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Speaker 1: Hey, Jorge, do you think that our culture might be

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Speaker 1: devaluing the word super?

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Speaker 5: I think our culture is sadly devaluing a lot of things.

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Speaker 5: I hadn't really thought about the word super though.

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Speaker 1: You know, you hear it super often. It's kind of

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Speaker 1: like super everywhere, and after a while you super start

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Speaker 1: to not even notice it.

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Speaker 5: Yeah, I guess you're right. Our superheroes, super villains, super califragilistic, xplidoses,

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Speaker 5: excused a lot.

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Speaker 1: Maybe we should like limit how much we use it

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Speaker 1: before it loses all of its power.

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Speaker 5: You think we're going to run out of words, We're.

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Speaker 1: Gonna have to go to super duper, super extra duper.

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Speaker 1: It's gonna get exhausting, or we're.

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Speaker 5: Gonna go to super conducting super colliders.

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Speaker 1: All right, I admit, scientist, they're guilty of this as well,

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Speaker 1: But that's super duper not my fault.

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Speaker 5: That's not a super excuse there. I am horeham May,

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Speaker 5: cartoonists and the creator of.

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Speaker 1: PhD Comics, Hi, I'm Daniel. I'm a particle physicist and

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Speaker 1: a professor at UC Irvine, and I super duper love science.

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Speaker 5: But what does that mean. I mean you love it

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Speaker 5: in a super way, or you love it a lot.

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Speaker 1: I guess it also means I kind of love super science.

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Speaker 1: I love those projects that are big and grandiose that

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Speaker 1: just put you at all at what humans can do,

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Speaker 1: what their minds can imagine, and what their hands can build.

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Speaker 5: Well, the problem is you never know who those projects

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Speaker 5: really are. You know, by day they're just mild mannered

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Speaker 5: physics projects, but by night they take off their glasses,

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Speaker 5: they put under cows and become superphysics.

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Speaker 1: So the super conducting super Collider by day was just

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Speaker 1: the normal, everyday conducting collider.

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Speaker 5: And then it had a physics accident, I guess which

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Speaker 5: gave it superpowers.

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Speaker 1: That makes no sense.

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Speaker 5: It you superphysics to become super heroid.

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Speaker 1: Maybe you just put glasses on your normal, everyday conducting

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Speaker 1: collider and it becomes a super collider.

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Speaker 5: Oh no, no, the glass that makes you every day

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Speaker 5: an every day person.

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Speaker 1: Oh right, right, that's right. Take the glasses off the collider. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: that's the.

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Speaker 5: Issue, that's right. The fake glasses. We know lenses in them.

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Speaker 1: Well, if we take all the lenses out of the

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Speaker 1: large hadron collider, I'm not convinced it's going to become

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Speaker 1: a super large hadron collider.

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Speaker 5: It's going to be super fond though. What's going to happen?

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Speaker 5: It's going to leap over tall buildings and or destroy

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Speaker 5: tall buildings, discover new particles in a single bound. But anyways,

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Speaker 5: welcome to our podcast Daniel and Jorge Explain the Universe,

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Speaker 5: a production of iHeartRadio in which we delve.

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Speaker 1: Into the super fascinating mysteries of the universe. How does

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Speaker 1: it all work? Is it possible to makes sense of

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Speaker 1: this incredible dizzy and cosmos, all of its wonderful tiny

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Speaker 1: particles and enormous swirling black holes, This incredible project that

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Speaker 1: humans have been on for thousands of years to try

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Speaker 1: to digest this incredible universe and translate it into a

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Speaker 1: story that we can tell ourselves and explain to our children,

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Speaker 1: and makes sense of.

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Speaker 5: Yeah, because it is a pretty super universe full of

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Speaker 5: amazing demonstrations of power and abilities, and incredible particles and

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Speaker 5: incredible stars and objects out there in space, and.

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Speaker 1: We want to understand all of it. Sometimes the answers

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Speaker 1: to deep questions about the universe are right under our

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Speaker 1: feet in the everyday physics that's going on around us.

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Speaker 1: But other times we can find clues to how the

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Speaker 1: universe works from the most dramatic, the most amazing, the

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Speaker 1: most explosive situations out there.

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Speaker 5: I fail, you're trying to find out what the real

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Speaker 5: identity of the universe is. So do you think the

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Speaker 5: universe wants its privacy? It's trying to protect its secrets.

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Speaker 1: I do not believe in the privacy of the universe.

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Speaker 1: Basically is trying to unveil or undress the universe.

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Speaker 5: Boy, you make it some kind of racy, though super racy.

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Speaker 1: Depends what's underneath that veil. I suppose if it's just equations,

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Speaker 1: then it's very safe for work.

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Speaker 5: Right, it sounds like work. Actually, not racy at all.

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Speaker 1: Actually, that's literally my job is to try to reveal

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Speaker 1: the safer work equations that underpin the whole workings of

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Speaker 1: the universe. Everything that's happening out there, we imagine can

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Speaker 1: be described with mathematical formula and scientific thinking, or at

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Speaker 1: least so far that's always worked.

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Speaker 5: Yeah, because there is a lot to discover and a

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Speaker 5: lot that we have seen about the universe out there.

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Speaker 5: There are a lot of bright things out there for

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Speaker 5: us to see and to study and to kind of

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Speaker 5: parse the light to figure out what's going on out there.

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Speaker 1: And we'd like to understand the whole universe, not just

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Speaker 1: the part that's here under our feet, also the things

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Speaker 1: that are very far out there in space. But those

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Speaker 1: things present a special challenge, of course, because they're not

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Speaker 1: right here for us to study. Instead, all we can

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Speaker 1: do is examine the messages that they send us, the

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Speaker 1: particles that being clues to us from those distant objects.

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Speaker 5: Yeah, and thank goodness that they are sending a signals

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Speaker 5: through light, because otherwise we'd be living in a dark

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Speaker 5: universe and have no idea what's going on out there

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Speaker 5: beyond our solar system.

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Speaker 1: And in fact, we are probably living in a dark universe.

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Speaker 1: Most of the stuff that's out there in the universe

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Speaker 1: isn't sending us photons or any other kind of particles

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Speaker 1: to give us clues about what it is and what

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Speaker 1: it's doing. The dark matter that's out there holding galaxies

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Speaker 1: together is stubbornly invisible to all of our senses, and

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Speaker 1: all of our telescopes. It's sending us messages and those

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Speaker 1: are not very subtle. It is screaming messages at us.

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Speaker 1: It is blinding us with the incredible power of the

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Speaker 1: photons that it creates.

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Speaker 5: You make it sound like the universe is not a superhero,

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Speaker 5: but maybe it's a super villain.

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Speaker 1: Mm exactly. Maybe that's why it's evading our ability to

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Speaker 1: understand it so far.

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Speaker 5: It's a dark universe. It's a dark superuniverse.

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Speaker 1: Well, you know, the story of science would be a

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Speaker 1: lot more boring if the universe was more helpful. If

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Speaker 1: it was just like, all right, look, humans, sit down

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Speaker 1: for an hour. I'm gonna explain all this to you,

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Speaker 1: then we would have been done thousands of years ago.

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Speaker 5: Right, that sounds like a great story. I'd be like,

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Speaker 5: what why sae universe being helpful? What's going on?

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Speaker 1: It's a much more interesting story when there are twists

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Speaker 1: and turns in dramatic revelations like a thousand years in Right,

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Speaker 1: We're like on season five thousand of Science and we

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Speaker 1: are still discovering incredible plot twists. Right, So, like no

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Speaker 1: writer's room could have invented that.

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Speaker 5: It's like a new genre of Netflix shows. P dramas,

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Speaker 5: not K dramas or T dramas. It's physics dramas.

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Speaker 1: The universe is the greatest story ever told.

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Speaker 5: But there are a lot of interesting signals coming to

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Speaker 5: us from the universe out there. As you said, some

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Speaker 5: of them are really bright. Some of them are super bright.

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Speaker 1: And you know about stars and galaxies and black holes

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Speaker 1: and even very bright events like supernova. But there are

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Speaker 1: some things in the universe that are even brighter than

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Speaker 1: your typical supernova.

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Speaker 5: So today on the podcast, we'll be tackling the question

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Speaker 5: what is a super luminous supernova. I'm guessing it's super

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Speaker 5: but is it super duper.

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Speaker 1: Only when it takes off its glasses. But this is

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Speaker 1: what I was wondering about, Like, this thing has two

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Speaker 1: supers in its name. It's not just a luminous nova.

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Speaker 1: It's not just a luminous supernova. It's not a super

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Speaker 1: luminous nova. It's a super luminous supernova. Oh my gosh.

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Speaker 5: It's almost like you're making things up as you go along,

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Speaker 5: like a three year old.

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Speaker 1: Almost like we need somebody to tell us how to

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Speaker 1: organize the naming of things in the universe.

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Speaker 5: It's almost like physicis nitith thesaurus, perhaps to look up

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Speaker 5: synonyms for super I mean, I think there are a

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Speaker 5: couple out there that you could have used that basically

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Speaker 5: say the same thing.

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Speaker 1: Mmmm, the super luminous extra nova, the hyper luminous supernova,

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Speaker 1: those kind of things.

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Speaker 5: Yeah, the uber luminous supernova, the extremely luminous sounds like

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Speaker 5: you need a superhero called mister Thesaurus to rescue the

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Speaker 5: day at the universe.

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Speaker 1: There the Superthiosaurus supernova.

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Speaker 5: You're right. It is sort of like like there was

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Speaker 5: a nova, and then there was a supernova, and then

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Speaker 5: there was a luminous supernova, and then they found something

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Speaker 5: even brighter. I'm guessing that they had to call a

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Speaker 5: superluminous Supernova's.

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Speaker 1: Where are they're going to go next?

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Speaker 6: Right?

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Speaker 1: The double superluminous supernova, Well.

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Speaker 5: I guess you would have to find some other property

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Speaker 5: of it, like maybe size, like supersize superluminous supernova.

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Speaker 1: That sounds like you're ordering a second helping of fries,

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Speaker 1: you know, Can I supersize my supernova? Please?

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Speaker 6: No?

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Speaker 5: Can I supercize my superluminous supernova? They're like, what do

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Speaker 5: you think this is? Burger king? Get out of here.

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Speaker 1: Only two supers per order, please sir.

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Speaker 5: But yeah, I'm guessing it is like an upgraded supernova.

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Speaker 5: That's what I'm guessing what it is.

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Speaker 1: It is something like that, and yet it contains deep

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Speaker 1: mysteries that we do not yet understand well.

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Speaker 5: As usual, we were wondering how many people out there

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Speaker 5: had thought about what a superluminous supernova is or have

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Speaker 5: any idea what it is.

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Speaker 1: So thanks very much to everybody who answers these quotes

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Speaker 1: stance for our fun segment of the podcast, which used

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Speaker 1: to be Person on the Street and is now a

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Speaker 1: random person on the Internet. If you are a person

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Speaker 1: on the Internet and you would like to participate in

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Speaker 1: the future, please write to me too questions at Danielandjorge

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Speaker 1: dot com.

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Speaker 5: So think about it for a second. What do you

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Speaker 5: think is a superluminous supernova? Here's what people had to say.

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Speaker 7: My best guess would be that it's a supernova that,

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Speaker 7: for some reason, perhaps to do excess energy input or

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Speaker 7: some initial conditions that are extraordinary, produces way more electromagnetic

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Speaker 7: radiation than a normal supernova.

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Speaker 6: A super luminous supernova is probably a supernova that is

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Speaker 6: extremely bright past the normal brightness that a supernova has

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Speaker 6: That would mean it would be an extremely bright supernova,

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Speaker 6: because the regular ones are already pretty bright.

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Speaker 8: Superluminous supernova must be a supernova that just has high

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Speaker 8: visual magnitude super super bright. Maybe we use it to

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Speaker 8: measure distances.

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Speaker 9: Well.

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Speaker 8: The name seems to suggest that it's a supernova that

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Speaker 8: emits more radiation than a regular supernova.

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Speaker 1: Why that might be the case, I have no idea.

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Speaker 10: I guess a super illuminous super and IVA is in

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Speaker 10: the name, and that it's extra bright. But I thought

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Speaker 10: a supernova I was a standard candle that people judge

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Speaker 10: distances by. So maybe I'm being too simplistic.

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Speaker 5: I think it's super illuminous supernova would be supernova brighter

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Speaker 5: than usual.

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Speaker 1: Supernova's probably connected to the mouse.

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Speaker 5: All right. I like the person who said it's in

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Speaker 5: the name.

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Speaker 1: You might almost say it's well named because it's communicated

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Speaker 1: effectively what it is.

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Speaker 5: I'm sure it's a well named and that it communicates

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Speaker 5: what it is. But you know, sometimes there as aarus

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Speaker 5: comes in handy. For example, the same person said it

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Speaker 5: means it extra bright. You could just called an extra

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Speaker 5: bright supernova and then it wouldn't sound so shinsy.

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Speaker 1: I don't know, it makes it sound more hollywoody. Maybe

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Speaker 1: that's what they were going for, a little bit of glam.

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Speaker 5: Superluminous supernova, hmmm, it does have a certain ring to it. Well,

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Speaker 5: step us through this interesting phenomenon, and let's start with

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Speaker 5: the beginning. What is a supernova? Is it like a

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Speaker 5: Noah that's super.

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Speaker 1: It's like a nova that took off it's glasses.

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Speaker 5: It's like a nova that's not an older Yeah.

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Speaker 1: Actually the name comes from Kiko Brahe, who wrote this

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Speaker 1: book De nova Stella, from which the word nova comes

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Speaker 1: from nova there means new, as a new star becives

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Speaker 1: an observation of the changes in the sky. And so

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Speaker 1: the supernova one of these really cool astronomical objects because

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Speaker 1: they happen sort of on human time scales. I mean,

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Speaker 1: we're used to thinking about like stars forming and burning

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Speaker 1: over millions and billions of years, and galaxies swarming for

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Speaker 1: billions of years in the universe expanding over billions of years.

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Speaker 1: Everything sort of happens on these really long time scales

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Speaker 1: that we don't get to watch. We just have to

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Speaker 1: like imagine and fast forward or in reverse. But supernova

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Speaker 1: are really awesome because they're dramatic, and they happen on

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Speaker 1: human timescales, like you can see this thing appear in

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Speaker 1: the sky and then burn for a few weeks or

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Speaker 1: months and then fade out. So the sky changes at

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Speaker 1: a rate that we can actually see, which is why

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Speaker 1: supernova are some of the oldest astronomical observations that we have.

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Speaker 1: People have been seeing them and wondering what they were

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Speaker 1: for literally thousands of years. And now we know, of course,

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Speaker 1: that supernova represent the endpoint of certain kinds of stars.

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Speaker 1: Most stars don't end this way, but some stars end

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Speaker 1: with this very dramatic collapse, this implosion, which then leads

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Speaker 1: to very dramatic explosion and a huge release of energy.

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Speaker 5: Wait, so you're saying it's the end point of a star,

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Speaker 5: like the death of a star, and yet it's called

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Speaker 5: the super nova, like a super new Well.

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Speaker 1: It gets a little bit into what you mean by

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Speaker 1: a star. But yeah, you have stars which are born

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Speaker 1: and then burn and have fusion going on at their core,

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Speaker 1: and there's this usual struggle between gravity that's compressing it

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Speaker 1: and trying to make it more and more dense, and

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Speaker 1: the fusion and the radiation that's puffing it out and

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Speaker 1: keeping it from collapsing. But in the case of some supernova,

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Speaker 1: eventually gravity wins and we can walk through some of

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Speaker 1: the mechanism for this, and you get this collapse where

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Speaker 1: this shock wave propagates in very very fast crushes the

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Speaker 1: star and then burns all of its fuel very very

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Speaker 1: quickly and explodes. And so in a sense, that's the

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Speaker 1: end point of the star and the birth of something

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Speaker 1: new because you no longer have fusion happening.

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Speaker 5: It sounds like a very political answer there.

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Speaker 1: Well, you know, every death leads to a rebirth of

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Speaker 1: some kind.

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Speaker 5: All right, Well, it's like you said, and it all

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Speaker 5: starts with the collapse of a star. I think that's

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Speaker 5: something that a lot of people don't know. Like, you know,

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Speaker 5: we usually say a supernova is the explosion of a star,

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Speaker 5: but before the star explodes, it actually collapses, right.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, And there's two ways that this can happen. The

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Speaker 1: sort of classic way that we call core collapse is

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Speaker 1: basically the endpoint of your standard solar fusion. You know,

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Speaker 1: when a star starts out, it's mostly hydrogen. Sometimes it's

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Speaker 1: a little bit of metal left over from previous star burning.

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Speaker 1: But you know, in the early universe it was all hydrogen.

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Speaker 1: That hydrogen gas clumps together and falls together because of gravity,

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Speaker 1: pushes it together, squeezes it together. It gets it hot

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Speaker 1: enough to have fusion, and then that fusion makes heavier stuff,

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Speaker 1: turns hydrogen into helium, and then helium into carbon, and

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Speaker 1: carbon into oxygen and nitrogen and silicon. You get heavier

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Speaker 1: and heavier stuff until eventually it's made stuff that's so heavy,

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Speaker 1: so massive that the gravity from its inner ashes the

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Speaker 1: product of its fusion, causes it to collapse. It can

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Speaker 1: no longer hold off gravity, and so gravity eventually overcomes

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Speaker 1: the outward pressure from fusion and the star collapses.

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Speaker 9: Yeah.

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Speaker 5: It's almost sort of like a phase transition, right, Like

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Speaker 5: all of a sudden, the molecules inside of the Sun

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Speaker 5: can't take the pressure, so they sort of collapse into

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Speaker 5: a different arrangement, right, Like they're maybe staying apart from

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Speaker 5: each other or staying at a certain density because of

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Speaker 5: some forces. But and at some point those verses get

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Speaker 5: overcome and the whole thing just kind of rearranges into

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Speaker 5: a more compact form, Right, something like that happens.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, and it's very sudden, right once it falls over

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Speaker 1: the threshold is a runaway effect because gravity squeezes it

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Speaker 1: and you get this shockwave inwards towards the core, which

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Speaker 1: then bounces back out right, because when the shockwave happens,

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Speaker 1: now you've compressed the core. It's super duper high temperature,

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Speaker 1: and now very quickly it does kinds of fusion that

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Speaker 1: couldn't do before. It didn't used to be hot enough

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Speaker 1: to make the heaviest of metals, But now in those

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Speaker 1: brief moments during that shockwave, the conditions are right to

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Speaker 1: make some of the really heavy metals, the ones you

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Speaker 1: don't get during normal burning of the star. And then

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Speaker 1: that fusion creates an incredible amount of radiation, So now

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Speaker 1: the radiation wins. So it's sort of like a tug

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Speaker 1: of war where it was balanced and then gravity starts

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Speaker 1: to win. But then that creates the conditions for the

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Speaker 1: pressure to take over again, and gravity loses and the

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Speaker 1: star explodes.

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Speaker 5: Yeah, it's sort of like a building collapsing. But then

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Speaker 5: once the building collapses, that pressure of all that stuff

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Speaker 5: being crushed together is somehow unleashes other kinds of energy, right,

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Speaker 5: and then the whole thing explodes. What's being unleashed is

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Speaker 5: basically fusion energy, right.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, what's being unleashed. There is fusion energy exactly, often

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Speaker 1: in kinds of fusion that you can't get during normal burning.

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Speaker 1: And so that's one way that the universe makes super

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Speaker 1: duper heavy metals like gold or uranium. Other methods are

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Speaker 1: like collisions of neutron stars or other kinds of shock waves.

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Speaker 1: It's very very hard to make those heavy elements because

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Speaker 1: they require energy rather than producing it.

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Speaker 5: That's kind of why they say some of these heavy

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Speaker 5: elements like gold and some of the more complex elements

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Speaker 5: are made in the heart of a dying star.

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Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly, And so that's method number one basically for

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Speaker 1: supernovas to form. It's actually called a type two supernova.

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Speaker 1: This core collapse the other way similar, but it happens

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Speaker 1: via a different path. Like you start out with a

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Speaker 1: star that doesn't naturally have core collapse. It burns, it

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Speaker 1: becomes a red giant as it puffs out and the

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Speaker 1: hygien helium and its atmosphere start to burn, a really

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Speaker 1: big star. But then it doesn't turn into a supernova. Instead,

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Speaker 1: it turns into a white dwarf, which is basically just

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Speaker 1: leaving the hot core of the star. The metals that

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Speaker 1: formed during the initial burning, everything else puffs out and

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Speaker 1: the hot core is left behind this white dwarf. And

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Speaker 1: normally that white dwarf would just hang out for a

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Speaker 1: long time and eventually, over maybe like trillions of years,

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Speaker 1: would cool into a black dwarf. But if somebody comes along,

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Speaker 1: like another star that's nearby, or it's part of a

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Speaker 1: binary star system, it can eat a little bit more

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Speaker 1: of that other star, which pushes it over the threshold

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Speaker 1: for gravity to win and to cause a supernova. So

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Speaker 1: it's sort of like a second act for this star.

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Speaker 1: It gets enough fuel to cause this collapse and this

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Speaker 1: supernova sort of later in the game.

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Speaker 5: Right, that happens in like binary star systems, right, like

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Speaker 5: a star system with two sons in them. But I

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Speaker 5: guess my question is why do you need that extra step,

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Speaker 5: Like why does it need to go in this particular way?

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Speaker 5: Like why does one need to go into a white dwarf?

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Speaker 5: And then the own has to get sucked in what

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Speaker 5: happens If the Sun's merged before that happens, would they

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Speaker 5: still go supernova?

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Speaker 1: If they emerged before that happened, then they probably have

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Speaker 1: enough mass. It's all about having enough mass. If you

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Speaker 1: were big enough to begin with, then probably you would

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Speaker 1: have ended up in a supernova if you weren't big

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Speaker 1: enough to begin with, if you were sort of a

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Speaker 1: smaller star like our star, you just would have ended

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Speaker 1: up with a white dwarf. And really it's all about

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Speaker 1: the mass, because having more mass means having more gravity.

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Speaker 1: Having less mass means having less gravity and not having

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Speaker 1: enough force to overcome the structure of the star. I mean,

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Speaker 1: to have this sort of collapse. To have gravity trigger

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Speaker 1: the supernova, you need enough gravity and resisting that is

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Speaker 1: the structure of the star. A white dwarf has chemical

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Speaker 1: bonds that are pushing out against this gravitational collapse. It's

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Speaker 1: already a very dense object, but it's able to withstand

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Speaker 1: the gravitational pressure. So you need an extra scoop, an

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Speaker 1: extra helping of gravity to come over that threshold. I see.

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Speaker 5: So it's really kind of mostly about just how much

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Speaker 5: mass is out there or in that neighborhood.

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Speaker 1: And type two supernova means you had enough mass originally

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Speaker 1: to go supernova. Type one means you didn't. You got

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Speaker 1: an extra serving later which brought you over that threshold.

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Speaker 5: Now, is it the case that any star that's bigger

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Speaker 5: than this threshold is going to go supernova or at

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Speaker 5: some point to do stars get too big to go supernova.

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Speaker 1: Stars never get too big to go supernova. Basically, anything

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Speaker 1: that's over like eight times the mass of the Sun

438
00:21:18,359 --> 00:21:20,440
Speaker 1: is going to go red super giant and then type

439
00:21:20,480 --> 00:21:23,920
Speaker 1: two supernova. Absolutely, there's really no way around that. That's

440
00:21:24,040 --> 00:21:26,320
Speaker 1: just the fate of all these stars. But those stars

441
00:21:26,359 --> 00:21:28,440
Speaker 1: are pretty rare, Like most of the stars in the

442
00:21:28,520 --> 00:21:31,879
Speaker 1: universe are not that big. Even our star, which of

443
00:21:32,000 --> 00:21:35,480
Speaker 1: course has one solar mass, is an unusually large and

444
00:21:35,800 --> 00:21:38,080
Speaker 1: bright star in the universe. Most of the stars in

445
00:21:38,119 --> 00:21:40,520
Speaker 1: the universe are smaller and cooler than our star. They

446
00:21:40,520 --> 00:21:43,359
Speaker 1: are red dwarfs. So the number of stars in the

447
00:21:43,400 --> 00:21:46,520
Speaker 1: universe that will go supernova is a small fraction. It's

448
00:21:46,560 --> 00:21:48,000
Speaker 1: like a rare thing to happen.

449
00:21:48,720 --> 00:21:52,200
Speaker 5: How rare is it, like one percent? Is it super

450
00:21:52,320 --> 00:21:53,840
Speaker 5: rare or just mild mannered rare.

451
00:21:54,040 --> 00:21:56,920
Speaker 1: It's not something we know very accurately because we don't

452
00:21:57,040 --> 00:21:59,919
Speaker 1: understand this initial mass function in the universe. I think

453
00:22:00,040 --> 00:22:03,080
Speaker 1: it determines like how much mass the stars get, but

454
00:22:03,240 --> 00:22:06,720
Speaker 1: some calculations estimate it's like a few in a million stars.

455
00:22:07,160 --> 00:22:09,040
Speaker 1: So you have a population of like a million stars,

456
00:22:09,240 --> 00:22:11,320
Speaker 1: four or five of them might go supernova.

457
00:22:11,520 --> 00:22:15,479
Speaker 5: Oh, only four or five are bigger than eight solar masses.

458
00:22:15,640 --> 00:22:18,960
Speaker 1: Exactly. Yeah, it's really very dramatically dominated by the lower

459
00:22:19,040 --> 00:22:19,760
Speaker 1: mass stars.

460
00:22:20,119 --> 00:22:22,200
Speaker 5: And also, I resented you said most stars are cooler

461
00:22:22,280 --> 00:22:24,000
Speaker 5: than our son. I think our sun is pretty cool.

462
00:22:25,040 --> 00:22:26,240
Speaker 1: I think our son's pretty hot.

463
00:22:26,359 --> 00:22:29,159
Speaker 5: Actually exactly, yeah, right, is.

464
00:22:29,200 --> 00:22:32,280
Speaker 1: Our son hot or not? Yes, it's definitely hot.

465
00:22:33,840 --> 00:22:34,640
Speaker 5: The answer is yes.

466
00:22:34,960 --> 00:22:36,160
Speaker 1: That's a safer work answer.

467
00:22:36,280 --> 00:22:38,800
Speaker 5: All right, Well, that's a super nova, and so let's

468
00:22:38,840 --> 00:22:41,600
Speaker 5: dig into why they're hard to study, how we have

469
00:22:41,680 --> 00:22:44,880
Speaker 5: studied them in the past, and then finally, what exactly

470
00:22:45,119 --> 00:22:49,520
Speaker 5: is a super luminous supernova? So super stay with us,

471
00:22:49,800 --> 00:22:50,600
Speaker 5: we'll be right back.

472
00:22:54,960 --> 00:22:57,840
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Speaker 5: All Right, we're talking about superluminous supernova in a super way.

541
00:26:36,280 --> 00:26:41,640
Speaker 1: And even a normal, non superluminous supernova is super nuper. Right.

542
00:26:42,200 --> 00:26:46,000
Speaker 1: It can be hard to appreciate how dramatic these events are,

543
00:26:46,680 --> 00:26:50,119
Speaker 1: but a single supernova when it goes, can be brighter

544
00:26:50,200 --> 00:26:52,960
Speaker 1: than the rest of the galaxy that it's in. These

545
00:26:53,000 --> 00:26:57,320
Speaker 1: galaxies contain, you know, often hundreds of billions of stars.

546
00:26:57,880 --> 00:27:01,480
Speaker 1: Now you have a single object right later than hundreds

547
00:27:01,560 --> 00:27:04,639
Speaker 1: of billions of stars. It's really an incredible event. And

548
00:27:04,720 --> 00:27:07,520
Speaker 1: we're just talking about your ordinary garden variety supernova.

549
00:27:07,880 --> 00:27:09,840
Speaker 5: Yeah, I know we've mentioned that before, like when a

550
00:27:09,920 --> 00:27:12,879
Speaker 5: star go supernova, it's brighter than the galaxy, But that

551
00:27:12,960 --> 00:27:14,960
Speaker 5: sounds kind of crazy, Like what does that mean. It

552
00:27:15,080 --> 00:27:18,360
Speaker 5: means that it's outputting more light than all of the stars,

553
00:27:18,600 --> 00:27:21,200
Speaker 5: the hundreds of billions of stars in that galaxy in

554
00:27:21,320 --> 00:27:21,800
Speaker 5: that moment.

555
00:27:22,040 --> 00:27:24,639
Speaker 1: Yeah, that's exactly what it means, and that's why we

556
00:27:24,760 --> 00:27:27,040
Speaker 1: can see them. Right, Most of the supernova we have

557
00:27:27,160 --> 00:27:30,080
Speaker 1: seen are in other galaxies. The Milky Way is kind

558
00:27:30,080 --> 00:27:33,040
Speaker 1: of weirdly quiet in supernova. We haven't seen one in

559
00:27:33,119 --> 00:27:36,960
Speaker 1: our galaxy in several centuries. So most of the supernova

560
00:27:37,040 --> 00:27:39,200
Speaker 1: that we have seen are in other galaxies, and we

561
00:27:39,240 --> 00:27:42,240
Speaker 1: can see them because they are brighter than the entire

562
00:27:42,400 --> 00:27:43,760
Speaker 1: galaxy that they're in.

563
00:27:44,080 --> 00:27:46,040
Speaker 5: Wait, you said that we haven't seen one in the

564
00:27:46,560 --> 00:27:49,119
Speaker 5: Milky Way, but so we have seen supernova that have

565
00:27:49,240 --> 00:27:50,320
Speaker 5: come from the Milky Way.

566
00:27:50,440 --> 00:27:52,720
Speaker 1: We have seen supernova in the Milky Way, but the

567
00:27:52,800 --> 00:27:57,359
Speaker 1: last person to do it was Kepler, like sixteen oh four. Kepler,

568
00:27:57,640 --> 00:28:00,200
Speaker 1: he's got like the last paper on supernova's in the

569
00:28:00,240 --> 00:28:02,800
Speaker 1: Milky Way. We haven't seen one from our own galaxy

570
00:28:03,119 --> 00:28:04,600
Speaker 1: in four hundred years.

571
00:28:04,800 --> 00:28:07,040
Speaker 5: But how did Kepler know was within our galaxy?

572
00:28:07,200 --> 00:28:09,280
Speaker 1: Well, Kepler didn't really know because he didn't really understand

573
00:28:09,280 --> 00:28:11,119
Speaker 1: the idea of galaxies. We didn't even know like that

574
00:28:11,200 --> 00:28:13,560
Speaker 1: there were other galaxies back then. But we can now

575
00:28:13,680 --> 00:28:15,960
Speaker 1: look at the thing he was studying and we understand

576
00:28:16,240 --> 00:28:17,960
Speaker 1: what he was looking at and we know that it's

577
00:28:18,040 --> 00:28:18,960
Speaker 1: in our galaxy.

578
00:28:19,200 --> 00:28:21,639
Speaker 5: Hmm, how do we know what he was looking at?

579
00:28:21,720 --> 00:28:22,840
Speaker 5: Did he leave like a star map?

580
00:28:23,040 --> 00:28:25,840
Speaker 1: Kepler was pretty good at taking records. That's why. He

581
00:28:26,119 --> 00:28:28,760
Speaker 1: and Tiko Brahe were one of the first ones to

582
00:28:29,000 --> 00:28:33,119
Speaker 1: really understand stellar motion and planetary motion. They were pretty

583
00:28:33,200 --> 00:28:33,879
Speaker 1: nerdy about it.

584
00:28:34,240 --> 00:28:36,600
Speaker 5: Mmm, So I guess, how do we know he looked

585
00:28:36,600 --> 00:28:39,080
Speaker 5: at one in our milkwery because it's brightness.

586
00:28:38,960 --> 00:28:41,200
Speaker 1: Or what again? We know which object he was looking at.

587
00:28:41,240 --> 00:28:43,160
Speaker 1: He told us where it was in the sky, his

588
00:28:43,360 --> 00:28:46,760
Speaker 1: pretty detailed records of what he was looking at. So

589
00:28:46,880 --> 00:28:49,640
Speaker 1: we can now look at that object like what was that? Oh, look,

590
00:28:49,680 --> 00:28:51,120
Speaker 1: it's a remnant from a supernova.

591
00:28:51,560 --> 00:28:53,440
Speaker 5: Oh we can see the remnant of it now.

592
00:28:53,680 --> 00:28:56,280
Speaker 1: Yeah, And that's actually really valuable because we'd love to

593
00:28:56,320 --> 00:28:59,560
Speaker 1: study these things over many centuries or many thousands of

594
00:28:59,640 --> 00:29:02,600
Speaker 1: years understand like what happens after supernova? How does the

595
00:29:02,640 --> 00:29:04,920
Speaker 1: cloud disperse? That gives you a lot of clues about

596
00:29:04,960 --> 00:29:07,320
Speaker 1: what was going on inside of it, something we still

597
00:29:07,360 --> 00:29:11,080
Speaker 1: don't really understand. So studying something hundreds of years later

598
00:29:11,320 --> 00:29:15,080
Speaker 1: is really valuable. And so having like ancient astronomical records

599
00:29:15,160 --> 00:29:17,480
Speaker 1: that say, oh, there was a supernova here five hundred

600
00:29:17,560 --> 00:29:21,240
Speaker 1: years ago or two thousand years ago is actually really

601
00:29:21,400 --> 00:29:23,640
Speaker 1: relevant and powerful to astronomy today.

602
00:29:23,800 --> 00:29:27,040
Speaker 5: Now, if supernova has as much energy as the whole galaxy.

603
00:29:27,120 --> 00:29:29,600
Speaker 5: Wouldn't that just fry everything in the galaxy or at

604
00:29:29,640 --> 00:29:32,480
Speaker 5: least in like the half of the galaxy it's in.

605
00:29:32,840 --> 00:29:37,280
Speaker 1: Yes, supernova are very dangerous and very damaging potentially to life.

606
00:29:37,800 --> 00:29:39,480
Speaker 1: So we should be glad that there haven't been like

607
00:29:39,600 --> 00:29:42,360
Speaker 1: a whole rash of supernova in our neighborhood, because we

608
00:29:42,480 --> 00:29:45,479
Speaker 1: might not be here. Is an enormous amount of radiation

609
00:29:45,640 --> 00:29:48,560
Speaker 1: released in supernova, and it's very dramatic in the visible

610
00:29:48,600 --> 00:29:52,280
Speaker 1: spectrum and the high energy photons like gamma rays, et cetera,

611
00:29:52,320 --> 00:29:55,240
Speaker 1: which would be extraordinarily damaging to life on Earth. It

612
00:29:55,360 --> 00:29:58,480
Speaker 1: turns out, though, actually most of the energy from a

613
00:29:58,560 --> 00:30:02,600
Speaker 1: supernova isn't even in the visible light, like they're already

614
00:30:02,720 --> 00:30:05,000
Speaker 1: as bright as the rest of the galaxy. But that's

615
00:30:05,200 --> 00:30:08,760
Speaker 1: one percent of the energy released by the supernova. Most

616
00:30:08,840 --> 00:30:10,920
Speaker 1: of it is actually released in neutrinos.

617
00:30:11,280 --> 00:30:13,960
Speaker 5: Yeah, that's amazing. I think we've talked about that before.

618
00:30:14,160 --> 00:30:16,720
Speaker 5: But why neutrinos, Like why would it put all of

619
00:30:16,840 --> 00:30:19,560
Speaker 5: its energy into something that can barely be felt?

620
00:30:21,040 --> 00:30:23,040
Speaker 1: Well, I don't think there's like a committee they're deciding,

621
00:30:23,160 --> 00:30:26,160
Speaker 1: like how much do we budget in neutrinos versus photons?

622
00:30:26,480 --> 00:30:28,800
Speaker 1: It's just sort of what the physics does. And for

623
00:30:28,880 --> 00:30:31,840
Speaker 1: a long time we didn't understand how important neutrinos were

624
00:30:32,040 --> 00:30:34,600
Speaker 1: because it feels like they're sort of irrelevant. Once energy

625
00:30:34,800 --> 00:30:38,120
Speaker 1: turns into neutrinos, it feels like it can't really participate

626
00:30:38,160 --> 00:30:41,480
Speaker 1: in physics anymore because most of the universe ignores neutrinos. Remember,

627
00:30:41,560 --> 00:30:44,680
Speaker 1: neutrinos are these particles that only feel the weak interaction

628
00:30:45,200 --> 00:30:47,680
Speaker 1: and they can fly through like a light year of

629
00:30:47,880 --> 00:30:50,960
Speaker 1: lead without interacting with anything. So people thought for a

630
00:30:51,040 --> 00:30:53,400
Speaker 1: long time, well, if you're dumping the energy into neutrinos,

631
00:30:53,520 --> 00:30:57,400
Speaker 1: that's basically just lost. But more recent simulations of supernovas

632
00:30:57,600 --> 00:31:00,880
Speaker 1: have discovered that those neutrinos actually do interact with the

633
00:31:00,960 --> 00:31:03,480
Speaker 1: rest of the material. Rest of the material that's collapsing

634
00:31:03,600 --> 00:31:06,520
Speaker 1: is so dense that it actually can absorb some of

635
00:31:06,600 --> 00:31:10,400
Speaker 1: that heat back from neutrinos. So there's an amazing effect

636
00:31:10,480 --> 00:31:14,320
Speaker 1: in supernova's called neutrino heating, where the neutrinos from the

637
00:31:14,360 --> 00:31:17,680
Speaker 1: supernova actually reheat the material. And if you don't have

638
00:31:17,800 --> 00:31:21,160
Speaker 1: this effect, then the explosion doesn't happen. So why is

639
00:31:21,240 --> 00:31:22,960
Speaker 1: it produced. It's just because in fusion you get a

640
00:31:22,960 --> 00:31:25,160
Speaker 1: lot of these nuclear processes, a lot of them just

641
00:31:25,280 --> 00:31:28,400
Speaker 1: result in photons and neutrinos, but it turns out those

642
00:31:28,440 --> 00:31:31,240
Speaker 1: neutrinos are really important for making the explosion happen.

643
00:31:31,360 --> 00:31:34,400
Speaker 5: But somehow they're like the main product of whatever's happening

644
00:31:34,600 --> 00:31:36,240
Speaker 5: in the supernova.

645
00:31:36,360 --> 00:31:38,760
Speaker 1: Yeah, and it's not just supernovas, right, Stars in their

646
00:31:38,840 --> 00:31:42,760
Speaker 1: normal course of business produce an enormous number of neutrinos.

647
00:31:43,320 --> 00:31:47,480
Speaker 1: Like here on Earth, there's one hundred billion neutrinos per

648
00:31:47,600 --> 00:31:51,240
Speaker 1: square centimeter per second. Like you hold your hands out

649
00:31:51,800 --> 00:31:56,400
Speaker 1: and there's a trillion neutrinos going through your fingernails every second,

650
00:31:56,800 --> 00:31:58,840
Speaker 1: and we're really far away from the Sun, right, So

651
00:31:58,920 --> 00:32:02,800
Speaker 1: imagine like how many netrinos are produced in the Sun itself.

652
00:32:03,360 --> 00:32:06,880
Speaker 1: And now supernova's produce like ten to the fifty eight

653
00:32:07,200 --> 00:32:12,000
Speaker 1: neutrinos during their supernova explosion. So truly an incredible amount

654
00:32:12,000 --> 00:32:15,600
Speaker 1: of energy in neutrinos. So, yeah, supernovas are super duper

655
00:32:15,640 --> 00:32:18,000
Speaker 1: bright and luminous, and that's a tiny fraction of the

656
00:32:18,080 --> 00:32:21,080
Speaker 1: sort of true brightness of these incredible events.

657
00:32:21,760 --> 00:32:23,560
Speaker 5: It's almost like it's a good thing. It's making so

658
00:32:23,680 --> 00:32:25,520
Speaker 5: many neatrinos, but it's a good thing. It's putting all

659
00:32:25,520 --> 00:32:28,000
Speaker 5: its energy into natrinos, because if it put it into

660
00:32:28,080 --> 00:32:31,440
Speaker 5: something that we would feel like every galaxy everywhere would

661
00:32:31,440 --> 00:32:32,360
Speaker 5: be toast all the time.

662
00:32:32,480 --> 00:32:35,840
Speaker 1: Right, Yeah, yeah, that's exactly right. We're lucky that they're

663
00:32:35,880 --> 00:32:39,000
Speaker 1: exploding in this sort of safe way, and even still

664
00:32:39,160 --> 00:32:42,840
Speaker 1: they're very dangerous. If there were a supernova in our backyard,

665
00:32:43,360 --> 00:32:45,520
Speaker 1: it would fry half of the Earth, or if it

666
00:32:45,600 --> 00:32:48,080
Speaker 1: lasted long enough for the Earth to rotate, it basically

667
00:32:48,160 --> 00:32:49,160
Speaker 1: fry the whole Earth.

668
00:32:49,400 --> 00:32:51,520
Speaker 5: How far would a supernova need to be to be

669
00:32:51,560 --> 00:32:52,800
Speaker 5: at a safe distance from us.

670
00:32:53,040 --> 00:32:54,840
Speaker 1: That's a good question, and it depends a little bit

671
00:32:54,960 --> 00:32:58,560
Speaker 1: on the brightness of the supernova. The type one supernovas,

672
00:32:58,880 --> 00:33:00,960
Speaker 1: the ones that start with bind stars there's are like

673
00:33:01,120 --> 00:33:04,880
Speaker 1: ten times brighter than the core collapse supernovas because they're

674
00:33:04,880 --> 00:33:07,440
Speaker 1: more dramatic. So it depends a little bit on the type.

675
00:33:07,480 --> 00:33:10,680
Speaker 1: Anything in our stellar neighborhood at all would really fry us.

676
00:33:10,840 --> 00:33:12,960
Speaker 1: So supernova's on the other side of the galaxy, no

677
00:33:13,080 --> 00:33:15,400
Speaker 1: big deals. Supernova's on our side of the galaxy, you

678
00:33:15,480 --> 00:33:17,920
Speaker 1: start to get a little bit nervous. Supernova's within a

679
00:33:18,000 --> 00:33:20,600
Speaker 1: few tens of light years, We're toasted.

680
00:33:20,680 --> 00:33:22,360
Speaker 5: Okay, so we're sort of safe. But I feel like

681
00:33:22,400 --> 00:33:25,080
Speaker 5: you said that supernovas happen like a few every couple

682
00:33:25,080 --> 00:33:28,280
Speaker 5: of million stars, and the Milky Way has several hundred

683
00:33:28,360 --> 00:33:31,400
Speaker 5: billion stars, right, so there should be, you know, thousands

684
00:33:31,480 --> 00:33:34,280
Speaker 5: and thousands of them sprinkled all over the Milky Way

685
00:33:34,440 --> 00:33:35,600
Speaker 5: potentially about to go off.

686
00:33:35,920 --> 00:33:37,920
Speaker 1: There should be, and we don't understand it. And we

687
00:33:38,000 --> 00:33:40,640
Speaker 1: did a whole podcast episode about the mystery of the

688
00:33:40,800 --> 00:33:44,600
Speaker 1: missing Milky Way supernova. Go check that out. It's a

689
00:33:44,680 --> 00:33:47,800
Speaker 1: really fun question about whether supernovas are happening in our

690
00:33:47,880 --> 00:33:50,760
Speaker 1: galaxy but we can't see them because they're obscured by

691
00:33:50,800 --> 00:33:53,560
Speaker 1: the center of the galaxy, or maybe there's something weird

692
00:33:53,760 --> 00:33:56,840
Speaker 1: about our galaxy. Also, the supernova that had happened in

693
00:33:56,880 --> 00:33:59,640
Speaker 1: the Milky Way tend to be sort of weirdly distributed.

694
00:33:59,680 --> 00:34:01,720
Speaker 1: They're not really in the place where most of the

695
00:34:01,800 --> 00:34:05,320
Speaker 1: stars are, and so there's a lot of mysteries about

696
00:34:05,360 --> 00:34:07,840
Speaker 1: why we haven't had more supernova in our galaxy. Check

697
00:34:07,880 --> 00:34:08,640
Speaker 1: out that episode.

698
00:34:08,880 --> 00:34:11,719
Speaker 5: Maybe it was Superman who pushed all those super and

699
00:34:11,719 --> 00:34:15,520
Speaker 5: nova away, or maybe another superhero or Superwoman.

700
00:34:15,640 --> 00:34:17,760
Speaker 1: Yeah, it's really fun to read the sort of historical

701
00:34:17,880 --> 00:34:21,760
Speaker 1: record here of like Chinese astronomers talking about guest stars

702
00:34:21,840 --> 00:34:24,880
Speaker 1: that appear in the night sky. Hilariously. They describe them

703
00:34:24,920 --> 00:34:29,240
Speaker 1: as some having pleasurable colors and others not having pleasurable colors.

704
00:34:29,480 --> 00:34:32,359
Speaker 5: Wait, there were so many happening, so many supernova happening,

705
00:34:32,440 --> 00:34:33,880
Speaker 5: that they could compare the colors.

706
00:34:35,200 --> 00:34:37,960
Speaker 1: They just commented on them because these things evolve over time,

707
00:34:38,040 --> 00:34:40,000
Speaker 1: you know, they change in color. I thought it was

708
00:34:40,040 --> 00:34:42,480
Speaker 1: just hilarious that they note not only did this incredible

709
00:34:42,480 --> 00:34:44,600
Speaker 1: thing happen in the sky, but some of us didn't

710
00:34:44,600 --> 00:34:45,640
Speaker 1: think it was very pretty.

711
00:34:45,760 --> 00:34:47,560
Speaker 5: Some of us didn't think it was pretty, very super

712
00:34:47,600 --> 00:34:49,120
Speaker 5: there were more kind of a met.

713
00:34:49,200 --> 00:34:53,040
Speaker 1: Nova, or maybe they were just recording, you know, their

714
00:34:53,120 --> 00:34:55,520
Speaker 1: anxiety about it, Like, wow, this is a crazy thing

715
00:34:55,600 --> 00:34:58,319
Speaker 1: to be happening in our sky. You don't usually see

716
00:34:58,320 --> 00:35:01,680
Speaker 1: a lot of things changing. Eclips and comets and supernova

717
00:35:01,719 --> 00:35:04,440
Speaker 1: are like pretty dramatic events in the sky. It's fascinating

718
00:35:04,440 --> 00:35:06,600
Speaker 1: to think about what it must have been like to

719
00:35:06,760 --> 00:35:10,359
Speaker 1: be somebody seeing that happen and not understand it at all.

720
00:35:10,480 --> 00:35:11,920
Speaker 1: It must have seemed very mystical.

721
00:35:12,600 --> 00:35:15,080
Speaker 5: Well, you said, it's very rare to see a supernova,

722
00:35:15,600 --> 00:35:18,120
Speaker 5: Like how many have we seen since recorded history.

723
00:35:18,280 --> 00:35:21,320
Speaker 1: Well, we've only seen a handful in our galaxy, but

724
00:35:21,560 --> 00:35:25,400
Speaker 1: because we now have incredible telescopes, we've seen hundreds and

725
00:35:25,600 --> 00:35:29,200
Speaker 1: hundreds of supernova in other galaxy. But still it's limited

726
00:35:29,239 --> 00:35:31,440
Speaker 1: to you know, like numbers like hundreds. We don't have

727
00:35:31,600 --> 00:35:33,680
Speaker 1: thousands and thousands of these examples.

728
00:35:33,880 --> 00:35:36,319
Speaker 5: Is it likely that I would see a supernoa go off?

729
00:35:36,719 --> 00:35:37,759
Speaker 5: You know, first of all, I would have to be

730
00:35:37,960 --> 00:35:39,719
Speaker 5: a wig all night, which I guess I am, but

731
00:35:39,840 --> 00:35:42,480
Speaker 5: I'm looking at the sky when I am, like, would

732
00:35:42,480 --> 00:35:44,600
Speaker 5: I notice but supernova went off? Would light up the

733
00:35:44,600 --> 00:35:46,880
Speaker 5: whole sky? Would it just kind of appear like, oh,

734
00:35:46,960 --> 00:35:48,359
Speaker 5: there's a new pinpoint of light there.

735
00:35:48,520 --> 00:35:51,040
Speaker 1: Well, I knew supernova in our galaxy you could see

736
00:35:51,120 --> 00:35:53,120
Speaker 1: with the naked eye. It would be like a new

737
00:35:53,200 --> 00:35:56,000
Speaker 1: event in the sky, and it could be brighter than

738
00:35:56,120 --> 00:35:58,520
Speaker 1: many other starts depending on how close it is, It

739
00:35:58,560 --> 00:36:00,759
Speaker 1: could definitely brighten up the night sky.

740
00:36:01,040 --> 00:36:01,399
Speaker 6: For sure.

741
00:36:02,360 --> 00:36:05,560
Speaker 1: Most of the supernova we have observed are in other galaxies,

742
00:36:06,120 --> 00:36:08,920
Speaker 1: and so they're brighter or as bright as that galaxy,

743
00:36:09,000 --> 00:36:11,440
Speaker 1: which is still pretty dim to the naked eye, so

744
00:36:11,880 --> 00:36:14,480
Speaker 1: easy to spot with telescopes, not that easy to see

745
00:36:14,600 --> 00:36:17,320
Speaker 1: with the naked eye, but potentially somebody could point you

746
00:36:17,360 --> 00:36:19,520
Speaker 1: to one and say that's a supernova. That little dot

747
00:36:19,600 --> 00:36:22,080
Speaker 1: there is a distant galaxy with a supernova in it.

748
00:36:22,239 --> 00:36:23,480
Speaker 5: I guess what I mean is that you have to

749
00:36:23,560 --> 00:36:26,320
Speaker 5: know what this nice sky looked like before the supernova

750
00:36:26,440 --> 00:36:28,520
Speaker 5: in order to be like, oh, that's something new there

751
00:36:28,640 --> 00:36:30,600
Speaker 5: that you couldn't see before with the telescope.

752
00:36:30,719 --> 00:36:33,040
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. And that's basically what we do is we

753
00:36:33,160 --> 00:36:35,720
Speaker 1: scan the sky and we look for changes. We're always

754
00:36:35,760 --> 00:36:38,320
Speaker 1: on the lookout for these supernova because they're hard to predict.

755
00:36:38,400 --> 00:36:40,640
Speaker 1: We can't very easily look at a bunch of stars

756
00:36:40,680 --> 00:36:42,920
Speaker 1: and say that one's going to go supernova and that

757
00:36:42,960 --> 00:36:45,840
Speaker 1: one's going to do supernova tomorrow or tuesday. We have

758
00:36:45,960 --> 00:36:49,440
Speaker 1: to just catch them happening. So we're constantly scanning the

759
00:36:49,520 --> 00:36:51,400
Speaker 1: sky and comparing it to what the sky looked like

760
00:36:51,560 --> 00:36:55,000
Speaker 1: yesterday and last week, looking for changes, and as soon

761
00:36:55,040 --> 00:36:57,279
Speaker 1: as somebody spots one, then a bunch of telescopes get

762
00:36:57,320 --> 00:36:59,680
Speaker 1: trained on it to track it in great detail to

763
00:36:59,719 --> 00:37:02,840
Speaker 1: understand is light curve, because remember that's like really valuable

764
00:37:02,880 --> 00:37:05,879
Speaker 1: information for understanding how far away is that galaxy, which

765
00:37:05,920 --> 00:37:08,360
Speaker 1: tells us things about like the expansion of the universe.

766
00:37:08,920 --> 00:37:13,600
Speaker 1: Really incredible scientific discoveries are pinned on capturing these supernova inaction.

767
00:37:13,920 --> 00:37:16,640
Speaker 5: Wonder if that's stressful for astrophysicists, you know, like I

768
00:37:16,719 --> 00:37:18,640
Speaker 5: can't go to the bathroom or go get coffee because

769
00:37:18,640 --> 00:37:21,640
Speaker 5: what if supernova comes up just as I'm leaving my desk.

770
00:37:22,840 --> 00:37:25,920
Speaker 1: It is sometimes very dramatic. You know. We have automated

771
00:37:25,960 --> 00:37:27,960
Speaker 1: systems that scan for these things, but once you see one,

772
00:37:28,000 --> 00:37:30,359
Speaker 1: then they get communicated to other telescopes around the world,

773
00:37:30,400 --> 00:37:33,120
Speaker 1: which might have been busy doing something else, and then decide,

774
00:37:33,120 --> 00:37:34,680
Speaker 1: you know what, this is more important. We're going to

775
00:37:34,840 --> 00:37:37,560
Speaker 1: change our observation plan. We're going to turn around and

776
00:37:37,719 --> 00:37:40,200
Speaker 1: look at this crazy thing that's happening because it might

777
00:37:40,280 --> 00:37:41,479
Speaker 1: only last for a few days.

778
00:37:41,719 --> 00:37:43,839
Speaker 5: And you said they're sort of unpredictable. I guess they're

779
00:37:43,880 --> 00:37:46,120
Speaker 5: not unpredictable in the sense that I mean you can

780
00:37:46,200 --> 00:37:48,319
Speaker 5: tell if a star is going to go supernova at

781
00:37:48,360 --> 00:37:51,280
Speaker 5: some point, right. You said all stars above a certain size,

782
00:37:51,320 --> 00:37:53,479
Speaker 5: do you just don't know when it's going to happen.

783
00:37:53,719 --> 00:37:55,920
Speaker 1: Yeah, I think that's true. We can't look at a

784
00:37:55,960 --> 00:37:58,400
Speaker 1: star and say this is about to go supernova. Or

785
00:37:58,480 --> 00:38:01,320
Speaker 1: that's about to go supernova. And some stars don't actually

786
00:38:01,400 --> 00:38:04,279
Speaker 1: explode like they collapse. They have the first part of it,

787
00:38:04,560 --> 00:38:06,960
Speaker 1: but then they don't bounce back and have an explosion.

788
00:38:07,560 --> 00:38:10,200
Speaker 1: And there's all sorts of different kinds of ways that

789
00:38:10,320 --> 00:38:13,279
Speaker 1: these stars can collapse, and sometimes there's a black hole

790
00:38:13,320 --> 00:38:15,759
Speaker 1: that's created at the heart and sometimes not, and so

791
00:38:15,840 --> 00:38:19,080
Speaker 1: they can look very different from collapse to collapse. So

792
00:38:19,400 --> 00:38:21,600
Speaker 1: while all these stars that are big enough will eventually

793
00:38:21,640 --> 00:38:24,360
Speaker 1: burn out their fuel and collapse, they don't all trigger

794
00:38:24,480 --> 00:38:27,160
Speaker 1: exactly the same kind of supernova. Some of them kind

795
00:38:27,200 --> 00:38:29,080
Speaker 1: of whiff out, some of them get very bright. And

796
00:38:29,160 --> 00:38:31,520
Speaker 1: that's a lot of what we don't understand. And the

797
00:38:31,560 --> 00:38:34,680
Speaker 1: reason we don't understand it is that it's very complicated physics.

798
00:38:34,760 --> 00:38:36,840
Speaker 1: You have a lot of things going on here. You

799
00:38:36,960 --> 00:38:40,279
Speaker 1: have general relativity that describes the gravitational pull, and you

800
00:38:40,360 --> 00:38:43,880
Speaker 1: have very complicated fluid dynamics to describe how the pressure

801
00:38:44,000 --> 00:38:47,160
Speaker 1: is propagated through this thing. Plus you have fusion happening,

802
00:38:47,239 --> 00:38:50,239
Speaker 1: so you have radiation coming outwards. You have neutrinos, which

803
00:38:50,320 --> 00:38:52,319
Speaker 1: turn out to be important. So it's one of these

804
00:38:52,360 --> 00:38:54,480
Speaker 1: scenarios we have to get a lot of the details

805
00:38:54,560 --> 00:38:56,960
Speaker 1: right in order to make the prediction accurate. And we're

806
00:38:57,040 --> 00:38:59,879
Speaker 1: just very recently able to even like simulate these things

807
00:39:00,520 --> 00:39:03,000
Speaker 1: and see supernova happen on the computers.

808
00:39:03,360 --> 00:39:06,240
Speaker 5: Sounds like you need another category for them, like super

809
00:39:06,320 --> 00:39:12,120
Speaker 5: confusing super lubinus supernovas. Maybe we just need supercomputers, yeah,

810
00:39:12,400 --> 00:39:14,120
Speaker 5: or maybe you need Superman to come in and do

811
00:39:14,200 --> 00:39:16,120
Speaker 5: some physics. I think I need a super grand to

812
00:39:16,239 --> 00:39:19,960
Speaker 5: understand supernovas with a super big pile of money. It

813
00:39:20,000 --> 00:39:22,480
Speaker 5: sounds like you're getting super greedy. They're super villain.

814
00:39:23,680 --> 00:39:26,160
Speaker 1: I just want to understand the universe. Is that so greedy?

815
00:39:26,440 --> 00:39:28,759
Speaker 5: Well, all super villains think they're doing the right thing,

816
00:39:29,520 --> 00:39:32,560
Speaker 5: all right. It's a deep dive into how we study supernovas.

817
00:39:32,640 --> 00:39:36,320
Speaker 5: Let's get into what a super luminous supernova is and

818
00:39:36,480 --> 00:39:39,439
Speaker 5: whether or not it is super or not. But first

819
00:39:39,520 --> 00:39:40,560
Speaker 5: let's take a quick break.

820
00:39:44,880 --> 00:39:46,640
Speaker 1: When you pop a piece of cheese into your mouth

821
00:39:46,760 --> 00:39:49,840
Speaker 1: or enjoy a rich spoonful of greeky yogurt, you're probably

822
00:39:49,960 --> 00:39:53,960
Speaker 1: not thinking about the environmental impact of each and every bite.

823
00:39:54,040 --> 00:39:56,600
Speaker 1: But the people in the dairy industry are US Dairy

824
00:39:56,719 --> 00:40:00,960
Speaker 1: has set themselves some ambitious sustainability goals, including being greenhouse

825
00:40:01,040 --> 00:40:03,560
Speaker 1: gas neutral by twenty to fifty. That's why they're working

826
00:40:03,640 --> 00:40:05,960
Speaker 1: hard every day to find new ways to reduce waste,

827
00:40:06,040 --> 00:40:10,200
Speaker 1: conserve natural resources, and drive down greenhouse gas emissions. Take water,

828
00:40:10,320 --> 00:40:13,319
Speaker 1: for example, most dairy farms reuse water up to four

829
00:40:13,440 --> 00:40:16,879
Speaker 1: times the same water cools the milk, cleans equipment, washes

830
00:40:16,920 --> 00:40:19,719
Speaker 1: the barn, and irrigates the crops. How is US dairy

831
00:40:19,760 --> 00:40:23,520
Speaker 1: tackling greenhouse gases. Many farms use anaerobic digestors that turn

832
00:40:23,560 --> 00:40:27,440
Speaker 1: the methane from maneuver into renewable energy that can power farms, towns,

833
00:40:27,520 --> 00:40:29,560
Speaker 1: and electric cars. So the next time you grab a

834
00:40:29,600 --> 00:40:31,600
Speaker 1: slice of pizza or lick an ice cream cone, know

835
00:40:31,680 --> 00:40:34,359
Speaker 1: that dairy farmers and processors around the country are using

836
00:40:34,400 --> 00:40:37,919
Speaker 1: the latest practices and innovations to provide the nutrient dense

837
00:40:38,040 --> 00:40:40,719
Speaker 1: dairy products we love with less of an impact. Visit

838
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Speaker 1: us dairy dot com slash sustainability to learn more.

839
00:40:44,680 --> 00:40:48,200
Speaker 11: There are children, friends, and families walking, riding on passing

840
00:40:48,200 --> 00:40:50,600
Speaker 11: the roads every day. Remember they're real people with loved

841
00:40:50,640 --> 00:40:51,360
Speaker 11: ones who need them to.

842
00:40:51,360 --> 00:40:52,120
Speaker 1: Get home safely.

843
00:40:52,360 --> 00:40:55,760
Speaker 11: Protect our cyclists and pedestrians because they're people too, go safely.

844
00:40:55,840 --> 00:40:58,680
Speaker 11: California from the California Office of Traffic Safety and Caltrans.

845
00:40:58,800 --> 00:41:01,759
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863
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864
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865
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867
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868
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Speaker 6: So what do we do with it? Right?

869
00:42:23,800 --> 00:42:26,560
Speaker 13: How do we utilize the opportunities that we have that

870
00:42:26,680 --> 00:42:29,680
Speaker 13: they don't right? And a lot of that is educating ourselves,

871
00:42:29,920 --> 00:42:32,840
Speaker 13: educating ourselves on how to not make the same mistakes

872
00:42:32,880 --> 00:42:35,240
Speaker 13: they did, how to not fall into those same traps,

873
00:42:35,239 --> 00:42:39,239
Speaker 13: and then how to not, you know, create the same

874
00:42:39,360 --> 00:42:41,680
Speaker 13: difficult situations that many of us grew up And like

875
00:42:41,920 --> 00:42:44,920
Speaker 13: I started the podcast earlier saying for me, in my family,

876
00:42:45,040 --> 00:42:48,400
Speaker 13: one of the biggest points of contention was finances, and

877
00:42:48,719 --> 00:42:51,360
Speaker 13: I know, as I'd gotten older, I made it a

878
00:42:51,440 --> 00:42:53,640
Speaker 13: promise to myself to say, I don't want to relive.

879
00:42:53,400 --> 00:42:57,680
Speaker 5: That, like a good neighbor. State farm?

880
00:42:57,760 --> 00:42:58,080
Speaker 2: Is there?

881
00:42:58,640 --> 00:42:59,239
Speaker 1: State Farm?

882
00:42:59,400 --> 00:43:01,880
Speaker 12: Broadspont Serve Michuta podcast Network.

883
00:43:10,360 --> 00:43:14,000
Speaker 5: All right, we're talking about superluminous supernovas, which I guess

884
00:43:14,080 --> 00:43:16,640
Speaker 5: means just the super bright supernovas.

885
00:43:16,840 --> 00:43:19,320
Speaker 1: It does mean super bright supernovas, though we sort of

886
00:43:19,800 --> 00:43:24,120
Speaker 1: run out of modifiers here because already supernovas are super

887
00:43:24,239 --> 00:43:28,000
Speaker 1: bright events and super rare events. They're like very dramatic

888
00:43:28,080 --> 00:43:30,480
Speaker 1: moments in this story of the universe. But then we

889
00:43:30,560 --> 00:43:34,279
Speaker 1: saw some supernova that were so ridiculously bright even by

890
00:43:34,400 --> 00:43:37,160
Speaker 1: the standards of supernova, that they had to come up

891
00:43:37,200 --> 00:43:41,040
Speaker 1: with another category for them. So super luminous supernova are

892
00:43:41,120 --> 00:43:44,759
Speaker 1: supernova that are at least ten times brighter than your

893
00:43:44,880 --> 00:43:47,560
Speaker 1: normal run of the mill incredibly bright supernova.

894
00:43:47,840 --> 00:43:51,960
Speaker 5: Whoa first of all, ten times brighter, that's amazing. And second,

895
00:43:52,040 --> 00:43:55,839
Speaker 5: see you just used another word, incredibly bright. You don't

896
00:43:55,880 --> 00:43:56,879
Speaker 5: have to use super again.

897
00:43:57,000 --> 00:44:00,000
Speaker 1: You're right, we should call them incredibly bright supernova.

898
00:44:00,320 --> 00:44:03,560
Speaker 5: Amazingly bright, extra right.

899
00:44:03,719 --> 00:44:05,480
Speaker 1: Overwhelmingly bright supernova.

900
00:44:05,680 --> 00:44:08,879
Speaker 5: Now let's go with super luminous. That sounds cooler or hotter.

901
00:44:09,200 --> 00:44:11,560
Speaker 1: But there's something else going on here, which is this

902
00:44:11,719 --> 00:44:15,719
Speaker 1: astronomical need to like categorize, because in one sense, like

903
00:44:15,800 --> 00:44:18,760
Speaker 1: you make a distribution of all the supernova, some are brighter,

904
00:44:18,840 --> 00:44:21,520
Speaker 1: some are dimmer, whatever, you expect them to not all

905
00:44:21,600 --> 00:44:24,000
Speaker 1: be the same, and so why can't you just say, well, look,

906
00:44:24,000 --> 00:44:26,839
Speaker 1: here's supernova summer brighter, some are dimmer. But this need

907
00:44:26,960 --> 00:44:30,160
Speaker 1: to name this extra bright category comes out of this

908
00:44:30,400 --> 00:44:33,279
Speaker 1: like feeling like something different is happening. It's not just

909
00:44:33,760 --> 00:44:35,560
Speaker 1: that there's a distribution and these are the ones on

910
00:44:35,640 --> 00:44:38,040
Speaker 1: the tail. They feel like they see this cluster, this

911
00:44:38,200 --> 00:44:41,080
Speaker 1: collection of supernova that are different from the other ones.

912
00:44:41,160 --> 00:44:44,480
Speaker 1: It's like this grouping on the very high side where

913
00:44:44,520 --> 00:44:46,600
Speaker 1: they think maybe something different is happening.

914
00:44:46,760 --> 00:44:50,799
Speaker 5: Oh, that's interesting. So there's a range of brightness for supernovas,

915
00:44:50,800 --> 00:44:53,600
Speaker 5: and typically I thought all supernovas, we're all sort of

916
00:44:53,680 --> 00:44:56,400
Speaker 5: the same. That's how they use as standard markers in

917
00:44:56,440 --> 00:44:56,960
Speaker 5: the universe.

918
00:44:57,120 --> 00:44:59,440
Speaker 1: So the type one A supernova's the ones that are

919
00:44:59,480 --> 00:45:03,560
Speaker 1: super already. They're not all the same brightness. Actually, they

920
00:45:03,680 --> 00:45:06,279
Speaker 1: have all the same shape of their light curve, which

921
00:45:06,360 --> 00:45:08,719
Speaker 1: means how they get bright and then how they dim

922
00:45:08,960 --> 00:45:11,640
Speaker 1: which then you can calibrate to how bright they are

923
00:45:11,800 --> 00:45:14,960
Speaker 1: actually at their source through a few steps. So it's

924
00:45:15,000 --> 00:45:17,960
Speaker 1: not quite as simple as all these supernovas are exactly

925
00:45:18,080 --> 00:45:21,040
Speaker 1: the same brightness always. It's that you can deduce how

926
00:45:21,120 --> 00:45:23,440
Speaker 1: bright they are by how quickly they ramp up and

927
00:45:23,520 --> 00:45:26,440
Speaker 1: how quickly they ramp down. It's sort of like remember

928
00:45:26,480 --> 00:45:29,360
Speaker 1: the cephids, those variable stars, the ones that get brighter

929
00:45:29,400 --> 00:45:31,239
Speaker 1: and dimmer and brighter and dimmer. It's not that they're

930
00:45:31,239 --> 00:45:33,600
Speaker 1: all the same brightness. It's that from the period of

931
00:45:33,680 --> 00:45:36,680
Speaker 1: their pulsation you can deduce how bright they are. It's

932
00:45:36,719 --> 00:45:38,799
Speaker 1: sort of that way for type one A supernova. They're

933
00:45:38,840 --> 00:45:41,239
Speaker 1: not all the same brightness, but you can figure out

934
00:45:41,280 --> 00:45:43,120
Speaker 1: how bright they are from their curve.

935
00:45:44,160 --> 00:45:48,239
Speaker 5: So you have these super or extra brnd supernovas that

936
00:45:48,360 --> 00:45:51,080
Speaker 5: are ten times brighter than regular supernovas, but then you

937
00:45:51,200 --> 00:45:54,120
Speaker 5: have some that are ten times even brighter than that exactly.

938
00:45:54,239 --> 00:45:56,360
Speaker 1: So you've got the type two's the sort of like

939
00:45:56,600 --> 00:45:59,959
Speaker 1: normal supernovas, and then type one A are ten times

940
00:46:00,120 --> 00:46:00,600
Speaker 1: brighter than.

941
00:46:00,520 --> 00:46:04,640
Speaker 5: That, so they're super luminous supernova. And then and then

942
00:46:04,760 --> 00:46:08,480
Speaker 5: the extra right superna extraluminous supernova.

943
00:46:09,000 --> 00:46:11,760
Speaker 1: These are ten times brighter than even those.

944
00:46:11,920 --> 00:46:14,480
Speaker 5: You might as well say super super luminous.

945
00:46:14,960 --> 00:46:18,520
Speaker 1: Super squared supernova. And these things are super nuper right,

946
00:46:18,640 --> 00:46:23,319
Speaker 1: And they're also really rare, like one in ten thousand supernova,

947
00:46:23,719 --> 00:46:25,640
Speaker 1: which is already like, you know, five out of a

948
00:46:25,760 --> 00:46:29,319
Speaker 1: million stars, So now we're talking about like five out

949
00:46:29,360 --> 00:46:33,480
Speaker 1: of ten billion stars are going to be super luminous supernova.

950
00:46:33,719 --> 00:46:35,560
Speaker 1: These are incredibly rare. Wow.

951
00:46:36,000 --> 00:46:39,120
Speaker 5: So that means that their brightness is ten times brighter

952
00:46:39,160 --> 00:46:41,320
Speaker 5: than the galaxy they're in over regular galaxy.

953
00:46:41,520 --> 00:46:45,360
Speaker 1: Yeah, they can outshine their galaxy by huge amount, and

954
00:46:45,719 --> 00:46:49,080
Speaker 1: not just because they're extra bright, but weirdly, for reasons

955
00:46:49,120 --> 00:46:52,240
Speaker 1: we don't understand, they tend to be found in smaller,

956
00:46:52,360 --> 00:46:55,839
Speaker 1: dimmer galaxies. So we talked recently on the podcast about

957
00:46:55,880 --> 00:46:59,360
Speaker 1: these things called dwarf galaxies, galaxies with a smaller number

958
00:46:59,440 --> 00:47:02,600
Speaker 1: of stars in them, and how they're fascinating laboratory for

959
00:47:02,760 --> 00:47:06,040
Speaker 1: understanding maybe the formation of the universe and how galaxies

960
00:47:06,120 --> 00:47:09,120
Speaker 1: form and dark matter. But these superluminous supernova tend to

961
00:47:09,160 --> 00:47:12,640
Speaker 1: be found only in these dwarf galaxies, which is like

962
00:47:12,680 --> 00:47:15,400
Speaker 1: a weird clue maybe about why they happen and what

963
00:47:15,600 --> 00:47:18,319
Speaker 1: makes them super luminous. But it also means that they're

964
00:47:18,400 --> 00:47:20,960
Speaker 1: extra bright compared to their galaxies, which tend to be

965
00:47:21,040 --> 00:47:22,680
Speaker 1: extra dimm.

966
00:47:22,719 --> 00:47:25,440
Speaker 5: That is a weird clue, right. A dwarf galaxy, as

967
00:47:25,480 --> 00:47:28,000
Speaker 5: we talked about before, is just kind of a small galaxy,

968
00:47:28,040 --> 00:47:29,839
Speaker 5: but it's also sort of made up of different kinds

969
00:47:29,840 --> 00:47:30,480
Speaker 5: of stars too.

970
00:47:30,680 --> 00:47:33,960
Speaker 1: Yeah, dwarf galaxy just means a smaller blob of stars.

971
00:47:34,080 --> 00:47:36,480
Speaker 1: It can be like thousands to just a few billion

972
00:47:36,600 --> 00:47:39,560
Speaker 1: stars it's a pretty big range. Remember that our galaxy

973
00:47:39,640 --> 00:47:42,400
Speaker 1: is like one hundred billion or two hundred billion stars,

974
00:47:42,680 --> 00:47:45,320
Speaker 1: so dwarf galaxy is a much much smaller galaxy. But

975
00:47:45,360 --> 00:47:47,160
Speaker 1: there's a really wide range of these things. Some of

976
00:47:47,200 --> 00:47:49,440
Speaker 1: them are like mostly dark matter and have just a

977
00:47:49,480 --> 00:47:52,879
Speaker 1: few sprinkling of stars. Others have had their dark matter

978
00:47:53,000 --> 00:47:55,320
Speaker 1: stripped out of them. Some of them are like early

979
00:47:55,400 --> 00:47:58,719
Speaker 1: progenitor galaxies. We think that the big galaxies came from

980
00:47:58,760 --> 00:48:01,640
Speaker 1: the combination of a bunch of dwarf galaxies. So some

981
00:48:01,719 --> 00:48:04,239
Speaker 1: of these dwarf galaxies might be sort of like primordial

982
00:48:04,680 --> 00:48:07,200
Speaker 1: and as you say, could have like older stars from

983
00:48:07,239 --> 00:48:08,760
Speaker 1: the earlier part of the universe.

984
00:48:09,880 --> 00:48:14,600
Speaker 5: All right, So then what's making these super super superluminous supernovas.

985
00:48:14,840 --> 00:48:17,400
Speaker 1: We don't know. It's a mystery something we see in

986
00:48:17,480 --> 00:48:20,080
Speaker 1: the universe but do not yet understand. We have like

987
00:48:20,200 --> 00:48:23,440
Speaker 1: no model that tells us why this can be happening.

988
00:48:23,520 --> 00:48:27,080
Speaker 1: I remember, we just barely understand why supernovas go boom,

989
00:48:27,120 --> 00:48:28,839
Speaker 1: and what's going on inside of them and how all

990
00:48:28,920 --> 00:48:31,480
Speaker 1: that radiation happens. You know, when we write down all

991
00:48:31,520 --> 00:48:33,520
Speaker 1: of our physics and code it in the computer, we

992
00:48:33,600 --> 00:48:37,000
Speaker 1: can barely get it to happen in simulation, and maybe

993
00:48:37,120 --> 00:48:39,239
Speaker 1: in those simulations line up with what we see in

994
00:48:39,320 --> 00:48:41,360
Speaker 1: the universe. But there are a few ideas for what

995
00:48:41,520 --> 00:48:44,040
Speaker 1: might make it happen, and they come from noticing how

996
00:48:44,080 --> 00:48:47,040
Speaker 1: these are different from the other supernoas, not just in

997
00:48:47,120 --> 00:48:49,320
Speaker 1: their brightness but in other characteristics.

998
00:48:49,640 --> 00:48:51,799
Speaker 5: But I guess, first of all, do we know why

999
00:48:51,920 --> 00:48:54,799
Speaker 5: some supernovas are brighter than others? Is it just about

1000
00:48:55,000 --> 00:48:57,399
Speaker 5: how much size they have, how much mass was there

1001
00:48:57,480 --> 00:48:58,160
Speaker 5: when they collapse.

1002
00:48:58,239 --> 00:48:59,719
Speaker 1: We don't really understand it. It has to do with

1003
00:48:59,760 --> 00:49:02,560
Speaker 1: all the internal dynamics and how much energy is devoted

1004
00:49:02,600 --> 00:49:06,239
Speaker 1: to photons and whether the object itself is transparent enough

1005
00:49:06,320 --> 00:49:08,840
Speaker 1: to release those photons or if it's going to be

1006
00:49:08,880 --> 00:49:12,400
Speaker 1: opaque and reabsorb those photons. So it's a complicated thing

1007
00:49:12,440 --> 00:49:14,399
Speaker 1: that we do not understand very well right now.

1008
00:49:14,920 --> 00:49:16,880
Speaker 5: And it doesn't have to do with the size like

1009
00:49:17,040 --> 00:49:20,160
Speaker 5: I would imagine, like a bigger star if it collapses,

1010
00:49:20,200 --> 00:49:23,120
Speaker 5: would make a bigger explosion than a small star that collapses.

1011
00:49:23,360 --> 00:49:26,000
Speaker 1: It's definitely part of the equation, right The more energy

1012
00:49:26,120 --> 00:49:28,680
Speaker 1: you have, the more energy you can convert into radiation.

1013
00:49:28,760 --> 00:49:31,040
Speaker 1: It's definitely part of that equation. But it's not quite

1014
00:49:31,120 --> 00:49:34,560
Speaker 1: so simple, right, It's not just like bigger star, brighter supernova.

1015
00:49:34,800 --> 00:49:36,560
Speaker 1: But you might be on the right track because one

1016
00:49:36,600 --> 00:49:40,279
Speaker 1: suspicion is that these superluminous supernova come from stars that

1017
00:49:40,360 --> 00:49:44,160
Speaker 1: are unusually large stars that have more than forty times

1018
00:49:44,320 --> 00:49:47,239
Speaker 1: our Sun's mass when they start out, and that's very

1019
00:49:47,400 --> 00:49:50,960
Speaker 1: unusually large for a star. So that's one suspicion is

1020
00:49:51,040 --> 00:49:54,240
Speaker 1: that maybe they come from the heaviest of heavy stars.

1021
00:49:54,680 --> 00:49:56,439
Speaker 5: And what makes us think that just from the idea

1022
00:49:56,480 --> 00:49:57,440
Speaker 5: that bigger is brighter.

1023
00:49:57,640 --> 00:49:59,440
Speaker 1: It's just like one of the theories, you know. It's

1024
00:49:59,480 --> 00:50:02,680
Speaker 1: just like one explanation, as you say, more mass means

1025
00:50:02,800 --> 00:50:05,040
Speaker 1: you have more energy that you can convert into light.

1026
00:50:05,400 --> 00:50:07,080
Speaker 1: So it's just like a starting point. There are a

1027
00:50:07,080 --> 00:50:09,680
Speaker 1: few other interesting clues that point in that same direction,

1028
00:50:10,239 --> 00:50:12,120
Speaker 1: like the light from these stars is a little bit

1029
00:50:12,200 --> 00:50:15,960
Speaker 1: different from light from other supernova. They don't seem to

1030
00:50:16,080 --> 00:50:20,640
Speaker 1: have a lot of helium or hydrogen in their outer atmosphere. Remember,

1031
00:50:20,680 --> 00:50:23,120
Speaker 1: you can tell what's in a star by looking at

1032
00:50:23,160 --> 00:50:26,960
Speaker 1: the light that it emits, because helium and hydrogen and

1033
00:50:27,200 --> 00:50:30,880
Speaker 1: all the elements have their own characteristic ladder of energy

1034
00:50:30,960 --> 00:50:33,480
Speaker 1: levels that the electrons are allowed to be around them,

1035
00:50:33,560 --> 00:50:36,359
Speaker 1: which means when the electrons jump down an energy level

1036
00:50:36,480 --> 00:50:39,080
Speaker 1: or release a photon, you can kind of tell which

1037
00:50:39,239 --> 00:50:41,680
Speaker 1: kind of atom it came from by looking at the

1038
00:50:41,840 --> 00:50:43,800
Speaker 1: energy of that photon, which has to line up with

1039
00:50:43,920 --> 00:50:47,360
Speaker 1: the spacing of the energy levels of that atom. So

1040
00:50:47,520 --> 00:50:49,480
Speaker 1: you can look at the spectrum from a star and

1041
00:50:49,560 --> 00:50:51,520
Speaker 1: you say, oh, look, there's a peak here that means

1042
00:50:51,560 --> 00:50:53,799
Speaker 1: there was hydrogen, or there's a dip here that means

1043
00:50:53,840 --> 00:50:56,160
Speaker 1: there was helium that was absorbing that light. So from

1044
00:50:56,160 --> 00:50:58,200
Speaker 1: the peaks and the dips in the emission of the

1045
00:50:58,239 --> 00:51:00,400
Speaker 1: star spectrum, you can tell what it's made at. What

1046
00:51:00,520 --> 00:51:03,359
Speaker 1: they've noticed is that these stars when they go tend

1047
00:51:03,400 --> 00:51:06,359
Speaker 1: to have almost no hydrogen a no helium in them,

1048
00:51:06,640 --> 00:51:09,560
Speaker 1: which is pretty unusual. Most stars when they go supernova

1049
00:51:09,680 --> 00:51:13,320
Speaker 1: still have helium and hydrogen in the outer layer that

1050
00:51:13,400 --> 00:51:14,600
Speaker 1: hasn't been burnt yet.

1051
00:51:15,560 --> 00:51:18,479
Speaker 5: But these don't. Put that mean that they're older stars maybe,

1052
00:51:18,600 --> 00:51:19,640
Speaker 5: or more mature stars.

1053
00:51:19,800 --> 00:51:21,799
Speaker 1: It could be, or it could be that something else

1054
00:51:21,920 --> 00:51:25,319
Speaker 1: is going on nearby that's like strip them of their atmosphere.

1055
00:51:25,719 --> 00:51:28,400
Speaker 1: Maybe there's a very strong solar wind, or there's a

1056
00:51:28,520 --> 00:51:31,759
Speaker 1: binary star that's been gobbling up their atmosphere, or maybe

1057
00:51:31,800 --> 00:51:34,120
Speaker 1: they're one of these weird kind of stars called a

1058
00:51:34,440 --> 00:51:38,239
Speaker 1: wolf rayet star that do tend to have a very

1059
00:51:38,320 --> 00:51:41,080
Speaker 1: little hydrogen and helium in them because as you say,

1060
00:51:41,120 --> 00:51:43,879
Speaker 1: they've burned it already. That feels like an important clue.

1061
00:51:44,120 --> 00:51:46,480
Speaker 1: That's one thing that makes these things different. But we

1062
00:51:46,560 --> 00:51:51,040
Speaker 1: don't understand why not having hydrogen and not having helium

1063
00:51:51,200 --> 00:51:53,400
Speaker 1: would make the explosion brighter. Like if you take a

1064
00:51:53,480 --> 00:51:56,320
Speaker 1: star and you remove it's hydrogen helium, why would that

1065
00:51:56,400 --> 00:51:59,359
Speaker 1: give you a brighter supernova. We don't understand, or maybe

1066
00:51:59,400 --> 00:52:01,719
Speaker 1: that's not the end. Maybe there's some other reason that

1067
00:52:02,000 --> 00:52:04,920
Speaker 1: generates a bright supernova and happens to also remove the

1068
00:52:05,000 --> 00:52:07,600
Speaker 1: hydrogen and helium from the star. It's just like a

1069
00:52:07,719 --> 00:52:09,680
Speaker 1: clue we have found. We don't understand it yet.

1070
00:52:10,040 --> 00:52:13,359
Speaker 5: Now have we seen any Are there any special superluminous

1071
00:52:13,360 --> 00:52:15,680
Speaker 5: supernova that we've seen that are sort of interesting to

1072
00:52:15,960 --> 00:52:16,399
Speaker 5: talk about.

1073
00:52:16,520 --> 00:52:20,520
Speaker 1: The most dramatic one is really incredible. It's this supernova

1074
00:52:20,640 --> 00:52:24,080
Speaker 1: called as ASSN, which is the name of the telescope

1075
00:52:24,440 --> 00:52:29,040
Speaker 1: fifteen LH and it's about four billion light years away.

1076
00:52:29,360 --> 00:52:32,520
Speaker 1: But when we saw it in twenty fifteen using these

1077
00:52:32,600 --> 00:52:35,680
Speaker 1: twin telescopes in Chile. It was the most luminous supernova

1078
00:52:35,800 --> 00:52:40,440
Speaker 1: ever observed. It was almost a trillion times brighter than

1079
00:52:40,560 --> 00:52:41,120
Speaker 1: our sun.

1080
00:52:41,520 --> 00:52:45,440
Speaker 5: A trillion times brighter than the Sun. Yeah, that's wild.

1081
00:52:45,760 --> 00:52:47,200
Speaker 5: It's a good thing it wasn't in our doubts.

1082
00:52:48,080 --> 00:52:52,160
Speaker 1: Yeah, there's this astronomer from Ohio State University, christof Stenek

1083
00:52:52,239 --> 00:52:54,960
Speaker 1: said if it was in our own galaxy, it would

1084
00:52:55,000 --> 00:52:57,960
Speaker 1: shine brighter than the full moon. There would reno night,

1085
00:52:58,320 --> 00:53:01,759
Speaker 1: it would be easily seen during the day. Like, this

1086
00:53:01,960 --> 00:53:05,720
Speaker 1: thing was a monster. It's more than two times brighter

1087
00:53:05,800 --> 00:53:08,279
Speaker 1: than any other superluminous supernova.

1088
00:53:08,719 --> 00:53:09,000
Speaker 2: Whoa.

1089
00:53:09,600 --> 00:53:11,600
Speaker 5: And it was sort of a kind of luck that

1090
00:53:11,640 --> 00:53:12,279
Speaker 5: we caught it right.

1091
00:53:12,440 --> 00:53:14,480
Speaker 1: Absolutely, it's luck. We just like happened to be pointing

1092
00:53:14,560 --> 00:53:16,680
Speaker 1: telescopes in the right direction at the right time, and

1093
00:53:16,800 --> 00:53:18,360
Speaker 1: that's why we saw it. But it's also sort of

1094
00:53:18,400 --> 00:53:20,640
Speaker 1: hard to miss. Like, this thing is twenty times brighter

1095
00:53:20,920 --> 00:53:24,920
Speaker 1: than our entigher galaxy. It's really amazing. So this is

1096
00:53:24,960 --> 00:53:27,080
Speaker 1: definitely the brightest supernova ever, but.

1097
00:53:27,120 --> 00:53:29,200
Speaker 5: It's also kind of far away. That's why it's easy

1098
00:53:29,239 --> 00:53:29,600
Speaker 5: to miss.

1099
00:53:29,840 --> 00:53:33,319
Speaker 1: Yeah, it's four billion light years away, Otherwise it might

1100
00:53:33,400 --> 00:53:33,920
Speaker 1: have fried us.

1101
00:53:34,080 --> 00:53:35,640
Speaker 5: It's like a tense of the way to the end

1102
00:53:35,680 --> 00:53:36,280
Speaker 5: of the universe.

1103
00:53:36,440 --> 00:53:38,440
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly, So pack some snacks if you're going to

1104
00:53:38,480 --> 00:53:38,799
Speaker 1: go visit.

1105
00:53:38,920 --> 00:53:41,040
Speaker 5: But it's cool that we could see it from here, right,

1106
00:53:41,120 --> 00:53:43,600
Speaker 5: and it's so bright even for me so far away.

1107
00:53:43,719 --> 00:53:46,360
Speaker 1: It is really cool and it offers an opportunity to

1108
00:53:46,560 --> 00:53:50,439
Speaker 1: like think about what's going on and understand how supernova's form.

1109
00:53:51,000 --> 00:53:53,680
Speaker 1: You know. One idea about what makes these things so

1110
00:53:53,920 --> 00:53:56,400
Speaker 1: bright is that they're just like super big versions of

1111
00:53:56,600 --> 00:53:59,600
Speaker 1: stars that make superluminous supernova. Maybe they're just bigger and

1112
00:53:59,640 --> 00:54:01,680
Speaker 1: they're more massive and that's what's happening. But there are

1113
00:54:01,719 --> 00:54:05,160
Speaker 1: also other theories, like maybe these are other kinds of events,

1114
00:54:05,160 --> 00:54:09,000
Speaker 1: they're not just bigger versions of supernova. Like maybe there's

1115
00:54:09,000 --> 00:54:12,000
Speaker 1: an interplay between these stars and black holes that are

1116
00:54:12,080 --> 00:54:15,040
Speaker 1: nearby that are triggering a different kind of collapse.

1117
00:54:15,239 --> 00:54:15,439
Speaker 6: Yeah.

1118
00:54:15,520 --> 00:54:17,080
Speaker 5: Like, if you see something bright in the sky, doesn't

1119
00:54:17,120 --> 00:54:19,239
Speaker 5: necessarily have to be a supernova, right, it could be

1120
00:54:19,320 --> 00:54:23,640
Speaker 5: something else exploding, or maybe like a quasar or something

1121
00:54:23,680 --> 00:54:23,840
Speaker 5: like that.

1122
00:54:24,080 --> 00:54:26,680
Speaker 1: Yeah, Although these things have the sort of pretty characteristic

1123
00:54:26,840 --> 00:54:30,239
Speaker 1: light curve of a supernova, and they appear briefly and

1124
00:54:30,280 --> 00:54:33,759
Speaker 1: then disappear, which quasars don't, but black holes might be contributing.

1125
00:54:33,880 --> 00:54:35,880
Speaker 1: Like maybe you have a star that was going to

1126
00:54:35,920 --> 00:54:39,520
Speaker 1: go supernova anyway, and the tidal forces from a nearby

1127
00:54:39,640 --> 00:54:42,400
Speaker 1: black hole add to the collapse and like make that

1128
00:54:42,560 --> 00:54:46,080
Speaker 1: collapse more powerful. Right, if you're near like a supermassive

1129
00:54:46,160 --> 00:54:48,680
Speaker 1: black hole in the center of your galaxy, it could

1130
00:54:48,719 --> 00:54:51,560
Speaker 1: be that the tidal forces from that trigger the collapse

1131
00:54:51,600 --> 00:54:53,239
Speaker 1: in a way that wouldn't have happened otherwise. So you

1132
00:54:53,320 --> 00:54:56,160
Speaker 1: get like a special version or an unusual version of

1133
00:54:56,280 --> 00:54:56,880
Speaker 1: the collapse.

1134
00:54:57,000 --> 00:54:59,680
Speaker 5: Wait, so this would be a super massive black hole

1135
00:54:59,760 --> 00:55:03,279
Speaker 5: suit charge superluminous supernova. Is that what you're telling me?

1136
00:55:05,600 --> 00:55:11,040
Speaker 5: It would be pretty incredible, extra extra bright exactly.

1137
00:55:11,120 --> 00:55:14,560
Speaker 1: That's one alternative idea. Another really cool idea that's reading

1138
00:55:14,600 --> 00:55:19,160
Speaker 1: about is that it could be magnetars losing their energy. Right,

1139
00:55:19,200 --> 00:55:21,800
Speaker 1: maybe it's not a supernova at all. A magnetar is

1140
00:55:21,840 --> 00:55:25,759
Speaker 1: a neutron star, which is another potential endpoint for a

1141
00:55:25,880 --> 00:55:28,959
Speaker 1: star that's spinning really really fast and has a huge

1142
00:55:29,080 --> 00:55:32,279
Speaker 1: magnetic field and all sorts of incredible energy. But they're

1143
00:55:32,360 --> 00:55:34,839
Speaker 1: dumping a lot of that energy out into space. They're

1144
00:55:34,880 --> 00:55:38,400
Speaker 1: converting their rotational energy into this beam, and so the

1145
00:55:38,520 --> 00:55:41,760
Speaker 1: idea is maybe one of these magnetars has a dramatic

1146
00:55:41,880 --> 00:55:45,239
Speaker 1: spinning down effect where it's transforming its rotational energy very

1147
00:55:45,360 --> 00:55:49,520
Speaker 1: suddenly into a bunch of radiation, which creates these huge

1148
00:55:49,640 --> 00:55:54,640
Speaker 1: jets and produces enough energy to look like a superluminous supernova.

1149
00:55:54,960 --> 00:55:58,000
Speaker 1: But people have tried to do calculations to make that happen,

1150
00:55:58,080 --> 00:55:59,840
Speaker 1: and they don't think that those things could be brightened

1151
00:56:00,200 --> 00:56:03,560
Speaker 1: to explain what we've seen. So it's still sort of

1152
00:56:03,600 --> 00:56:05,800
Speaker 1: a wild West of ideas out there, people wondering like,

1153
00:56:05,880 --> 00:56:07,680
Speaker 1: maybe it's this, maybe it's that. Maybe it's these two

1154
00:56:07,719 --> 00:56:10,480
Speaker 1: things combined that makes this crazy event.

1155
00:56:10,719 --> 00:56:13,640
Speaker 5: I guess if it's something so bright and so explosive,

1156
00:56:13,760 --> 00:56:16,880
Speaker 5: wouldn't we sort of see evidence of that explosion affecting

1157
00:56:16,960 --> 00:56:18,719
Speaker 5: the whole galaxy it's in, or a lot of the

1158
00:56:18,800 --> 00:56:20,839
Speaker 5: stars it's in. You know, maybe that way you could

1159
00:56:20,840 --> 00:56:22,560
Speaker 5: tell if it's an explosion after all or not.

1160
00:56:22,880 --> 00:56:25,719
Speaker 1: It is actually really cool to track these explosions. You

1161
00:56:25,920 --> 00:56:28,320
Speaker 1: feel like it's going to affect the whole galaxy. But

1162
00:56:28,480 --> 00:56:31,360
Speaker 1: remember that galaxies are really big, and so for information

1163
00:56:31,480 --> 00:56:33,800
Speaker 1: to get across the galaxy it takes a long time.

1164
00:56:34,040 --> 00:56:36,160
Speaker 1: So these explosions look sort of like they're happening in

1165
00:56:36,320 --> 00:56:40,000
Speaker 1: slow motion because the distances are just so vast, which

1166
00:56:40,040 --> 00:56:41,719
Speaker 1: is one reason why it's really cool to look at

1167
00:56:41,800 --> 00:56:45,920
Speaker 1: old supernova to see how has the supernova affected stuff nearby,

1168
00:56:46,719 --> 00:56:50,640
Speaker 1: Like when the supernova radiation slams into nearby gas, what happens.

1169
00:56:50,719 --> 00:56:52,560
Speaker 1: Do you generate new stars? Do you heat it up?

1170
00:56:52,600 --> 00:56:54,759
Speaker 1: Do you blow it out? That's one reason why it's

1171
00:56:54,800 --> 00:56:57,560
Speaker 1: really cool to look at these sort of old supernovas

1172
00:56:57,600 --> 00:56:58,200
Speaker 1: from the past.

1173
00:56:58,520 --> 00:57:00,959
Speaker 5: Yeah, like I would maybe imagine like at the side

1174
00:57:01,000 --> 00:57:03,640
Speaker 5: of where there was a supernova, maybe like all the

1175
00:57:03,719 --> 00:57:06,080
Speaker 5: stars around it got snuffed out or something real least

1176
00:57:06,120 --> 00:57:07,839
Speaker 5: pushed out of the way or something. At least that's

1177
00:57:07,840 --> 00:57:11,880
Speaker 5: how it looks like in movies, in superhero movies.

1178
00:57:12,000 --> 00:57:14,120
Speaker 1: Well, you do get this very dramatic and I think

1179
00:57:14,280 --> 00:57:17,640
Speaker 1: very pleasing to the eye clouds of gas and shock

1180
00:57:17,720 --> 00:57:20,600
Speaker 1: waves that come out of supernova. Some of the prettiest

1181
00:57:20,680 --> 00:57:23,480
Speaker 1: nebula that are out there, like the crab Nebula, actually

1182
00:57:23,560 --> 00:57:26,480
Speaker 1: did come from ancient supernova. It was in the nineteen

1183
00:57:26,520 --> 00:57:29,880
Speaker 1: forties we realized that the crab nebula is the remnant

1184
00:57:30,000 --> 00:57:33,600
Speaker 1: of a supernova that the Chinese saw about a thousand

1185
00:57:33,760 --> 00:57:36,360
Speaker 1: years ago, so we get to watch like a thousand

1186
00:57:36,440 --> 00:57:39,240
Speaker 1: years of slow mo explosion playing out in the sky.

1187
00:57:39,560 --> 00:57:41,520
Speaker 5: So we're not even sure if it is a supernova.

1188
00:57:41,560 --> 00:57:43,120
Speaker 5: These super luminous events.

1189
00:57:42,960 --> 00:57:45,040
Speaker 1: Yeah, that's true. There's still a bunch of different theories

1190
00:57:45,080 --> 00:57:47,760
Speaker 1: about what could be causing them, and eventually we might

1191
00:57:47,840 --> 00:57:50,320
Speaker 1: even give them a different name. We might even drop

1192
00:57:50,440 --> 00:57:51,240
Speaker 1: the super.

1193
00:57:51,720 --> 00:57:54,120
Speaker 5: Yeah, or maybe a super luminous supernova might try it

1194
00:57:54,160 --> 00:57:56,440
Speaker 5: to be just a mild mannered black hole explosion or

1195
00:57:56,480 --> 00:57:56,960
Speaker 5: something like that.

1196
00:57:58,200 --> 00:57:59,760
Speaker 1: You never know what happens when they take off their

1197
00:57:59,760 --> 00:58:00,880
Speaker 1: glas all.

1198
00:58:00,880 --> 00:58:04,480
Speaker 5: Right, Well, another amazing excuse to look at the night

1199
00:58:04,520 --> 00:58:06,480
Speaker 5: sky each night. If you're looking at the night sky

1200
00:58:06,800 --> 00:58:08,440
Speaker 5: and you look up at the start, maybe you'll catch

1201
00:58:08,480 --> 00:58:10,960
Speaker 5: a supernova one day. Right, It's totally possible, isn't it.

1202
00:58:11,160 --> 00:58:14,040
Speaker 1: It's totally possible. And here's hoping that supernova is not

1203
00:58:14,160 --> 00:58:17,440
Speaker 1: so close that it super fries your super eyeballs.

1204
00:58:17,960 --> 00:58:20,440
Speaker 5: Yeah, it might be the last thing you see, unfortunately,

1205
00:58:20,560 --> 00:58:21,280
Speaker 5: in the night sky.

1206
00:58:21,560 --> 00:58:24,320
Speaker 1: And for everything that we have learned already about the universe,

1207
00:58:24,360 --> 00:58:27,240
Speaker 1: remember that we are still learning new things. It was

1208
00:58:27,400 --> 00:58:30,120
Speaker 1: only a couple of decades ago that we first identified

1209
00:58:30,200 --> 00:58:34,400
Speaker 1: super luminous supernova, these very incredibly rare things. So there

1210
00:58:34,440 --> 00:58:36,320
Speaker 1: could be things happening out there in the universe that

1211
00:58:36,360 --> 00:58:39,080
Speaker 1: are so rare. We just haven't seen one yet. And

1212
00:58:39,280 --> 00:58:41,360
Speaker 1: maybe somebody out there will be the first person to

1213
00:58:41,440 --> 00:58:43,160
Speaker 1: see this new super event.

1214
00:58:43,400 --> 00:58:45,160
Speaker 5: Yeah, and then you can give it a good name,

1215
00:58:45,400 --> 00:58:49,760
Speaker 5: an incredible name, an amazing name, an extra special name,

1216
00:58:52,000 --> 00:58:54,800
Speaker 5: a hyper name, while avoiding hyperbole of course.

1217
00:58:56,200 --> 00:58:56,640
Speaker 1: Exactly.

1218
00:58:56,800 --> 00:58:58,680
Speaker 5: All right, Well, we hope you enjoyed that. Thanks for

1219
00:58:58,760 --> 00:59:00,680
Speaker 5: joining us, See you next time.

1220
00:59:08,520 --> 00:59:11,320
Speaker 1: Thanks for listening, and remember that Daniel and Jorge Explain

1221
00:59:11,360 --> 00:59:15,320
Speaker 1: the Universe is a production of iHeartRadio. For more podcasts

1222
00:59:15,400 --> 00:59:19,960
Speaker 1: from iHeartRadio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever

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