1 00:00:01,320 --> 00:00:04,240 Speaker 1: Welcome to Stuff You Missed in History Class, a production 2 00:00:04,400 --> 00:00:10,960 Speaker 1: of iHeartRadio. 3 00:00:11,960 --> 00:00:15,000 Speaker 2: Hello, and welcome to the podcast. I'm Tracy V. Wilson 4 00:00:15,160 --> 00:00:19,040 Speaker 2: and I'm Holly Frye. This is time for the latest 5 00:00:19,200 --> 00:00:22,000 Speaker 2: installment of Unearthed. I feel like I said those words 6 00:00:22,000 --> 00:00:24,040 Speaker 2: in a weird order, but it's okay. We're going to 7 00:00:24,079 --> 00:00:27,560 Speaker 2: power through. If you are brand new to the show, 8 00:00:28,200 --> 00:00:31,080 Speaker 2: Unearthed is when we talk about things that have been 9 00:00:31,160 --> 00:00:36,280 Speaker 2: literally or figuratively unearthed over the last few months. So 10 00:00:37,159 --> 00:00:39,040 Speaker 2: that's what we're going to talk about all week long, 11 00:00:39,159 --> 00:00:41,400 Speaker 2: and today we are going to talk about medical things, 12 00:00:42,000 --> 00:00:48,600 Speaker 2: books and letters, some oldest things, and some smells. I 13 00:00:48,640 --> 00:00:51,320 Speaker 2: did not realize we were going to have a smells category, 14 00:00:51,440 --> 00:00:55,440 Speaker 2: and we actually wound up with fewer smells and expected, 15 00:00:55,480 --> 00:00:59,680 Speaker 2: which is that's a story for Friday. We will start, 16 00:00:59,760 --> 00:01:03,200 Speaker 2: as we usually do with updates to past episodes. We 17 00:01:03,280 --> 00:01:08,840 Speaker 2: don't actually have that many this time, comparatively fewer updates 18 00:01:08,880 --> 00:01:13,280 Speaker 2: than the last several episodes of Unearthed. Also, I don't 19 00:01:13,400 --> 00:01:17,720 Speaker 2: have any new updates regarding things like the President's House site, 20 00:01:18,560 --> 00:01:22,080 Speaker 2: oh or the other ongoing issues here in the US 21 00:01:22,200 --> 00:01:25,640 Speaker 2: with like the field of history and education and those 22 00:01:25,720 --> 00:01:27,679 Speaker 2: kinds of things that we've been talking about a lot 23 00:01:27,760 --> 00:01:30,880 Speaker 2: on or Unearthed over the last year. A lot of 24 00:01:30,880 --> 00:01:35,800 Speaker 2: our updates, though, are frequent flyers on Unearthed. 25 00:01:36,200 --> 00:01:39,840 Speaker 1: And we are kicking off those updates with several finds 26 00:01:39,920 --> 00:01:45,640 Speaker 1: from Pompeii. Researchers have used reflectance transformation imaging to identify 27 00:01:46,160 --> 00:01:51,040 Speaker 1: seventy nine previously undetected inscriptions on a corridor that connected 28 00:01:51,080 --> 00:01:56,360 Speaker 1: Pompey's theaters to the city Central Street via Stabyana. Reflectance 29 00:01:56,400 --> 00:02:01,160 Speaker 1: transformation imaging captures images under multiple lighting angles, making it 30 00:02:01,240 --> 00:02:05,200 Speaker 1: possible to see very faint scratches that aren't detectable to 31 00:02:05,240 --> 00:02:09,920 Speaker 1: the unaided eye. This corridor has been studied before. More 32 00:02:09,960 --> 00:02:14,040 Speaker 1: than two hundred inscriptions had already been found there, including 33 00:02:14,160 --> 00:02:17,920 Speaker 1: various love notes and pleas to the goddess Venus for 34 00:02:17,960 --> 00:02:21,640 Speaker 1: her favor in matters of the heart. One of the 35 00:02:21,720 --> 00:02:25,440 Speaker 1: newly discovered inscriptions is on that theme. It starts off 36 00:02:25,560 --> 00:02:29,440 Speaker 1: with the words Erato loves uh and then I don't 37 00:02:29,480 --> 00:02:32,200 Speaker 1: know how that person was going to finish that inscription. 38 00:02:32,440 --> 00:02:33,800 Speaker 1: Who does Erado love? 39 00:02:34,280 --> 00:02:38,000 Speaker 2: We don't great question? Or what there's it could be 40 00:02:38,480 --> 00:02:42,320 Speaker 2: kidney pies, we don't know. I was thinking pickles for 41 00:02:42,360 --> 00:02:46,960 Speaker 2: some reason. There's also a sketch of two gladiators fighting. 42 00:02:47,680 --> 00:02:52,520 Speaker 2: These seventy nine newly discovered inscriptions add to those more 43 00:02:52,560 --> 00:02:54,280 Speaker 2: than two hundred that have already been found. This is 44 00:02:54,840 --> 00:03:00,160 Speaker 2: growing body of knowledge. Other researchers have used isotope analysis 45 00:03:00,400 --> 00:03:04,519 Speaker 2: to examine carbonate deposits in parts of Pompey's water infrastructure, 46 00:03:05,000 --> 00:03:08,639 Speaker 2: like they're aqueducts, well shafts, and water towers, as well 47 00:03:08,680 --> 00:03:12,000 Speaker 2: as the pools of public baths. They found that the 48 00:03:12,040 --> 00:03:15,120 Speaker 2: groundwater in the wells was highly mineralized thanks to the 49 00:03:15,240 --> 00:03:17,560 Speaker 2: volcanic deposits that they were drilled through. 50 00:03:18,520 --> 00:03:21,440 Speaker 1: That wouldn't have been very good as drinking water and 51 00:03:21,600 --> 00:03:24,720 Speaker 1: was mainly used in the baths. But this same research 52 00:03:24,800 --> 00:03:28,800 Speaker 1: concluded that the bathing water wasn't renewed very often, so 53 00:03:28,919 --> 00:03:31,600 Speaker 1: it also would not have been very hygienic. 54 00:03:32,160 --> 00:03:37,320 Speaker 2: Yeah. They made comparisons to other Roman Empire cities as 55 00:03:37,440 --> 00:03:41,960 Speaker 2: having much cleaner baths. Made it sound like POMPEII was 56 00:03:42,080 --> 00:03:44,520 Speaker 2: just a little behind the times and how clean to 57 00:03:44,600 --> 00:03:45,760 Speaker 2: keep that water just. 58 00:03:45,720 --> 00:03:47,600 Speaker 1: A new sense to the word community. 59 00:03:47,960 --> 00:03:54,840 Speaker 2: Yeah. Yeah. Lastly, in November of last year, archaeologists from 60 00:03:54,920 --> 00:03:58,720 Speaker 2: Herculaneum Archaeological Parks started work at another site that was 61 00:03:58,760 --> 00:04:03,040 Speaker 2: also destroyed in the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. That's Torre 62 00:04:03,160 --> 00:04:08,040 Speaker 2: del Greco on the coast northwest of Pompeii. In February, 63 00:04:08,240 --> 00:04:10,680 Speaker 2: they announced that they had excavated a small but very 64 00:04:10,800 --> 00:04:14,720 Speaker 2: highly decorated room there. The walls of this room have 65 00:04:14,880 --> 00:04:18,880 Speaker 2: figurative elements and bars of cinnabar red paint against a 66 00:04:18,960 --> 00:04:23,800 Speaker 2: dark background, and these figurative elements include herons and a 67 00:04:23,839 --> 00:04:30,000 Speaker 2: golden candelabra. The room also contained three highly decorated cyste 68 00:04:30,040 --> 00:04:33,880 Speaker 2: which are essentially boxes, and architectural elements that were of 69 00:04:34,000 --> 00:04:37,599 Speaker 2: very good quality. There is speculation that this room was 70 00:04:37,640 --> 00:04:40,080 Speaker 2: being used for storage for things that were part of 71 00:04:40,120 --> 00:04:45,760 Speaker 2: an ongoing construction project when the volcano erupted. Having recently 72 00:04:46,040 --> 00:04:48,800 Speaker 2: helped a friend who bought a new house paint the 73 00:04:48,839 --> 00:04:52,720 Speaker 2: interior of a bedroom closet, it cracks me up that 74 00:04:52,760 --> 00:04:57,479 Speaker 2: this probably a closet storage space had very highly decorated walls. 75 00:04:57,880 --> 00:04:59,800 Speaker 1: We could talk about this on behind the scenes. 76 00:05:00,200 --> 00:05:03,119 Speaker 2: There could be so many behind the scenes conversations this week. 77 00:05:04,400 --> 00:05:09,120 Speaker 2: Moving on. Stonehenge got its own entire episode of the 78 00:05:09,160 --> 00:05:12,400 Speaker 2: show back in twenty fourteen, when news broke about a 79 00:05:12,400 --> 00:05:15,479 Speaker 2: lot of new findings there and we realized we did 80 00:05:15,520 --> 00:05:20,320 Speaker 2: not have an existing Stonehenge episode to update. One of 81 00:05:20,320 --> 00:05:23,360 Speaker 2: the things we talked about in that episode and probably 82 00:05:23,640 --> 00:05:27,800 Speaker 2: other installments of On Earth since then, was debate about 83 00:05:28,200 --> 00:05:32,520 Speaker 2: exactly how the somewhat smaller stones known as bluestones got 84 00:05:32,560 --> 00:05:36,320 Speaker 2: to the Stonehenge site. Some of those stones are believed 85 00:05:36,360 --> 00:05:39,720 Speaker 2: to have been moved from hundreds of miles away, and 86 00:05:39,800 --> 00:05:42,479 Speaker 2: one hypothesis has been that the stones might have been 87 00:05:42,600 --> 00:05:48,359 Speaker 2: carried closer to the Stonehenge site by glaciers. This research 88 00:05:48,520 --> 00:05:53,040 Speaker 2: examined microscopic mineral grains found in rivers near Salisbury Plain 89 00:05:53,160 --> 00:05:57,520 Speaker 2: in southern England, that's where Stonehenge is located. They focused 90 00:05:57,640 --> 00:06:00,680 Speaker 2: on more than five hundred zircon crystal to see if 91 00:06:00,720 --> 00:06:03,520 Speaker 2: any of them could have been associated with the presence 92 00:06:03,560 --> 00:06:07,680 Speaker 2: of glaciers. They concluded that they did not, meaning that 93 00:06:07,720 --> 00:06:12,160 Speaker 2: the bluestones were moved to Salisbury Plane through intentional human effort. 94 00:06:13,040 --> 00:06:16,919 Speaker 2: We also have an update on the natural Mummy, popularly 95 00:06:17,000 --> 00:06:21,080 Speaker 2: known as Utsey the Iceman, who lived sometime between thirty 96 00:06:21,080 --> 00:06:25,679 Speaker 2: three fifty and thirty one oh five BCE. Previous hosts 97 00:06:25,720 --> 00:06:27,599 Speaker 2: of the show did an episode on Utsy back in 98 00:06:27,640 --> 00:06:30,040 Speaker 2: twenty twelve, and it seems like he has been on 99 00:06:30,400 --> 00:06:35,640 Speaker 2: almost every episode of Unearthed. According to a pre print 100 00:06:35,760 --> 00:06:38,400 Speaker 2: paper that was published at the end of last year, 101 00:06:38,960 --> 00:06:42,719 Speaker 2: Utsey was probably infected with a cancer causing strain of 102 00:06:42,839 --> 00:06:47,560 Speaker 2: the human paploma virus known as HPV sixteen. According to 103 00:06:47,600 --> 00:06:51,479 Speaker 2: this research, the ustashim Man probably was infected with this 104 00:06:51,560 --> 00:06:54,800 Speaker 2: as well. The ustashim Man is the name used for 105 00:06:54,920 --> 00:06:59,680 Speaker 2: a forty five thousand year old fossil remains that it's 106 00:06:59,720 --> 00:07:03,239 Speaker 2: not It's not like a whole mummified body like with Utsi. 107 00:07:03,320 --> 00:07:07,160 Speaker 2: It's a smaller set of remains that was found in Siberia. 108 00:07:07,240 --> 00:07:11,760 Speaker 2: This means that HPV has existed essentially for all of 109 00:07:11,840 --> 00:07:16,280 Speaker 2: human history. One hypothesis for how HPV made its way 110 00:07:16,320 --> 00:07:19,880 Speaker 2: into human beings was that it first infected Neanderthals and 111 00:07:20,040 --> 00:07:24,240 Speaker 2: was passed to humans through interbreeding. The ostashim Man has 112 00:07:24,320 --> 00:07:30,440 Speaker 2: Neanderthal DNA in his lineage. That doesn't conclusively confirm that hypothesis, 113 00:07:30,640 --> 00:07:33,559 Speaker 2: but it means that it is at least possible. Since 114 00:07:33,640 --> 00:07:36,440 Speaker 2: this is a preprint paper, as Tracy mentioned, it has 115 00:07:36,520 --> 00:07:37,480 Speaker 2: not yet been. 116 00:07:37,320 --> 00:07:38,800 Speaker 1: Through peer review. 117 00:07:39,480 --> 00:07:43,040 Speaker 2: Moving on, in our last installment of Unearthed, we talked 118 00:07:43,040 --> 00:07:46,640 Speaker 2: about a gold Tudor era pendant that was in the 119 00:07:46,640 --> 00:07:48,920 Speaker 2: shape of a heart that had come up on a 120 00:07:48,960 --> 00:07:51,680 Speaker 2: previous episode of On Earth's as well. At that point, 121 00:07:51,720 --> 00:07:54,560 Speaker 2: this Tutor heart was on display at the British Museum 122 00:07:54,680 --> 00:07:57,440 Speaker 2: and the museum was trying to raise three point five 123 00:07:57,520 --> 00:08:01,040 Speaker 2: million pounds or about four point seven million dollars to 124 00:08:01,080 --> 00:08:05,040 Speaker 2: purchase it. That fundraising effort was successful and it was 125 00:08:05,080 --> 00:08:08,480 Speaker 2: announced in February that this pendant will be staying in 126 00:08:08,560 --> 00:08:13,400 Speaker 2: the museum. And lastly, in March, newspapers started covering a 127 00:08:13,480 --> 00:08:17,240 Speaker 2: report from the University of East Anglia about research into 128 00:08:17,320 --> 00:08:21,520 Speaker 2: King Harold's journey to the Battle of Hastings that's long 129 00:08:21,600 --> 00:08:25,280 Speaker 2: been described as a two hundred mile march, but medieval 130 00:08:25,360 --> 00:08:29,320 Speaker 2: history professor Tom License argues that it's a misunderstanding of 131 00:08:29,360 --> 00:08:33,520 Speaker 2: the Anglo Saxon Chronicle. The Anglo Saxon Chronicle says that 132 00:08:33,559 --> 00:08:37,719 Speaker 2: Harold's ships quote came home, which has been interpreted as 133 00:08:37,800 --> 00:08:41,319 Speaker 2: Harold having dismissed them back to all of their original 134 00:08:41,360 --> 00:08:45,840 Speaker 2: home ports, but according to License, the word home meant 135 00:08:45,840 --> 00:08:49,280 Speaker 2: the fleet's home base in London and Harold continued to 136 00:08:49,400 --> 00:08:53,720 Speaker 2: use the fleet from there. So this press release just 137 00:08:53,800 --> 00:08:56,720 Speaker 2: came out on March twentieth, just a couple of weeks 138 00:08:57,160 --> 00:09:00,440 Speaker 2: before we are recording this, and he was scut to 139 00:09:00,480 --> 00:09:04,040 Speaker 2: present on this research at a conference four days after that. 140 00:09:04,559 --> 00:09:07,079 Speaker 2: He also has a book on Harold that is coming 141 00:09:07,080 --> 00:09:10,240 Speaker 2: out in August, so that's not really available for people 142 00:09:10,280 --> 00:09:13,880 Speaker 2: to read yet. So at this point it's really early 143 00:09:13,960 --> 00:09:18,000 Speaker 2: for historians to thoroughly respond to these arguments. But there's 144 00:09:18,040 --> 00:09:21,560 Speaker 2: already been some controversy with other historians noting that this 145 00:09:22,040 --> 00:09:26,359 Speaker 2: entire interpretation, at least in terms of what's publicly available 146 00:09:26,720 --> 00:09:28,760 Speaker 2: when we were working on this installment of on Earthed, 147 00:09:29,120 --> 00:09:32,680 Speaker 2: it all basically hinges on the interpretation of one word. 148 00:09:33,600 --> 00:09:36,000 Speaker 1: Next, we're going to move on to some medical things. 149 00:09:36,760 --> 00:09:40,280 Speaker 1: Research published in the Journal of Archaeological Science has examined 150 00:09:40,320 --> 00:09:44,120 Speaker 1: a mass grave associated with the Plague of Justinian that 151 00:09:44,240 --> 00:09:47,640 Speaker 1: started in the sixth century. The burial site was in 152 00:09:47,679 --> 00:09:50,920 Speaker 1: the hippodrome of the city of Jiaj in what's now Jordan. 153 00:09:51,800 --> 00:09:55,679 Speaker 2: According to DNA research conducted on the remains that were 154 00:09:55,720 --> 00:09:59,320 Speaker 2: buried there, this burial site did represent the dead from 155 00:09:59,400 --> 00:10:02,600 Speaker 2: a single event. It was not people who died in 156 00:10:02,640 --> 00:10:06,240 Speaker 2: a community over a long period of time. The team 157 00:10:06,320 --> 00:10:09,600 Speaker 2: studied DNA from the teeth of these plague victims and 158 00:10:09,720 --> 00:10:13,040 Speaker 2: found that they were demographically very diverse, suggesting that this 159 00:10:13,160 --> 00:10:17,400 Speaker 2: disease struck the whole population. It did not really differentiate 160 00:10:17,520 --> 00:10:21,040 Speaker 2: with people's social status, or age or sex. This is 161 00:10:21,120 --> 00:10:25,760 Speaker 2: the first known Mediterranean mass grave associated with the plague 162 00:10:25,800 --> 00:10:26,440 Speaker 2: of Justinian. 163 00:10:27,320 --> 00:10:31,559 Speaker 1: Research published in the Journal of Archaeological Science Reports has 164 00:10:31,640 --> 00:10:34,720 Speaker 1: examined the contents of a nineteen hundred year old glass 165 00:10:34,800 --> 00:10:38,320 Speaker 1: vial called an unguitarium, which was found in a tomb 166 00:10:38,559 --> 00:10:43,400 Speaker 1: in western Turkia. They identified fecal biomarkers as well as 167 00:10:43,440 --> 00:10:46,880 Speaker 1: an organic compound known as carvacrol, which is found in 168 00:10:47,000 --> 00:10:52,040 Speaker 1: essential oils from herbs. The conclusion this was feces mixed 169 00:10:52,040 --> 00:10:57,560 Speaker 1: with time, probably to disguise the smell. Medical preparations made 170 00:10:57,600 --> 00:11:00,680 Speaker 1: from feces are described by the Roman physician in Galen 171 00:11:00,880 --> 00:11:04,160 Speaker 1: and in the work of Pliny the Elder. This is 172 00:11:04,200 --> 00:11:07,679 Speaker 1: the first direct physical evidence for these kinds of remedies 173 00:11:07,720 --> 00:11:11,360 Speaker 1: being used in the Greco Roman era and in our 174 00:11:11,520 --> 00:11:12,960 Speaker 1: last medical find. 175 00:11:13,400 --> 00:11:18,280 Speaker 2: Neanderthals may have used birch bark tar for medicinal purposes, 176 00:11:18,360 --> 00:11:21,720 Speaker 2: and that tar might have been effective. We do know 177 00:11:21,880 --> 00:11:26,000 Speaker 2: that Neanderthals made birch tar. There's archaeological evidence of this 178 00:11:26,160 --> 00:11:30,120 Speaker 2: going back almost two hundred thousand years, and there are 179 00:11:30,200 --> 00:11:34,040 Speaker 2: also indigenous methods of making birch tar that go back 180 00:11:34,080 --> 00:11:36,720 Speaker 2: thousands of years and have survived until today, so not 181 00:11:36,840 --> 00:11:40,560 Speaker 2: associated with the Neanderthals, but ancient uses of birch tar. 182 00:11:41,520 --> 00:11:45,880 Speaker 2: Researchers used three different techniques to produce tar from two 183 00:11:46,000 --> 00:11:50,679 Speaker 2: species of birch, downy birch and silver birch. Then they 184 00:11:50,720 --> 00:11:55,880 Speaker 2: tested these batches of tar against two pathogens Staphylococcus arius 185 00:11:55,880 --> 00:11:59,400 Speaker 2: and E. Colime, and the birch tar was effective against 186 00:11:59,400 --> 00:12:03,920 Speaker 2: staff ari but not against decline, and one method seemed 187 00:12:04,000 --> 00:12:08,600 Speaker 2: less effective than the others. Burning downy birch material and 188 00:12:08,679 --> 00:12:12,679 Speaker 2: letting the tar condense onto a fireproof stone didn't produce 189 00:12:12,800 --> 00:12:15,600 Speaker 2: much tar, and what little tar there was was not 190 00:12:15,760 --> 00:12:20,439 Speaker 2: effective against anything. So this of course is not definitive 191 00:12:20,559 --> 00:12:25,240 Speaker 2: proof that Neanderthals were using birch tar medicinally, but there 192 00:12:25,320 --> 00:12:29,880 Speaker 2: is archaeological evidence suggesting that Neanderthals used plants medicinally, so 193 00:12:30,120 --> 00:12:32,600 Speaker 2: we know they used plants for medicine. We know they 194 00:12:32,600 --> 00:12:35,960 Speaker 2: made birch tar. It's at least in the realm of 195 00:12:36,040 --> 00:12:41,040 Speaker 2: possibility that they used birch tar as medicine. We'll take 196 00:12:41,080 --> 00:12:43,480 Speaker 2: a quick sponsor break and then come back for some 197 00:12:43,600 --> 00:12:55,960 Speaker 2: books and letters. We will pick up this installment of 198 00:12:56,000 --> 00:12:59,480 Speaker 2: on Earth with some books and letters. Ostraca are bits 199 00:12:59,520 --> 00:13:02,480 Speaker 2: of potter that were often used sort of like notepaper 200 00:13:02,640 --> 00:13:07,360 Speaker 2: in ancient Egypt. An excavation at Athribis in Lower Egypt 201 00:13:07,360 --> 00:13:12,200 Speaker 2: has unearthed thirteen thousand ostraca, bringing the total number of 202 00:13:12,240 --> 00:13:16,200 Speaker 2: them found out that site to forty three thousand, so 203 00:13:16,400 --> 00:13:19,880 Speaker 2: many pieces of pottery used like post it notes. Basically, 204 00:13:20,480 --> 00:13:23,840 Speaker 2: people lived at this site for more than one thousand years, 205 00:13:23,960 --> 00:13:26,760 Speaker 2: and it was also home to a necropolis and a 206 00:13:26,800 --> 00:13:31,559 Speaker 2: temple complex. So the ostcra that have been found here 207 00:13:31,679 --> 00:13:34,320 Speaker 2: really range in age. They are from as early as 208 00:13:34,320 --> 00:13:38,079 Speaker 2: the third century BCE to as late as the eleventh 209 00:13:38,120 --> 00:13:39,120 Speaker 2: century CE. 210 00:13:40,040 --> 00:13:44,559 Speaker 1: They also represent a number of languages. The oldest fragments 211 00:13:44,640 --> 00:13:48,160 Speaker 1: are tax receipts written in Demotic script, which was used 212 00:13:48,200 --> 00:13:52,280 Speaker 1: for both business and literary purposes. There are also fragments 213 00:13:52,280 --> 00:13:56,319 Speaker 1: with writing in Arabic, Greek, hieratic and coptic as well 214 00:13:56,320 --> 00:14:00,360 Speaker 1: as hieroglyphics. There are also lots of pottery for fragments 215 00:14:00,360 --> 00:14:03,640 Speaker 1: at the site that have nothing written on them. Together, 216 00:14:04,320 --> 00:14:07,560 Speaker 1: this group of fragments are helping scholars understand how life 217 00:14:07,559 --> 00:14:11,440 Speaker 1: and Athrobisk changed over the many centuries that it was occupied. 218 00:14:12,720 --> 00:14:15,679 Speaker 1: Moving on, I don't include a ton of like many 219 00:14:15,880 --> 00:14:20,600 Speaker 1: years overdue, library books, stories and unearthed because after a 220 00:14:20,640 --> 00:14:25,800 Speaker 1: while they start to sound really repetitive. Unless there's something 221 00:14:25,840 --> 00:14:29,080 Speaker 1: really special about the book, it can seem like the 222 00:14:29,120 --> 00:14:31,480 Speaker 1: same exact story over and over. This one, though it 223 00:14:31,520 --> 00:14:35,480 Speaker 1: has another layer. A copy of Harry the Dirty Dog 224 00:14:35,800 --> 00:14:37,840 Speaker 1: that had been checked out by a little boy was 225 00:14:37,960 --> 00:14:41,480 Speaker 1: due back at the Chantilly Regional Library in Virginia in 226 00:14:41,600 --> 00:14:45,320 Speaker 1: nineteen eighty nine. It did not get turned back in, 227 00:14:45,520 --> 00:14:48,960 Speaker 1: and now, as an adult, this man found the book 228 00:14:49,000 --> 00:14:51,040 Speaker 1: on a shelf while he was looking for something to 229 00:14:51,160 --> 00:14:56,200 Speaker 1: read to his own son while visiting his parents. That 230 00:14:56,360 --> 00:14:58,840 Speaker 1: shelf that he found the book on was not in Virginia, 231 00:14:58,920 --> 00:15:02,280 Speaker 1: though it wasn't even the United States. It was in Greece. 232 00:15:03,160 --> 00:15:06,720 Speaker 1: His parents were diplomats, and after leaving the Washington, DC area, 233 00:15:07,080 --> 00:15:10,240 Speaker 1: they went back to Greece. And the des Syria, Japan, 234 00:15:10,400 --> 00:15:13,400 Speaker 1: and the Netherlands before going back to Greece once again, 235 00:15:14,160 --> 00:15:17,640 Speaker 1: and that book apparently went with them. Harry the Dirty 236 00:15:17,640 --> 00:15:20,840 Speaker 1: Dog has now been turned back into the library and 237 00:15:20,920 --> 00:15:24,040 Speaker 1: it looks like it is in very good condition, especially 238 00:15:24,080 --> 00:15:27,640 Speaker 1: considering that it went through multiple international moves. I feel 239 00:15:27,640 --> 00:15:29,920 Speaker 1: like this book is better traveled than many people I know. 240 00:15:30,840 --> 00:15:35,760 Speaker 2: Yeah, they took very good care of it. Also, I 241 00:15:35,800 --> 00:15:38,840 Speaker 2: feel like books that have been sitting quietly on my 242 00:15:38,960 --> 00:15:42,240 Speaker 2: shelves have had more awar than this book seems to. 243 00:15:44,120 --> 00:15:44,520 Speaker 1: Next. 244 00:15:44,880 --> 00:15:49,280 Speaker 2: Back in the nineteen thirties, archaeologists found remnants of Roman 245 00:15:49,480 --> 00:15:54,960 Speaker 2: era writing tablets at a site in what's now tongarin Burgloon, Belgium. 246 00:15:55,160 --> 00:15:58,640 Speaker 2: Additional tablets were discovered in twenty thirteen. It brought the 247 00:15:58,680 --> 00:16:03,040 Speaker 2: total number of tablets to eighty five. When these tablets 248 00:16:03,160 --> 00:16:06,600 Speaker 2: were originally used back in the Roman Era, they had 249 00:16:06,600 --> 00:16:09,360 Speaker 2: a thin coating of wax on them and then people 250 00:16:09,440 --> 00:16:13,000 Speaker 2: used a sharp stylus to write on the wax. They 251 00:16:13,040 --> 00:16:16,280 Speaker 2: were reusable. People could remove that wax layer and put 252 00:16:16,320 --> 00:16:19,760 Speaker 2: down a new layer to write something else. When these 253 00:16:19,880 --> 00:16:23,280 Speaker 2: were unearthed, what the wax was gone and it did 254 00:16:23,320 --> 00:16:26,680 Speaker 2: not look like there was any kind of legible writing 255 00:16:27,000 --> 00:16:28,080 Speaker 2: left on the wood. 256 00:16:28,920 --> 00:16:32,920 Speaker 1: These tablets were rediscovered in a museum collection in twenty twenty, 257 00:16:33,360 --> 00:16:38,240 Speaker 1: and deciphering them was an extremely challenging process. At this point, 258 00:16:38,280 --> 00:16:40,720 Speaker 1: the wood is completely dried out, so it could be 259 00:16:40,760 --> 00:16:45,120 Speaker 1: hard to distinguish intentionally made marks from just natural variations 260 00:16:45,160 --> 00:16:48,080 Speaker 1: in the wood. The wax layer that was used on 261 00:16:48,120 --> 00:16:51,120 Speaker 1: these tablets was so thin, so it was easy for 262 00:16:51,120 --> 00:16:54,280 Speaker 1: a stylist to go through it and mark the wood underneath. 263 00:16:55,240 --> 00:16:58,320 Speaker 1: Some of the tablets contained legal documents, and this seemed 264 00:16:58,320 --> 00:17:01,080 Speaker 1: to be done intentionally to make the text more permanent. 265 00:17:01,600 --> 00:17:04,840 Speaker 1: But in more informal documents that wasn't necessarily true, so 266 00:17:05,359 --> 00:17:08,480 Speaker 1: the marks made through the wax just weren't always consistent, 267 00:17:09,040 --> 00:17:12,680 Speaker 1: and since the tablets were reusable, there were overlapping markings 268 00:17:12,680 --> 00:17:16,239 Speaker 1: from different lines of text. Many of the tablets had 269 00:17:16,280 --> 00:17:19,719 Speaker 1: been broken in half and thrown into a well, apparently 270 00:17:20,040 --> 00:17:23,359 Speaker 1: an intentional attempt to make them eligible. I don't know 271 00:17:23,359 --> 00:17:27,080 Speaker 1: why I love that detail. This is like tearing up 272 00:17:27,119 --> 00:17:29,440 Speaker 1: a paper, but you'd have to break it. 273 00:17:30,600 --> 00:17:34,160 Speaker 2: Yeah, those were like the legal contracts that weren't valid anymore, 274 00:17:34,320 --> 00:17:36,960 Speaker 2: that would have been put through a shredder but nope, 275 00:17:37,040 --> 00:17:39,080 Speaker 2: they were broken in half and thrown down a well. 276 00:17:40,720 --> 00:17:43,920 Speaker 2: Looking at these became kind of an early pandemic era 277 00:17:44,119 --> 00:17:48,080 Speaker 2: project for people. They spent a lot of time looking 278 00:17:48,160 --> 00:17:52,640 Speaker 2: at all these writing tablets through magnifying glasses and microscopes 279 00:17:52,800 --> 00:17:58,280 Speaker 2: lit from multiple directions. The team used high resolution photographs 280 00:17:58,320 --> 00:18:01,320 Speaker 2: and other imaging technologies well, and they were able to 281 00:18:01,400 --> 00:18:06,480 Speaker 2: find legible text on about half of these tablets. As 282 00:18:06,520 --> 00:18:08,440 Speaker 2: Holly just said, a lot of the ones that had 283 00:18:08,480 --> 00:18:12,040 Speaker 2: been intentionally broken and thrown into the well, those had 284 00:18:12,040 --> 00:18:16,400 Speaker 2: contained things like legal contracts other official documents. But other 285 00:18:16,600 --> 00:18:20,639 Speaker 2: tablets which were found in a heap more like in 286 00:18:20,680 --> 00:18:25,240 Speaker 2: a midden place that people just threw their refuse those 287 00:18:25,280 --> 00:18:29,960 Speaker 2: included things like student writing exercises and a draft of 288 00:18:30,000 --> 00:18:34,399 Speaker 2: an inscription for a statue of Emperor Carcela. 289 00:18:34,640 --> 00:18:36,919 Speaker 1: In the words of the abstract of a book that 290 00:18:37,040 --> 00:18:40,199 Speaker 1: was published detailing all of this quote. The tablets not 291 00:18:40,240 --> 00:18:44,959 Speaker 1: only provide concrete information about religious, judicial, and administrative practices, 292 00:18:45,400 --> 00:18:49,400 Speaker 1: but they also enhance our understanding of the complex processes 293 00:18:49,640 --> 00:18:54,600 Speaker 1: of Romanization and Latinization in the northwestern civitates and municipia 294 00:18:54,760 --> 00:18:55,920 Speaker 1: of the Roman Empire. 295 00:18:57,240 --> 00:19:02,679 Speaker 2: Moving on, British infant treatman. Shadrack Byfield was the author 296 00:19:02,840 --> 00:19:07,439 Speaker 2: of a narrative of a Light Company soldier's service and 297 00:19:07,440 --> 00:19:10,520 Speaker 2: that was published in England in eighteen forty and it 298 00:19:10,600 --> 00:19:14,440 Speaker 2: recounted his experiences fighting in the War of eighteen twelve, 299 00:19:14,920 --> 00:19:18,040 Speaker 2: including the amputation of his forearm after being hit by 300 00:19:18,080 --> 00:19:22,160 Speaker 2: a musket ball. This book, that's it's long been known, 301 00:19:22,359 --> 00:19:24,919 Speaker 2: not a surprise. It has been a source for historians 302 00:19:24,920 --> 00:19:28,520 Speaker 2: writing about the British military, or the War of eighteen twelve, 303 00:19:28,600 --> 00:19:32,239 Speaker 2: or the Great Lakes region where he fought. But a 304 00:19:32,359 --> 00:19:37,119 Speaker 2: Cambridge University historian has unearthed another book by Byfield in 305 00:19:37,160 --> 00:19:42,840 Speaker 2: the Western Reserve Historical Society's library in Cleveland, Ohio. This 306 00:19:42,880 --> 00:19:47,000 Speaker 2: one was called History and Conversion of a British Soldier 307 00:19:47,040 --> 00:19:50,560 Speaker 2: and it was published in eighteen fifty one. The copy 308 00:19:50,600 --> 00:19:54,680 Speaker 2: in the Historical Society library is the only one known 309 00:19:54,760 --> 00:19:59,560 Speaker 2: to have survived until today. My understanding is like this 310 00:19:59,680 --> 00:20:03,720 Speaker 2: was in the library catalog, Like they knew the book 311 00:20:03,800 --> 00:20:06,000 Speaker 2: was in the library, but nobody had made the connection 312 00:20:06,160 --> 00:20:08,679 Speaker 2: to the fact that this was the same person and 313 00:20:08,760 --> 00:20:13,320 Speaker 2: that he had written another book. The whole book has 314 00:20:13,400 --> 00:20:16,879 Speaker 2: been transcribed and published as an open access document at 315 00:20:16,880 --> 00:20:20,200 Speaker 2: the University of Cambridge Libraries and Archives website, and it's 316 00:20:20,320 --> 00:20:24,080 Speaker 2: very different from his earlier memoir. It's focused more on 317 00:20:24,800 --> 00:20:27,119 Speaker 2: information about his life that we did not know before, 318 00:20:27,440 --> 00:20:30,800 Speaker 2: including what his life was like after he returned to England. 319 00:20:31,520 --> 00:20:35,399 Speaker 2: Researchers working with paleolithic objects dating back to between thirty 320 00:20:35,400 --> 00:20:38,960 Speaker 2: four thousand and forty five thousand years ago have concluded 321 00:20:39,000 --> 00:20:43,320 Speaker 2: that they contain a precursor to written language. These objects 322 00:20:43,320 --> 00:20:45,960 Speaker 2: were mostly found in caves in what is now Germany, 323 00:20:46,119 --> 00:20:51,080 Speaker 2: and they're covered in repeating sequences of notches, dots, and crosses. 324 00:20:51,840 --> 00:20:54,639 Speaker 2: The objects are made of materials like mammoth tusk, and 325 00:20:54,680 --> 00:20:57,720 Speaker 2: they date back tens of thousands of years before the 326 00:20:57,760 --> 00:21:02,080 Speaker 2: earliest known writing systems of qunea form and hieroglyphics. They 327 00:21:02,119 --> 00:21:06,760 Speaker 2: also predate the precursors to either of those systems, so 328 00:21:06,880 --> 00:21:11,760 Speaker 2: researchers weren't trying to decode or decipher these markings. They 329 00:21:11,800 --> 00:21:14,840 Speaker 2: were measuring the signs and looking for patterns in them, 330 00:21:15,040 --> 00:21:18,399 Speaker 2: and after analyzing more than three thousand signs on two 331 00:21:18,480 --> 00:21:22,040 Speaker 2: hundred and sixty objects, they concluded that the patterns of 332 00:21:22,160 --> 00:21:25,840 Speaker 2: markings had a similar level of information density to the 333 00:21:25,920 --> 00:21:30,960 Speaker 2: earliest proto Cuneiform tablets found in Mesopotamia. It's also clear 334 00:21:31,000 --> 00:21:34,320 Speaker 2: that these markings were not meant to represent the sounds 335 00:21:34,680 --> 00:21:39,080 Speaker 2: of a spoken language, since the repetitions involved do not 336 00:21:39,280 --> 00:21:44,280 Speaker 2: follow the same patterns that known languages do. The suggests 337 00:21:44,320 --> 00:21:47,760 Speaker 2: that the precursors to written languages may have been developing 338 00:21:47,840 --> 00:21:50,200 Speaker 2: a lot earlier than was previously thought. 339 00:21:51,080 --> 00:21:54,480 Speaker 1: Alterations made to a thirty three hundred year old papyrus 340 00:21:54,920 --> 00:21:58,000 Speaker 1: are being described as having fixed a mistake with white out. 341 00:21:59,400 --> 00:22:01,960 Speaker 1: The scroll is a copy of the Book of the 342 00:22:02,000 --> 00:22:05,119 Speaker 1: Dead that was made for a scribe named Ramos. It 343 00:22:05,200 --> 00:22:08,840 Speaker 1: was being prepared for a museum exhibit when curators realized 344 00:22:09,080 --> 00:22:11,600 Speaker 1: that the body of a jackal headed god had been 345 00:22:11,600 --> 00:22:14,200 Speaker 1: made to look thinner by adding a line of white 346 00:22:14,240 --> 00:22:16,639 Speaker 1: paint to the sides of its body and parts of 347 00:22:16,680 --> 00:22:20,679 Speaker 1: its legs. Researchers used a three D digital microscope to 348 00:22:20,720 --> 00:22:23,359 Speaker 1: figure out what kinds of pigments were used in this 349 00:22:23,520 --> 00:22:26,280 Speaker 1: white paint, and found that it had a different makeup 350 00:22:26,320 --> 00:22:29,200 Speaker 1: from the white paint used in other parts of the papyrus. 351 00:22:29,640 --> 00:22:32,680 Speaker 1: It also contained some flex of yellow paint, which would 352 00:22:32,680 --> 00:22:35,120 Speaker 1: have helped it blend into the color of the papyrus 353 00:22:35,440 --> 00:22:38,479 Speaker 1: at the time it was originally painted. It does not 354 00:22:38,520 --> 00:22:43,679 Speaker 1: look that blended today little photo retouching. Yeah, maybe this 355 00:22:43,840 --> 00:22:45,520 Speaker 1: jackal headed god was very vain. 356 00:22:48,359 --> 00:22:52,920 Speaker 2: Yeah, the way the pigments and the papyrus have each aged, 357 00:22:53,200 --> 00:22:55,720 Speaker 2: it does not really look blended today, but it would 358 00:22:55,720 --> 00:22:59,840 Speaker 2: have been a much closer match at the time. Moving on, 359 00:23:00,240 --> 00:23:04,240 Speaker 2: a researcher from the French National Center for Scientific Research 360 00:23:04,359 --> 00:23:08,560 Speaker 2: or CNRS has found a page from the Archimedes Palimpsest 361 00:23:08,600 --> 00:23:12,320 Speaker 2: that was believed to have been lost. The Palimpsest is 362 00:23:12,359 --> 00:23:17,600 Speaker 2: a tenth century Greek manuscript containing multiple treatises by Archimedes, 363 00:23:17,720 --> 00:23:21,159 Speaker 2: who lived in the third century BCE, so some of 364 00:23:21,200 --> 00:23:24,840 Speaker 2: the texts that are included in this palimpsyst are very rare. 365 00:23:25,600 --> 00:23:29,560 Speaker 2: In the thirteenth century, part of the manuscript was erased 366 00:23:29,640 --> 00:23:32,880 Speaker 2: so the parchment that it was written on could be reused. 367 00:23:33,400 --> 00:23:37,520 Speaker 2: That was a very common practice. The manuscript also changed 368 00:23:37,560 --> 00:23:41,840 Speaker 2: hands several times after its leaves were photographed in nineteen 369 00:23:41,840 --> 00:23:45,600 Speaker 2: oh six, and at some point three of the leaves 370 00:23:45,600 --> 00:23:48,840 Speaker 2: that were documented in those photographs disappeared. 371 00:23:49,840 --> 00:23:53,600 Speaker 1: The rediscovered page is one of those missing leaves. It 372 00:23:53,640 --> 00:23:57,639 Speaker 1: contains part of Archimedes' Treatise on the Sphere and the Cylinder. 373 00:23:58,520 --> 00:24:01,920 Speaker 1: One side is partly led, even with prayers having been 374 00:24:01,960 --> 00:24:05,399 Speaker 1: written over it. The other has been obscured by a 375 00:24:05,440 --> 00:24:09,280 Speaker 1: forged illumination of the prophet Daniel that was most likely 376 00:24:09,280 --> 00:24:12,200 Speaker 1: added sometime in the twentieth century when a dealer was 377 00:24:12,240 --> 00:24:17,280 Speaker 1: attempting to increase that page's value. Ongoing research is planned 378 00:24:17,320 --> 00:24:20,119 Speaker 1: for this leave to try to reveal the text underneath 379 00:24:20,119 --> 00:24:24,080 Speaker 1: this illumination. When I started reading about this, I kept 380 00:24:24,080 --> 00:24:27,600 Speaker 1: reading about how there was this illumination of Daniel added 381 00:24:27,600 --> 00:24:29,520 Speaker 1: sometime in the twentieth century, and I was. 382 00:24:29,560 --> 00:24:33,400 Speaker 2: Like, why, why would somebody be doing that? And then 383 00:24:33,440 --> 00:24:37,560 Speaker 2: I found the additional detail trying to increase its value 384 00:24:37,600 --> 00:24:41,200 Speaker 2: to sell it by putting a forgery on there. Yeah, 385 00:24:41,280 --> 00:24:46,360 Speaker 2: our last book find is more book adjacent. In February, 386 00:24:46,800 --> 00:24:49,560 Speaker 2: repair work on the floor of Saint Peter and Paul 387 00:24:49,680 --> 00:24:53,680 Speaker 2: Church in the Netherlands led to the discovery of human remains. 388 00:24:54,480 --> 00:24:57,400 Speaker 2: Work is underway to try to confirm whether these are 389 00:24:57,480 --> 00:25:01,920 Speaker 2: the remains of child di bactic Castle. More account to d'Artagnan. 390 00:25:02,000 --> 00:25:04,119 Speaker 1: Inspiration for the character. 391 00:25:03,880 --> 00:25:07,879 Speaker 2: d'Artagnan in the novel The Three Musketeers by Alexandre Duma. 392 00:25:08,880 --> 00:25:11,960 Speaker 2: We got an email about this from a listener who 393 00:25:12,080 --> 00:25:14,879 Speaker 2: was embarrassed to admit that they did not realize that 394 00:25:15,000 --> 00:25:18,520 Speaker 2: d'Artagnan was a real person. Do not feel bad, neither 395 00:25:18,600 --> 00:25:19,120 Speaker 2: did I. 396 00:25:19,200 --> 00:25:19,560 Speaker 1: Really. 397 00:25:20,359 --> 00:25:24,080 Speaker 2: Athos, Porthos, and Arabis were all fictionalized versions of real 398 00:25:24,200 --> 00:25:24,880 Speaker 2: people too. 399 00:25:25,840 --> 00:25:29,159 Speaker 1: The historical d'Artagnan died when a musket ball struck him 400 00:25:29,200 --> 00:25:32,120 Speaker 1: in the throat during the Franco Dutch War in sixteen 401 00:25:32,160 --> 00:25:35,679 Speaker 1: seventy three. The remains that were discovered in the church 402 00:25:36,000 --> 00:25:39,800 Speaker 1: had a musketball lodged in the chest area. A coin 403 00:25:39,880 --> 00:25:42,560 Speaker 1: from sixteen sixty was found in the grave as well. 404 00:25:43,359 --> 00:25:45,920 Speaker 1: Perhaps we will have an update on this one at 405 00:25:45,920 --> 00:25:47,120 Speaker 1: some point in the future. 406 00:25:47,800 --> 00:26:00,560 Speaker 2: For now, we'll have a quick sponsor break. A lot 407 00:26:00,600 --> 00:26:03,640 Speaker 2: of discoveries in the last few months have all been 408 00:26:03,680 --> 00:26:08,159 Speaker 2: described as the first or oldest known, and so we 409 00:26:08,240 --> 00:26:09,960 Speaker 2: are going to talk about a few of them. 410 00:26:10,359 --> 00:26:10,760 Speaker 1: First. 411 00:26:10,880 --> 00:26:15,640 Speaker 2: The oldest known arrow poison in the world has been 412 00:26:15,640 --> 00:26:19,840 Speaker 2: found on a sixty thousand year old quartz arrowhead from 413 00:26:19,920 --> 00:26:24,679 Speaker 2: a rock shelter in South Africa. This poison is plant based. 414 00:26:24,840 --> 00:26:29,360 Speaker 2: It's from a plant known as boophany dishcha or gift bow. 415 00:26:30,200 --> 00:26:32,720 Speaker 2: This plant still grows in the region. It is also 416 00:26:32,840 --> 00:26:37,879 Speaker 2: nicknamed the bushman's poison bulb. It is a flowering plant 417 00:26:37,960 --> 00:26:41,880 Speaker 2: with narrow leaves that form a fan like shape. 418 00:26:41,920 --> 00:26:45,439 Speaker 1: This research has been a joint project involving scientists from 419 00:26:45,480 --> 00:26:49,960 Speaker 1: both South Africa and Sweden. It's the oldest direct evidence 420 00:26:50,080 --> 00:26:52,960 Speaker 1: of the use of aerow poison and it also provides 421 00:26:53,000 --> 00:26:56,320 Speaker 1: evidence that bows and arrows were being used in Southern 422 00:26:56,359 --> 00:27:01,359 Speaker 1: Africa much longer ago than was previously thought. Similar poisons 423 00:27:01,359 --> 00:27:03,760 Speaker 1: have also been found on two hundred and fifty year 424 00:27:03,800 --> 00:27:06,840 Speaker 1: old arrows that were in Swedish collections. Those had been 425 00:27:06,880 --> 00:27:09,640 Speaker 1: purchased by Swedish travelers to South Africa. 426 00:27:10,800 --> 00:27:14,280 Speaker 2: Next, research in the journal Science Advances has reported on 427 00:27:14,359 --> 00:27:19,439 Speaker 2: the oldest known intentional cremation in Africa. This is a 428 00:27:19,520 --> 00:27:22,840 Speaker 2: pyre that was built about nine thou five hundred years 429 00:27:22,880 --> 00:27:26,080 Speaker 2: ago at the base of Mount Hora and what's now Malawi, 430 00:27:26,680 --> 00:27:28,679 Speaker 2: and it was used to cremate the body of a 431 00:27:28,720 --> 00:27:32,840 Speaker 2: woman before that body had started to decompose. There is 432 00:27:33,200 --> 00:27:37,320 Speaker 2: evidence of burned bodies from much farther back in the 433 00:27:37,440 --> 00:27:41,720 Speaker 2: archaeological record up to forty thousand years ago. But not 434 00:27:42,040 --> 00:27:47,399 Speaker 2: of intentionally built pires. This is also one of only 435 00:27:47,440 --> 00:27:50,600 Speaker 2: a very few known pires that would have been associated 436 00:27:50,840 --> 00:27:55,520 Speaker 2: with a hunter gatherer culture. Cremation practices continue to be 437 00:27:55,640 --> 00:27:59,760 Speaker 2: rare among most hunter gatherer cultures today because creating a 438 00:27:59,760 --> 00:28:03,640 Speaker 2: fewuneral pyre requires a lot of labor, time, and fuel. 439 00:28:04,640 --> 00:28:09,200 Speaker 2: This specific pire probably required about thirty kilograms of deadwood 440 00:28:09,280 --> 00:28:13,520 Speaker 2: and grass. Analysis of the ash sediments and bone fragments 441 00:28:13,800 --> 00:28:17,639 Speaker 2: also suggests that someone tended to the fire, disturbing it 442 00:28:17,760 --> 00:28:22,280 Speaker 2: and adding more fuel over time. Next, researchers working on 443 00:28:22,359 --> 00:28:26,280 Speaker 2: the island of Sulusi and Indonesia believe they have found 444 00:28:26,359 --> 00:28:30,679 Speaker 2: the oldest known rock art in the world. The cave 445 00:28:30,880 --> 00:28:33,359 Speaker 2: is on the island of Muna, which is a satellite 446 00:28:33,359 --> 00:28:36,480 Speaker 2: island on the southern edge of Sulusi, and there's a 447 00:28:36,640 --> 00:28:41,480 Speaker 2: fragmentary hand stencil that is at least sixty seven thousand, 448 00:28:41,680 --> 00:28:46,520 Speaker 2: eight hundred years old. The partial stencil was modified to 449 00:28:46,600 --> 00:28:48,959 Speaker 2: make it look kind of like a claw, and it 450 00:28:49,000 --> 00:28:53,680 Speaker 2: is surrounded by more recent artwork. This island has come 451 00:28:53,760 --> 00:28:57,560 Speaker 2: up on Unearthed before, including in twenty twenty four when 452 00:28:57,600 --> 00:29:01,680 Speaker 2: the same researchers found a painting of three people surrounding 453 00:29:01,760 --> 00:29:06,160 Speaker 2: a pig. That painting was an estimated fifty one thousand 454 00:29:06,280 --> 00:29:09,400 Speaker 2: years old and was believed to be the oldest figurative 455 00:29:09,520 --> 00:29:13,080 Speaker 2: art in the world when it was discovered. This suggests 456 00:29:13,080 --> 00:29:15,360 Speaker 2: that the people who were living on the island tens 457 00:29:15,400 --> 00:29:18,680 Speaker 2: of thousands of years ago had an artistically rich culture. 458 00:29:19,600 --> 00:29:23,040 Speaker 2: Archaeologists have re examined a copper alloy object that was 459 00:29:23,080 --> 00:29:25,920 Speaker 2: found in Egypt in the nineteen twenties, which at the 460 00:29:26,040 --> 00:29:30,440 Speaker 2: time was described as an all new research suggests that 461 00:29:30,480 --> 00:29:34,080 Speaker 2: it is really Egypt's oldest rotary drill, dating back to 462 00:29:34,120 --> 00:29:38,680 Speaker 2: the fourth millennium BCE. This conclusion comes from examining the 463 00:29:38,720 --> 00:29:42,520 Speaker 2: object under magnification, which revealed that it was used with 464 00:29:42,600 --> 00:29:46,719 Speaker 2: a rotary motion rather than to just punch through things. 465 00:29:47,640 --> 00:29:50,560 Speaker 1: That earlier description of the drill also noted that it 466 00:29:50,640 --> 00:29:55,440 Speaker 1: was attached to some leather thong. These researchers have concluded 467 00:29:55,440 --> 00:29:58,000 Speaker 1: that this leather thong was part of a bowstring that 468 00:29:58,120 --> 00:30:01,360 Speaker 1: was used to power the drill. All of this suggests 469 00:30:01,360 --> 00:30:04,040 Speaker 1: that people in Egypt were using these types of drills 470 00:30:04,200 --> 00:30:09,120 Speaker 1: much earlier than was previously thought. Next, elk hyde from 471 00:30:09,160 --> 00:30:12,120 Speaker 1: a cave in Oregon sown with a strip of cord, 472 00:30:12,320 --> 00:30:17,960 Speaker 1: maybe the world's oldest soone material. This find dates back 473 00:30:18,000 --> 00:30:21,400 Speaker 1: about twelve thousand years and other items found in the 474 00:30:21,440 --> 00:30:25,800 Speaker 1: cave include fiber cordage, pieces of hide, and bone needles. 475 00:30:26,600 --> 00:30:28,840 Speaker 1: There were also some components that were used to make 476 00:30:28,920 --> 00:30:33,120 Speaker 1: wooden traps and some projectile points. It's not clear what 477 00:30:33,200 --> 00:30:35,760 Speaker 1: the son el kyde was used for, but it could 478 00:30:35,800 --> 00:30:38,680 Speaker 1: have been clothing or maybe some type of a bag. 479 00:30:39,600 --> 00:30:43,040 Speaker 1: There have been some complexities to the study of these objects. 480 00:30:43,640 --> 00:30:46,920 Speaker 1: Cougar Mountain Cave where they were found, was excavated by 481 00:30:46,960 --> 00:30:50,520 Speaker 1: an amateur archaeologist who self published a book on his 482 00:30:50,600 --> 00:30:54,760 Speaker 1: findings in nineteen fifty eight. When he died about forty 483 00:30:54,840 --> 00:30:58,520 Speaker 1: years ago. The excavated objects were then transferred to a museum. 484 00:30:59,320 --> 00:31:02,200 Speaker 1: The authors of the paper in the journal Science Advances 485 00:31:02,360 --> 00:31:07,120 Speaker 1: describe his provenance reporting as incomplete, so they had to 486 00:31:07,160 --> 00:31:09,920 Speaker 1: sample nearly all of the fiber and wooden items in 487 00:31:09,960 --> 00:31:15,400 Speaker 1: the collection for radiocarbon dating. Research published in the Proceedings 488 00:31:15,400 --> 00:31:19,320 Speaker 1: of the National Academy of Sciences has described the earliest. 489 00:31:18,960 --> 00:31:22,840 Speaker 2: Known hand held wooden tools. One is a piece of 490 00:31:22,960 --> 00:31:25,960 Speaker 2: alder trunk that was probably used as a digging tool 491 00:31:26,160 --> 00:31:28,360 Speaker 2: and The other is a very small piece of wood 492 00:31:28,400 --> 00:31:31,680 Speaker 2: that might have been used to make other tools from stone, 493 00:31:32,120 --> 00:31:35,600 Speaker 2: sort of something that helped shape the stone. These were 494 00:31:35,600 --> 00:31:38,760 Speaker 2: found at a site in Greece that also included butchered 495 00:31:38,880 --> 00:31:43,080 Speaker 2: elephant remains, and there are approximately four hundred thirty thousand 496 00:31:43,240 --> 00:31:47,480 Speaker 2: years old. That is about forty thousand years older than 497 00:31:47,480 --> 00:31:52,520 Speaker 2: the previous oldest handheld wooden tools. A fragment of bone 498 00:31:52,560 --> 00:31:55,280 Speaker 2: discovered in southern England back in the nineteen nineties is 499 00:31:55,320 --> 00:31:59,200 Speaker 2: now believed to be Europe's earliest known elephant bone tool. 500 00:32:00,120 --> 00:32:03,480 Speaker 2: It dates back roughly five hundred thousand years and it's 501 00:32:03,560 --> 00:32:07,560 Speaker 2: roughly triangular in shape. It wasn't until it was examined 502 00:32:07,600 --> 00:32:10,880 Speaker 2: with recent three D scanning technologies that people were able 503 00:32:10,880 --> 00:32:14,440 Speaker 2: to see marks that showed that it had been intentionally shaped. 504 00:32:15,040 --> 00:32:17,440 Speaker 1: It was most likely used as a hammer. 505 00:32:18,560 --> 00:32:22,640 Speaker 2: There are much older elephant bone tools from other parts 506 00:32:22,680 --> 00:32:26,120 Speaker 2: of the world. The oldest known anywhere in the world 507 00:32:26,240 --> 00:32:28,960 Speaker 2: was found in Tanzania and is about one point five 508 00:32:29,080 --> 00:32:32,560 Speaker 2: million years old. This is the oldest in Europe. Part 509 00:32:32,600 --> 00:32:35,480 Speaker 2: of this has to do with the time it took 510 00:32:35,560 --> 00:32:41,080 Speaker 2: for humanity to migrate beyond Africa into these parts of Europe. 511 00:32:41,160 --> 00:32:45,360 Speaker 1: A single find in Anatolia is two oldest things. It's 512 00:32:45,400 --> 00:32:50,800 Speaker 1: Anatolia's oldest indigo dyed textile and the oldest use of 513 00:32:50,960 --> 00:32:55,040 Speaker 1: nal bending or single needle knitting. This piece dates back 514 00:32:55,040 --> 00:32:59,480 Speaker 1: to between nineteen fifteen and seventeen forty five BCE, and 515 00:32:59,520 --> 00:33:02,240 Speaker 1: it is not just the oldest but also the only 516 00:33:02,440 --> 00:33:05,800 Speaker 1: example of now bending or now binding, depending on how 517 00:33:05,840 --> 00:33:09,239 Speaker 1: you like it, that's ever found in the region. It 518 00:33:09,280 --> 00:33:11,360 Speaker 1: was found in a space that looks like it was 519 00:33:11,400 --> 00:33:15,560 Speaker 1: a weaving workshop. There were also spindle whirls, loom weights, 520 00:33:15,600 --> 00:33:20,120 Speaker 1: and needles there. The presence of sophisticated textiles and the 521 00:33:20,240 --> 00:33:23,400 Speaker 1: use of the color blue suggests that this workshop was 522 00:33:23,440 --> 00:33:27,400 Speaker 1: making luxury textiles for the very wealthy and our. 523 00:33:27,360 --> 00:33:33,200 Speaker 2: Last oldest thing. An archivist at the Woods Whole Oceanographic Institution, 524 00:33:34,080 --> 00:33:38,000 Speaker 2: which I learned while working on this people pronounce as Whoey, 525 00:33:38,800 --> 00:33:41,600 Speaker 2: may have found the world's oldest recording of a whale song. 526 00:33:42,040 --> 00:33:46,760 Speaker 2: Back in nineteen forty nine, Hui researchers used a gray autograph, 527 00:33:46,960 --> 00:33:51,960 Speaker 2: which was usually used for taking dictation, to record underwater 528 00:33:52,120 --> 00:33:55,400 Speaker 2: sounds in the ocean near Bermuda. At the time, they 529 00:33:55,440 --> 00:33:58,040 Speaker 2: really didn't know what they were hearing on these recordings, 530 00:33:58,080 --> 00:34:01,640 Speaker 2: and so they ultimately ended up just mark as fish noises. 531 00:34:02,480 --> 00:34:06,560 Speaker 2: Archivist Ashley Jester was digitizing these fish noises back in 532 00:34:06,600 --> 00:34:10,279 Speaker 2: twenty twenty five and recognized the whale song. It has 533 00:34:10,360 --> 00:34:15,000 Speaker 2: now been identified as coming from a humpback whale. This 534 00:34:15,120 --> 00:34:18,640 Speaker 2: recording was made on March seventh, nineteen forty nine, and 535 00:34:18,760 --> 00:34:21,279 Speaker 2: lucky you, you can listen to it on who He's 536 00:34:21,360 --> 00:34:25,960 Speaker 2: YouTube channel. To close out part one of this installment 537 00:34:26,040 --> 00:34:30,880 Speaker 2: of on Earth, we have three fines related to smells. 538 00:34:31,120 --> 00:34:33,719 Speaker 2: Some of them are also kind of updates, so it's 539 00:34:33,760 --> 00:34:36,040 Speaker 2: like we're circling back to the start of the episode. 540 00:34:36,560 --> 00:34:39,279 Speaker 2: A year ago, we talked about research that focused on 541 00:34:39,360 --> 00:34:43,000 Speaker 2: the smells of Egyptian mummies which had the potential to 542 00:34:43,160 --> 00:34:47,880 Speaker 2: pinpoint substances that had been used in mummification rituals without 543 00:34:47,920 --> 00:34:52,560 Speaker 2: doing invasive testing on the mummies. This work that we 544 00:34:52,600 --> 00:34:56,800 Speaker 2: talked about earlier involved both chemical analysis and a panel 545 00:34:56,880 --> 00:35:00,440 Speaker 2: of human beings who smelled the mummies in In March, 546 00:35:00,560 --> 00:35:03,959 Speaker 2: a new paper was published in the Journal of Archaeological 547 00:35:04,040 --> 00:35:07,759 Speaker 2: Science that was based on this same basic idea of 548 00:35:07,880 --> 00:35:12,600 Speaker 2: mummy smells. It analyzed volatile organic compounds that were being 549 00:35:12,680 --> 00:35:16,800 Speaker 2: given off by mummies, including ones associated with particular smells. 550 00:35:17,239 --> 00:35:20,719 Speaker 2: To work out the ingredients in the balms that these 551 00:35:20,880 --> 00:35:22,720 Speaker 2: mummies were mommified with. 552 00:35:23,520 --> 00:35:27,640 Speaker 1: Researchers used a pair of techniques to do this. Using 553 00:35:27,800 --> 00:35:32,480 Speaker 1: headspace solid phase micro extraction, they captured volatile gases from 554 00:35:32,520 --> 00:35:36,560 Speaker 1: the air around the mummies. Then they created profiles of 555 00:35:36,600 --> 00:35:41,000 Speaker 1: the organic compounds involved through a process called gas chromatography 556 00:35:41,040 --> 00:35:45,360 Speaker 1: slash quadruple time of light mass spectrometry. Don't ask me 557 00:35:45,400 --> 00:35:47,960 Speaker 1: to tell you what that is, but they conducted these 558 00:35:48,000 --> 00:35:51,520 Speaker 1: tests on thirty five samples from nineteen different mummies. 559 00:35:52,480 --> 00:35:54,719 Speaker 2: One of the press releases that I read about this 560 00:35:55,040 --> 00:35:59,160 Speaker 2: only had acronyms, and so I was like, what is 561 00:35:59,239 --> 00:36:04,440 Speaker 2: that stamp for? Though, the ingredients that they identified using 562 00:36:04,480 --> 00:36:08,320 Speaker 2: these techniques fell into four main groups, fats and oils, 563 00:36:08,600 --> 00:36:13,799 Speaker 2: bees wax, plant resins, and bitumen. These ingredients appeared in 564 00:36:13,880 --> 00:36:18,719 Speaker 2: different proportions that changed over time. For example, later recipes 565 00:36:18,800 --> 00:36:21,600 Speaker 2: tended to be more complex, and they tended to have 566 00:36:21,680 --> 00:36:25,799 Speaker 2: more resins in bitumen, which would have been more expensive 567 00:36:26,040 --> 00:36:30,719 Speaker 2: ingredients than the fats and oils or the beeswax. Sometimes 568 00:36:30,800 --> 00:36:34,120 Speaker 2: different recipes were also used to modify different parts of 569 00:36:34,160 --> 00:36:36,000 Speaker 2: the same body at. 570 00:36:36,040 --> 00:36:39,720 Speaker 1: Least you a lay person's ear. The chemical analysis involved 571 00:36:39,719 --> 00:36:42,360 Speaker 1: with this sounds a bit more complex than what we 572 00:36:42,440 --> 00:36:45,200 Speaker 1: talked about last year, but it was still described as 573 00:36:45,239 --> 00:36:49,799 Speaker 1: suitable for initial work. Further study on these mummies could 574 00:36:49,800 --> 00:36:54,880 Speaker 1: still require the use of physical samples for analysis. Museums 575 00:36:54,920 --> 00:36:59,800 Speaker 1: have also started using chemistry to recreate sense from history. 576 00:37:00,480 --> 00:37:03,040 Speaker 1: In twenty twenty three, we talked about the recreation of 577 00:37:03,120 --> 00:37:07,160 Speaker 1: sense from the mummification process. Popular thing to be working 578 00:37:07,200 --> 00:37:10,160 Speaker 1: with smells u and that was planned for use in 579 00:37:10,200 --> 00:37:14,240 Speaker 1: an exhibition at the Mozguard Museum in Denmark. That planned 580 00:37:14,320 --> 00:37:17,959 Speaker 1: project did happen. The scent was ultimately called the Scent 581 00:37:18,200 --> 00:37:21,560 Speaker 1: of the Afterlife and museum visitors were able to experience 582 00:37:21,600 --> 00:37:25,960 Speaker 1: it through a scent diffusing station. A scented card with 583 00:37:26,040 --> 00:37:28,920 Speaker 1: the same scent was also used as part of visitor 584 00:37:29,000 --> 00:37:33,719 Speaker 1: tours a museum. Auguste Kessner and Hanover. And lastly, we're 585 00:37:33,719 --> 00:37:36,840 Speaker 1: going back to POMPEII in something else that could have 586 00:37:36,840 --> 00:37:40,400 Speaker 1: gone in the updates section. Research published in the journal 587 00:37:40,400 --> 00:37:44,239 Speaker 1: Antiquity has examined what incense used in Pompeii was made 588 00:37:44,320 --> 00:37:48,160 Speaker 1: of a lot of incense burners had been unearthed at Pompeii, 589 00:37:48,160 --> 00:37:52,120 Speaker 1: but most of them don't still have ash residues associated 590 00:37:52,160 --> 00:37:53,440 Speaker 1: with the burning of incense. 591 00:37:54,560 --> 00:37:56,879 Speaker 2: That's not the case with the two burners that were 592 00:37:56,920 --> 00:38:00,239 Speaker 2: part of this study, one of which is described as 593 00:38:00,280 --> 00:38:04,880 Speaker 2: a cup it looks sort of like a goblet. The 594 00:38:04,960 --> 00:38:09,200 Speaker 2: other is described as a hemispherical bowl decorated with three 595 00:38:09,280 --> 00:38:13,359 Speaker 2: human figures around the rim. The team took tiny samples 596 00:38:13,400 --> 00:38:16,720 Speaker 2: of the ash from each of these sensors. The cup 597 00:38:16,800 --> 00:38:20,680 Speaker 2: contained charred bits of woody plants like oak and laurel, 598 00:38:20,800 --> 00:38:23,480 Speaker 2: which may have been meant to honor the gods Jupiter 599 00:38:23,520 --> 00:38:28,320 Speaker 2: and Apollo. The bowl contained plants and some material that 600 00:38:28,400 --> 00:38:31,239 Speaker 2: might have come from grapes that was possibly in the 601 00:38:31,239 --> 00:38:35,480 Speaker 2: form of either vinegar or wine. There are some bits 602 00:38:35,520 --> 00:38:38,960 Speaker 2: of material in there also that may have been frankincense, 603 00:38:39,000 --> 00:38:42,640 Speaker 2: which is made of tree sap. This contributes to knowledge 604 00:38:42,640 --> 00:38:47,759 Speaker 2: about religious and ritual practices in Pompeii and about trading networks, 605 00:38:48,200 --> 00:38:51,959 Speaker 2: since some of the aromatic substances would have come from 606 00:38:52,040 --> 00:38:56,080 Speaker 2: Africa or Asia. We are going to talk about more 607 00:38:56,160 --> 00:38:58,960 Speaker 2: stuff next time, but right now, do you want to 608 00:38:58,960 --> 00:38:59,720 Speaker 2: talk about listener? 609 00:38:59,719 --> 00:39:01,680 Speaker 1: May I do I? 610 00:39:01,960 --> 00:39:07,240 Speaker 2: Have a listener mail from Stacy. Stacy wrote, Hi, Holly 611 00:39:07,280 --> 00:39:10,320 Speaker 2: and Tracy, a longtime listener, first time emailer. I wanted 612 00:39:10,320 --> 00:39:12,279 Speaker 2: to thank you both for your work on the podcast. 613 00:39:12,680 --> 00:39:14,879 Speaker 2: It's the one I'm always recommending to people. But I'm 614 00:39:14,920 --> 00:39:18,640 Speaker 2: finally writing to specifically thank you for the recent episode 615 00:39:18,680 --> 00:39:21,239 Speaker 2: on Elizabeth Bisland because it pushed me to get off 616 00:39:21,280 --> 00:39:25,799 Speaker 2: my petuit and finally read the biography of Leftcatioharn that 617 00:39:25,880 --> 00:39:29,080 Speaker 2: I randomly bought in Little Tokyo years ago but have 618 00:39:29,239 --> 00:39:33,759 Speaker 2: left languishing far too long. The book is called The Outsider, 619 00:39:33,880 --> 00:39:37,040 Speaker 2: The Life and Work of Leftkadio Hearn, the man who 620 00:39:37,120 --> 00:39:41,280 Speaker 2: introduced voodoo, creole cooking, and Japanese ghosts to the world. 621 00:39:42,080 --> 00:39:43,719 Speaker 2: I know you too love a long title, so I 622 00:39:43,719 --> 00:39:46,399 Speaker 2: wanted to write it all down. Personally, I think the 623 00:39:46,440 --> 00:39:49,920 Speaker 2: life of Left Coatioharn is indeed interesting enough to merit 624 00:39:49,960 --> 00:39:53,800 Speaker 2: its own episode. But I'm only halfway through the book 625 00:39:53,880 --> 00:39:55,719 Speaker 2: and I had to share some other connections that I 626 00:39:55,719 --> 00:39:59,120 Speaker 2: find interesting. When Hearn was working as a reporter in 627 00:39:59,239 --> 00:40:02,040 Speaker 2: Cincinnati and the eighteen seventies, he covered a couple of 628 00:40:02,600 --> 00:40:06,440 Speaker 2: gruesome murders and guests who helped him out with the 629 00:40:06,480 --> 00:40:13,399 Speaker 2: woodcut illustrations to accompany his stories. Frank Duvenik I recognized 630 00:40:13,400 --> 00:40:15,719 Speaker 2: his name and searched on Lyne to confirm that he 631 00:40:15,840 --> 00:40:19,840 Speaker 2: was indeed the previous podcast subject of further interest to 632 00:40:19,880 --> 00:40:23,000 Speaker 2: me is another connection and my suggestion for a future episode. 633 00:40:23,160 --> 00:40:26,680 Speaker 2: Hearn was apparently a big fan of writer Eta Hoffman, 634 00:40:26,719 --> 00:40:30,719 Speaker 2: who wrote, among other things, the novella from which Chaikowsky 635 00:40:30,840 --> 00:40:34,520 Speaker 2: adapted The Nutcracker. I myself, I am a big fan 636 00:40:34,560 --> 00:40:38,600 Speaker 2: of Canadian writer Robertson Davies, who once made Eta Hoffman 637 00:40:38,680 --> 00:40:41,879 Speaker 2: a character in one of his novels who was stuck 638 00:40:41,920 --> 00:40:44,879 Speaker 2: in limbo having to watch modern day artists adapt one 639 00:40:44,880 --> 00:40:48,239 Speaker 2: of his untapped works into a new opera. Anyway, at 640 00:40:48,239 --> 00:40:51,680 Speaker 2: the time I discovered Robertson Davies, there was no Internet, 641 00:40:51,719 --> 00:40:55,000 Speaker 2: and I assumed Eta Hoffman was a made up character. 642 00:40:55,480 --> 00:40:57,440 Speaker 2: It was only later that I learned he was an 643 00:40:57,520 --> 00:41:01,680 Speaker 2: actual person, a Gothic fantasy and horror author who lived 644 00:41:01,719 --> 00:41:03,600 Speaker 2: in the eighteenth century. As far as I can tell, 645 00:41:03,640 --> 00:41:08,960 Speaker 2: it makes perfect sense that Leftcadio Hearn was a Hoffman fan. Anyway, 646 00:41:09,000 --> 00:41:11,279 Speaker 2: I was tickled by these connections and wanted to thank 647 00:41:11,320 --> 00:41:13,640 Speaker 2: you for giving me the incentive I needed to actually 648 00:41:13,680 --> 00:41:17,080 Speaker 2: pick up the loft Coatio, hearn biography and began reading. 649 00:41:17,120 --> 00:41:19,719 Speaker 2: I was delighted when I heard him mentioned in the 650 00:41:19,800 --> 00:41:23,360 Speaker 2: Elizabeth Bisland episode and got to experience the most fleeting 651 00:41:23,400 --> 00:41:26,840 Speaker 2: of human emotions, the brief false impression that I was 652 00:41:26,880 --> 00:41:30,480 Speaker 2: a smarty pants for having heard of Lofcadio heard previously. 653 00:41:31,640 --> 00:41:33,719 Speaker 2: Thank you for the work you do for my pet 654 00:41:33,760 --> 00:41:37,360 Speaker 2: tax I am including picks of our kitties, Billy Bones, 655 00:41:37,600 --> 00:41:41,560 Speaker 2: sweet black Kitty, Moxie, the one by the knitted frog dissection, 656 00:41:41,760 --> 00:41:45,839 Speaker 2: and Leah, our three legged wonder kitty appropriately sitting on 657 00:41:45,920 --> 00:41:49,040 Speaker 2: the Millennium falcon rug. Thank you again and keep up 658 00:41:49,040 --> 00:41:53,719 Speaker 2: the good work. Thank you Stacy for this great email 659 00:41:54,680 --> 00:41:59,840 Speaker 2: and for great cat pictures. I always love pictures of 660 00:42:00,120 --> 00:42:04,719 Speaker 2: black kitties. They are great. This last one looks a 661 00:42:04,760 --> 00:42:09,720 Speaker 2: little sleepy and the knitted uh the knitted dissected frog 662 00:42:09,960 --> 00:42:12,200 Speaker 2: is also very fun in the background of one of 663 00:42:12,239 --> 00:42:17,040 Speaker 2: the pictures. Thank you again, Stacy for this. I am 664 00:42:17,080 --> 00:42:21,320 Speaker 2: delighted that you got to feed this biography. Eta Hoffman 665 00:42:21,440 --> 00:42:23,759 Speaker 2: came up in our episode on the Nutcracker, and I 666 00:42:24,080 --> 00:42:28,720 Speaker 2: don't remember if I really learned much about him, aside 667 00:42:28,719 --> 00:42:31,120 Speaker 2: from the fact that he had written that novella. Now 668 00:42:31,120 --> 00:42:34,319 Speaker 2: I'm more curious. So if you would like to send 669 00:42:34,400 --> 00:42:37,960 Speaker 2: us a note, we're at History Podcasts at iHeartRadio dot com. 670 00:42:38,480 --> 00:42:40,360 Speaker 2: And if you would like to see our show notes 671 00:42:40,400 --> 00:42:45,400 Speaker 2: that includes an innumerable number of articles for our episode 672 00:42:45,440 --> 00:42:50,040 Speaker 2: of on Earth, that is at our website missinhistory dot com, 673 00:42:50,120 --> 00:42:52,400 Speaker 2: and you can subscribe to the show on the iHeartRadio 674 00:42:52,440 --> 00:42:56,239 Speaker 2: app and anywhere else you'd like to get your podcasts. 675 00:43:00,160 --> 00:43:03,240 Speaker 2: Stuff you Missed in History Class is a production of iHeartRadio. 676 00:43:03,600 --> 00:43:08,200 Speaker 2: For more podcasts from iHeartRadio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, 677 00:43:08,320 --> 00:43:12,200 Speaker 2: or wherever you listen to your favorite shows.