1 00:00:01,320 --> 00:00:04,240 Speaker 1: Welcome to Stuff You Missed in History Class, a production 2 00:00:04,400 --> 00:00:10,920 Speaker 1: of iHeartRadio. 3 00:00:11,920 --> 00:00:15,080 Speaker 2: Hello, and welcome to the podcast. I'm Tracy V. Wilson 4 00:00:15,160 --> 00:00:18,400 Speaker 2: and I'm Holly Frye. Here is part two of our 5 00:00:18,440 --> 00:00:22,119 Speaker 2: episode on pelagra, something I did not realize was going 6 00:00:22,160 --> 00:00:26,560 Speaker 2: to need two parts when I started, I was totally 7 00:00:26,640 --> 00:00:29,760 Speaker 2: unaware that there was a whole history of pelagor in 8 00:00:29,840 --> 00:00:33,199 Speaker 2: Italy that took place before it really became a problem 9 00:00:33,240 --> 00:00:35,400 Speaker 2: in the United States, and I was only aware of 10 00:00:35,440 --> 00:00:40,159 Speaker 2: the US stuff before working on this. Last time, we 11 00:00:40,240 --> 00:00:45,640 Speaker 2: talked about what pelagor is, its appearance and eventual maybe 12 00:00:45,640 --> 00:00:48,920 Speaker 2: not disappearance, but like resolution in Italy, and some of 13 00:00:48,960 --> 00:00:52,159 Speaker 2: the social and economic factors that led to a rise 14 00:00:52,440 --> 00:00:56,160 Speaker 2: in pellagra in the Southern United States in the early 15 00:00:56,240 --> 00:00:59,480 Speaker 2: twentieth century. Today, we're going to talk more about how 16 00:00:59,520 --> 00:01:03,080 Speaker 2: pelagora became a huge public health problem in the United 17 00:01:03,120 --> 00:01:06,280 Speaker 2: States and the efforts to find its cause and a 18 00:01:06,319 --> 00:01:10,080 Speaker 2: solution for it. To be clear, we are mostly focused 19 00:01:10,120 --> 00:01:13,600 Speaker 2: on the Southern United States here because that's where pelagora 20 00:01:13,720 --> 00:01:18,679 Speaker 2: reached really epidemic levels, but pelagra could and did happen 21 00:01:18,840 --> 00:01:21,800 Speaker 2: anywhere in the country that was facing poverty, and a 22 00:01:21,920 --> 00:01:26,440 Speaker 2: lack of access to a range of foods. This episode 23 00:01:26,520 --> 00:01:31,000 Speaker 2: includes some human and animal experimentation, and if you have 24 00:01:31,240 --> 00:01:35,080 Speaker 2: listened to our episode on epotymous diseases from not that 25 00:01:35,240 --> 00:01:40,600 Speaker 2: long ago, some of the human experimentation I would rank 26 00:01:40,720 --> 00:01:46,920 Speaker 2: as about equivalent to how gross the experimentation was with neurovirus. 27 00:01:48,680 --> 00:01:51,160 Speaker 2: There are also some experiments will be talking about that 28 00:01:51,320 --> 00:01:54,560 Speaker 2: we're not so viscerally disgusting in that way, but they 29 00:01:54,560 --> 00:01:57,720 Speaker 2: would not pass ethics review boards today. 30 00:01:58,680 --> 00:02:00,920 Speaker 1: So as we said at the end of last episode, 31 00:02:00,920 --> 00:02:04,480 Speaker 1: the first known report of pelagra in medical literature in 32 00:02:04,520 --> 00:02:08,800 Speaker 1: the US was published in nineteen oh two, but investigations 33 00:02:08,840 --> 00:02:12,160 Speaker 1: over the following decades revealed that there had been outbreaks 34 00:02:12,200 --> 00:02:14,359 Speaker 1: going back to at least the first decades of the 35 00:02:14,480 --> 00:02:19,240 Speaker 1: nineteenth century. Most of those nineteenth century outbreaks had taken 36 00:02:19,280 --> 00:02:23,639 Speaker 1: place before medical textbooks in the US mentioned pelagra at all, 37 00:02:23,880 --> 00:02:27,840 Speaker 1: so most American practitioners didn't know anything about it, and 38 00:02:28,040 --> 00:02:33,240 Speaker 1: those patients had consequently been misdiagnosed. But after Henry Fauntleroy 39 00:02:33,320 --> 00:02:36,560 Speaker 1: Harris's nineteen oh two description of a farmer who had 40 00:02:36,600 --> 00:02:40,680 Speaker 1: been developing a debilitating illness with a rash, every spring 41 00:02:40,800 --> 00:02:44,720 Speaker 1: for about fifteen years. Other reports soon followed. 42 00:02:45,800 --> 00:02:50,640 Speaker 2: We also talked last time about the three ms of meal, molasses, 43 00:02:50,720 --> 00:02:53,720 Speaker 2: and meat, which made up the bulk of the diets 44 00:02:53,760 --> 00:02:56,280 Speaker 2: of a lot of the poorest people in the United 45 00:02:56,320 --> 00:03:00,240 Speaker 2: States in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This 46 00:03:00,280 --> 00:03:04,359 Speaker 2: included the diets of people who were living in institutions 47 00:03:04,520 --> 00:03:09,079 Speaker 2: like mental asylums and orphanages, because they were generally being 48 00:03:09,120 --> 00:03:14,600 Speaker 2: fed the cheapest food possible. One example was Mount Vernon 49 00:03:14,720 --> 00:03:19,480 Speaker 2: Asylum for the Colored Insane in Mount Vernon, Alabama. This 50 00:03:19,639 --> 00:03:23,720 Speaker 2: hospital had been established as a state run segregated mental 51 00:03:23,760 --> 00:03:28,160 Speaker 2: hospital for black patients in nineteen hundred. Prior to that, 52 00:03:28,320 --> 00:03:31,000 Speaker 2: it had been an arsenal and military barracks, and in 53 00:03:31,040 --> 00:03:35,080 Speaker 2: that earlier time that's where physician Walter Reid had confirmed 54 00:03:35,120 --> 00:03:38,040 Speaker 2: that yellow fever was transmitted by mosquitoes. 55 00:03:38,960 --> 00:03:42,400 Speaker 1: Doctor George H. Searcy reported an outbreak of disease in 56 00:03:42,520 --> 00:03:45,240 Speaker 1: eighty eight patients at the hospital in the early fall 57 00:03:45,280 --> 00:03:48,240 Speaker 1: of nineteen oh six, publishing a paper on it in 58 00:03:48,280 --> 00:03:51,640 Speaker 1: the Journal of the American Medical Association the following year. 59 00:03:52,640 --> 00:03:55,240 Speaker 1: He said that these were not the first cases of 60 00:03:55,400 --> 00:03:58,000 Speaker 1: pelagra at the hospital, that there had been a few 61 00:03:58,040 --> 00:04:01,240 Speaker 1: cases every summer since patients were first transferred to the 62 00:04:01,240 --> 00:04:04,360 Speaker 1: hospital in nineteen oh one, but that they had not 63 00:04:04,440 --> 00:04:08,880 Speaker 1: been recognized as pelagra. When a much bigger outbreak started, 64 00:04:09,040 --> 00:04:11,760 Speaker 1: doctors at the hospital had gone to Circe for help, 65 00:04:12,280 --> 00:04:15,680 Speaker 1: and he reported that of those eighty eight cases, fifty 66 00:04:15,720 --> 00:04:19,160 Speaker 1: seven had died, for a mortality rate of about sixty 67 00:04:19,200 --> 00:04:19,880 Speaker 1: four percent. 68 00:04:21,000 --> 00:04:26,360 Speaker 2: In his paper, sirirc described the disease as endemic and systemic, 69 00:04:26,960 --> 00:04:30,880 Speaker 2: involving skin lesions and disturbance of the digestive tract and 70 00:04:31,000 --> 00:04:35,360 Speaker 2: nervous system. He said it should be classed as food poisoning, 71 00:04:35,600 --> 00:04:39,520 Speaker 2: similar to ergotism, which comes from eating food that's contaminated 72 00:04:39,560 --> 00:04:44,279 Speaker 2: with ergate fungus, or latherism, which comes from eating large 73 00:04:44,279 --> 00:04:48,479 Speaker 2: amounts of certain legumes that contain a neurotoxin. And he 74 00:04:48,560 --> 00:04:52,080 Speaker 2: made an observation that would hold true in other outbreaks 75 00:04:52,120 --> 00:04:56,320 Speaker 2: in the United States. Quote the disease occurs among the 76 00:04:56,400 --> 00:05:00,320 Speaker 2: poorer classes and in institutions where the diet is at 77 00:05:00,360 --> 00:05:04,640 Speaker 2: times limited. It develops most frequently among adults and in 78 00:05:04,720 --> 00:05:08,800 Speaker 2: females more frequently than in males. Of the eighty eight 79 00:05:08,960 --> 00:05:12,400 Speaker 2: patients at Mount Auburn eighty of them had been women, 80 00:05:12,760 --> 00:05:14,920 Speaker 2: and two thirds had been at the hospital for more 81 00:05:14,960 --> 00:05:19,320 Speaker 2: than a year. Eighty percent of them had experienced fair 82 00:05:19,480 --> 00:05:24,880 Speaker 2: or good health before developing pelagra. Circi described pelagra as 83 00:05:24,960 --> 00:05:30,160 Speaker 2: being caused by quote continuous eating of damaged corn and poverty. 84 00:05:30,320 --> 00:05:34,240 Speaker 2: Poor hygienic surroundings, and exposure to the sun's rays have 85 00:05:34,360 --> 00:05:39,400 Speaker 2: been given as predisposing factors. He specifically referenced the work 86 00:05:39,480 --> 00:05:42,200 Speaker 2: of Cesar Lombroso, who we talked about in Part one, 87 00:05:42,600 --> 00:05:45,799 Speaker 2: and the idea that pelagor was caused by eating spoiled 88 00:05:45,920 --> 00:05:50,159 Speaker 2: or contaminated corn. He said he had sent a sample 89 00:05:50,279 --> 00:05:52,600 Speaker 2: of the corn meal served at the hospital, which was 90 00:05:52,640 --> 00:05:55,840 Speaker 2: supposedly the best meal that was being made in the West, 91 00:05:56,240 --> 00:05:59,000 Speaker 2: to a plant pathology lab which had described it as 92 00:05:59,080 --> 00:06:03,240 Speaker 2: quote whole unfit for human use, that it was made 93 00:06:03,279 --> 00:06:07,279 Speaker 2: of moldy grain and contained quantities of bacteria and fungi 94 00:06:07,400 --> 00:06:12,000 Speaker 2: of various sorts, some of which were identified. He went 95 00:06:12,040 --> 00:06:14,760 Speaker 2: on to say, quote As for the treatment, there are 96 00:06:14,800 --> 00:06:19,279 Speaker 2: no specific remedies. The essential management consists in placing the 97 00:06:19,360 --> 00:06:23,240 Speaker 2: patient in good hygienic surroundings and trying to improve the 98 00:06:23,320 --> 00:06:27,960 Speaker 2: general health by good nourishing foods, and such tonics as 99 00:06:28,000 --> 00:06:32,760 Speaker 2: may seem indicated. Arsenic iron and pepsin preparations were the 100 00:06:32,800 --> 00:06:36,880 Speaker 2: remedies on which most support was placed and which sometimes 101 00:06:36,960 --> 00:06:41,480 Speaker 2: seemed to influence the disease favorably. The affected patients at 102 00:06:41,480 --> 00:06:44,520 Speaker 2: the hospital were taken off of cornbread and grits and 103 00:06:44,560 --> 00:06:47,400 Speaker 2: they were given wheat bread and potatoes instead, with no 104 00:06:47,520 --> 00:06:51,839 Speaker 2: other changes to their diet. A set of eight unaffected 105 00:06:51,880 --> 00:06:55,560 Speaker 2: patients were also placed on a diet of cornbread and 106 00:06:55,680 --> 00:07:00,520 Speaker 2: grits as an experiment. One developed pelagra and another showed 107 00:07:00,600 --> 00:07:04,000 Speaker 2: signs of the disease. All of them started to show 108 00:07:04,040 --> 00:07:07,280 Speaker 2: signs of poor health, so their diets were changed. Also, 109 00:07:08,680 --> 00:07:11,760 Speaker 2: sears ended his nineteen oh seven article by saying that 110 00:07:11,920 --> 00:07:15,640 Speaker 2: he had heard the western corn crop of nineteen oh 111 00:07:15,680 --> 00:07:19,280 Speaker 2: five had been damaged by wet weather, so that was 112 00:07:19,360 --> 00:07:22,000 Speaker 2: what the hospital would have been using in nineteen oh 113 00:07:22,000 --> 00:07:25,320 Speaker 2: six when the outbreak happened, so he had sent a 114 00:07:25,480 --> 00:07:28,520 Speaker 2: sample of the corn they'd gotten in nineteen oh seven 115 00:07:28,640 --> 00:07:31,880 Speaker 2: to the same lab to be tested. The lab said 116 00:07:31,880 --> 00:07:35,440 Speaker 2: that this newer batch of corn was up to standards, 117 00:07:35,440 --> 00:07:39,960 Speaker 2: so Searcy added it back into the patient's diets. Searce 118 00:07:40,120 --> 00:07:43,560 Speaker 2: wrote that after his nineteen oh six report, other cases 119 00:07:43,600 --> 00:07:46,160 Speaker 2: of pelagra had been identified at the Hospital for the 120 00:07:46,200 --> 00:07:49,800 Speaker 2: Insane at Tuscaloosa, and that as there was more awareness 121 00:07:49,800 --> 00:07:53,920 Speaker 2: of the disease, he expected more reports to follow. In 122 00:07:54,040 --> 00:07:58,320 Speaker 2: nineteen oh eight, James Babcock, superintendent of the South Carolina 123 00:07:58,400 --> 00:08:02,600 Speaker 2: Hospital for the Insane, traveled to Italy to see patients 124 00:08:02,640 --> 00:08:06,040 Speaker 2: their first hand so that he could compare their conditions 125 00:08:06,040 --> 00:08:10,000 Speaker 2: to what he was witnessing in South Carolina. This basically 126 00:08:10,040 --> 00:08:13,680 Speaker 2: allowed him to confirm that he was also seeing pelagra. 127 00:08:14,600 --> 00:08:19,480 Speaker 2: Bobcock also organized the first US Conference on pelagra, which 128 00:08:19,520 --> 00:08:23,360 Speaker 2: took place on November third and fourth of nineteen oh nine. 129 00:08:23,440 --> 00:08:28,960 Speaker 2: Almost four hundred physicians attended. In Italy, for the most part, 130 00:08:29,000 --> 00:08:32,200 Speaker 2: there had been agreement that pelagora was caused by corn, 131 00:08:32,760 --> 00:08:35,600 Speaker 2: but the medical community had been at odds over whether 132 00:08:35,640 --> 00:08:38,680 Speaker 2: the issue was about nutrition or about some kind of 133 00:08:38,760 --> 00:08:43,840 Speaker 2: toxin contaminating the corn. In the US, a different disagreement 134 00:08:43,880 --> 00:08:48,400 Speaker 2: developed whether pelagora was caused by corn or whether it wasn't. 135 00:08:49,000 --> 00:08:52,520 Speaker 2: This disagreement can be framed as the Zeus versus the 136 00:08:52,559 --> 00:08:57,600 Speaker 2: anti Ziists, with Zeist coming from Zma's the scientific name 137 00:08:57,679 --> 00:09:02,640 Speaker 2: for corn. Of the forty one speakers at this nineteen 138 00:09:02,640 --> 00:09:06,640 Speaker 2: oh nine conference were Zeists, although many of them had 139 00:09:06,880 --> 00:09:11,559 Speaker 2: very different explanations for the exact role that corn played 140 00:09:11,600 --> 00:09:16,080 Speaker 2: in pelagra, and the anti ziists similarly had a lot 141 00:09:16,080 --> 00:09:19,120 Speaker 2: of different reasons for thinking that the corn was not 142 00:09:19,320 --> 00:09:22,720 Speaker 2: the cause. Some of them were motivated by the germ 143 00:09:22,840 --> 00:09:26,439 Speaker 2: theory of disease and the fact that researchers had started 144 00:09:26,480 --> 00:09:32,040 Speaker 2: identifying specific microorganisms that caused a range of diseases, including 145 00:09:32,080 --> 00:09:33,640 Speaker 2: tuberculosis and cholera. 146 00:09:34,320 --> 00:09:35,120 Speaker 1: These were things. 147 00:09:34,960 --> 00:09:40,360 Speaker 2: People had previously attributed to things like environmental causes. Some 148 00:09:40,840 --> 00:09:45,280 Speaker 2: were working off the idea that not only did microorganisms 149 00:09:45,320 --> 00:09:50,160 Speaker 2: cause disease, but that every disease had one specific cause, 150 00:09:50,280 --> 00:09:54,840 Speaker 2: said that that cause for all diseases was a microorganism. 151 00:09:55,679 --> 00:09:59,360 Speaker 2: This was also happening during the eugenics movement in the 152 00:09:59,480 --> 00:10:02,520 Speaker 2: United States dates, so there were people who thought pelagra, 153 00:10:02,880 --> 00:10:07,760 Speaker 2: or at least a predisposition for pelagra, was the result 154 00:10:07,880 --> 00:10:09,800 Speaker 2: of bad breeding. 155 00:10:10,240 --> 00:10:13,920 Speaker 1: And some of the anti ziist response was more emotional. 156 00:10:14,679 --> 00:10:17,079 Speaker 1: Much of the corn in the US was being grown 157 00:10:17,160 --> 00:10:20,480 Speaker 1: in the Midwest, and a Midwestern sense of identity had 158 00:10:20,480 --> 00:10:25,400 Speaker 1: started to coalesce. One that was centered on agriculture. The 159 00:10:25,480 --> 00:10:29,360 Speaker 1: idea that Midwestern corn was causing illness was damaging to 160 00:10:29,440 --> 00:10:32,880 Speaker 1: that sense of regional identity, and there were also obvious 161 00:10:32,920 --> 00:10:36,480 Speaker 1: worries that connecting pelagra to corn would damage the corn 162 00:10:36,559 --> 00:10:41,560 Speaker 1: industry and the Midwestern economy. This ran parallel to a 163 00:10:41,640 --> 00:10:46,280 Speaker 1: sense of Southern pride and identity. Those three ms that 164 00:10:46,320 --> 00:10:49,120 Speaker 1: we talked about in Part one of meal, meat, and 165 00:10:49,240 --> 00:10:53,560 Speaker 1: molasses had formed the foundation of a lot of Southern cuisine. 166 00:10:54,320 --> 00:10:57,960 Speaker 1: People wanted to find an explanation for pelagra that did 167 00:10:58,040 --> 00:11:01,680 Speaker 1: not land on Southerner's own foods, which were close to 168 00:11:01,720 --> 00:11:07,479 Speaker 1: their hearts making them sick. Also, pelagra, hookworm, and malaria 169 00:11:07,520 --> 00:11:11,000 Speaker 1: were all prevalent in the South at this point. All 170 00:11:11,080 --> 00:11:15,520 Speaker 1: of these could cause symptoms like diarrhea, abdominal pain, fatigue, 171 00:11:15,600 --> 00:11:21,199 Speaker 1: and malaise. These diseases themselves all carried a lot of stigma, 172 00:11:21,600 --> 00:11:25,319 Speaker 1: and all this had fed into negative stereotypes of Southerners 173 00:11:25,480 --> 00:11:29,720 Speaker 1: as lazy. So the idea that people were to blame 174 00:11:29,920 --> 00:11:32,760 Speaker 1: because of what they were eating was like adding insult 175 00:11:32,880 --> 00:11:36,880 Speaker 1: to injury. The attendees at the first conference on pelagra 176 00:11:37,040 --> 00:11:41,040 Speaker 1: resolved to start a national Association for the study of Pelagra, 177 00:11:41,520 --> 00:11:45,680 Speaker 1: and Babcock was elected as its president. Also in nineteen 178 00:11:45,720 --> 00:11:48,679 Speaker 1: oh nine, the US Public Health Service, at the time 179 00:11:48,760 --> 00:11:52,720 Speaker 1: part of the Marine Hospital Service, appointed doctor Claude Lavender 180 00:11:52,840 --> 00:11:56,600 Speaker 1: to head up the service's study of pelagra. Lavender worked 181 00:11:56,600 --> 00:12:00,680 Speaker 1: with Babcock to translate Cesar Limbroso's Italian were on pellagra 182 00:12:00,920 --> 00:12:06,160 Speaker 1: into English. A wave of research into pelagor followed this, 183 00:12:06,400 --> 00:12:09,480 Speaker 1: but it was not initially productive, and we will talk 184 00:12:09,520 --> 00:12:22,080 Speaker 1: about why after a sponsor break. A lot of the 185 00:12:22,120 --> 00:12:25,880 Speaker 1: writing on pelagra in the United States in the first 186 00:12:25,960 --> 00:12:29,800 Speaker 1: decade of the nineteen hundreds had drawn on Italian work 187 00:12:29,840 --> 00:12:33,800 Speaker 1: that had connected the disease to corn consumption in some way. 188 00:12:34,800 --> 00:12:37,960 Speaker 1: But then in nineteen ten, the London School of Tropical 189 00:12:38,000 --> 00:12:42,680 Speaker 1: Medicine published a report saying that pelagor was caused by 190 00:12:42,720 --> 00:12:48,040 Speaker 1: a microbe that was being spread by insects. A Pelagra 191 00:12:48,280 --> 00:12:52,240 Speaker 1: Investigation Committee had been established in the UK that year, 192 00:12:52,320 --> 00:12:55,400 Speaker 1: and it had funded a research trip to Italy that 193 00:12:55,559 --> 00:12:59,880 Speaker 1: was carried out by physician Lewis Sambon. Sambon had been 194 00:13:00,080 --> 00:13:02,760 Speaker 1: born in Italy and had moved to the UK to 195 00:13:02,960 --> 00:13:06,760 Speaker 1: head up the School of Tropical Medicine. His earlier work 196 00:13:06,840 --> 00:13:11,320 Speaker 1: included the study of sleeping sickness in Uganda. He had 197 00:13:11,520 --> 00:13:15,960 Speaker 1: correctly concluded that sleeping sickness was caused by a parasite 198 00:13:16,000 --> 00:13:20,760 Speaker 1: that was transmitted by the Sizi fly. In his pelagra study, 199 00:13:20,840 --> 00:13:25,800 Speaker 1: he noted some commonalities between pelagra and insect born diseases 200 00:13:26,240 --> 00:13:30,240 Speaker 1: like sleeping sickness, and concluded that it was not about 201 00:13:30,240 --> 00:13:33,240 Speaker 1: the corn, that it was a disease carried by some 202 00:13:33,360 --> 00:13:37,760 Speaker 1: kind of biting insect, probably gnats, that were also common 203 00:13:37,960 --> 00:13:41,040 Speaker 1: in the same rural areas where corn was a big 204 00:13:41,080 --> 00:13:45,640 Speaker 1: part of people's diets. In Italy, pelagra had become much 205 00:13:45,720 --> 00:13:49,000 Speaker 1: less common, and the general consensus for decades had been 206 00:13:49,120 --> 00:13:52,199 Speaker 1: that it was corn related, So this report really did 207 00:13:52,200 --> 00:13:55,920 Speaker 1: not get a lot of traction there. Many Italian doctors 208 00:13:55,960 --> 00:14:00,600 Speaker 1: dismissed it entirely, even calling it absurd. But in the US, 209 00:14:00,679 --> 00:14:04,319 Speaker 1: Sambon's conclusion really appealed to all the researchers who were 210 00:14:04,320 --> 00:14:08,360 Speaker 1: looking for some kind of explanation for pelagra that did 211 00:14:08,360 --> 00:14:12,839 Speaker 1: not trace back to Midwestern corn or southern diets. This 212 00:14:12,920 --> 00:14:16,679 Speaker 1: included the state of Illinois, whose Investigatory Commission on Pelagra 213 00:14:16,840 --> 00:14:21,480 Speaker 1: was established in nineteen ten and largely focused on Sambon's work. 214 00:14:22,920 --> 00:14:26,360 Speaker 2: My read on this is that Simbon's conclusions on pelagra 215 00:14:26,600 --> 00:14:30,480 Speaker 2: were really influenced by his own preconceptions based on his 216 00:14:30,680 --> 00:14:36,440 Speaker 2: earlier successful work on insect born diseases, and this may 217 00:14:36,480 --> 00:14:39,840 Speaker 2: have also been true for one of the commissions that 218 00:14:39,960 --> 00:14:44,160 Speaker 2: started studying pelagra in the nineteen teens. That was the 219 00:14:44,200 --> 00:14:49,800 Speaker 2: Thompson McFadden Commission, named for its two primary funders, Robert M. Thompson, 220 00:14:49,880 --> 00:14:53,440 Speaker 2: who was in mining, and Henry McFadden, who was a 221 00:14:53,480 --> 00:14:57,560 Speaker 2: cotton merchant. Both of these men had a vested interest 222 00:14:57,680 --> 00:15:01,320 Speaker 2: in determining a cause and treatment for pellagra, since it 223 00:15:01,480 --> 00:15:05,600 Speaker 2: was prevalent in the mining camps and mill towns where 224 00:15:05,640 --> 00:15:07,920 Speaker 2: the workers in their industries lived. 225 00:15:08,720 --> 00:15:11,640 Speaker 1: The researchers who were part of this commission carried out 226 00:15:11,680 --> 00:15:15,680 Speaker 1: their work in and around Spartanburg, South Carolina, where local 227 00:15:15,720 --> 00:15:19,800 Speaker 1: officials agreed to cooperate and where the situation was critical. 228 00:15:20,520 --> 00:15:24,120 Speaker 1: There were about thirty thousand reported cases of pelagra, with 229 00:15:24,160 --> 00:15:29,240 Speaker 1: a fatality rate of about forty percent. Investigators went house 230 00:15:29,280 --> 00:15:33,360 Speaker 1: to house asking about who lived there, their ages and sexes, 231 00:15:33,680 --> 00:15:37,000 Speaker 1: whether any of them had pelagra, and what they ate. 232 00:15:37,880 --> 00:15:42,160 Speaker 1: Doctors also diagnosed cases of pelagra during these visits. 233 00:15:43,280 --> 00:15:49,000 Speaker 2: The primary investigators for this commission were all microbiologists, and 234 00:15:49,120 --> 00:15:53,760 Speaker 2: they discounted links to things like economic conditions and the 235 00:15:53,800 --> 00:15:58,600 Speaker 2: maize and the gnats that Sambon had cited before, focusing 236 00:15:58,680 --> 00:16:03,640 Speaker 2: on trying to pinpoint a specific microbial cause. In their 237 00:16:03,680 --> 00:16:08,280 Speaker 2: second progress report, they didn't name a specific cause for pelagra, 238 00:16:08,840 --> 00:16:12,000 Speaker 2: but they reported that pelagora rates were the highest in 239 00:16:12,040 --> 00:16:15,920 Speaker 2: the places that did not have an enclosed sewer system 240 00:16:16,520 --> 00:16:21,920 Speaker 2: and people were using unscreened privies. Also, if one person 241 00:16:21,960 --> 00:16:25,800 Speaker 2: in a household had pelagra, usually at least one other 242 00:16:26,000 --> 00:16:29,840 Speaker 2: person had it as well. They wrote, quote, we are 243 00:16:29,960 --> 00:16:34,880 Speaker 2: inclined to regard intimate association in the household and the 244 00:16:34,960 --> 00:16:40,920 Speaker 2: contamination of food with the excretion of pelagrons as possible 245 00:16:41,000 --> 00:16:45,840 Speaker 2: moods of distribution of the disease. Pelagrins was the term 246 00:16:45,880 --> 00:16:49,560 Speaker 2: being used to describe people with pelagra, so these researchers 247 00:16:49,600 --> 00:16:53,040 Speaker 2: were saying that pelagra spread from person to person when 248 00:16:53,080 --> 00:16:56,880 Speaker 2: the waste of someone with pelagra contaminated the food other 249 00:16:56,920 --> 00:17:01,720 Speaker 2: people were eating. That contamination was spreading in neighborhoods where 250 00:17:01,720 --> 00:17:05,120 Speaker 2: there was no sanitary system for dealing with human waste. 251 00:17:06,040 --> 00:17:09,000 Speaker 2: They also noted some of the same demographic patterns as 252 00:17:09,040 --> 00:17:12,240 Speaker 2: Henry Fauntleroy Harris had in his nineteen oh two paper 253 00:17:12,520 --> 00:17:16,240 Speaker 2: that we talked about earlier. Polagor was far more common 254 00:17:16,240 --> 00:17:19,359 Speaker 2: in women. They reported five hundred twenty eight cases in 255 00:17:19,400 --> 00:17:23,680 Speaker 2: women and two hundred twelve in men. They also found 256 00:17:23,840 --> 00:17:27,159 Speaker 2: far more cases among white people than among black people, 257 00:17:27,680 --> 00:17:30,240 Speaker 2: but noted that the cotton mill villages that they were 258 00:17:30,280 --> 00:17:34,679 Speaker 2: researching were almost exclusively white. Yeah, when you looked at 259 00:17:34,720 --> 00:17:39,040 Speaker 2: a broader sample of the population, it was the opposite. 260 00:17:39,119 --> 00:17:41,280 Speaker 2: It was a lot more common among black people. They 261 00:17:41,359 --> 00:17:44,000 Speaker 2: just were looking at a sample that was mostly white. 262 00:17:46,000 --> 00:17:49,840 Speaker 2: A sewer system was built in Spartan Mills, after which 263 00:17:49,920 --> 00:17:53,239 Speaker 2: pelagora rates there did start to decline, and so this 264 00:17:53,520 --> 00:17:58,160 Speaker 2: wound up reinforcing the idea that the sanitary conditions had 265 00:17:58,160 --> 00:18:04,639 Speaker 2: been involved in the polagrasp. One possible explanation for why 266 00:18:04,680 --> 00:18:08,320 Speaker 2: this sewer system quote worked is that the building of 267 00:18:08,400 --> 00:18:11,320 Speaker 2: the sewer brought some more money into the town, which 268 00:18:11,400 --> 00:18:14,960 Speaker 2: allowed people to buy a richer variety of food. But 269 00:18:15,040 --> 00:18:21,240 Speaker 2: we don't really know. The connection to the sewers wasn't 270 00:18:21,280 --> 00:18:24,840 Speaker 2: about some kind of waste contamination that was contaminating the food. 271 00:18:24,880 --> 00:18:27,240 Speaker 2: It was that the people that were living in places 272 00:18:27,280 --> 00:18:29,919 Speaker 2: that were so poor that they had no sewer system 273 00:18:30,400 --> 00:18:34,600 Speaker 2: couldn't afford to buy a richer variety of food. Just 274 00:18:34,640 --> 00:18:39,200 Speaker 2: to make that clear, the Thompson McFadden Commissions reports deepened 275 00:18:39,200 --> 00:18:43,920 Speaker 2: the division between the Zeists and the anti Ziists. Claude Lavender, 276 00:18:43,960 --> 00:18:46,640 Speaker 2: who had been heading up the government's response to the disease, 277 00:18:47,080 --> 00:18:50,239 Speaker 2: wrote in a nineteen thirteen report quote, it is not 278 00:18:50,359 --> 00:18:52,760 Speaker 2: to be understood from them that there are only two 279 00:18:52,840 --> 00:18:56,720 Speaker 2: theories of the cause of pelagra. On the contrary, there 280 00:18:56,760 --> 00:19:01,119 Speaker 2: are scores of theories. The Zeists agree in one thing only, 281 00:19:01,320 --> 00:19:05,040 Speaker 2: and that is that, either directly or indirectly, pelagra is 282 00:19:05,119 --> 00:19:09,480 Speaker 2: ideologically related to MAZE, while the Antiziists agree in one 283 00:19:09,520 --> 00:19:12,159 Speaker 2: thing only, and that is that the disease bears no 284 00:19:12,359 --> 00:19:16,520 Speaker 2: such relation to MAZE. The Zeists, however, do not agree 285 00:19:16,600 --> 00:19:20,320 Speaker 2: among themselves, nor do the Antisiasts show any more harmony 286 00:19:20,359 --> 00:19:23,560 Speaker 2: in their views. Without going into the details of the 287 00:19:23,640 --> 00:19:26,960 Speaker 2: various theories and shades of opinion, it may be said 288 00:19:27,000 --> 00:19:30,520 Speaker 2: that the great struggle now centers around the question is 289 00:19:30,640 --> 00:19:34,080 Speaker 2: pelagra a kind of food poisoning from maze? Or is 290 00:19:34,160 --> 00:19:38,719 Speaker 2: it due to some parasite infecting the human body. In 291 00:19:38,840 --> 00:19:42,360 Speaker 2: nineteen twelve, which was the same year that the Thompson 292 00:19:42,480 --> 00:19:49,240 Speaker 2: McFadden Commission started its investigation, Polish biochemist Casimir Funk coined 293 00:19:49,320 --> 00:19:55,000 Speaker 2: the word vitamin as vital amines, and he connected deficiencies 294 00:19:55,080 --> 00:19:59,800 Speaker 2: in these vital amines to diseases. He noted similarities among 295 00:19:59,840 --> 00:20:04,200 Speaker 2: them pelagra, berry berry, ricketts, and scurvy, all of which 296 00:20:04,200 --> 00:20:09,719 Speaker 2: are understood as vitamin deficiency diseases today. He observed that 297 00:20:09,760 --> 00:20:14,120 Speaker 2: these diseases tended to erupt in countries where quote a 298 00:20:14,160 --> 00:20:19,680 Speaker 2: certain unvarying diet is partaken for long periods. People had 299 00:20:19,720 --> 00:20:23,400 Speaker 2: already figured out that barry berry, which is a thiamin deficiency, 300 00:20:23,560 --> 00:20:27,800 Speaker 2: could be treated and prevented with rice brand and that scurvy, 301 00:20:27,920 --> 00:20:30,800 Speaker 2: which was a vitamin sea deficiency, could be treated with 302 00:20:30,840 --> 00:20:33,919 Speaker 2: a variety of fresh fruits and vegetables. We have a 303 00:20:33,960 --> 00:20:38,879 Speaker 2: whole episode on scurvy. Funk argued that there was probably 304 00:20:38,960 --> 00:20:44,240 Speaker 2: a dietary treatment for pelagra as well. By nineteen fourteen, 305 00:20:44,480 --> 00:20:48,000 Speaker 2: Claude Lavender had not been successful in finding a definite 306 00:20:48,080 --> 00:20:50,960 Speaker 2: cause for pelagra, and he asked to be assigned to 307 00:20:51,040 --> 00:20:56,040 Speaker 2: other work. US Surgeon General Rupert Blue appointed doctor Joseph 308 00:20:56,080 --> 00:21:00,840 Speaker 2: Goldberger as his replacement. Goldberger was from a Jewish family 309 00:21:00,920 --> 00:21:04,119 Speaker 2: from the Austro Hungarian Empire who had moved to the 310 00:21:04,200 --> 00:21:08,240 Speaker 2: United States when he was about nine. After becoming a doctor, 311 00:21:08,359 --> 00:21:10,800 Speaker 2: he had worked in private practice for a while before 312 00:21:10,920 --> 00:21:15,000 Speaker 2: joining the United States Marine Hospital Service. He had worked 313 00:21:15,000 --> 00:21:17,560 Speaker 2: as an immigration inspector in the Port of New York 314 00:21:17,680 --> 00:21:21,960 Speaker 2: before moving on to studying and fighting infectious diseases. He 315 00:21:22,000 --> 00:21:26,040 Speaker 2: had fought outbreaks of yellow fever, dengey fever, and typhoid, 316 00:21:26,080 --> 00:21:26,840 Speaker 2: among others. 317 00:21:27,440 --> 00:21:30,080 Speaker 1: When he was appointed to study pelagra, he was in 318 00:21:30,160 --> 00:21:34,440 Speaker 1: Detroit helping to fight a diphtheria outbreak. Yeah. 319 00:21:34,480 --> 00:21:38,520 Speaker 2: His public health and infectious disease work has been described 320 00:21:38,600 --> 00:21:42,320 Speaker 2: as like monumental and heroic. He did a ton and 321 00:21:42,400 --> 00:21:44,399 Speaker 2: a lot of it. He was doing at risk to 322 00:21:44,440 --> 00:21:51,320 Speaker 2: his own health. That same year, the State Sanitarium in Millageville, Georgia, 323 00:21:51,560 --> 00:21:55,160 Speaker 2: was in the middle of a pelagora crisis. Almost two 324 00:21:55,320 --> 00:21:59,879 Speaker 2: hundred people had died and pelaga had passed tuberculosis as 325 00:22:00,080 --> 00:22:04,000 Speaker 2: the leading cause of death at the hospital. The federal 326 00:22:04,040 --> 00:22:07,520 Speaker 2: government had started to see the situation as really urgent 327 00:22:07,680 --> 00:22:11,200 Speaker 2: and Goldberger was given a budget of eighty thousand dollars 328 00:22:11,200 --> 00:22:14,840 Speaker 2: for his investigation that was out of the entire US 329 00:22:14,960 --> 00:22:17,880 Speaker 2: public health budget of two hundred thousand dollars. 330 00:22:18,880 --> 00:22:22,679 Speaker 1: Goldberger studied conditions at the hospital and noticed something that 331 00:22:22,720 --> 00:22:26,679 Speaker 1: George H. Searcy had also described in his reports on 332 00:22:26,720 --> 00:22:30,479 Speaker 1: the pelagra outbreak at Mount vernonn Asylum, almost a decade before. 333 00:22:31,680 --> 00:22:37,240 Speaker 1: Pelagor was affecting only the patients, not staff. Staff were 334 00:22:37,240 --> 00:22:40,000 Speaker 1: in close contact with the patients all day, and some 335 00:22:40,040 --> 00:22:43,520 Speaker 1: of them lived at the facility. If the disease had 336 00:22:43,560 --> 00:22:46,919 Speaker 1: been communicable, whether it was being spread through insects or 337 00:22:46,960 --> 00:22:52,119 Speaker 1: some other vector, it would have affected staff as well. Theoretically, 338 00:22:52,320 --> 00:22:55,840 Speaker 1: staff and patients were eating the same food, but Goldberger 339 00:22:55,920 --> 00:22:59,520 Speaker 1: learned that the staff were served first, so they usually 340 00:22:59,520 --> 00:23:03,080 Speaker 1: took the best food for themselves, and the staff also 341 00:23:03,160 --> 00:23:06,920 Speaker 1: had options to supplement their diets beyond what the hospital served. 342 00:23:07,920 --> 00:23:12,960 Speaker 1: Although most of Goldberger's background was in infectious diseases, he 343 00:23:13,200 --> 00:23:18,560 Speaker 1: started researching pelagra as a possible nutritional deficiency. This is 344 00:23:18,680 --> 00:23:21,679 Speaker 1: where we will get to the human experimentation that we 345 00:23:21,720 --> 00:23:24,240 Speaker 1: talked about at the beginning of the show and some 346 00:23:24,359 --> 00:23:27,320 Speaker 1: of its fairy growths. We'll have more on that after 347 00:23:27,359 --> 00:23:28,200 Speaker 1: a sponsor break. 348 00:23:37,680 --> 00:23:42,320 Speaker 2: In nineteen fourteen, Joseph Goldberger started polagor research at two 349 00:23:42,560 --> 00:23:47,720 Speaker 2: orphanages in Jackson, Mississippi, where more than two hundred total 350 00:23:47,800 --> 00:23:51,360 Speaker 2: children had developed the disease during the spring and summer. 351 00:23:52,520 --> 00:23:55,800 Speaker 2: He found that pelagra only seemed to affect children between 352 00:23:55,800 --> 00:23:58,680 Speaker 2: the ages of six and twelve, and they were all 353 00:23:58,720 --> 00:24:02,879 Speaker 2: mostly eating biscuits, grits, corn meal, and syrup. I'm not 354 00:24:02,920 --> 00:24:05,639 Speaker 2: sure if the syrup was his word for molasses, but 355 00:24:05,920 --> 00:24:11,000 Speaker 2: something sugary and syrupy. Even though the general conditions at 356 00:24:11,000 --> 00:24:14,320 Speaker 2: the orphanages were not good in terms of things like 357 00:24:14,400 --> 00:24:19,879 Speaker 2: sanitation and overcrowding and overall health, he left those conditions 358 00:24:19,960 --> 00:24:23,160 Speaker 2: as they were for the sake of this experiment. 359 00:24:23,600 --> 00:24:27,720 Speaker 1: At both orphanages. In his words quote, a very decided 360 00:24:27,840 --> 00:24:30,840 Speaker 1: increase was made in the proportion of the fresh animal 361 00:24:30,920 --> 00:24:36,520 Speaker 1: and of the leguminous protein foods. This included milk, eggs, beans, 362 00:24:36,600 --> 00:24:39,879 Speaker 1: and peas, and at breakfast the children were served oatmeal 363 00:24:40,320 --> 00:24:44,080 Speaker 1: rather than corn grits. Other foods were added as well. 364 00:24:45,080 --> 00:24:48,400 Speaker 1: After the implementation of this diet, the children were observed 365 00:24:48,400 --> 00:24:52,560 Speaker 1: for a year. One of the orphanages had no recurrences 366 00:24:52,560 --> 00:24:56,560 Speaker 1: of pelagra the following spring and summer. The other had 367 00:24:56,680 --> 00:25:01,159 Speaker 1: just one. A similar experiment with similar results was carried 368 00:25:01,200 --> 00:25:05,679 Speaker 1: out at the Georgia State Sanitarium in nineteen fifteen. Goldberger 369 00:25:05,720 --> 00:25:08,959 Speaker 1: began reporting his results in the Southern Medical Journal and 370 00:25:09,080 --> 00:25:14,639 Speaker 1: in public health reports. This research strongly suggested that a 371 00:25:14,760 --> 00:25:19,520 Speaker 1: diet containing a variety of foods could prevent pelagra, and 372 00:25:19,560 --> 00:25:23,520 Speaker 1: he wanted to confirm whether pelagra could also be induced 373 00:25:23,760 --> 00:25:24,439 Speaker 1: through diet. 374 00:25:25,520 --> 00:25:29,320 Speaker 2: He worked with Earl Brewer, Governor of Mississippi, to arrange 375 00:25:29,400 --> 00:25:33,280 Speaker 2: an experiment at Rankin State Prison Farm, which did not 376 00:25:33,480 --> 00:25:37,000 Speaker 2: have a history of pelagra among the people incarcerated there. 377 00:25:37,920 --> 00:25:41,600 Speaker 2: Twelve healthy men were recruited from this study, although one 378 00:25:41,640 --> 00:25:44,720 Speaker 2: of them was found to have a previously undetected medical 379 00:25:44,760 --> 00:25:49,199 Speaker 2: condition and he was dismissed. These men were offered pardons 380 00:25:49,240 --> 00:25:52,600 Speaker 2: for their participation that would be seen as unethical and 381 00:25:52,680 --> 00:25:58,280 Speaker 2: coercive today. They were placed on a largely corn based diet, 382 00:25:58,720 --> 00:26:02,280 Speaker 2: and after about five five months, six of them had 383 00:26:02,320 --> 00:26:06,359 Speaker 2: developed the rash that is characteristic of pelagra. So this 384 00:26:06,480 --> 00:26:10,959 Speaker 2: supported the idea that a primarily corn based diet could 385 00:26:11,000 --> 00:26:16,719 Speaker 2: cause pelagra. Goldberger's conclusions really inflamed a lot of the 386 00:26:16,720 --> 00:26:20,920 Speaker 2: cultural responses that we talked about earlier. While there were 387 00:26:21,000 --> 00:26:24,000 Speaker 2: some Southern leaders and advocates who called for food aid 388 00:26:24,040 --> 00:26:28,879 Speaker 2: to the South to combat any dietary deficiencies, many many 389 00:26:29,000 --> 00:26:33,640 Speaker 2: others were outraged. This was fueled by attitudes dating back 390 00:26:33,680 --> 00:26:37,679 Speaker 2: to before the Civil War and reinforced during reconstruction, and 391 00:26:37,800 --> 00:26:41,720 Speaker 2: perceptions that a Jewish New Yorker seen as a paternalistic, 392 00:26:41,880 --> 00:26:45,639 Speaker 2: moralizing outsider, had come to pass judgment on the South, 393 00:26:45,880 --> 00:26:50,359 Speaker 2: its people, and its food. Anti ziasts doubled down on 394 00:26:50,400 --> 00:26:54,320 Speaker 2: the insistence that this wasn't about food, and it specifically 395 00:26:54,520 --> 00:26:58,199 Speaker 2: wasn't about corn, and that there must be an infectious 396 00:26:58,200 --> 00:27:01,480 Speaker 2: agent at work. Yeah. Some of the tone of this 397 00:27:02,040 --> 00:27:06,199 Speaker 2: conversation at the time was basically Goldberger saying, there is 398 00:27:06,400 --> 00:27:09,320 Speaker 2: famine in the South and we need to take action 399 00:27:09,440 --> 00:27:13,760 Speaker 2: to save people's lives, and his most vocal critics were like, 400 00:27:13,960 --> 00:27:15,320 Speaker 2: that is an insult. 401 00:27:15,440 --> 00:27:20,479 Speaker 1: How dare you? Defensiveness will make people do really foolish things. 402 00:27:20,720 --> 00:27:22,120 Speaker 1: Uh huh. 403 00:27:22,440 --> 00:27:26,800 Speaker 2: So, based on these criticisms, on April twenty sixth of 404 00:27:26,920 --> 00:27:31,760 Speaker 2: nineteen sixteen, Goldberger started a series of experiments to try 405 00:27:31,800 --> 00:27:36,080 Speaker 2: to prove that no, there was not an infectious agent 406 00:27:36,400 --> 00:27:40,840 Speaker 2: at work. Most of the seventeen participants in these experiments 407 00:27:40,880 --> 00:27:45,480 Speaker 2: were doctors, but one of them was also his wife. 408 00:27:45,840 --> 00:27:51,800 Speaker 2: They intentionally exposed themselves to the bodily fluids of pelagora patients, 409 00:27:51,800 --> 00:27:55,480 Speaker 2: including their blood and swabs from their noses and throats. 410 00:27:56,240 --> 00:28:01,280 Speaker 2: They also exposed themselves to skin from the patient's This 411 00:28:01,520 --> 00:28:07,600 Speaker 2: happened through things like injections and compounded pills that they swallowed. Basically, 412 00:28:08,560 --> 00:28:12,040 Speaker 2: if you can imagine a way to get material from 413 00:28:12,200 --> 00:28:15,040 Speaker 2: one person's body into another, they tried. 414 00:28:15,160 --> 00:28:15,240 Speaker 1: That. 415 00:28:16,359 --> 00:28:22,359 Speaker 2: These were nicknamed filth parties. No one got pelagor from them. 416 00:28:22,960 --> 00:28:26,679 Speaker 2: Did they get other things though? Did they get hepatitis? 417 00:28:26,960 --> 00:28:32,520 Speaker 1: I don't know. Uh. Even so, in November of that year, 418 00:28:32,600 --> 00:28:36,280 Speaker 1: there were doctors at the Southern Medical Association annual meeting 419 00:28:36,760 --> 00:28:42,240 Speaker 1: who still maintained that Goldberger was wrong. In particular, South 420 00:28:42,280 --> 00:28:46,960 Speaker 1: Carolina State health officer James A. Hayn insisted that pelagra 421 00:28:47,160 --> 00:28:51,840 Speaker 1: was infectious. He continued to publicly criticize Goldberger and his 422 00:28:52,000 --> 00:28:56,080 Speaker 1: findings for years, no matter how much evidence was presented 423 00:28:56,280 --> 00:29:00,720 Speaker 1: or how that evidence was framed. He later compared Goldberger 424 00:29:00,800 --> 00:29:05,280 Speaker 1: to fascist dictator Benito Mussolini and described his ideas as 425 00:29:05,320 --> 00:29:08,360 Speaker 1: having been quote rammed down their throats. 426 00:29:09,360 --> 00:29:12,000 Speaker 2: Good thing. We've been talking about stuff rammed down our 427 00:29:12,080 --> 00:29:14,240 Speaker 2: throats for more than a century. 428 00:29:15,760 --> 00:29:17,640 Speaker 1: My least favorite phrase on the planet. 429 00:29:17,720 --> 00:29:22,800 Speaker 2: Perhaps. Also in nineteen sixteen, Goldberger started working with a 430 00:29:22,840 --> 00:29:27,719 Speaker 2: team to study the relationship between pelagra and the Southern economy. 431 00:29:28,320 --> 00:29:32,480 Speaker 2: His collaborators included Edgar Seidenstricker, who had a background in 432 00:29:32,600 --> 00:29:38,320 Speaker 2: labor economics and was a statistician. Their work was deeply 433 00:29:38,440 --> 00:29:41,760 Speaker 2: critical of the exploitive systems that were at work in 434 00:29:41,880 --> 00:29:47,720 Speaker 2: the South, including sharecropping and the cotton monoculture. Another researcher, 435 00:29:47,840 --> 00:29:53,040 Speaker 2: carl A. Grot, also studied the mining camps in Walker County, Alabama, 436 00:29:53,160 --> 00:29:56,840 Speaker 2: and confirmed that pelagor was not affected by a person's 437 00:29:56,880 --> 00:30:00,640 Speaker 2: heredity or their race, but that rates of the disease 438 00:30:00,800 --> 00:30:05,440 Speaker 2: were directly correlated with income, making the food that people 439 00:30:05,440 --> 00:30:10,600 Speaker 2: could afford the most likely explanation. One of the criticisms 440 00:30:10,680 --> 00:30:13,720 Speaker 2: of Goldberger's work was that it had been carried out 441 00:30:13,760 --> 00:30:17,880 Speaker 2: in the controlled settings of orphanages and asylums, so in 442 00:30:17,960 --> 00:30:20,959 Speaker 2: nineteen eighteen he did his own mill studies as the 443 00:30:21,000 --> 00:30:25,400 Speaker 2: Thompson McFadden Commission had done. He selected seven cotton mill 444 00:30:25,480 --> 00:30:29,480 Speaker 2: villages in South Carolina and screened every person in every 445 00:30:29,560 --> 00:30:35,120 Speaker 2: household for pelagra. Everyone was very poor, but the households 446 00:30:35,120 --> 00:30:38,160 Speaker 2: in which at least one person had pelagra were the 447 00:30:38,160 --> 00:30:41,000 Speaker 2: ones were there was little to no animal protein in 448 00:30:41,040 --> 00:30:45,240 Speaker 2: their diets, although what they were eating wasn't necessarily limited 449 00:30:45,280 --> 00:30:50,360 Speaker 2: to just corn. Through all of this, pelagor rates had 450 00:30:50,400 --> 00:30:54,360 Speaker 2: continued to rise and fall in conjunction with changes in 451 00:30:54,440 --> 00:30:59,080 Speaker 2: economic factors and food availability. So, for example, a bull 452 00:30:59,200 --> 00:31:02,959 Speaker 2: weavil infac station in Alabama in nineteen fifteen led to 453 00:31:03,000 --> 00:31:07,800 Speaker 2: them spiking. Although the disease was most prevalent in the South, 454 00:31:07,960 --> 00:31:11,520 Speaker 2: it could be found all over the US, really anywhere 455 00:31:11,560 --> 00:31:15,280 Speaker 2: that people could not afford a variety of food and 456 00:31:15,360 --> 00:31:18,400 Speaker 2: were just subsisting on one specific staple. 457 00:31:19,440 --> 00:31:23,200 Speaker 1: But then, over the late nineteen teens and early nineteen twenties, 458 00:31:23,720 --> 00:31:28,760 Speaker 1: researchers including Goldberger, Russell, Henry Chittenden, and Frank pell Underhill 459 00:31:29,200 --> 00:31:34,600 Speaker 1: found one particular thing that seemed to prevent pelagra. Brewers yeast, 460 00:31:34,680 --> 00:31:37,760 Speaker 1: which we know today is high in protein, B vitamins, 461 00:31:37,800 --> 00:31:42,680 Speaker 1: and other nutrients. This discovery came from experiments on pelagra 462 00:31:42,880 --> 00:31:47,040 Speaker 1: in dogs. It was difficult to induce pelagra in dogs 463 00:31:47,040 --> 00:31:50,520 Speaker 1: because most dogs don't want to eat nothing but corn meal, 464 00:31:50,680 --> 00:31:54,720 Speaker 1: so researchers were using brewers yeast to try to stimulate 465 00:31:54,800 --> 00:31:58,720 Speaker 1: their appetites. It turned out the brewers yeast protected them 466 00:31:58,800 --> 00:31:59,959 Speaker 1: from developing pelagon. 467 00:32:01,120 --> 00:32:04,680 Speaker 2: Yeah. Goldberger had also at the same time been systematically 468 00:32:04,720 --> 00:32:08,600 Speaker 2: trying to find something that would work as a protective 469 00:32:08,680 --> 00:32:12,680 Speaker 2: and then this happened with the dogs. Brewers yeast was 470 00:32:12,720 --> 00:32:17,480 Speaker 2: also inexpensive, and Goldberger started advocating for the use of 471 00:32:17,600 --> 00:32:22,080 Speaker 2: brewers yeast to treat and prevent pelagra. When the Mississippi 472 00:32:22,160 --> 00:32:26,560 Speaker 2: River flooded in nineteen twenty seven, causing immense destruction and 473 00:32:26,680 --> 00:32:31,600 Speaker 2: widespread crop devastation, Goldberger warned that there would probably be 474 00:32:31,760 --> 00:32:35,920 Speaker 2: an increase in pelagor rates to follow. He called for 475 00:32:36,120 --> 00:32:39,920 Speaker 2: education about the use of brewers yeast and distribution of 476 00:32:39,960 --> 00:32:44,840 Speaker 2: brewers yeast to affected communities. The Red Cross delivered twelve 477 00:32:45,120 --> 00:32:49,880 Speaker 2: thousand pounds of brewers yeast to flood affected areas. There 478 00:32:50,280 --> 00:32:54,479 Speaker 2: was still widespread malnutrition in the wake of this flood, 479 00:32:54,640 --> 00:32:58,240 Speaker 2: and there were also racial disparities as black people were 480 00:32:58,360 --> 00:33:01,160 Speaker 2: kept out of a lot of the relief camps, but 481 00:33:01,320 --> 00:33:05,280 Speaker 2: Goldberger is credited with helping to mitigate some of the 482 00:33:05,320 --> 00:33:09,640 Speaker 2: worst outcomes of this catastrophe. While some of the South 483 00:33:09,720 --> 00:33:13,360 Speaker 2: had been reluctant to accept a dietary explanation of pelagra 484 00:33:14,120 --> 00:33:18,040 Speaker 2: or to ask for or accept food relief, this flood 485 00:33:18,200 --> 00:33:22,200 Speaker 2: was truly a massive disaster. It was so huge in 486 00:33:22,280 --> 00:33:25,360 Speaker 2: scale and devastation that it removed some of the stigma 487 00:33:25,440 --> 00:33:30,800 Speaker 2: around asking for help, especially asking for food help. Afterward, 488 00:33:31,120 --> 00:33:33,360 Speaker 2: many of the doctors who had kept looking for an 489 00:33:33,360 --> 00:33:37,200 Speaker 2: infectious cause of pelagra were more willing to accept that 490 00:33:37,280 --> 00:33:41,480 Speaker 2: it was caused by a nutritional deficiency. The Red Cross 491 00:33:41,520 --> 00:33:45,880 Speaker 2: also continued to deliver Brewers yeast, distributing five hundred thousand 492 00:33:45,920 --> 00:33:50,000 Speaker 2: pounds of it over the next decade. On October thirty first, 493 00:33:50,120 --> 00:33:53,720 Speaker 2: nineteen twenty eight, Goldberger gave a speech before the American 494 00:33:53,800 --> 00:33:57,760 Speaker 2: Dietetic Association in which he said, quote, the problem of 495 00:33:57,880 --> 00:34:01,400 Speaker 2: pelagra is, in the main a prime problem of poverty. 496 00:34:02,320 --> 00:34:06,360 Speaker 2: Education of the people will help, but improvement in basic 497 00:34:06,560 --> 00:34:11,840 Speaker 2: economic conditions alone can be expected to heal this festering 498 00:34:12,000 --> 00:34:15,920 Speaker 2: ulcer in the body of our people. But much of 499 00:34:15,920 --> 00:34:20,319 Speaker 2: the effort to cure pelagra prevent it societally did not 500 00:34:20,480 --> 00:34:25,319 Speaker 2: involve trying to reduce poverty. There definitely were efforts to 501 00:34:25,360 --> 00:34:29,000 Speaker 2: provide food aid and other assistants during the Great Depression 502 00:34:29,080 --> 00:34:32,680 Speaker 2: and other times of crisis, and there were various anti 503 00:34:32,800 --> 00:34:37,120 Speaker 2: poverty programs, But the bigger and more long term focused 504 00:34:37,160 --> 00:34:43,600 Speaker 2: involving pelagra was on fortifying food. Biochemist Conrad Elvihim isolated 505 00:34:43,680 --> 00:34:47,480 Speaker 2: niacin also called vitamin B three in nineteen thirty seven. 506 00:34:48,239 --> 00:34:52,320 Speaker 2: By nineteen thirty eight, bakers had started voluntarily producing bread 507 00:34:52,480 --> 00:34:56,640 Speaker 2: using a high vitamin yeast, which helped reduce pelagra rates. 508 00:34:57,440 --> 00:35:01,360 Speaker 2: As synthesized vitamins became less expensive of bread products and 509 00:35:01,440 --> 00:35:05,680 Speaker 2: other foods were fortified with vitamins directly. A lot of 510 00:35:05,719 --> 00:35:08,239 Speaker 2: this was like what we discussed in our episode on 511 00:35:08,280 --> 00:35:12,799 Speaker 2: the iodization of salt, voluntary efforts by food producers and 512 00:35:12,880 --> 00:35:18,120 Speaker 2: state laws requiring fortification. This continued into the nineteen forties, 513 00:35:18,160 --> 00:35:21,520 Speaker 2: with twenty eight states passing some kind of mandatory law 514 00:35:21,800 --> 00:35:25,440 Speaker 2: for fortifying bread or flour between nineteen forty two and 515 00:35:25,560 --> 00:35:28,799 Speaker 2: nineteen forty nine. I was telling my spouse about what 516 00:35:28,840 --> 00:35:31,399 Speaker 2: this episode was about, and he said, is that why 517 00:35:31,400 --> 00:35:35,879 Speaker 2: they spray vitamins on breakfast cereal. Yes, I mean other 518 00:35:36,480 --> 00:35:44,400 Speaker 2: deficiencies too, But yes, economic systems also changed during those decades. Obviously, 519 00:35:44,600 --> 00:35:49,240 Speaker 2: poverty still exists. There are still food deserts where people 520 00:35:49,400 --> 00:35:52,520 Speaker 2: cannot get access to the foods that they need to 521 00:35:52,560 --> 00:35:57,240 Speaker 2: eat to live. But the sharecropping system started to fade 522 00:35:57,320 --> 00:36:00,759 Speaker 2: in the wake of the mechanization and industrialisation of the 523 00:36:00,800 --> 00:36:05,080 Speaker 2: farm industry in the nineteen thirties and forties. That of 524 00:36:05,080 --> 00:36:09,240 Speaker 2: course caused its own disruption to people's lives and circumstances, 525 00:36:09,320 --> 00:36:12,640 Speaker 2: but it did mean that people were not in a 526 00:36:12,680 --> 00:36:14,880 Speaker 2: situation where they were sharecropping and they could only get 527 00:36:14,920 --> 00:36:19,040 Speaker 2: food at a commissary. Following cotton prices in the nineteen 528 00:36:19,120 --> 00:36:22,360 Speaker 2: thirties also led to some diversification in the crops that 529 00:36:22,400 --> 00:36:27,480 Speaker 2: were being planted. The payment of wages in scrip, which 530 00:36:27,520 --> 00:36:30,680 Speaker 2: had been common in mill towns and mining towns and 531 00:36:30,840 --> 00:36:34,160 Speaker 2: locked people into buying their food only from a company 532 00:36:34,239 --> 00:36:37,919 Speaker 2: store and nowhere else. That was outlawed under the Fair 533 00:36:38,040 --> 00:36:42,560 Speaker 2: Labor Standards Act of nineteen thirty eight. With food fortification 534 00:36:42,800 --> 00:36:46,279 Speaker 2: and social and economic shifts, the pelagri crisis in the 535 00:36:46,360 --> 00:36:49,040 Speaker 2: US was largely over by the start of World War II, 536 00:36:50,080 --> 00:36:52,839 Speaker 2: but between nineteen oh six and nineteen forty there had 537 00:36:52,880 --> 00:36:57,360 Speaker 2: been approximately three million cases and one hundred thousand deaths 538 00:36:57,400 --> 00:37:01,200 Speaker 2: from the disease. About half of those deaths were among 539 00:37:01,280 --> 00:37:04,040 Speaker 2: black people, and about two thirds of them were women. 540 00:37:04,960 --> 00:37:08,239 Speaker 2: This was something that some of the researchers, including Goldberger, 541 00:37:08,400 --> 00:37:12,360 Speaker 2: commented on at the time. Because of ongoing patterns of 542 00:37:12,480 --> 00:37:16,800 Speaker 2: racism and bigotry, black people in any given community tended 543 00:37:16,800 --> 00:37:19,839 Speaker 2: to be in the poorest class, with the fewest resources, 544 00:37:20,200 --> 00:37:24,880 Speaker 2: and were sometimes excluded from receiving food, aid or other support. 545 00:37:25,440 --> 00:37:29,640 Speaker 2: The gender disparity is a little more complicated. It's possible 546 00:37:29,760 --> 00:37:33,000 Speaker 2: that there were some physiological factors involved in the absorption 547 00:37:33,480 --> 00:37:37,040 Speaker 2: and use of niosin in women's bodies, but some of 548 00:37:37,040 --> 00:37:40,919 Speaker 2: this was probably connected to gender roles and family dynamics. 549 00:37:41,640 --> 00:37:45,960 Speaker 2: In most families, women were the ones procuring and preparing food, 550 00:37:46,120 --> 00:37:49,879 Speaker 2: and mothers and wives often deprived themselves so the rest 551 00:37:49,920 --> 00:37:53,719 Speaker 2: of the family could eat. Joseph Goldberger did not live 552 00:37:53,800 --> 00:37:56,520 Speaker 2: to see the isolation of niosin or the end of 553 00:37:56,560 --> 00:38:00,719 Speaker 2: the polagra epidemic. He died of cancer on January seventeenth, 554 00:38:00,800 --> 00:38:05,160 Speaker 2: nineteen twenty nine. His critics spread rumors that he had 555 00:38:05,200 --> 00:38:09,920 Speaker 2: really died of pelagra. The exact mechanisms of niosin in 556 00:38:09,960 --> 00:38:13,160 Speaker 2: the body and how it relates to pelagra continued to 557 00:38:13,200 --> 00:38:16,719 Speaker 2: be studied for decades after the nineteen forties, and the 558 00:38:16,760 --> 00:38:20,640 Speaker 2: discovery of nichemalization's role in making nutrients in corn more 559 00:38:20,680 --> 00:38:26,759 Speaker 2: bioavailable is comparatively recent. Researchers started publishing work analyzing the 560 00:38:26,840 --> 00:38:30,640 Speaker 2: available nutrients and niche temalized corn in the nineteen fifties, 561 00:38:31,080 --> 00:38:35,880 Speaker 2: with research confirming that nichemalization increases the availability of triptafan 562 00:38:36,280 --> 00:38:42,800 Speaker 2: and niasin by the late nineteen eighties. During our lifetimes, yeah, yeah, 563 00:38:42,880 --> 00:38:45,800 Speaker 2: I had trouble pinning down exactly when that research happened, 564 00:38:45,800 --> 00:38:50,120 Speaker 2: because that's a that's a thing, that's a series of terms. 565 00:38:50,239 --> 00:38:53,279 Speaker 2: To try to do sort of a literature review on 566 00:38:54,680 --> 00:38:57,480 Speaker 2: UH And I found various papers over the course of 567 00:38:57,520 --> 00:38:59,960 Speaker 2: those decades that were related to it in one way 568 00:39:00,120 --> 00:39:04,600 Speaker 2: or another. And then also I would find other papers 569 00:39:04,680 --> 00:39:09,560 Speaker 2: that were about pellagorate in some other way, written from 570 00:39:09,800 --> 00:39:17,120 Speaker 2: like the seventies that just seemed unaware that niche stivialization 571 00:39:17,320 --> 00:39:20,040 Speaker 2: was even a factor in anything. So even if it 572 00:39:20,160 --> 00:39:24,080 Speaker 2: was more understood like that had not spread through all 573 00:39:24,120 --> 00:39:27,520 Speaker 2: of the research community. Anyway, we'll talk about some things 574 00:39:27,600 --> 00:39:29,240 Speaker 2: on Friday. 575 00:39:30,400 --> 00:39:31,239 Speaker 1: I'm sure. 576 00:39:32,680 --> 00:39:36,479 Speaker 2: In our behind the scenes, I have some listener mail. 577 00:39:36,560 --> 00:39:37,640 Speaker 1: Fabulous. 578 00:39:38,200 --> 00:39:42,400 Speaker 2: This listener mail is from Kristen who wrote in after 579 00:39:42,600 --> 00:39:47,440 Speaker 2: our episode on jan Arson. This says, Hi, Holly and Tracy. 580 00:39:47,480 --> 00:39:50,839 Speaker 2: I'm a longtime listener and repeat fan mail writer. I 581 00:39:50,880 --> 00:39:53,680 Speaker 2: love your episodes, and I'm particularly interested when I find 582 00:39:53,719 --> 00:39:57,120 Speaker 2: a personal connection to the story you are telling, as 583 00:39:57,239 --> 00:39:59,920 Speaker 2: is the case in your recent episode on Yan Arson. 584 00:40:01,160 --> 00:40:04,200 Speaker 2: I am half Icelandic by descent, and so am tickled 585 00:40:04,239 --> 00:40:07,200 Speaker 2: by your interest in the land of my forefathers. During 586 00:40:07,239 --> 00:40:10,200 Speaker 2: the podcast, Tracy toss in a comment that it's quite 587 00:40:10,280 --> 00:40:13,640 Speaker 2: likely that all Icelanders are descended from Yon Arson in 588 00:40:13,680 --> 00:40:14,520 Speaker 2: one way or another. 589 00:40:14,600 --> 00:40:15,279 Speaker 1: I thought to. 590 00:40:15,320 --> 00:40:22,080 Speaker 2: Myself, challenge accepted, and went to the Icelandic genealogy database 591 00:40:22,640 --> 00:40:25,840 Speaker 2: that is at icelandicgroots dot com to see if I 592 00:40:25,880 --> 00:40:31,040 Speaker 2: could establish a personal connection to Yon Arson lo and behold, 593 00:40:31,040 --> 00:40:35,239 Speaker 2: Tracy was right. I am related to Yon Rason, who 594 00:40:35,320 --> 00:40:41,719 Speaker 2: is my twelve times great grandfather or Lancofe. I'm sorry 595 00:40:41,760 --> 00:40:43,560 Speaker 2: if I did not do a great job of pronouncing 596 00:40:43,600 --> 00:40:46,480 Speaker 2: that term. Not only that, but I am related to 597 00:40:46,560 --> 00:40:49,919 Speaker 2: him through fifteen different lines of descents the attached family tree. 598 00:40:49,960 --> 00:40:52,279 Speaker 2: This is due to the fact that Iceland's population has 599 00:40:52,320 --> 00:40:57,120 Speaker 2: always been relatively small, so most people are related. In fact, 600 00:40:57,120 --> 00:40:59,160 Speaker 2: when I was in Reykievic on a business trip some 601 00:40:59,280 --> 00:41:01,680 Speaker 2: years back, I was invited to a small get together 602 00:41:01,760 --> 00:41:05,960 Speaker 2: after work where I met a recently retired Bishop of Iceland, 603 00:41:06,040 --> 00:41:10,399 Speaker 2: Peter Stegerson. I feel like I left a syllable out 604 00:41:10,400 --> 00:41:12,400 Speaker 2: of that, but I don't think I could do it again. 605 00:41:14,520 --> 00:41:17,040 Speaker 2: I mentioned that my mother's family was from Iceland, and 606 00:41:17,080 --> 00:41:20,120 Speaker 2: he responded that we must be related. After I tossed 607 00:41:20,160 --> 00:41:22,680 Speaker 2: a few ancestral names out, he said, of course we 608 00:41:22,719 --> 00:41:26,080 Speaker 2: are distant cousins. I was able to confirm his statement 609 00:41:26,120 --> 00:41:31,760 Speaker 2: recently on the s Icelandic Roots genealogical database. What funds 610 00:41:31,800 --> 00:41:35,320 Speaker 2: you have an automatic conversation starter like this? I'm including 611 00:41:35,360 --> 00:41:38,239 Speaker 2: a photo of four generations of my family, me, my mother, 612 00:41:38,960 --> 00:41:42,239 Speaker 2: my Ama, and my Lagama. I am not saying their 613 00:41:42,280 --> 00:41:43,840 Speaker 2: names for the sake of privacy, but they are in 614 00:41:43,880 --> 00:41:48,040 Speaker 2: the email. This photo was actually taken in Canada, which 615 00:41:48,080 --> 00:41:51,400 Speaker 2: is in Gimli in Manitoba, which is the largest Icelandic 616 00:41:51,480 --> 00:41:55,160 Speaker 2: settlement outside of Iceland for pat tax I run out 617 00:41:55,160 --> 00:41:57,239 Speaker 2: of current pets to introduce you to you, So I'm 618 00:41:57,280 --> 00:42:00,920 Speaker 2: going back in time to our family's first kitty. Early 619 00:42:00,920 --> 00:42:03,759 Speaker 2: one Saturday morning, the wife of my father's boss showed 620 00:42:03,840 --> 00:42:06,000 Speaker 2: up at our door. When my mother opened the door, 621 00:42:06,320 --> 00:42:09,600 Speaker 2: the woman said here and shoved a kitten and a 622 00:42:09,640 --> 00:42:12,200 Speaker 2: can of cat food into my mother's hands, and then 623 00:42:12,280 --> 00:42:19,120 Speaker 2: strode quickly away. We children, of course, were thrilled at 624 00:42:19,120 --> 00:42:22,000 Speaker 2: the idea of a kitten. My parents bowed to the inevitable. 625 00:42:22,080 --> 00:42:24,560 Speaker 2: They both had a quirky sense of humor, and decided 626 00:42:24,560 --> 00:42:28,200 Speaker 2: to name our cat Fido. Fido quickly grew from a 627 00:42:28,200 --> 00:42:30,960 Speaker 2: small kitten to an extremely large cat. The attached photo 628 00:42:31,000 --> 00:42:33,759 Speaker 2: shows Fido being held by then three year old brother 629 00:42:33,800 --> 00:42:36,840 Speaker 2: for Scale Fighter, who lived the ripe old age of 630 00:42:36,920 --> 00:42:41,319 Speaker 2: twenty two despite receiving the excessive love from all four 631 00:42:41,320 --> 00:42:45,480 Speaker 2: of us kids. Lastly, this made me cry when I 632 00:42:45,520 --> 00:42:47,319 Speaker 2: first read it, and so I'm going to try to 633 00:42:47,360 --> 00:42:51,279 Speaker 2: read it without crying. Fingers crossed. I don't know if 634 00:42:51,280 --> 00:42:53,680 Speaker 2: I can, but I'm gonna try. Lastly, I want to 635 00:42:53,719 --> 00:42:55,880 Speaker 2: thank you for your gentle benedictions. At the end of 636 00:42:55,920 --> 00:43:00,239 Speaker 2: each Friday behind the scenes podcasts. Kristen just going on 637 00:43:00,320 --> 00:43:02,920 Speaker 2: to talk about how dealing with some things and this 638 00:43:03,040 --> 00:43:05,160 Speaker 2: positive message at the end of your show gives me 639 00:43:05,560 --> 00:43:08,640 Speaker 2: a little lift going into the weekend. This did made 640 00:43:08,640 --> 00:43:10,120 Speaker 2: me cry when I first read it. I'm crying a 641 00:43:10,120 --> 00:43:12,719 Speaker 2: little bit right now. Thanks for everything, Kristin. Thank you 642 00:43:12,800 --> 00:43:13,760 Speaker 2: so much. Kristin. 643 00:43:14,760 --> 00:43:15,800 Speaker 1: I love the. 644 00:43:15,640 --> 00:43:21,440 Speaker 2: Confirmation of the interrelatedness of folks in Iceland. It is 645 00:43:21,520 --> 00:43:25,400 Speaker 2: a small islands and the population is small. What a 646 00:43:25,440 --> 00:43:30,400 Speaker 2: great family picture also, and then we have a picture 647 00:43:31,080 --> 00:43:38,000 Speaker 2: of a small child holding a large, very fluffy, white 648 00:43:38,000 --> 00:43:41,640 Speaker 2: and gray kitty cat. And this the cat is almost 649 00:43:41,719 --> 00:43:47,520 Speaker 2: as big as this child whole or so. I love 650 00:43:47,560 --> 00:43:50,720 Speaker 2: all of this. Thank you so much for this email 651 00:43:50,800 --> 00:43:52,879 Speaker 2: and for all this about your family, and for your 652 00:43:53,280 --> 00:43:55,480 Speaker 2: very gentle thank you at the end. 653 00:43:55,520 --> 00:43:56,920 Speaker 1: I loved this. It made me. 654 00:43:58,680 --> 00:44:00,400 Speaker 2: Tear up and gave me a little bit of a 655 00:44:00,480 --> 00:44:03,400 Speaker 2: lift for the rest of the day. If you would 656 00:44:03,440 --> 00:44:06,000 Speaker 2: like to send us a note about this or any 657 00:44:06,000 --> 00:44:10,640 Speaker 2: other podcast or at history podcasts at iHeartRadio dot com, 658 00:44:10,719 --> 00:44:14,200 Speaker 2: and you can subscribe to our show on the iHeartRadio 659 00:44:14,280 --> 00:44:22,920 Speaker 2: app and anywhere else you'd like to get your podcasts stuff. 660 00:44:22,920 --> 00:44:25,720 Speaker 2: You Missed in History Class is a production of iHeartRadio. 661 00:44:26,040 --> 00:44:30,640 Speaker 2: For more podcasts from iHeartRadio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, 662 00:44:30,760 --> 00:44:33,080 Speaker 2: or wherever you listen to your favorite shows.