: strong force and gravity the worst. And so to get

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Speaker 1: to see them fight it out helps us understand both

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Speaker 1: of them.

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Speaker 4: M it's a strong mystery. Break it down for the

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Speaker 4: audience here, what is exactly a neutron star?

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Speaker 1: So a neutron star is one of the most amazing

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Speaker 1: and weird objects in the universe, and it's also leftover

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Speaker 1: from one of the most dramatic kinds of events we

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Speaker 1: have in the universe, which is a supernova. So you know,

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Speaker 1: you start with a normal star which burns and they

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Speaker 1: have the typical battle between pressure from gravity squeezing in

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Speaker 1: and fusion and radiation pushing out, and it burns for

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Speaker 1: millions or billions of years, depending on its size, and

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Speaker 1: at some point the core of it gets so heavy

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Speaker 1: because it's fused all of these lighter elements into heavier

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Speaker 1: elements carbon neon, oxygen. You work your way up the

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Speaker 1: periodic table. At some point the core gets so heavy

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Speaker 1: that gravity wins and the thing collapses. You get this

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Speaker 1: shockwave that rushes in towards the heart of the star

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Speaker 1: and then bounces back and comes out, and you get

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Speaker 1: a supernova, and that blows out most of the stuff

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Speaker 1: from the star. You know, huge amounts of energy comes

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Speaker 1: out in neutrinos and in photons and in just mass

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Speaker 1: of the stuff of the star. But it leaves behind

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Speaker 1: this very very dense core. And so that's what the

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Speaker 1: neutron star is. It's the remnant of a supernova from

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Speaker 1: a super giant star.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, that's something that I think, I know we've talked

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Speaker 4: about before, but it's still pretty cool because I don't

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Speaker 4: think a lot of people sort of realized that as supernova.

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Speaker 4: You know, we think that maybe it's like an explosion

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Speaker 4: or something reacts and explodes, but it's actually like what

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Speaker 4: happens when star is Sun's collapse. It's actually like the

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Speaker 4: collapse of a star, and it's that collapse that kind

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Speaker 4: of causes the big explosion.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, you have the supersonic shockwave traveling inwards and then

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Speaker 1: traveling outwards. Right, it bounces back and explodes, and so

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Speaker 1: it's a lot like you know, the way a fusion

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Speaker 1: bomb works, or we talked about laser fusion recently on

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Speaker 1: the podcast, where you have this symmetric implosion which creates

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Speaker 1: very fast runaway fusion which then triggers an explosion, right,

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Speaker 1: And so it's really a dramatic end. It's incredible also

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Speaker 1: the time scales, because these stars burn for millions or

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Speaker 1: billions of years happily in almost a steady state, and

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Speaker 1: then the end comes very quickly. You know, you think

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Speaker 1: of cosmic objects having long time scales, they should do

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Speaker 1: everything slowly, but when it dies, it dies very quickly,

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Speaker 1: and it leaves behind these little remnants, these neutron stars,

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Speaker 1: and they're super small. You know. These things have a

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Speaker 1: radius of like ten to twenty kilometers, you know, so

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Speaker 1: again we're talking about astrophysical objects. You used to thinking

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Speaker 1: about like millions of kilometers. These things there are billions

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Speaker 1: of light years away, but we're talking about things like

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Speaker 1: the size of Manhattan or Los Angeles, and yet they're

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Speaker 1: super massive, like they still have the mass of an

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Speaker 1: entire sun like our sun. So these things have a

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Speaker 1: mass of like one to maybe three masses of our

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Speaker 1: Sun compressed into a tiny little space.

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Speaker 4: Yeah, that's exactly why I feel when I visit Manhattan,

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Speaker 4: actually super dense and compressant and hot as well. But

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Speaker 4: what's interesting too is that, first of all, not every

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Speaker 4: star goes supernova, and not every supernova turns into a

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Speaker 4: neutron star.

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Speaker 1: Right, that's right. The final fate of the star is

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Speaker 1: determined almost entirely by how massive it was when it

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Speaker 1: was born. If it has a mass between like ten

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Speaker 1: and twenty or twenty five times the mass of our Sun,

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Speaker 1: then it'll go supernova and then go neutron star. If

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Speaker 1: it has more mass than that, it'll go supernova, but

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Speaker 1: it'll leave a black hole at the center instead of

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Speaker 1: a neutron star. So if you have enough mass, then

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Speaker 1: you can overcome even the strength of the neutron star

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Speaker 1: and collapse it even further to a black hole. So

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Speaker 1: gravity wins there if you add more mass, if you don't.

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Speaker 1: If you had less mass, like less than ten times

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Speaker 1: the mass of the Sun, then you don't get a supernova,

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Speaker 1: and you get what's going to happen to our Sun,

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Speaker 1: which is just going to leave behind the original core,

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Speaker 1: which will be a white dwarf.

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Speaker 4: So then for a neutron star, you start with a

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Speaker 4: regular star that's about ten to twenty five times the

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Speaker 4: mass of our Sun. You super and ova that most

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Speaker 4: of it I guess blows out in the supernova, but

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Speaker 4: some of it, like one to three masses of our sun,

439
00:20:27,440 --> 00:20:30,720
Speaker 4: stays in the middle in this super duper dense state

440
00:20:30,840 --> 00:20:33,520
Speaker 4: that I guess had its origin when the star collapse.

441
00:20:33,280 --> 00:20:35,359
Speaker 1: Right exactly, So you take the core of the star

442
00:20:35,560 --> 00:20:38,760
Speaker 1: and you squeeze it down to this tiny little dot,

443
00:20:39,040 --> 00:20:41,400
Speaker 1: this neutron star. So it's like a white dwarf that's

444
00:20:41,400 --> 00:20:44,280
Speaker 1: been compressed by a supernova. And it's fascinating to me

445
00:20:44,359 --> 00:20:46,639
Speaker 1: because it's like the last step before a black hole.

446
00:20:47,119 --> 00:20:49,880
Speaker 1: You know, gravity is a runaway effect. If you only

447
00:20:49,920 --> 00:20:52,560
Speaker 1: had gravity and no other forces in the universe, everything

448
00:20:52,600 --> 00:20:54,800
Speaker 1: would eventually just collapse to a black hole. It'd be

449
00:20:54,800 --> 00:20:57,480
Speaker 1: nothing to stop it because gravity just pull stuff in

450
00:20:57,640 --> 00:21:00,000
Speaker 1: and it gets denser and denser, and the denser gets

451
00:21:00,119 --> 00:21:02,199
Speaker 1: the stronger it is, and then the stronger it is,

452
00:21:02,200 --> 00:21:04,200
Speaker 1: the denser gets et cetera, et cetera. So the way

453
00:21:04,240 --> 00:21:06,240
Speaker 1: to avoid becoming a black hole is to have something

454
00:21:06,280 --> 00:21:09,680
Speaker 1: pushed back against gravity. So a star doesn't collapse into

455
00:21:09,720 --> 00:21:12,159
Speaker 1: a black hole while it's burning because the fusion provides

456
00:21:12,200 --> 00:21:14,920
Speaker 1: pressure outwards. The Earth doesn't collapse into a black hole

457
00:21:15,000 --> 00:21:18,760
Speaker 1: right now because all that dirt has structural integrity. As

458
00:21:18,800 --> 00:21:21,920
Speaker 1: the mass gets stronger and stronger, you need stronger forces

459
00:21:21,960 --> 00:21:24,080
Speaker 1: to resist it, and eventually it just gives up and

460
00:21:24,119 --> 00:21:26,439
Speaker 1: becomes a black hole. And a neutron star is like

461
00:21:26,480 --> 00:21:29,560
Speaker 1: the last line of defense against gravity. It's like the

462
00:21:29,560 --> 00:21:33,400
Speaker 1: densest thing in the universe that's not a black hole, right.

463
00:21:33,200 --> 00:21:35,240
Speaker 4: Like, if you squeeze it a little bit more, you

464
00:21:35,280 --> 00:21:37,600
Speaker 4: would get a black hole. But if you stop squeezing

465
00:21:37,640 --> 00:21:39,720
Speaker 4: it or adding more mass right before it turns into

466
00:21:39,720 --> 00:21:41,280
Speaker 4: a black hole, then that's what you get. You get

467
00:21:41,280 --> 00:21:42,600
Speaker 4: a neutron star exactly.

468
00:21:42,600 --> 00:21:45,760
Speaker 1: And so it's this object which has enough strength to

469
00:21:45,840 --> 00:21:49,159
Speaker 1: resist the incredible mass and the incredible gravity that it

470
00:21:49,240 --> 00:21:51,440
Speaker 1: does have, but if you add it a little bit more, yeah,

471
00:21:51,440 --> 00:21:53,600
Speaker 1: it would collapse into a black hole. And so it's

472
00:21:53,640 --> 00:21:57,439
Speaker 1: really the perfect way to understand this balance between the

473
00:21:57,520 --> 00:22:01,000
Speaker 1: strong force and the quantum mechanics that's resisting collapse and

474
00:22:01,040 --> 00:22:03,520
Speaker 1: the gravitational pressure that's squeezing down on it.

475
00:22:04,240 --> 00:22:05,960
Speaker 4: So like how many plates of pasta would you have

476
00:22:06,000 --> 00:22:07,919
Speaker 4: to throw in to turn a neutron star into a

477
00:22:07,920 --> 00:22:08,440
Speaker 4: black hole?

478
00:22:09,720 --> 00:22:12,159
Speaker 1: It's a great question. We don't know actually, what is

479
00:22:12,200 --> 00:22:15,960
Speaker 1: the maximum mass of a neutron star. Biggest ones we've

480
00:22:16,000 --> 00:22:18,560
Speaker 1: seen are like two and a half up to maybe

481
00:22:18,640 --> 00:22:21,280
Speaker 1: three times the mass of the Sun. There's some speculative

482
00:22:21,320 --> 00:22:24,359
Speaker 1: observations for larger ones, but we think it's probably impossible

483
00:22:24,359 --> 00:22:27,119
Speaker 1: to have anything much more than three times the mass

484
00:22:27,119 --> 00:22:27,560
Speaker 1: of the Sun.

485
00:22:27,680 --> 00:22:29,840
Speaker 4: Well, that was kind of my next question, which is,

486
00:22:29,960 --> 00:22:32,200
Speaker 4: you know, have we actually seen these things or are

487
00:22:32,200 --> 00:22:34,440
Speaker 4: they like sort of like black holes that were sort

488
00:22:34,440 --> 00:22:36,160
Speaker 4: of theoretical for a long time.

489
00:22:36,359 --> 00:22:38,880
Speaker 1: We have seen these things, so they are not easy

490
00:22:38,920 --> 00:22:41,880
Speaker 1: to see, right. These things don't have fusion inside of them,

491
00:22:41,920 --> 00:22:45,960
Speaker 1: so they're not glowing very very brightly. Most neutron stars

492
00:22:46,160 --> 00:22:48,199
Speaker 1: are kind of dim, right, They just sit there and

493
00:22:48,200 --> 00:22:51,080
Speaker 1: they're cooling gradually. Though you know, they can get bigger

494
00:22:51,160 --> 00:22:53,160
Speaker 1: if something else comes by and like dumps a huge

495
00:22:53,200 --> 00:22:55,520
Speaker 1: load of pasta on them. So they're hard to see

496
00:22:55,720 --> 00:22:59,360
Speaker 1: unless they're like in a binary system. So for example,

497
00:22:59,400 --> 00:23:03,160
Speaker 1: there's another star nearby and their strong gravity is affecting

498
00:23:03,200 --> 00:23:05,600
Speaker 1: that star. So if you see like a normal star

499
00:23:05,760 --> 00:23:07,920
Speaker 1: and then nothing nearby it, then you can say, oh,

500
00:23:07,960 --> 00:23:10,600
Speaker 1: there must be something there because of its gravity. You

501
00:23:10,600 --> 00:23:12,679
Speaker 1: can argue about whether it's a black hole or a

502
00:23:12,680 --> 00:23:15,360
Speaker 1: neutron star based on its mass. So it's one way

503
00:23:15,400 --> 00:23:18,080
Speaker 1: to know that they are there. You can also see

504
00:23:18,080 --> 00:23:21,520
Speaker 1: them directly if they are pulsars. So a neutron star

505
00:23:21,600 --> 00:23:25,640
Speaker 1: is this heavy, heavy object. It's also spinning really really fast,

506
00:23:26,119 --> 00:23:29,680
Speaker 1: right because remember, angular momentum is conserved. If you take

507
00:23:29,680 --> 00:23:32,840
Speaker 1: an object which was big in spinning and compress it,

508
00:23:32,840 --> 00:23:34,560
Speaker 1: it's still going to be spinning, and now it's going

509
00:23:34,640 --> 00:23:36,879
Speaker 1: to spin much much faster in order to have the

510
00:23:36,920 --> 00:23:41,000
Speaker 1: same angular momentum. So sometimes these neutron stars spin super fast,

511
00:23:41,160 --> 00:23:45,200
Speaker 1: and they also sometimes shoot out energy from their poles,

512
00:23:45,280 --> 00:23:48,720
Speaker 1: and if there's a misalignment between where they're shooting energy

513
00:23:48,760 --> 00:23:51,560
Speaker 1: out and the spin axis, then this beam that they

514
00:23:51,600 --> 00:23:54,440
Speaker 1: shoot out sort of sweeps across the universe, and if

515
00:23:54,480 --> 00:23:56,679
Speaker 1: it passes Earth, then we see it. And that's what

516
00:23:56,720 --> 00:24:00,199
Speaker 1: a pulsar is. So some fraction of neutron stars we

517
00:24:00,240 --> 00:24:03,200
Speaker 1: can see because they are pulsars and they're pointed right

518
00:24:03,440 --> 00:24:06,119
Speaker 1: in the exact direction where we can see them. But

519
00:24:06,240 --> 00:24:09,240
Speaker 1: most neutron stars we cannot observe directly.

520
00:24:09,040 --> 00:24:11,280
Speaker 4: Right because we call them stars, but they're really not

521
00:24:11,560 --> 00:24:14,840
Speaker 4: sort of shining in the brighton night sky unless, like

522
00:24:14,880 --> 00:24:17,320
Speaker 4: you said, they somehow have this spin and they's somehow

523
00:24:17,400 --> 00:24:20,199
Speaker 4: shooting at a beam in a particular direction, which is

524
00:24:20,240 --> 00:24:21,120
Speaker 4: what pulsars are.

525
00:24:21,240 --> 00:24:23,720
Speaker 1: Yeah, you can argue about exactly what is a star

526
00:24:23,800 --> 00:24:25,760
Speaker 1: and whether these count. You know, there's sort of the

527
00:24:25,840 --> 00:24:28,479
Speaker 1: endpoint of the life of a star. You definitely wouldn't

528
00:24:28,480 --> 00:24:30,880
Speaker 1: call a black hole a star, right, even though it's

529
00:24:30,880 --> 00:24:33,000
Speaker 1: also the endpoint of the life of a star. So

530
00:24:33,080 --> 00:24:35,600
Speaker 1: these things do emit some light, and so the one

531
00:24:35,600 --> 00:24:37,600
Speaker 1: way to see them is if they are pulsars. Another

532
00:24:37,640 --> 00:24:40,600
Speaker 1: way to see them is to see X rays from

533
00:24:40,600 --> 00:24:43,360
Speaker 1: their surface. So they don't glow in the visible light,

534
00:24:43,640 --> 00:24:46,919
Speaker 1: but sometimes X rays leak out of their surface. If

535
00:24:46,960 --> 00:24:49,360
Speaker 1: there's like a crack in the surface of the neutron

536
00:24:49,400 --> 00:24:52,560
Speaker 1: star or like a hotspot, it can emit some X rays,

537
00:24:52,920 --> 00:24:55,399
Speaker 1: and we have X ray telescopes that are able to

538
00:24:55,520 --> 00:24:59,560
Speaker 1: see those X rays see the photons from these distant stars,

539
00:25:00,000 --> 00:25:02,160
Speaker 1: and that can help us see that a neutron star

540
00:25:02,359 --> 00:25:05,080
Speaker 1: is there. So we think there's like a billion of

541
00:25:05,080 --> 00:25:08,399
Speaker 1: these things floating out there in our galaxy, but most

542
00:25:08,440 --> 00:25:10,920
Speaker 1: of them are basically invisible to us. Yeah.

543
00:25:10,920 --> 00:25:13,000
Speaker 4: I was going to ask next whether we have a

544
00:25:13,000 --> 00:25:15,080
Speaker 4: picture of a neutron star, but actually then I realized

545
00:25:15,080 --> 00:25:17,280
Speaker 4: we don't really have a picture of anything outside of

546
00:25:17,320 --> 00:25:19,600
Speaker 4: the Solar system, right, Like, we don't really have a

547
00:25:19,680 --> 00:25:22,200
Speaker 4: full on picture of any star out there in the universe.

548
00:25:22,280 --> 00:25:23,520
Speaker 4: We just know them as pinpoints.

549
00:25:23,600 --> 00:25:26,200
Speaker 1: That's interesting. I mean, we certainly have a picture of them,

550
00:25:26,280 --> 00:25:29,240
Speaker 1: right Even a pinpoint is a picture. It's light from

551
00:25:29,280 --> 00:25:31,320
Speaker 1: the star. So yeah, I guess we do have some,

552
00:25:31,440 --> 00:25:33,760
Speaker 1: you know, pictures of these stars, but not in a

553
00:25:33,840 --> 00:25:36,119
Speaker 1: lot of great resolution, certainly not the way we can

554
00:25:36,160 --> 00:25:38,399
Speaker 1: look at our own sun, for example. But yeah, we

555
00:25:38,400 --> 00:25:41,439
Speaker 1: don't have pictures of these neutron stars at all. In

556
00:25:41,520 --> 00:25:43,159
Speaker 1: most of the cases, all we have is like a

557
00:25:43,240 --> 00:25:46,240
Speaker 1: stream of X rays, so like a time series where

558
00:25:46,240 --> 00:25:47,679
Speaker 1: we say, oh, we saw some X rays. Oh we

559
00:25:47,680 --> 00:25:49,800
Speaker 1: didn't see anymore. Now we saw some more. Because the

560
00:25:49,920 --> 00:25:53,040
Speaker 1: entire neutron star doesn't emit X rays, just little cracks

561
00:25:53,080 --> 00:25:55,840
Speaker 1: and hotspots on the surface, and so sometimes the hotspot

562
00:25:55,840 --> 00:25:57,840
Speaker 1: will be like around the back of the neutron star,

563
00:25:57,880 --> 00:25:59,920
Speaker 1: and sometimes there'll be on the front of the neutron star.

564
00:26:00,320 --> 00:26:02,320
Speaker 1: So you can learn a lot about the neutron star

565
00:26:02,560 --> 00:26:03,679
Speaker 1: from these X rays.

566
00:26:03,880 --> 00:26:05,920
Speaker 4: Yeah, and maybe it'll let you see inside of them

567
00:26:05,960 --> 00:26:09,000
Speaker 4: like regular X rays. And so let's get into more

568
00:26:09,040 --> 00:26:11,760
Speaker 4: amazing facts about neutron stars and also talk about what

569
00:26:11,800 --> 00:26:14,720
Speaker 4: could be going on inside of them. But first let's

570
00:26:14,720 --> 00:26:15,600
Speaker 4: take a quick break.

571
00:26:20,160 --> 00:26:23,160
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Speaker 4: All right, we're talking about neutron stars and what's going

640
00:29:59,880 --> 00:30:03,280
Speaker 4: on on inside of them. I'm guessing it's non neutral things.

641
00:30:03,400 --> 00:30:04,920
Speaker 4: If we have a whole episode about them.

642
00:30:04,800 --> 00:30:07,240
Speaker 1: Well, there's definitely a lot of neutrons inside there it's

643
00:30:07,240 --> 00:30:09,880
Speaker 1: hard to imagine, like and to really conceptualize what this

644
00:30:10,040 --> 00:30:13,680
Speaker 1: stuff is that's inside a neutron star because you've taken

645
00:30:13,720 --> 00:30:17,400
Speaker 1: normal matter and you've squeezed it down to incredible densities.

646
00:30:17,720 --> 00:30:20,400
Speaker 1: You know, this stuff, whatever it is, is one hundred

647
00:30:20,600 --> 00:30:25,000
Speaker 1: trillion times denser than anything we have on Earth. You know,

648
00:30:25,040 --> 00:30:27,880
Speaker 1: you think you ate a heavy lunch, that's nothing compared

649
00:30:27,920 --> 00:30:30,280
Speaker 1: to like a spoonful of neutron star.

650
00:30:30,520 --> 00:30:32,880
Speaker 4: Yeah, like, how much is a spoonful of a neutron

651
00:30:32,920 --> 00:30:33,360
Speaker 4: star weight?

652
00:30:33,440 --> 00:30:37,720
Speaker 1: Well, here on Earth it would weigh three billion tons, right,

653
00:30:37,880 --> 00:30:41,280
Speaker 1: just one tablespoon of neutron star material. Of course, if

654
00:30:41,280 --> 00:30:43,560
Speaker 1: you had it here on Earth, it would explode because

655
00:30:43,600 --> 00:30:45,880
Speaker 1: it's under great pressure. But you know, just to sort

656
00:30:45,880 --> 00:30:48,640
Speaker 1: of like conceptualize how dense it is when it's in

657
00:30:48,760 --> 00:30:52,080
Speaker 1: its location, it's a crazy amount of mass.

658
00:30:52,520 --> 00:30:54,360
Speaker 4: It would explode in your mouth. I guess like a

659
00:30:54,400 --> 00:30:57,640
Speaker 4: flavor explosion, like a flavor explosion exactly.

660
00:30:57,680 --> 00:31:00,560
Speaker 1: They should have like a summer drink called neutrons Star.

661
00:31:00,520 --> 00:31:03,280
Speaker 4: You know, mm added to our online store.

662
00:31:04,040 --> 00:31:06,520
Speaker 1: I was thinking like a seven to eleven crossover episode,

663
00:31:06,560 --> 00:31:08,040
Speaker 1: you know what.

664
00:31:09,600 --> 00:31:12,480
Speaker 4: You mean, Like an icy kind of like a slushy.

665
00:31:12,160 --> 00:31:14,600
Speaker 1: Yeah, a neutron star slurpy. You know, my daughter went

666
00:31:14,640 --> 00:31:16,480
Speaker 1: in to get a slurpey recently and she came back

667
00:31:16,520 --> 00:31:17,920
Speaker 1: with one and I said, what flavor is it? And

668
00:31:17,920 --> 00:31:20,640
Speaker 1: she said blue And I was like, blue is not

669
00:31:20,760 --> 00:31:23,480
Speaker 1: a flavor and she said, well, the guy asked me

670
00:31:23,520 --> 00:31:25,080
Speaker 1: what flavor I wanted and I said blue, and this

671
00:31:25,160 --> 00:31:25,840
Speaker 1: is what he gave me.

672
00:31:26,560 --> 00:31:26,920
Speaker 5: Mmm.

673
00:31:27,920 --> 00:31:29,320
Speaker 4: I thought she was going to say all of them.

674
00:31:29,880 --> 00:31:31,840
Speaker 4: Isn't that what you're supposed to do? Mix them all up?

675
00:31:32,240 --> 00:31:34,080
Speaker 1: I don't know then when you'll get gray, won't you?

676
00:31:34,080 --> 00:31:35,680
Speaker 1: Nobody wants to get a gray slushy.

677
00:31:35,960 --> 00:31:38,520
Speaker 4: And I think it comes out chocolate Coca Cola's chocolate color.

678
00:31:38,640 --> 00:31:41,560
Speaker 1: That sounds delicious. Maybe it's like neutron star chocolate.

679
00:31:41,640 --> 00:31:43,920
Speaker 4: But anyways, back to neutron stars. I guess the question

680
00:31:44,000 --> 00:31:45,680
Speaker 4: is what would it look like if I'm sitting in

681
00:31:45,720 --> 00:31:47,560
Speaker 4: front of a neutron star. I know we want to

682
00:31:47,560 --> 00:31:49,480
Speaker 4: get into it, but like if I was sitting outside

683
00:31:49,520 --> 00:31:52,000
Speaker 4: of it and like, you know, a few light year

684
00:31:52,160 --> 00:31:54,680
Speaker 4: or half of an au from a neutron star, what

685
00:31:54,720 --> 00:31:55,520
Speaker 4: would I be seeing?

686
00:31:55,680 --> 00:31:57,320
Speaker 1: So if you're close enough to you know, this thing

687
00:31:57,440 --> 00:31:59,520
Speaker 1: is hot, so it's going to emit some light, and

688
00:31:59,600 --> 00:32:01,840
Speaker 1: you're gonna also going to see hot spots from its surface.

689
00:32:01,920 --> 00:32:03,720
Speaker 1: But one thing about a neutron star is that the

690
00:32:03,760 --> 00:32:07,320
Speaker 1: gravity is so strong near the neutron star that it

691
00:32:07,360 --> 00:32:09,840
Speaker 1: distorts the space around it, sort of the way a

692
00:32:09,880 --> 00:32:12,160
Speaker 1: black hole does. We're used to thinking about this for

693
00:32:12,240 --> 00:32:14,040
Speaker 1: black holes. You know that if you're in front of

694
00:32:14,080 --> 00:32:16,880
Speaker 1: a black hole, you're looking at the event horizon. You're

695
00:32:16,920 --> 00:32:19,600
Speaker 1: not only seeing the part of the event horizon that's

696
00:32:19,640 --> 00:32:21,720
Speaker 1: on your side of it. You can also see around

697
00:32:21,800 --> 00:32:25,000
Speaker 1: the back of the black hole because photons emitted near

698
00:32:25,120 --> 00:32:27,760
Speaker 1: there would be bent by the curvature or of space and

699
00:32:27,800 --> 00:32:30,520
Speaker 1: come to your eyeballs. The same thing is true around

700
00:32:30,600 --> 00:32:34,360
Speaker 1: neutron stars because they are so incredibly dense. Right, the

701
00:32:34,400 --> 00:32:37,280
Speaker 1: gravitational field at the surface of a neutron star is

702
00:32:37,360 --> 00:32:42,520
Speaker 1: two hundred billion times stronger than the gravitational forces on

703
00:32:42,560 --> 00:32:44,400
Speaker 1: the surface of the Earth. So if you're looking at

704
00:32:44,440 --> 00:32:46,400
Speaker 1: a neutron star, you can not only see the front

705
00:32:46,400 --> 00:32:48,400
Speaker 1: of it, you can also see the back of it

706
00:32:48,520 --> 00:32:49,720
Speaker 1: at the same time.

707
00:32:50,000 --> 00:32:51,960
Speaker 4: So if you were on a neutron star, you would

708
00:32:51,960 --> 00:32:54,000
Speaker 4: wait two hundred billion times more than.

709
00:32:53,880 --> 00:32:56,160
Speaker 1: You do now. Yeah, so start working out.

710
00:32:56,040 --> 00:32:58,160
Speaker 4: So I can I can stand up, is that what

711
00:32:58,280 --> 00:32:59,520
Speaker 4: you mean? Or so I can lose weight?

712
00:33:00,160 --> 00:33:03,320
Speaker 1: You can survive, man, that thing would tear you to shreds.

713
00:33:03,400 --> 00:33:05,600
Speaker 1: Not only is the force of gravity very very strong,

714
00:33:05,800 --> 00:33:08,320
Speaker 1: but it varies very quickly, you know, and so you

715
00:33:08,320 --> 00:33:11,200
Speaker 1: get tidal forces. The difference between the gravitational force on

716
00:33:11,240 --> 00:33:14,080
Speaker 1: your head and on your shoulders would be very strong

717
00:33:14,560 --> 00:33:17,680
Speaker 1: enough to rip your head off of your shoulders. So

718
00:33:17,800 --> 00:33:20,280
Speaker 1: I wouldn't recommend a trip to a neutron star.

719
00:33:20,400 --> 00:33:23,120
Speaker 4: Would there be a spaghnification point like in a black hole?

720
00:33:23,320 --> 00:33:25,400
Speaker 1: Yeah, well, before you got to the surface of the

721
00:33:25,440 --> 00:33:27,920
Speaker 1: neutron star, you would be torn apart because the tidal

722
00:33:27,960 --> 00:33:30,480
Speaker 1: forces would be very very strong. Remember, this thing only

723
00:33:30,520 --> 00:33:33,240
Speaker 1: has the mass of the Sun right so far away.

724
00:33:33,280 --> 00:33:36,200
Speaker 1: It has the same gravitational force as the Sun, but

725
00:33:36,320 --> 00:33:38,400
Speaker 1: you can get much much closer to all of that

726
00:33:38,520 --> 00:33:41,080
Speaker 1: mass because it's compressed down to just like you know,

727
00:33:41,160 --> 00:33:44,680
Speaker 1: ten or twenty kilometers, whereas our Sun is huge. So

728
00:33:44,720 --> 00:33:46,880
Speaker 1: if you're on the surface of our Sun, you're very

729
00:33:46,960 --> 00:33:50,280
Speaker 1: far away from the gravitational center of mass, whereas if

730
00:33:50,280 --> 00:33:52,400
Speaker 1: you're in the surface of the neutron star, you're only

731
00:33:52,440 --> 00:33:55,800
Speaker 1: ten kilometers from an entire star's worth of mass. That's

732
00:33:55,800 --> 00:33:59,040
Speaker 1: why the gravitational forces are so much stronger for the

733
00:33:59,040 --> 00:34:01,680
Speaker 1: same amount of mass, because you can get closer to it.

734
00:34:01,720 --> 00:34:03,800
Speaker 4: So you and the spaghetti you head for lunch would

735
00:34:03,800 --> 00:34:05,600
Speaker 4: turn into spaghetti exactly.

736
00:34:05,640 --> 00:34:06,560
Speaker 1: You would be postified.

737
00:34:06,680 --> 00:34:08,600
Speaker 4: All right, Well, that I guess. The big good question

738
00:34:08,640 --> 00:34:10,879
Speaker 4: now is why is it even called the neutron star?

739
00:34:11,000 --> 00:34:13,239
Speaker 4: Like is it full of neutrons? Basically? And how did

740
00:34:13,239 --> 00:34:15,439
Speaker 4: a regular sun, which is what it was before it's

741
00:34:15,480 --> 00:34:18,000
Speaker 4: supernovad and collapse into a neutron star? Is made out

742
00:34:18,040 --> 00:34:20,200
Speaker 4: of all kinds of stuff, right, like iron and all

743
00:34:20,280 --> 00:34:24,160
Speaker 4: kinds of complex elements and electrons and protons. But now

744
00:34:24,680 --> 00:34:27,359
Speaker 4: it seems to have collapsed into something that you now

745
00:34:27,400 --> 00:34:29,919
Speaker 4: call a neutron star. So is did everything just turned

746
00:34:29,960 --> 00:34:30,799
Speaker 4: into neutrons or what?

747
00:34:31,040 --> 00:34:34,320
Speaker 1: Yeah, everything turns into neutrons. Right. You have your atom

748
00:34:34,440 --> 00:34:37,520
Speaker 1: which has neutrons, protons and electrons in it, right, Well,

749
00:34:37,520 --> 00:34:40,600
Speaker 1: what happens if you squeeze that down really really far,

750
00:34:40,840 --> 00:34:43,359
Speaker 1: if you really push a bunch of that stuff together, Well,

751
00:34:43,360 --> 00:34:45,920
Speaker 1: if you get the electron and the proton close enough

752
00:34:45,920 --> 00:34:48,920
Speaker 1: to each other, well you know they have opposite charges.

753
00:34:49,040 --> 00:34:51,520
Speaker 1: And so they actually kind of like to hang out together.

754
00:34:51,640 --> 00:34:54,759
Speaker 1: So if you squeeze them down enough, the proton captures

755
00:34:54,880 --> 00:34:58,360
Speaker 1: the electron. The electron gets like eaten by the proton,

756
00:34:58,600 --> 00:35:01,520
Speaker 1: and that converts it into a neutron. It's exactly the

757
00:35:01,520 --> 00:35:05,480
Speaker 1: opposite process of neutron decay that we talked about recently

758
00:35:05,480 --> 00:35:09,040
Speaker 1: on the podcast, where a neutron turns into a proton

759
00:35:09,160 --> 00:35:12,120
Speaker 1: and electron. This is the reverse process. So you put

760
00:35:12,239 --> 00:35:14,920
Speaker 1: enough energy into it, you can reverse basically anything that

761
00:35:14,960 --> 00:35:17,240
Speaker 1: happens in the universe. And so this is what happens.

762
00:35:17,280 --> 00:35:20,200
Speaker 1: If you squeeze down matter, all the protons and electrons

763
00:35:20,320 --> 00:35:22,000
Speaker 1: merge and become neutrons.

764
00:35:22,200 --> 00:35:25,200
Speaker 4: So usually electrons and protons are attracted to each other,

765
00:35:25,320 --> 00:35:27,960
Speaker 4: but they don't get together and merge. Right, what's keeping

766
00:35:27,960 --> 00:35:28,440
Speaker 4: them apart?

767
00:35:28,560 --> 00:35:30,960
Speaker 1: Well, what's keeping them apart usually is that the electron

768
00:35:31,040 --> 00:35:33,160
Speaker 1: is in a stable state, just the way, for example,

769
00:35:33,200 --> 00:35:35,360
Speaker 1: the Earth is in a stable state around the Sun.

770
00:35:35,480 --> 00:35:38,000
Speaker 1: The Earth and the Sun attract each other, there's gravity there, Right,

771
00:35:38,040 --> 00:35:40,600
Speaker 1: Why doesn't the Earth collapse into the Sun Because it

772
00:35:40,600 --> 00:35:43,200
Speaker 1: has enough energy to resist that, right, it can stay

773
00:35:43,239 --> 00:35:45,440
Speaker 1: in a stable orbit. And so you shouldn't be thinking

774
00:35:45,480 --> 00:35:49,080
Speaker 1: about electrons as orbiting protons, but they have enough energy,

775
00:35:49,080 --> 00:35:52,080
Speaker 1: they have a minimum energy in their stable solution to

776
00:35:52,160 --> 00:35:56,239
Speaker 1: avoid collapsing into the proton. And so here you're overcoming that, right,

777
00:35:56,320 --> 00:36:00,160
Speaker 1: you are like squeezing electron down. You're applying external pressure.

778
00:36:00,239 --> 00:36:03,000
Speaker 1: And so that's why an electron doesn't collapse into the proton,

779
00:36:03,040 --> 00:36:05,160
Speaker 1: because it has enough energy to avoid it. But that's

780
00:36:05,200 --> 00:36:07,400
Speaker 1: if it's by itself, if you squeeze on if you

781
00:36:07,440 --> 00:36:09,600
Speaker 1: push on it from the outside, if you confine it

782
00:36:09,960 --> 00:36:12,920
Speaker 1: to a location the size of the proton, then it

783
00:36:12,920 --> 00:36:14,240
Speaker 1: gets captured by the proton.

784
00:36:15,040 --> 00:36:17,920
Speaker 4: And then what happens The proton eats the electron, right,

785
00:36:17,960 --> 00:36:20,279
Speaker 4: because a proton is made out of three quarks and

786
00:36:20,320 --> 00:36:22,560
Speaker 4: a neutron is made out of three quarks. So then

787
00:36:22,840 --> 00:36:25,320
Speaker 4: does the electron just sort of like flip one of

788
00:36:25,360 --> 00:36:26,520
Speaker 4: the quarks or something.

789
00:36:26,680 --> 00:36:29,879
Speaker 1: Yeah, that's exactly what happens. Remember, a proton is two

790
00:36:30,000 --> 00:36:33,759
Speaker 1: upquarks and a down and a neutron is two down

791
00:36:33,800 --> 00:36:36,440
Speaker 1: quarks and and up. So what happens when an electron

792
00:36:36,640 --> 00:36:39,640
Speaker 1: is captured is that you're converting one of those upquarks

793
00:36:39,640 --> 00:36:42,120
Speaker 1: into a down quark, and so that converts the proton

794
00:36:42,239 --> 00:36:45,719
Speaker 1: into a neutron. There's also one more step because you

795
00:36:45,760 --> 00:36:48,399
Speaker 1: can't just delete electrons from the universe, so you also

796
00:36:48,600 --> 00:36:50,919
Speaker 1: need to create an electron neutrino. Hmm.

797
00:36:51,280 --> 00:36:55,719
Speaker 4: Interesting. So it's like the proton eats the electrons and

798
00:36:55,760 --> 00:36:58,200
Speaker 4: then then they become neutral. And then what happens to

799
00:36:58,200 --> 00:37:00,600
Speaker 4: all of these neutrinos. It just get spit up into space.

800
00:37:00,719 --> 00:37:03,840
Speaker 1: Yeah, they get spit out into space because neutrinos mostly

801
00:37:03,880 --> 00:37:07,240
Speaker 1: see stuff in the universe as transparent, right, They hardly

802
00:37:07,280 --> 00:37:09,319
Speaker 1: interact with anything. They can go through a light year

803
00:37:09,320 --> 00:37:12,399
Speaker 1: of lead without interacting, and so mostly they just get

804
00:37:12,440 --> 00:37:15,440
Speaker 1: shot out while it's collapsing. Remember, supernovas, the process that

805
00:37:15,520 --> 00:37:21,000
Speaker 1: produces these neutron stars emit most of their energy via neutrinos, right,

806
00:37:21,080 --> 00:37:23,480
Speaker 1: Something like ninety nine percent of the energy of a

807
00:37:23,520 --> 00:37:26,880
Speaker 1: supernova is not emitted visually, not in the optical, not

808
00:37:27,000 --> 00:37:29,640
Speaker 1: via photons at all, but via neutrinos, and so this

809
00:37:29,760 --> 00:37:31,680
Speaker 1: is part of the process that creates all of those

810
00:37:31,680 --> 00:37:33,800
Speaker 1: neutrinos when the supernova happens.

811
00:37:34,640 --> 00:37:38,200
Speaker 4: Yeah, supernovas are known to be silent, but deadly silent

812
00:37:38,239 --> 00:37:38,840
Speaker 4: and invisible.

813
00:37:38,920 --> 00:37:41,200
Speaker 1: Supernovas are incredible because you can see them with the

814
00:37:41,280 --> 00:37:43,600
Speaker 1: naked eye, right, that's how bright they are. All of

815
00:37:43,640 --> 00:37:47,239
Speaker 1: a sudden, a star becomes as bright as the entire galaxy,

816
00:37:47,560 --> 00:37:50,160
Speaker 1: and that's just the visible light we're talking about. It

817
00:37:50,200 --> 00:37:53,000
Speaker 1: turns out there's one hundred times more energy in the

818
00:37:53,080 --> 00:37:55,760
Speaker 1: new trinos. We had a whole fun podcast episode about

819
00:37:55,760 --> 00:37:59,680
Speaker 1: how supernovas can be seen first in neutrinos with our

820
00:37:59,680 --> 00:38:02,960
Speaker 1: Newton trino telescopes, and so this is part of the process.

821
00:38:03,080 --> 00:38:06,840
Speaker 1: Creating those neutron stars means making neutrons, which also requires

822
00:38:06,840 --> 00:38:09,440
Speaker 1: you to make the neutrinos, because you've got to balance

823
00:38:09,440 --> 00:38:11,240
Speaker 1: the books of particle physics in the end.

824
00:38:11,280 --> 00:38:14,080
Speaker 4: Right, So they're called neutron stars, but actually not all

825
00:38:14,120 --> 00:38:17,600
Speaker 4: of it inside are neutrons. And so maybe can maybe

826
00:38:17,640 --> 00:38:20,600
Speaker 4: step us through a little bit like as the supernova's

827
00:38:20,680 --> 00:38:23,800
Speaker 4: collapsing and as things are getting squeezed together, like what's

828
00:38:23,800 --> 00:38:27,040
Speaker 4: happening to all those atoms of the bigger elements. They're

829
00:38:27,040 --> 00:38:31,040
Speaker 4: just getting broken up and squeezed together or they just explode.

830
00:38:31,040 --> 00:38:31,759
Speaker 4: What's going on?

831
00:38:31,880 --> 00:38:33,759
Speaker 1: So some of them get broken up, It depends on

832
00:38:33,800 --> 00:38:35,839
Speaker 1: where they end up. So we'll learn about it as

833
00:38:35,840 --> 00:38:38,400
Speaker 1: we step through the layers of the neutron star. But

834
00:38:38,480 --> 00:38:41,120
Speaker 1: near the outside of the neutron star, for example, the

835
00:38:41,200 --> 00:38:44,280
Speaker 1: atoms don't get broken up. You get atomic nuclei still,

836
00:38:44,360 --> 00:38:47,600
Speaker 1: for example, So the outer crust of a neutron star

837
00:38:47,960 --> 00:38:50,359
Speaker 1: is atomic nuclei. You can have helium there, you can

838
00:38:50,360 --> 00:38:52,720
Speaker 1: have carbon, you can have oxygen, this kind of stuff.

839
00:38:52,719 --> 00:38:55,440
Speaker 1: It's only as you get deeper in that these nuclei

840
00:38:55,600 --> 00:38:58,960
Speaker 1: gets squished together so far that the separation between the

841
00:38:59,040 --> 00:39:01,360
Speaker 1: nuclei break down, and then you just get like a

842
00:39:01,400 --> 00:39:03,920
Speaker 1: sea of neutrons or maybe a sea of quarks, or

843
00:39:04,000 --> 00:39:06,560
Speaker 1: maybe even weirder stuff. And so you can't really think

844
00:39:06,600 --> 00:39:10,680
Speaker 1: about it as like lead or iron or carbon anymore

845
00:39:10,760 --> 00:39:13,600
Speaker 1: because it's gotten broken up into its constituent bits.

846
00:39:14,320 --> 00:39:16,359
Speaker 4: That's at the very center. But you're saying that at

847
00:39:16,400 --> 00:39:18,839
Speaker 4: the crust of a neutron star you could get you

848
00:39:18,920 --> 00:39:19,840
Speaker 4: just have regular stuff.

849
00:39:19,880 --> 00:39:22,520
Speaker 1: Then, yeah, at the crust you just have regular stuff.

850
00:39:22,239 --> 00:39:23,719
Speaker 4: Like you might be able to like stand on it

851
00:39:23,760 --> 00:39:25,680
Speaker 4: maybe or is it all sort of like in a

852
00:39:25,760 --> 00:39:27,120
Speaker 4: liquid or gas form.

853
00:39:27,280 --> 00:39:29,720
Speaker 1: So there is an atmosphere of a neutron star. Actually

854
00:39:29,719 --> 00:39:35,400
Speaker 1: there's like a gaseous atmosphere, but it's micrometers thick, like micrometers,

855
00:39:35,640 --> 00:39:38,600
Speaker 1: So this thing is like ten kilometers or fifteen kilometers wide,

856
00:39:38,640 --> 00:39:42,320
Speaker 1: and it has an atmosphere that's like micrometers of gas

857
00:39:42,760 --> 00:39:46,240
Speaker 1: just above the surface. And then the surface itself is hard.

858
00:39:46,360 --> 00:39:49,719
Speaker 1: It's like brittle, it's like a crunchy, right, and it's

859
00:39:49,800 --> 00:39:52,839
Speaker 1: made of atomic nuclei. So these are things that used

860
00:39:52,840 --> 00:39:56,040
Speaker 1: to be part of the star, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, whatever,

861
00:39:56,200 --> 00:39:59,480
Speaker 1: and now it's crystallized into this like lattice on the

862
00:39:59,520 --> 00:40:02,319
Speaker 1: outside of the star, which is very, very smooth because

863
00:40:02,320 --> 00:40:05,040
Speaker 1: the gravity is so strong that you basically can't form

864
00:40:05,120 --> 00:40:08,120
Speaker 1: any hills. So they think that like the maximum elevation

865
00:40:08,239 --> 00:40:10,239
Speaker 1: on the surface of a neutron star might be like

866
00:40:10,360 --> 00:40:13,040
Speaker 1: one millimeter, or gravity like pulls it back down.

867
00:40:13,280 --> 00:40:16,160
Speaker 4: So if you're standing next to a neutron star, what

868
00:40:16,200 --> 00:40:20,359
Speaker 4: you would see is basically a big, shiny smooth ball, right,

869
00:40:20,800 --> 00:40:23,400
Speaker 4: made out of some of these heavier elements.

870
00:40:23,040 --> 00:40:27,520
Speaker 1: Almost perfectly shiny smooth ball. Really incredible how spherical this

871
00:40:27,640 --> 00:40:30,040
Speaker 1: thing will be. But there'll be some exceptions. Because the

872
00:40:30,120 --> 00:40:33,200
Speaker 1: crust is brittle, the crust can crack, right, it's under

873
00:40:33,280 --> 00:40:37,279
Speaker 1: incredible pressure gravity squeezing it down, and sometimes you get

874
00:40:37,280 --> 00:40:39,120
Speaker 1: like a little bit of a weakness and so you

875
00:40:39,120 --> 00:40:41,440
Speaker 1: can get like a star quake because you get a

876
00:40:41,480 --> 00:40:44,359
Speaker 1: crack in this crust and things like adjust a little bit,

877
00:40:44,400 --> 00:40:46,759
Speaker 1: and that's when, for example, X rays can leak out.

878
00:40:46,800 --> 00:40:48,520
Speaker 1: So the reason you get X rays is from these

879
00:40:48,560 --> 00:40:51,600
Speaker 1: hot spots which can cause these little neutron star quakes

880
00:40:51,640 --> 00:40:52,280
Speaker 1: on the surface.

881
00:40:52,600 --> 00:40:55,439
Speaker 4: Well, but what if it's spinning, wouldn't it also kind

882
00:40:55,480 --> 00:40:56,680
Speaker 4: of give it a weird shape.

883
00:40:56,760 --> 00:40:59,040
Speaker 1: Right, it is spinning, and so that changes it from

884
00:40:59,040 --> 00:41:02,080
Speaker 1: a sphericle a little bit, right, But it's also very

885
00:41:02,200 --> 00:41:05,759
Speaker 1: very compact Gravitationally, how far something goes from sphericles a

886
00:41:05,840 --> 00:41:09,120
Speaker 1: balance between how fast it's spinning and also how strong

887
00:41:09,200 --> 00:41:11,520
Speaker 1: the gravity is. So we've never seen one of these things.

888
00:41:11,520 --> 00:41:14,160
Speaker 1: But you're right, it wouldn't be perfectly spherical, though it

889
00:41:14,239 --> 00:41:16,080
Speaker 1: still would be very very smooth.

890
00:41:16,320 --> 00:41:18,719
Speaker 4: All Right. So I'm standing on top of a neutron star.

891
00:41:18,920 --> 00:41:21,799
Speaker 4: I weigh two hundred billion times more than I normally do,

892
00:41:22,000 --> 00:41:24,440
Speaker 4: and so I take a pickaxe and I crack the surface.

893
00:41:24,800 --> 00:41:25,760
Speaker 4: What do I see inside?

894
00:41:25,840 --> 00:41:27,239
Speaker 1: So you've got to dig a little bit with So

895
00:41:27,320 --> 00:41:29,560
Speaker 1: inside the neutron star is a little bit more crust.

896
00:41:29,560 --> 00:41:31,920
Speaker 1: You've got to dig a little bit into it before

897
00:41:31,960 --> 00:41:33,799
Speaker 1: you get to sort of like the next layer. And

898
00:41:33,840 --> 00:41:35,960
Speaker 1: we're not sure, of course about any of this. A

899
00:41:35,960 --> 00:41:38,279
Speaker 1: lot of this is speculation. These are models that we've

900
00:41:38,280 --> 00:41:41,440
Speaker 1: developed based on our calculations from our understanding of the

901
00:41:41,480 --> 00:41:43,680
Speaker 1: strong force and gravity, et cetera. But we think that

902
00:41:43,760 --> 00:41:46,880
Speaker 1: this outer crust is like three hundred to five hundred

903
00:41:46,960 --> 00:41:50,439
Speaker 1: meters thick. Once you penetrate through the crust, then these

904
00:41:50,480 --> 00:41:53,319
Speaker 1: elements are no longer able to hold on to themselves, right,

905
00:41:53,360 --> 00:41:56,560
Speaker 1: They're squeezed together by pressure, and so you get this

906
00:41:56,719 --> 00:41:59,920
Speaker 1: like soup of neutrons that we think are just sort

907
00:41:59,920 --> 00:42:02,880
Speaker 1: of like floating around there where the atoms themselves are

908
00:42:02,920 --> 00:42:05,640
Speaker 1: getting broken up, so they're no longer really like have

909
00:42:05,760 --> 00:42:07,560
Speaker 1: their identity as an element.

910
00:42:07,760 --> 00:42:09,520
Speaker 4: I see. So on the shew you still had the

911
00:42:09,560 --> 00:42:12,480
Speaker 4: heavier elements like lead and carbon, but then now they're

912
00:42:12,480 --> 00:42:15,799
Speaker 4: being squeezed together so much they what they like, They

913
00:42:15,880 --> 00:42:18,600
Speaker 4: just break apart the nuclei or they merge together.

914
00:42:18,840 --> 00:42:20,680
Speaker 1: They do both. It sort of varies. As you go

915
00:42:20,760 --> 00:42:23,760
Speaker 1: in near the outer layers of this part. They first

916
00:42:23,800 --> 00:42:26,440
Speaker 1: merge together because they're getting squeezed together, and so you

917
00:42:26,440 --> 00:42:29,520
Speaker 1: have weird fusion happening. You have like weird heavy elements

918
00:42:29,719 --> 00:42:33,080
Speaker 1: that couldn't exist in other situations, you know, that wouldn't

919
00:42:33,120 --> 00:42:35,520
Speaker 1: be stable out there on their own in the universe.

920
00:42:35,719 --> 00:42:38,319
Speaker 1: But under this crazy pressure, we think you can form

921
00:42:38,400 --> 00:42:41,720
Speaker 1: like ridiculously heavy elements, you know, things with huge numbers

922
00:42:41,719 --> 00:42:44,480
Speaker 1: of neutrons on them. As you go further and further in,

923
00:42:44,880 --> 00:42:48,160
Speaker 1: things become more and more neutrony. Right. It's not pure neutrons.

924
00:42:48,200 --> 00:42:51,080
Speaker 1: You still have some protons and some electrons. Not every

925
00:42:51,080 --> 00:42:54,720
Speaker 1: single proton and electron has been converted into a neutron.

926
00:42:54,920 --> 00:42:57,240
Speaker 1: But as you go inwards you have like a higher

927
00:42:57,239 --> 00:43:00,000
Speaker 1: and higher fraction of neutrons.

928
00:43:00,080 --> 00:43:02,160
Speaker 4: Because I guess as you squeeze this stuff together, that's

929
00:43:02,200 --> 00:43:04,720
Speaker 4: what it all ends up as, right, just plain neutrons,

930
00:43:04,760 --> 00:43:08,040
Speaker 4: because all of the electrons and the protons eat each.

931
00:43:07,880 --> 00:43:10,360
Speaker 1: Other exactly, and we think that overall there's going to

932
00:43:10,360 --> 00:43:12,440
Speaker 1: be a charge of balance. So there is a proton

933
00:43:12,600 --> 00:43:15,319
Speaker 1: for every electron, and so you squeeze it hard enough

934
00:43:15,320 --> 00:43:17,759
Speaker 1: and they'll find each other eventually. But so as you

935
00:43:17,800 --> 00:43:19,520
Speaker 1: go deeper and deeper in, you get like a higher

936
00:43:19,520 --> 00:43:21,400
Speaker 1: and higher fraction of neutrons.

937
00:43:22,160 --> 00:43:24,399
Speaker 4: And then what happens is you go in deeper as.

938
00:43:24,320 --> 00:43:26,960
Speaker 1: We go in deeper is where the real mystery is, right,

939
00:43:27,000 --> 00:43:29,759
Speaker 1: and so you have this inner core where we don't

940
00:43:29,800 --> 00:43:32,759
Speaker 1: really know what's going on, Like we think maybe there's

941
00:43:32,760 --> 00:43:35,840
Speaker 1: some super fluid neutron matter there, Like we think that

942
00:43:35,920 --> 00:43:39,320
Speaker 1: maybe under these conditions the neutrons just like slide around

943
00:43:39,400 --> 00:43:41,920
Speaker 1: past each other and have all this weird chemistry. This

944
00:43:42,040 --> 00:43:43,799
Speaker 1: is a lot of where the question marks are. You

945
00:43:43,880 --> 00:43:46,120
Speaker 1: might wonder, like, well, why is it a question mark?

946
00:43:46,239 --> 00:43:48,600
Speaker 1: Can't we just take the laws of physics that we

947
00:43:48,680 --> 00:43:52,239
Speaker 1: have gravity and the strong force and do the calculations

948
00:43:52,280 --> 00:43:55,080
Speaker 1: and say what does it predict? It's not always so easy,

949
00:43:55,200 --> 00:43:57,759
Speaker 1: right to say I know what the laws are, what's

950
00:43:57,800 --> 00:43:59,839
Speaker 1: going to happen. We can't even do that for lots

951
00:43:59,840 --> 00:44:02,040
Speaker 1: of situations. You know, if you just gave me quantum

952
00:44:02,080 --> 00:44:04,920
Speaker 1: mechanics and a baseball and said here's ten to the

953
00:44:04,960 --> 00:44:08,200
Speaker 1: twenty nine particles, what do they do next? It'd be

954
00:44:08,320 --> 00:44:10,440
Speaker 1: very very hard for me to come up with like

955
00:44:10,640 --> 00:44:13,600
Speaker 1: parabolic motion. It's not easy always to go from the

956
00:44:13,680 --> 00:44:16,759
Speaker 1: underlying laws to predicting what's going to happen on the

957
00:44:16,800 --> 00:44:21,000
Speaker 1: macroscopic scale, and especially when things are very very strong,

958
00:44:21,239 --> 00:44:23,840
Speaker 1: when the forces are very powerful, here you have gravity,

959
00:44:23,880 --> 00:44:27,080
Speaker 1: which is unusually powerful because it's so dense, and you

960
00:44:27,120 --> 00:44:31,080
Speaker 1: have the strong force doing its thing with very short distances.

961
00:44:31,120 --> 00:44:34,239
Speaker 1: These things are exchanging incredible numbers of gluons. So we

962
00:44:34,360 --> 00:44:37,279
Speaker 1: just don't know how to do that calculation. Even if

963
00:44:37,560 --> 00:44:39,719
Speaker 1: the laws that we have, the ideas that we have

964
00:44:39,800 --> 00:44:43,120
Speaker 1: about what's fundamentally guiding it are true, we don't know

965
00:44:43,120 --> 00:44:45,759
Speaker 1: how to take those and predict in great detail what's

966
00:44:45,800 --> 00:44:49,440
Speaker 1: going on inside. It just gets too crazy. It just

967
00:44:49,520 --> 00:44:51,520
Speaker 1: gets too crazy, or it's too many things to keep

968
00:44:51,560 --> 00:44:53,960
Speaker 1: track of. So we've tried, and we have a few ideas.

969
00:44:54,000 --> 00:44:56,920
Speaker 1: People make approximations this way or approximations that way, or

970
00:44:56,920 --> 00:44:59,280
Speaker 1: they say maybe it's like this, or maybe this equation

971
00:44:59,400 --> 00:45:02,560
Speaker 1: will work. But everybody's reaching past the edge of what

972
00:45:02,600 --> 00:45:05,520
Speaker 1: they really know. So there's a bunch of speculative ideas

973
00:45:05,719 --> 00:45:08,680
Speaker 1: and they're all really different. They're all totally different from

974
00:45:08,680 --> 00:45:10,480
Speaker 1: each other, and so we'd love to see it. We'd

975
00:45:10,520 --> 00:45:12,680
Speaker 1: love to understand what's going on there because it would

976
00:45:12,719 --> 00:45:15,359
Speaker 1: tell us, oh, this idea is correct, or actually, none

977
00:45:15,400 --> 00:45:17,799
Speaker 1: of your ideas are correct, and something totally weird and

978
00:45:17,840 --> 00:45:20,600
Speaker 1: unexpected happens. So that's what we're trying to do. Unfortunately,

979
00:45:20,680 --> 00:45:23,560
Speaker 1: of course, we can't see the inside of the neutron star.

980
00:45:23,800 --> 00:45:25,640
Speaker 1: We have to just try to guess what's going on

981
00:45:25,760 --> 00:45:28,080
Speaker 1: based on what we can see from the outside.

982
00:45:28,200 --> 00:45:30,000
Speaker 4: All right, well, let's get to the core of this

983
00:45:30,120 --> 00:45:33,800
Speaker 4: mystery and think about what exciting and maybe delicious things

984
00:45:33,920 --> 00:45:37,200
Speaker 4: could be inside at the core of neutron stars. First,

985
00:45:37,280 --> 00:45:38,680
Speaker 4: let's take another quick break.

986
00:45:43,719 --> 00:45:45,520
Speaker 1: When you pop a piece of cheese into your mouth,

987
00:45:45,640 --> 00:45:48,760
Speaker 1: or enjoy a rich spoonful of greeky yogurt, you're probably

988
00:45:48,800 --> 00:45:52,840
Speaker 1: not thinking about the environmental impact of each and every bite.

989
00:45:52,880 --> 00:45:55,520
Speaker 1: But the people in the dairy industry are. US Dairy

990
00:45:55,560 --> 00:45:59,719
Speaker 1: has set themselves some ambitious sustainability goals, including being greenhouse

991
00:45:59,760 --> 00:46:02,439
Speaker 1: gut neutral by twenty to fifty. That's why they're working

992
00:46:02,480 --> 00:46:04,799
Speaker 1: hard every day to find new ways to reduce waste,

993
00:46:04,880 --> 00:46:09,120
Speaker 1: conserve natural resources, and drive down greenhouse gas emissions. Take water,

994
00:46:09,160 --> 00:46:12,240
Speaker 1: for example, most dairy farms reuse water up to four

995
00:46:12,280 --> 00:46:15,760
Speaker 1: times the same water cools the milk, cleans equipment, washes

996
00:46:15,800 --> 00:46:18,600
Speaker 1: the barn, and irrigates the crops. How is US dairy

997
00:46:18,640 --> 00:46:22,359
Speaker 1: tackling greenhouse gases? Many farms use anaerobic digestors that turn

998
00:46:22,440 --> 00:46:26,320
Speaker 1: the methane from maneuver into renewable energy that can power farms, towns,

999
00:46:26,360 --> 00:46:28,440
Speaker 1: and electric cars. So the next time you grab a

1000
00:46:28,440 --> 00:46:30,480
Speaker 1: slice of pizza or lick an ice cream cone, know

1001
00:46:30,560 --> 00:46:33,239
Speaker 1: that dairy farmers and processors around the country are using

1002
00:46:33,280 --> 00:46:36,759
Speaker 1: the latest practices and innovations to provide the nutrient dense

1003
00:46:36,880 --> 00:46:39,600
Speaker 1: dairy products we love with less of an impact. Visit

1004
00:46:39,680 --> 00:46:42,479
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1005
00:46:42,680 --> 00:46:46,320
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1006
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1019
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1020
00:47:31,080 --> 00:47:33,560
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1021
00:47:33,560 --> 00:47:35,759
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1022
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1023
00:47:39,360 --> 00:47:41,640
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1024
00:47:41,680 --> 00:47:44,600
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1025
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1026
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1032
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1033
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1034
00:48:17,680 --> 00:48:20,279
Speaker 4: All right, we're talking about neutron stars and what is

1035
00:48:20,320 --> 00:48:22,560
Speaker 4: inside of them, and I'm sort of getting the picture, Daniel,

1036
00:48:22,640 --> 00:48:25,640
Speaker 4: Dad inside of a neutron star are not necessarily neutrons.

1037
00:48:25,640 --> 00:48:27,160
Speaker 4: There seem to be a lot of other stuff.

1038
00:48:27,320 --> 00:48:29,320
Speaker 1: They should be called mostly neutron.

1039
00:48:28,960 --> 00:48:32,600
Speaker 4: Stars neutron ish star yeah, or neutrino stars.

1040
00:48:32,640 --> 00:48:34,759
Speaker 1: Well, all the neutrinos have left the building, right, They

1041
00:48:34,760 --> 00:48:36,720
Speaker 1: took their little weak forces and they ran away.

1042
00:48:37,000 --> 00:48:39,440
Speaker 4: I see there are no Italians in the room anymore.

1043
00:48:39,600 --> 00:48:41,279
Speaker 4: You're free to make whatever passa you want.

1044
00:48:42,000 --> 00:48:44,600
Speaker 1: That's all the rules are out the window. How all

1045
00:48:44,680 --> 00:48:47,040
Speaker 1: Dente is the inside of a neutron star.

1046
00:48:47,320 --> 00:48:49,959
Speaker 4: So we cracked the heard surface of a neutron star.

1047
00:48:50,040 --> 00:48:52,680
Speaker 4: We dug in a little bit, and you get this

1048
00:48:52,800 --> 00:48:56,560
Speaker 4: soup of electrons and neutrons, maybe like super duper heavy atoms,

1049
00:48:56,560 --> 00:48:59,120
Speaker 4: but eventually those break down as you go deeper and

1050
00:48:59,160 --> 00:49:03,560
Speaker 4: deeper into the new start to you get basically just neutrons, right,

1051
00:49:03,760 --> 00:49:05,719
Speaker 4: like a sea of neutrons. But then what happens as

1052
00:49:05,760 --> 00:49:07,080
Speaker 4: you go even further in?

1053
00:49:07,280 --> 00:49:10,000
Speaker 1: So we don't know what those neutrons do, And that's

1054
00:49:10,040 --> 00:49:12,120
Speaker 1: fundamentally the question, Like if you have a bunch of

1055
00:49:12,160 --> 00:49:16,080
Speaker 1: neutrons and you squeeze them into these incredibly dense situations,

1056
00:49:16,480 --> 00:49:20,640
Speaker 1: what do they do? Do they form a superfluid or

1057
00:49:20,680 --> 00:49:21,840
Speaker 1: do they do something else?

1058
00:49:21,880 --> 00:49:25,080
Speaker 4: Something weird, but you're still calling them neutrons because like,

1059
00:49:25,200 --> 00:49:27,839
Speaker 4: inside of a neutrons are three quarks. But so you're

1060
00:49:27,840 --> 00:49:30,520
Speaker 4: saying at this point, like each triplet of quarks is

1061
00:49:30,520 --> 00:49:34,520
Speaker 4: still held together, they're just interacting with other triplets of neutrons.

1062
00:49:34,680 --> 00:49:37,960
Speaker 4: Or have the quarks sort of even broken out of that.

1063
00:49:37,960 --> 00:49:40,239
Speaker 1: That's one of the options, right, Do the neutrons stay

1064
00:49:40,239 --> 00:49:44,200
Speaker 1: together and form weird shapes, weird emergence structures, or do

1065
00:49:44,280 --> 00:49:46,920
Speaker 1: they break down? And really we should be talking about

1066
00:49:47,040 --> 00:49:50,080
Speaker 1: quark matter, you know, and quark gluon plasmas. That's one

1067
00:49:50,080 --> 00:49:52,400
Speaker 1: of the options that's on the table. But to me,

1068
00:49:52,480 --> 00:49:55,839
Speaker 1: it's a great example of some of the deepest mysteries

1069
00:49:55,880 --> 00:49:58,480
Speaker 1: at the heart of our understanding of the universe, you know,

1070
00:49:58,640 --> 00:50:02,440
Speaker 1: like what emerges. You can take the basic rules of physics,

1071
00:50:02,480 --> 00:50:05,800
Speaker 1: and incredible structures emerge, you know, atoms and ice cream

1072
00:50:05,920 --> 00:50:09,319
Speaker 1: and galaxies, all these things sort of emerge from the

1073
00:50:09,440 --> 00:50:13,520
Speaker 1: underlying complexity. And it's exciting to see a situation where

1074
00:50:13,560 --> 00:50:15,719
Speaker 1: we just don't know what will emerge. You put the

1075
00:50:15,800 --> 00:50:18,320
Speaker 1: neutrons in this situation, maybe they'll just be a crazy

1076
00:50:18,400 --> 00:50:22,000
Speaker 1: chaotic soup, but maybe new structures will form, right, and

1077
00:50:22,080 --> 00:50:24,400
Speaker 1: so people have exciting ideas for what kind of weird

1078
00:50:24,440 --> 00:50:28,719
Speaker 1: structures might form from neutrons in these configurations.

1079
00:50:28,120 --> 00:50:30,120
Speaker 4: Right, because, as you said, I think at this point

1080
00:50:30,160 --> 00:50:33,440
Speaker 4: it's so crazy. And so thence there's only two forces involved.

1081
00:50:33,480 --> 00:50:36,400
Speaker 4: The gravity that's keeping them all in and keeping them

1082
00:50:36,400 --> 00:50:39,080
Speaker 4: attracted to each other, and also the strong force, which

1083
00:50:39,120 --> 00:50:43,440
Speaker 4: is what bringing in the quarks together, holding the quarks together,

1084
00:50:43,600 --> 00:50:45,640
Speaker 4: or what does this strong force do? Does a strong

1085
00:50:45,680 --> 00:50:46,320
Speaker 4: force repel?

1086
00:50:46,400 --> 00:50:48,920
Speaker 1: Also here it just attracts, right, The strong force is

1087
00:50:48,960 --> 00:50:52,640
Speaker 1: really really weird and has a very strange behavior with distance,

1088
00:50:52,719 --> 00:50:55,920
Speaker 1: but under short distances it will attract quarks and gluons

1089
00:50:55,960 --> 00:50:58,880
Speaker 1: to each other. And we think of protons and neutrons

1090
00:50:58,880 --> 00:51:01,719
Speaker 1: as sort of like balance in the strong force, that

1091
00:51:01,760 --> 00:51:04,160
Speaker 1: all the quarks are bound together into this state that

1092
00:51:04,160 --> 00:51:08,160
Speaker 1: has overall no strong charge, no color. But that's not

1093
00:51:08,320 --> 00:51:11,400
Speaker 1: really true if you get close up enough to a proton.

1094
00:51:11,520 --> 00:51:13,680
Speaker 1: If you get close up enough to a proton, then

1095
00:51:13,719 --> 00:51:16,279
Speaker 1: you'll be like closer to part of it than to

1096
00:51:16,320 --> 00:51:18,920
Speaker 1: the backside of it, and so you'll still feel a

1097
00:51:18,960 --> 00:51:21,920
Speaker 1: little bit of that effective color, right, And so if

1098
00:51:21,920 --> 00:51:24,160
Speaker 1: you get close up enough to a proton with your

1099
00:51:24,239 --> 00:51:26,960
Speaker 1: quarks then your quarks will start talking to the quarks

1100
00:51:26,960 --> 00:51:30,320
Speaker 1: inside that proton. And that's, for example, why a nucleus

1101
00:51:30,360 --> 00:51:33,040
Speaker 1: holds together. I remember a nucleus is filled with protons

1102
00:51:33,040 --> 00:51:36,440
Speaker 1: and neutrons. There's only positive electric charges there. Why doesn't

1103
00:51:36,440 --> 00:51:39,200
Speaker 1: it blow apart? Because the quarks inside the protons and

1104
00:51:39,280 --> 00:51:42,480
Speaker 1: neutrons are talking to each other. They're making it sticky.

1105
00:51:42,600 --> 00:51:45,360
Speaker 1: And so inside a neutron star, the strong force is

1106
00:51:45,400 --> 00:51:48,040
Speaker 1: pulling these things together the same way gravity is.

1107
00:51:48,120 --> 00:51:51,040
Speaker 4: Right, So you have all these neutrons, then these triplets

1108
00:51:51,080 --> 00:51:53,880
Speaker 4: of quarks held together by gravity, and you're saying that

1109
00:51:53,920 --> 00:51:56,760
Speaker 4: they can sort of form matter, like they can arrange

1110
00:51:56,760 --> 00:51:59,680
Speaker 4: themselves in special, maybe delicious ways.

1111
00:52:00,200 --> 00:52:01,959
Speaker 1: Well, we don't know for sure, but we have done

1112
00:52:02,040 --> 00:52:05,080
Speaker 1: supercomputer studies where we simulate these things. We put in

1113
00:52:05,120 --> 00:52:07,080
Speaker 1: the laws of nature, and we just see sort of

1114
00:52:07,080 --> 00:52:10,520
Speaker 1: what happens, and interesting stuff does seem to emerge. After

1115
00:52:10,640 --> 00:52:15,160
Speaker 1: like two hundred and fifty computer years of calculations, they

1116
00:52:15,200 --> 00:52:18,880
Speaker 1: see these weird blobs form, and so as things get denser,

1117
00:52:19,200 --> 00:52:22,960
Speaker 1: they form these sort of semi spherical blobs of matter

1118
00:52:23,000 --> 00:52:25,920
Speaker 1: where things sort of like clump together into these huge

1119
00:52:25,960 --> 00:52:29,239
Speaker 1: blobs of neutrons with a few protons mixed in, and

1120
00:52:29,280 --> 00:52:32,440
Speaker 1: so they called these things nyulki, like the Italian you know,

1121
00:52:32,480 --> 00:52:35,480
Speaker 1: potato blobs that people enjoy eating for lunch.

1122
00:52:35,520 --> 00:52:36,719
Speaker 4: I guess it's sort of like if you take a

1123
00:52:36,760 --> 00:52:40,319
Speaker 4: whole bunch of carbon and atoms, loose atoms, and you

1124
00:52:40,360 --> 00:52:42,759
Speaker 4: squeeze them together enough, at some point they'll sort of

1125
00:52:42,800 --> 00:52:45,160
Speaker 4: form into a diamond or some sort of shape.

1126
00:52:45,200 --> 00:52:45,359
Speaker 1: Right.

1127
00:52:45,440 --> 00:52:47,560
Speaker 4: That's kind of what's happening here, is that you're taking

1128
00:52:47,600 --> 00:52:50,000
Speaker 4: these neutrons and you're squeezing them so much they kind

1129
00:52:50,000 --> 00:52:51,560
Speaker 4: of lock into these shapes.

1130
00:52:51,719 --> 00:52:54,440
Speaker 1: Yeah, And so instead of having like a complete ocean

1131
00:52:54,640 --> 00:52:57,840
Speaker 1: where everything is just mixed together, they form blobs of

1132
00:52:57,840 --> 00:53:00,839
Speaker 1: a certain size. Right, They like distinguish themselves say, oh,

1133
00:53:00,880 --> 00:53:03,320
Speaker 1: we'd like to have this many neutrons into a blob

1134
00:53:03,400 --> 00:53:05,520
Speaker 1: with a few protons mixed in, and would have the

1135
00:53:05,600 --> 00:53:09,160
Speaker 1: same thing over there. So instead of being like totally indeterminate,

1136
00:53:09,400 --> 00:53:12,080
Speaker 1: they seem to want to form these structures, right, And

1137
00:53:12,120 --> 00:53:15,120
Speaker 1: if you squeeze even further, then these blobs form these

1138
00:53:15,200 --> 00:53:18,680
Speaker 1: long rods. They like come together to make these long rods,

1139
00:53:18,840 --> 00:53:20,400
Speaker 1: which looks sort of like spaghetti.

1140
00:53:20,520 --> 00:53:22,000
Speaker 4: Well, I mean, they could look like a lot of

1141
00:53:22,000 --> 00:53:30,279
Speaker 4: things bread steaks, steel bars. But you're staying with the

1142
00:53:30,320 --> 00:53:32,320
Speaker 4: pasta analogy. They sort of look like spaghetti.

1143
00:53:32,400 --> 00:53:34,680
Speaker 1: I didn't name any of these things. I'm just enjoying

1144
00:53:34,719 --> 00:53:36,480
Speaker 1: saying them, but yeah, they could have called them, you know,

1145
00:53:36,560 --> 00:53:38,960
Speaker 1: twizzlers or bread sticks or whatever. But they look sort

1146
00:53:38,960 --> 00:53:42,440
Speaker 1: of like spaghetti, and they form these long rods. They're parallel, right.

1147
00:53:42,440 --> 00:53:45,000
Speaker 1: Don't think of spaghetti like a big mess on your plate.

1148
00:53:45,160 --> 00:53:47,279
Speaker 1: Think of spaghetti sort of the way it comes in

1149
00:53:47,320 --> 00:53:49,840
Speaker 1: the package from the store. They are all these rods

1150
00:53:49,880 --> 00:53:52,800
Speaker 1: in parallel with each other. So they call this nuclear.

1151
00:53:52,400 --> 00:53:55,680
Speaker 4: Pasta, right, right, And so they kept going, and all

1152
00:53:55,719 --> 00:53:58,239
Speaker 4: the other shapes that neutrons can form have sort of

1153
00:53:58,280 --> 00:53:59,360
Speaker 4: a pasta analogy, right.

1154
00:53:59,440 --> 00:54:02,000
Speaker 1: Yeah, you keep going. It keeps squeezing this stuff down,

1155
00:54:02,160 --> 00:54:04,880
Speaker 1: and they think, or they predict from these calculations that

1156
00:54:04,960 --> 00:54:08,000
Speaker 1: the spaghetti will merge together to form sheets. So then

1157
00:54:08,040 --> 00:54:11,960
Speaker 1: you have nuclear lasagna, these like layers of this weird

1158
00:54:12,080 --> 00:54:15,480
Speaker 1: kind of matter that's mostly neutrons with a few protons

1159
00:54:15,520 --> 00:54:19,239
Speaker 1: in it, and it's very very strong stuff. In their calculations,

1160
00:54:19,320 --> 00:54:22,040
Speaker 1: this stuff has incredible strength. It's like very hard to

1161
00:54:22,080 --> 00:54:24,920
Speaker 1: break it apart. It might be some of the strongest

1162
00:54:25,040 --> 00:54:26,520
Speaker 1: stuff in the universe.

1163
00:54:26,840 --> 00:54:29,400
Speaker 4: You mean these Lasagna sheets of neutrons.

1164
00:54:29,120 --> 00:54:32,440
Speaker 1: These Lasagna sheets of neutrons, they're not just like forming

1165
00:54:32,480 --> 00:54:34,960
Speaker 1: and then breaking up and then reforming. It's not like

1166
00:54:35,000 --> 00:54:37,839
Speaker 1: a crazy gas or a plasma. Right. These things are

1167
00:54:37,880 --> 00:54:42,000
Speaker 1: like very very strong sheets of a weird kind of matter. Right.

1168
00:54:42,040 --> 00:54:44,520
Speaker 1: It's not like a solid or a liquid or exactly

1169
00:54:44,560 --> 00:54:47,680
Speaker 1: like a crystal made out of almost all neutrons. Right,

1170
00:54:47,760 --> 00:54:50,480
Speaker 1: It's not like a regular lattice of atoms, like the

1171
00:54:50,480 --> 00:54:52,680
Speaker 1: way we think of like a piece of steel. Right.

1172
00:54:52,719 --> 00:54:54,239
Speaker 4: And you're saying it's some of the strongest stuff in

1173
00:54:54,239 --> 00:54:58,000
Speaker 4: the universe because it's basically surviving these intents and crazy

1174
00:54:58,040 --> 00:55:00,279
Speaker 4: pressures inside of the neutron star. But I guess if

1175
00:55:00,280 --> 00:55:01,759
Speaker 4: you took it out of the nadron start, it would

1176
00:55:01,760 --> 00:55:02,279
Speaker 4: just blow up.

1177
00:55:02,400 --> 00:55:04,600
Speaker 1: Yeah, it would probably blow up. We don't know, right,

1178
00:55:04,680 --> 00:55:08,080
Speaker 1: Maybe it's strong enough it'll hold itself together, right, Because

1179
00:55:08,080 --> 00:55:11,960
Speaker 1: for example, diamonds are formed under very crazy conditions, but

1180
00:55:12,200 --> 00:55:13,960
Speaker 1: then they're stable, so you pull them out from the

1181
00:55:14,000 --> 00:55:16,239
Speaker 1: heart of the Earth where they were made, they don't explode.

1182
00:55:16,280 --> 00:55:19,120
Speaker 1: So maybe nuclear pasta doesn't explode. We just don't know.

1183
00:55:19,280 --> 00:55:21,880
Speaker 1: But if you keep squeezing this stuff together. You squeeze

1184
00:55:21,880 --> 00:55:25,840
Speaker 1: the lasagna sheets together, it forms this thing called anti spaghetti,

1185
00:55:26,040 --> 00:55:28,600
Speaker 1: which is like a blob of matter with holes in it,

1186
00:55:28,680 --> 00:55:32,120
Speaker 1: like long, thin spaghetti holes sort of like drilled through it.

1187
00:55:32,360 --> 00:55:35,880
Speaker 4: Wait, what kind of like penne pasta like Swiss cheese.

1188
00:55:36,040 --> 00:55:38,480
Speaker 1: More like Swiss cheese, Yeah, than penne pasta, right.

1189
00:55:38,320 --> 00:55:40,719
Speaker 4: More like parmes maybe to say parmesan or what's an

1190
00:55:40,760 --> 00:55:42,160
Speaker 4: Italian cheese? What holds in it?

1191
00:55:42,239 --> 00:55:44,600
Speaker 1: But those holes are bubbles right here. We're talking about

1192
00:55:44,600 --> 00:55:47,680
Speaker 1: holes that are like long tubes. So it's like wormholes

1193
00:55:47,840 --> 00:55:48,960
Speaker 1: through a block of parmesan.

1194
00:55:49,040 --> 00:55:51,280
Speaker 4: It's more like a clump of bucatini then, yeah.

1195
00:55:51,200 --> 00:55:54,160
Speaker 1: Perhaps, yeah, like a clumb of bucatini. Anyway, they called

1196
00:55:54,160 --> 00:55:57,200
Speaker 1: it anti spaghetti because it's like take the spaghetti state

1197
00:55:57,400 --> 00:55:59,719
Speaker 1: and flip it so that everything that was matter is

1198
00:55:59,760 --> 00:56:01,800
Speaker 1: now a hole in Everything that was a hole is

1199
00:56:01,840 --> 00:56:05,200
Speaker 1: now matter. So if you add spaghetti and anti spaghetti together,

1200
00:56:05,440 --> 00:56:07,560
Speaker 1: you get, you know, like a complete block of matter.

1201
00:56:07,680 --> 00:56:08,640
Speaker 4: You get antipasta.

1202
00:56:09,760 --> 00:56:11,279
Speaker 1: You annihilate your stomach.

1203
00:56:11,000 --> 00:56:12,960
Speaker 4: And that's not even like the core of the neutron star.

1204
00:56:13,080 --> 00:56:15,160
Speaker 4: Like if you go further in then things start to

1205
00:56:15,239 --> 00:56:16,880
Speaker 4: even this pasta can't survive.

1206
00:56:17,120 --> 00:56:19,440
Speaker 1: Yeah, so they think that this pasta is maybe like

1207
00:56:19,480 --> 00:56:22,239
Speaker 1: a layer that's like one hundred meters thick, and as

1208
00:56:22,280 --> 00:56:25,280
Speaker 1: you go even deeper, you know we're in huge question

1209
00:56:25,320 --> 00:56:28,200
Speaker 1: mark territory. But some people speculate that you might get

1210
00:56:28,200 --> 00:56:31,600
Speaker 1: a quark gluon plasma or something else, this stuff called

1211
00:56:31,680 --> 00:56:35,000
Speaker 1: quark matter, or as you suggested earlier, you no longer

1212
00:56:35,040 --> 00:56:37,280
Speaker 1: really can think about this stuff in terms of neutrons

1213
00:56:37,280 --> 00:56:40,960
Speaker 1: and protons anymore, because everything's just interacting with everything else.

1214
00:56:41,280 --> 00:56:43,960
Speaker 1: If there's a high enough energy, if the high enough temperature,

1215
00:56:44,280 --> 00:56:46,479
Speaker 1: it doesn't really matter that you used to call these

1216
00:56:46,520 --> 00:56:49,200
Speaker 1: three quarks a neutron and those three quarks of proton.

1217
00:56:49,480 --> 00:56:51,200
Speaker 1: Now they're all talking to each other. So it's just

1218
00:56:51,239 --> 00:56:53,279
Speaker 1: like a big sea of quarks and gluons.

1219
00:56:53,480 --> 00:56:57,120
Speaker 4: Mmmm. As out of the center you would find Daniel going, oh,

1220
00:56:57,160 --> 00:57:00,560
Speaker 4: this pasta tastes the same, that's all same stuff.

1221
00:57:00,600 --> 00:57:03,080
Speaker 1: I bet a bite of nuclear lasagna and nuclear anti

1222
00:57:03,080 --> 00:57:05,080
Speaker 1: spaghetti taste just about the same.

1223
00:57:06,400 --> 00:57:09,520
Speaker 4: Depends on how the I guess quark gluon saws coats

1224
00:57:09,560 --> 00:57:11,920
Speaker 4: the shapes. No, but I think what you're saying is

1225
00:57:11,960 --> 00:57:14,359
Speaker 4: that you get to a point where it doesn't make

1226
00:57:14,400 --> 00:57:18,680
Speaker 4: sense to call things a neutron because like the separation

1227
00:57:18,800 --> 00:57:21,040
Speaker 4: between a triple of quarks and a triple of quarks

1228
00:57:21,040 --> 00:57:23,959
Speaker 4: here is sort of gone. Like you basically crack open

1229
00:57:24,040 --> 00:57:27,080
Speaker 4: those neutrons and it's just the soup of the what's

1230
00:57:27,080 --> 00:57:27,600
Speaker 4: inside them.

1231
00:57:27,760 --> 00:57:30,400
Speaker 1: Yeah, and that's the possibility, right. It might be that

1232
00:57:30,520 --> 00:57:33,439
Speaker 1: the conditions are intense enough to create that, but we're

1233
00:57:33,480 --> 00:57:36,880
Speaker 1: not sure, right, it might be that instead, other things happen.

1234
00:57:37,040 --> 00:57:39,600
Speaker 1: So there are other possibilities on the list. Some people

1235
00:57:39,600 --> 00:57:42,400
Speaker 1: think you might form weird, strange kinds of matter inside

1236
00:57:42,520 --> 00:57:46,439
Speaker 1: things like hyperon matter or chaon matter. These are other

1237
00:57:46,640 --> 00:57:49,680
Speaker 1: versions of nucleons. But instead of having just up quarks

1238
00:57:49,720 --> 00:57:52,400
Speaker 1: and down quarks, now you have strange quarks as well.

1239
00:57:53,320 --> 00:57:55,880
Speaker 4: Interesting, And then I guess you can break things down

1240
00:57:55,920 --> 00:58:00,000
Speaker 4: further because quarks are fundamental particles in the universe, right,

1241
00:58:00,440 --> 00:58:03,400
Speaker 4: or could you maybe squeeze them down to like just

1242
00:58:03,480 --> 00:58:04,120
Speaker 4: pure energy.

1243
00:58:04,280 --> 00:58:06,760
Speaker 1: Well, we don't know the quarks are fundamental, right, They

1244
00:58:06,800 --> 00:58:09,800
Speaker 1: are as fundamental as we have discovered. We don't know

1245
00:58:09,880 --> 00:58:12,000
Speaker 1: that there's anything inside of quark, but we have lots

1246
00:58:12,040 --> 00:58:15,080
Speaker 1: of hints that suggests that they shouldn't be fundamental. There

1247
00:58:15,080 --> 00:58:18,280
Speaker 1: are all these unexplained patterns among the quarks, the kind

1248
00:58:18,280 --> 00:58:21,240
Speaker 1: of patterns you see when they're made out of something smaller,

1249
00:58:21,400 --> 00:58:25,000
Speaker 1: something more fundamental, Like we saw patterns in the periodic table.

1250
00:58:25,080 --> 00:58:27,560
Speaker 1: Those were clues that atoms were actually made of smaller

1251
00:58:27,600 --> 00:58:29,920
Speaker 1: building blocks you could arrange in lots of different ways.

1252
00:58:29,960 --> 00:58:32,720
Speaker 1: We see similar patterns in the quarks that suggest that

1253
00:58:32,760 --> 00:58:35,680
Speaker 1: they should probably be made of something smaller, but we've

1254
00:58:35,720 --> 00:58:38,000
Speaker 1: never seen it. So it's possible that the heart of

1255
00:58:38,080 --> 00:58:41,200
Speaker 1: neutrons stars, you go beyond cork gluon plasma, and you

1256
00:58:41,240 --> 00:58:43,800
Speaker 1: can even go inside the quarks, and maybe the things

1257
00:58:43,840 --> 00:58:46,240
Speaker 1: inside quarks break open and talk to each other.

1258
00:58:46,360 --> 00:58:49,160
Speaker 4: We just don't know, all right, So then I guess

1259
00:58:49,200 --> 00:58:51,800
Speaker 4: what's inside when nutron star. The answer is, we're not

1260
00:58:52,000 --> 00:58:55,200
Speaker 4: quite sure. I mean, definitely you had neutrons there, but

1261
00:58:55,280 --> 00:58:57,680
Speaker 4: maybe at the core you get to something that is

1262
00:58:57,720 --> 00:59:01,120
Speaker 4: not even neutrons, or maybe even corek is what you're saying.

1263
00:59:01,240 --> 00:59:03,479
Speaker 1: Yeah, we just don't know. It's a big question mark

1264
00:59:03,560 --> 00:59:06,800
Speaker 1: and lots of different calculations lead to different predictions, which

1265
00:59:06,840 --> 00:59:10,160
Speaker 1: is confusing and also exciting because it means that we

1266
00:59:10,200 --> 00:59:13,360
Speaker 1: can learn something about the universe. Unfortunately, we can't see

1267
00:59:13,400 --> 00:59:16,000
Speaker 1: the inside of neutron stars directly. Right, even if you

1268
00:59:16,040 --> 00:59:18,720
Speaker 1: were near a neutron star, how would you see what's

1269
00:59:18,720 --> 00:59:21,280
Speaker 1: going on inside it. We have the same question with

1270
00:59:21,360 --> 00:59:24,480
Speaker 1: our own star. We don't really understand all the plasma

1271
00:59:24,600 --> 00:59:27,360
Speaker 1: currens inside the Sun and why it creates this magnetic

1272
00:59:27,360 --> 00:59:30,040
Speaker 1: field which flips every eleven years, because we can't go

1273
00:59:30,120 --> 00:59:32,480
Speaker 1: inside it. We can only look at it from the outside. Well,

1274
00:59:32,480 --> 00:59:35,680
Speaker 1: these are even dimmer objects, much further away, so they're

1275
00:59:35,720 --> 00:59:38,400
Speaker 1: even harder to study. But you know, we can use

1276
00:59:38,440 --> 00:59:42,040
Speaker 1: our X ray telescopes to look for these photons from

1277
00:59:42,080 --> 00:59:44,640
Speaker 1: these cracks on the surface of the neutron star, and

1278
00:59:44,680 --> 00:59:46,720
Speaker 1: those can give us a lot of clues. They tell

1279
00:59:46,800 --> 00:59:49,000
Speaker 1: us something about the mass and the radius of the

1280
00:59:49,040 --> 00:59:51,560
Speaker 1: neutron star. And we think that knowing the mass and

1281
00:59:51,680 --> 00:59:53,440
Speaker 1: radius of the neutron star will help us try to

1282
00:59:53,440 --> 00:59:55,680
Speaker 1: figure out what's going on at the core of it.

1283
00:59:55,760 --> 00:59:58,439
Speaker 1: Because you're building this neutron star out of different kinds

1284
00:59:58,480 --> 01:00:00,240
Speaker 1: of stuff, So one idea for what's the the heart

1285
01:00:00,280 --> 01:00:02,840
Speaker 1: of a neutron star will give you different predictions for

1286
01:00:02,920 --> 01:00:05,800
Speaker 1: the masses and the radii you see than another idea.

1287
01:00:06,280 --> 01:00:08,320
Speaker 4: I guess the problem is that, like in our sun,

1288
01:00:08,440 --> 01:00:10,640
Speaker 4: the one we have here, we can sort of look

1289
01:00:10,800 --> 01:00:14,000
Speaker 4: in using our equations because things aren't that extreme yet,

1290
01:00:14,160 --> 01:00:16,720
Speaker 4: Like the regular loss of physics still work. But you know,

1291
01:00:16,720 --> 01:00:18,400
Speaker 4: with the neutron star, you're sort of getting up to

1292
01:00:18,440 --> 01:00:21,919
Speaker 4: that point where things start to get a little crazy, right,

1293
01:00:21,960 --> 01:00:23,480
Speaker 4: Like you're sort of starting to get into black hole

1294
01:00:23,560 --> 01:00:25,280
Speaker 4: territory where you don't even know if your loss of

1295
01:00:25,280 --> 01:00:26,240
Speaker 4: physics are the same.

1296
01:00:26,360 --> 01:00:28,480
Speaker 1: Yeah, we don't know if these hold. And you know,

1297
01:00:28,520 --> 01:00:31,040
Speaker 1: one of the guiding equations of these things is called

1298
01:00:31,040 --> 01:00:34,200
Speaker 1: the Tollman Open Hybern Molcloth equation, which is a thing

1299
01:00:34,240 --> 01:00:38,640
Speaker 1: that constrains the structure of a spherically symmetric object that's homogeneous.

1300
01:00:38,680 --> 01:00:41,840
Speaker 1: It's all one kind of material which is in gravitational equilibrium.

1301
01:00:41,920 --> 01:00:43,880
Speaker 1: So that's like the simplest model we have for a

1302
01:00:43,920 --> 01:00:47,040
Speaker 1: neutron star, and it makes all sorts of predictions. And

1303
01:00:47,080 --> 01:00:49,120
Speaker 1: some of those predictions are, for example, that there's a

1304
01:00:49,120 --> 01:00:51,520
Speaker 1: connection between the mass and the radius of a neutron

1305
01:00:51,600 --> 01:00:53,640
Speaker 1: star that if you fix the mass of it, that

1306
01:00:53,680 --> 01:00:56,360
Speaker 1: also determines the radius. But when we look out into

1307
01:00:56,440 --> 01:00:59,200
Speaker 1: the universe, those neutron stars don't seem to be following

1308
01:00:59,320 --> 01:01:02,320
Speaker 1: that rule. We see some neutron stars that are twenty

1309
01:01:02,320 --> 01:01:04,720
Speaker 1: five kilometers wid that have the mass of one point

1310
01:01:04,800 --> 01:01:06,880
Speaker 1: four times the mass of the Sun, and other ones

1311
01:01:06,920 --> 01:01:08,760
Speaker 1: that are the mass of two point one times the

1312
01:01:08,800 --> 01:01:11,280
Speaker 1: mass of the Sun at the same radius, So they

1313
01:01:11,320 --> 01:01:14,240
Speaker 1: break these rules, which, as you say, suggests that these

1314
01:01:14,280 --> 01:01:16,600
Speaker 1: rules aren't complete, right, that something about what's going on

1315
01:01:16,640 --> 01:01:19,320
Speaker 1: inside the neutron star is different from what we imagine,

1316
01:01:19,320 --> 01:01:22,240
Speaker 1: from what our rules can currently predict, which might mean

1317
01:01:22,560 --> 01:01:24,760
Speaker 1: that it's like a new complex way that these rules

1318
01:01:24,840 --> 01:01:27,880
Speaker 1: interact and new structures emerge. Or it might mean that

1319
01:01:27,920 --> 01:01:30,160
Speaker 1: there is some new physics, something else going on, a

1320
01:01:30,200 --> 01:01:34,080
Speaker 1: new force, something inside quarks, something weird we haven't even imagined.

1321
01:01:34,160 --> 01:01:36,240
Speaker 4: But I guess unlike a black hole, like it is

1322
01:01:36,280 --> 01:01:38,680
Speaker 4: maybe possible for us to one day get to a

1323
01:01:38,720 --> 01:01:41,400
Speaker 4: neutron star and maybe actually sort of like touch it

1324
01:01:41,440 --> 01:01:44,240
Speaker 4: and maybe even send probes into it.

1325
01:01:44,360 --> 01:01:47,280
Speaker 1: Do you think it certainly is possible? Right? We can't

1326
01:01:47,360 --> 01:01:49,640
Speaker 1: even land probes on the surface of Venus right now

1327
01:01:49,680 --> 01:01:52,680
Speaker 1: that last more than like ninety seconds without getting crushed,

1328
01:01:52,760 --> 01:01:54,800
Speaker 1: and Venus is like, you know, a day on the beach,

1329
01:01:54,840 --> 01:01:57,280
Speaker 1: compared to the surface of a neutron star. But yeah,

1330
01:01:57,520 --> 01:01:58,920
Speaker 1: you know, if you have a lot of faith in

1331
01:01:58,960 --> 01:02:00,440
Speaker 1: our engineers.

1332
01:02:00,120 --> 01:02:02,040
Speaker 4: Our pasta engineers, our pasta.

1333
01:02:01,720 --> 01:02:04,479
Speaker 1: Engineers, maybe they can imagine a way to drill into

1334
01:02:04,520 --> 01:02:08,400
Speaker 1: a neutron star and see it. Yeah. It's not technically forbidden,

1335
01:02:08,520 --> 01:02:10,320
Speaker 1: it's just very very difficult.

1336
01:02:10,600 --> 01:02:12,760
Speaker 4: Yeah, And they are out there at neutron stars just

1337
01:02:12,800 --> 01:02:15,840
Speaker 4: like black holes, and they have lots of interesting secrets

1338
01:02:15,840 --> 01:02:17,320
Speaker 4: inside of them, right they do.

1339
01:02:17,640 --> 01:02:20,240
Speaker 1: If we could know today what's going on inside a

1340
01:02:20,280 --> 01:02:23,240
Speaker 1: neutron star, it would tell us so much about gravity

1341
01:02:23,400 --> 01:02:26,400
Speaker 1: and the strong force, and also just like what our

1342
01:02:26,560 --> 01:02:29,280
Speaker 1: universe can do. Remember that the part of the universe

1343
01:02:29,280 --> 01:02:32,760
Speaker 1: we experience, this liquid, the solid, the gases, is just

1344
01:02:32,800 --> 01:02:36,160
Speaker 1: a tiny, tiny slice of what the universe is capable of.

1345
01:02:36,560 --> 01:02:39,360
Speaker 1: We don't really observe most of what the universe can do.

1346
01:02:39,440 --> 01:02:42,160
Speaker 1: So I would love to let the universe show its colors,

1347
01:02:42,200 --> 01:02:44,560
Speaker 1: you know, like go crazy in the kitchen universe, make

1348
01:02:44,640 --> 01:02:46,840
Speaker 1: us some weird pasta. I want to see what you

1349
01:02:46,840 --> 01:02:47,400
Speaker 1: can cook up.

1350
01:02:47,600 --> 01:02:50,800
Speaker 4: Yeah, it's almost like they are kind of little lab experiments, right,

1351
01:02:51,120 --> 01:02:52,880
Speaker 4: or like they're like little labs, Like you want to

1352
01:02:52,880 --> 01:02:55,720
Speaker 4: know what happens when you crush two quarts together. You know,

1353
01:02:55,840 --> 01:02:57,800
Speaker 4: that's what's happening inside of a neutron star. So if

1354
01:02:57,840 --> 01:03:00,280
Speaker 4: you want to know what happens, go observe neutron.

1355
01:03:00,720 --> 01:03:04,360
Speaker 1: Yeah, go observe New John stars exactly. I wish we could,

1356
01:03:04,560 --> 01:03:07,160
Speaker 1: but it's wonderful that these experiments are happening, right, Like,

1357
01:03:07,240 --> 01:03:10,360
Speaker 1: we can't create these things ourselves, but it's fantastic that

1358
01:03:10,400 --> 01:03:12,720
Speaker 1: the universe has arranged for them to happen so that

1359
01:03:12,760 --> 01:03:16,320
Speaker 1: we can study them. Unfortunately, they're very difficult to approach

1360
01:03:16,360 --> 01:03:19,040
Speaker 1: and very very far away, so there are some stumbling

1361
01:03:19,040 --> 01:03:21,200
Speaker 1: blocks there. But maybe one day we'll be able to

1362
01:03:21,240 --> 01:03:24,080
Speaker 1: visit them, or we'll just get more clever about observing

1363
01:03:24,120 --> 01:03:26,960
Speaker 1: them from the outside and using that information to infer

1364
01:03:27,320 --> 01:03:28,720
Speaker 1: what's going on inside.

1365
01:03:28,880 --> 01:03:32,120
Speaker 4: Maybe it'll be the Italians to do it instead of

1366
01:03:32,160 --> 01:03:33,080
Speaker 4: the experts, that's right.

1367
01:03:33,080 --> 01:03:35,640
Speaker 1: Maybe they'll be so offended by these models of anti

1368
01:03:35,640 --> 01:03:38,000
Speaker 1: spaghetti that they'll be motivated to figure this out.

1369
01:03:38,120 --> 01:03:39,560
Speaker 4: Yeah, and then your kids will be like, nah, I

1370
01:03:39,560 --> 01:03:42,680
Speaker 4: don't like that kind of pasta. Not for me, thanks,

1371
01:03:42,760 --> 01:03:46,400
Speaker 4: I want blue pasta. I want all the pastas squish together.

1372
01:03:46,680 --> 01:03:48,480
Speaker 1: Next, you're going to tell me that different colors of

1373
01:03:48,520 --> 01:03:49,720
Speaker 1: pasta change the flavor.

1374
01:03:50,840 --> 01:03:53,680
Speaker 4: Well depends how they get their color, but they do

1375
01:03:53,920 --> 01:03:57,160
Speaker 4: change the flavor. You really want to spend another hour

1376
01:03:57,240 --> 01:04:00,840
Speaker 4: talking about this? Have you never had squidding pasta? Were

1377
01:04:00,920 --> 01:04:01,800
Speaker 4: vegetable pasta?

1378
01:04:01,880 --> 01:04:04,840
Speaker 1: All right, that's a topic for our spinoff pasta podcast.

1379
01:04:05,280 --> 01:04:07,800
Speaker 4: Daniel and Jorge argue about food.

1380
01:04:07,920 --> 01:04:09,880
Speaker 1: Daniel Jorge eat the Universe.

1381
01:04:10,160 --> 01:04:13,360
Speaker 4: Well, I hope you enjoyed that discussion, and it's certainly

1382
01:04:13,360 --> 01:04:14,840
Speaker 4: made me a little bit hungry. I need to go

1383
01:04:14,880 --> 01:04:17,280
Speaker 4: have lunch now. But thanks for joining us, see you

1384
01:04:17,360 --> 01:04:17,760
Speaker 4: next time.

1385
01:04:25,600 --> 01:04:28,440
Speaker 1: Thanks for listening, and remember that Daniel and Jorge Explain

1386
01:04:28,480 --> 01:04:32,480
Speaker 1: the Universe is a production of iHeartRadio. For more podcasts

1387
01:04:32,480 --> 01:04:36,640
Speaker 1: from iHeart Radio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or

1388
01:04:36,680 --> 01:04:50,240
Speaker 1: wherever you listen to your favorite shows. When you pop

1389
01:04:50,240 --> 01:04:52,200
Speaker 1: a piece of cheese into your mouth, you're probably not

1390
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Speaker 1: thinking about the environmental impact. But the people in the

1391
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Speaker 1: and drive down greenhouse gas emissions. House US dairy tackling

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