WEBVTT - Frankenvirus

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<v Speaker 1>School of Humans. Let's go back to the spike protein.

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<v Speaker 1>Remember Jason McClellan, the guy at the University of Texas

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<v Speaker 1>who told us about the spike protein in episode four.

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<v Speaker 1>It's the mushroom stock shaped thing on coronavirus cells. Based

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<v Speaker 1>on decades of literature many researchers, it was clear that

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<v Speaker 1>the spike protein is a key component of any vaccine

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<v Speaker 1>because Jason explained how the spike protein is, how the

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<v Speaker 1>coronavirus attaches itself to human cells and infects us with

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<v Speaker 1>the virus, and why we need to teach the immune

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<v Speaker 1>system to recognize it. And that's how the Maderna Adviser

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<v Speaker 1>and Johnson and Johnson vaccines work. All the vaccines Americans

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<v Speaker 1>are getting, but there are some big problems with those vaccines.

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<v Speaker 1>Not in their function. They work incredibly well and protecting

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<v Speaker 1>us from COVID, but they're expensive. Expensive because they're made

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<v Speaker 1>by giant pharmaceutical companies designed to make money. Expensive because

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<v Speaker 1>they require relatively hard to get ingredients that have to

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<v Speaker 1>be put together, and specialized factories with specialized equipment. And

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<v Speaker 1>expensive is fine for America. It's kind of okay that

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<v Speaker 1>these pharma companies make lots of money for providing an

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<v Speaker 1>invaluable service, and the government is subsidizing the COVID vaccines anyway.

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<v Speaker 1>It's that they're free of charge, but expensive doesn't work

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<v Speaker 1>for a lot of the world. Expensive means poorer countries

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<v Speaker 1>can't get doses because they're outbid or have no money

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<v Speaker 1>to bid with. And if we're not protected, unless everyone

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<v Speaker 1>is protected, that doesn't stop at the border. It means

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<v Speaker 1>the whole world has to be vaccinated, not just the

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<v Speaker 1>whole country. But right now that's not happening. I mean,

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<v Speaker 1>as of this recording, only two percent of people in

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<v Speaker 1>low income countries have gotten even a single dose of

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<v Speaker 1>coronavirus vaccine two percent. And so a bunch of people,

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<v Speaker 1>including Jason McClellan and its mother, top notch scientists got

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<v Speaker 1>together and they created a cheaper COVID nineteen vaccine. In

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<v Speaker 1>this episode, we're going to tell the story of how

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<v Speaker 1>they did that. From School of Humans and iHeartRadio, I'm

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<v Speaker 1>Sean Revive and this is long shot. Okay, hold on

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<v Speaker 1>one second, sure, thank you. Yeah. This is Peter Palais.

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<v Speaker 1>He's a microbiologist and professor and share of the Department

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<v Speaker 1>of Microbiology at the Icon School of medicine and mount Sine.

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<v Speaker 1>Just sorry, wind bottling the back. You know that's not

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<v Speaker 1>the best of here. Okay, this is what he does

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<v Speaker 1>that I have been working for really decades um ourna

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<v Speaker 1>viruses with an emphasis on influence of us is over

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<v Speaker 1>many many years and there I have written an anti

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<v Speaker 1>virals on Vaccines, UM Genetics um the whole gamut. So.

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<v Speaker 1>Peter has been working on RNA viruses and especially flu

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<v Speaker 1>viruses since the nineteen seventies. He created the first genetic

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<v Speaker 1>maps for three of the four types of flu viruses, A, B,

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<v Speaker 1>and C, the three important ones as far as humans

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<v Speaker 1>are concerned. D is mostly a cattle virus. Peter is

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<v Speaker 1>also a pioneer in the field of reverse genetics. He

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<v Speaker 1>said technology allows you to make changes in the genome

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<v Speaker 1>of the virus. Reverse genetics allows you to make particular

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<v Speaker 1>changes in a virus to sort of pick and choose

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<v Speaker 1>which genes you want to include or exclude. Reverse genetics

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<v Speaker 1>allows researchers to look at a gene, a basic unit

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<v Speaker 1>of DNA or RNA, the thing that passes traits from

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<v Speaker 1>your parents to you, and discover what it does, what

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<v Speaker 1>its purposes, and using reverse genetics Peter was part of

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<v Speaker 1>a team that actually brought the nineteen eighteen Spanish flu

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<v Speaker 1>back to life, the one that killed maybe fifty million

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<v Speaker 1>people three percent of the world back then, and they

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<v Speaker 1>did this for science. Peter and a bunch of other

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<v Speaker 1>scientists were able to frankenstein the Spanish flu. It started

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<v Speaker 1>with a Swedish microbiologist named Johann Houlton. In nineteen fifty one.

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<v Speaker 1>He traveled to Alaska to a tiny village called Brevig

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<v Speaker 1>Mission to find a mass grave of Spanish flu victims.

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<v Speaker 1>In nineteen eighteen, Brevig Mission had only eighty people living there,

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<v Speaker 1>and seventy two of them died over a five day

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<v Speaker 1>period from the flu. The bodies were buried in permafrost

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<v Speaker 1>and marked with white crosses. Holton believes he could find

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<v Speaker 1>traces of the virus in the bodies. He got permission

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<v Speaker 1>from village elders to unfreeze the grave with campfires and

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<v Speaker 1>unearthed several bodies. He took lung tissue from a few

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<v Speaker 1>of the dead, including that of a young girl still

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<v Speaker 1>wearing a blue dress and red hair ribbons. After all

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<v Speaker 1>these years, he tried to preserve the samples during travel

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<v Speaker 1>all the way back to his lab at the University

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<v Speaker 1>of Iowa, but when he got there, he couldn't extract

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<v Speaker 1>any virus from the tissue samples. Half a century later,

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<v Speaker 1>he would get another chance. In nineteen ninety seven, he

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<v Speaker 1>read about the work of a team at the Armed

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<v Speaker 1>Forces Institute of Pathology in DC. They had extracted RNA

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<v Speaker 1>from the nineteen eighteen virus from the preserved lung tissue

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<v Speaker 1>of a US service member, but the sample didn't contain

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<v Speaker 1>enough virus to collect a full genetic sequence. Holton reached

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<v Speaker 1>out to the team and offered to go back to

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<v Speaker 1>the Alaskan village he'd gone to forty six years earlier

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<v Speaker 1>and find more samples. He did, and this time he

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<v Speaker 1>was able to successfully preserve the lung tissue on the

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<v Speaker 1>way back from brevig mission using the samples Holton collected,

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<v Speaker 1>along with samples from two long dead US soldiers, the

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<v Speaker 1>Armed Forces Institute of Pathology researchers had the nineteen eighteen

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<v Speaker 1>flu fully sequenced a few years later, so they had

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<v Speaker 1>the code to build it, like having a blueprint for

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<v Speaker 1>a house before construction, but the virus still needed to

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<v Speaker 1>be built. That's where Peter Palais came into it. They

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<v Speaker 1>brought in Peter and his colleagues at Mount Sinai to

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<v Speaker 1>create the parts that would be put together in a

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<v Speaker 1>highly secured CDC lab to recreate the nineteen eighteen virus

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<v Speaker 1>using Peter's reverse genetics techniques in two thousand and five,

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<v Speaker 1>working alone during off hours when nobody else was in

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<v Speaker 1>the lab to be extra safe in case of contamination,

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<v Speaker 1>microbiologist Terence Tumpy made the Spanish flu virus unextinct. The

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<v Speaker 1>Franken virus lived. Tumpy then performed experiments on mice comparing

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<v Speaker 1>the lethality of the nineteen eighteen virus to more modern

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<v Speaker 1>day flues. The old flu was found to be at

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<v Speaker 1>least one hundred times more deadly than the other flu

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<v Speaker 1>viruses he tested against. But what if the actual nineteen

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<v Speaker 1>eighteen flu got out of the lab, would we be

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<v Speaker 1>in for more years of quarantine? And why is it

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<v Speaker 1>important to study a virus that hasn't been out there

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<v Speaker 1>in almost one hundred years? What was the goal of that?

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<v Speaker 1>To understand? I mean the first one was it? So

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<v Speaker 1>we have anti virls against influence of ours. These are

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<v Speaker 1>the famous humidities inhibitors, tamiflu Baloques Ofvere et cetera. And

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<v Speaker 1>that was the first thing we want to know. Can

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<v Speaker 1>the available FDA prooved thugs, can the inhibit the virus?

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<v Speaker 1>And we were thank the Lord. We were very happy

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<v Speaker 1>to see right away that these virus has behaved like

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<v Speaker 1>any other influence of ours. Also, we learned that it

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<v Speaker 1>is inhibitable by anti virus, It is not resisting to vaccines.

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<v Speaker 1>We've learned how it gets transmitted, and we have a

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<v Speaker 1>much better understanding of the nineteen eighteen virus than we

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<v Speaker 1>had before. And I can honestly say, if that virus,

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<v Speaker 1>the nineteen eighteen virus would emerge miraculously, I don't think

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<v Speaker 1>it will, we would be not as helpless as we

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<v Speaker 1>were a hundred years ago. And a lot has to

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<v Speaker 1>do with our understanding now with the whole alimentarium of

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<v Speaker 1>things which would prevent such a pandemic. Again, reverse genetics,

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<v Speaker 1>the field that Peter Palaze helped create, has also proven

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<v Speaker 1>valuable in creating new vaccines. Many vaccines today are developed

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<v Speaker 1>by making genetic changes to a virus so they're less pathogenic,

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<v Speaker 1>less able to make you sick, but the less pathogenic

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<v Speaker 1>virus remains recognizable to the immune system so that it

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<v Speaker 1>can learn to fight off the real virus when it

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<v Speaker 1>enters the body. One type of vaccine that works this

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<v Speaker 1>way is called a viral vector vaccine. These are vaccines

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<v Speaker 1>that use one virus as a delivery method or vector

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<v Speaker 1>to send instructions to the body to fight off another virus.

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<v Speaker 1>The Astrazenica and Johnson and Johnson vaccines are viral vector vaccines.

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<v Speaker 1>The Russian Sputnik vaccine, that has been given emergency authorization

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<v Speaker 1>in more than seventy countries, is also a viral vector vaccine.

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<v Speaker 1>Now Peter has been involved in a new viral vector

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<v Speaker 1>vaccine for COVID nineteen. But before we get there, we

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<v Speaker 1>got to go back to spike proteins and chickens. Let's

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<v Speaker 1>refresh our memory a bit more on the spike protein.

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<v Speaker 1>The way the American vaccines work is by showing the

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<v Speaker 1>immune system stabilize spike proteins, which the body then learns

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<v Speaker 1>to recognize when coronavirus cells enter the body. The way

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<v Speaker 1>the spike proteins and the vaccines are stabilized is by

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<v Speaker 1>swapping out two amino acids for two prolleins. Really stable

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<v Speaker 1>amino acids at a specific joint. That's called the two

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<v Speaker 1>P mutation. The P is for prolins. That's what the

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<v Speaker 1>vaccines use to teach the body to protect against coronavirus.

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<v Speaker 1>And after figuring this out, Jason McClellan at UT didn't

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<v Speaker 1>stop there, and in March twenty twenty one, with lots

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<v Speaker 1>of trial and error in the lab, he and his

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<v Speaker 1>p pole came up with an even better way of

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<v Speaker 1>stabilizing the spike protein. It's not that different from the

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<v Speaker 1>two P mutation, but this one involves using six pro

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<v Speaker 1>lieins to stabilize the spike. In this case, using six

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<v Speaker 1>is better than two. They name the stabilized spike protein

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<v Speaker 1>hexapro because of the six prolleins. Hexa means six. Jason's

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<v Speaker 1>hope was that hexapro could be the basis for the

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<v Speaker 1>next generation of COVID vaccines, and the University of Texas

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<v Speaker 1>arranged it so that hexapro could be used royalty free

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<v Speaker 1>by low and middle income countries. That means these countries

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<v Speaker 1>can theoretically make vaccines cheaply, but first they needed an

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<v Speaker 1>inexpensive way to get the super stabilized protein into the body.

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<v Speaker 1>At the same time that Jason McClellan was working on hexapro.

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<v Speaker 1>An organization called PATH was trying to figure out a

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<v Speaker 1>way to deliver more vaccines to poorer countries. Were extremely

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<v Speaker 1>interested in ensuring at countries where health budgets are not

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<v Speaker 1>strong have access to world class vaccines that are life saving,

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<v Speaker 1>on the proposition that everyone deserves to have access to

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<v Speaker 1>life saving vaccines. That's doctor Bruce Innes. He's a physician

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<v Speaker 1>and he's been working on vaccines for almost forty years,

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<v Speaker 1>tons of them against human papaloma virus, against rotavirus, gastroenteritis,

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<v Speaker 1>various cella vaccine, combination, measles, MOBSTERB varius cella vaccine, influenza viruses,

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<v Speaker 1>human papaloma virus. Bruce has been a PATH for five years.

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<v Speaker 1>The organization is based in Seattle and aims to improve

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<v Speaker 1>public health in lower income countries through innovation and partnerships.

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<v Speaker 1>At PATH, Bruce has worked on vaccines against RSV, meningitis, pneumonia, flu,

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<v Speaker 1>and now COVID. We realize that with COVID nineteen, even

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<v Speaker 1>early in the PATH demic, that no one would be

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<v Speaker 1>safe until everyone was safe, and that's why it was

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<v Speaker 1>important for us to think about in showing that all

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<v Speaker 1>countries would have access equitable access to covid vaccines. This

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<v Speaker 1>is where chickens come back into it. Remember an episode

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<v Speaker 1>three when we heard from the King of all vaccine inventors,

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<v Speaker 1>Maurice Hilliman. He grew up raising chickens on the family

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<v Speaker 1>farm and talked about how important they were to his

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<v Speaker 1>work in the lab years later and my career, chickens

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<v Speaker 1>were my best friend because I used them for so

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<v Speaker 1>many types of experimentation, and then we're breakthrough experiments. A

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<v Speaker 1>lot of vaccines are grown in chicken eggs, including lots

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<v Speaker 1>of the vaccines invented by Hilliman. Bruce and Path had

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<v Speaker 1>worked in the past with some middle income countries to

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<v Speaker 1>improve their capacity to produce egg based flu vaccines. An

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<v Speaker 1>egg based vaccine is literally one where the primary ingredient

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<v Speaker 1>the virus to be expressed, is grown and chicken eggs.

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<v Speaker 1>That's the most common way to make the flu vaccines

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<v Speaker 1>you get or can get every winter. They are really

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<v Speaker 1>inexpensive to make, and if you can make a covid

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<v Speaker 1>vaccine the same way, then you can theoretically just convert

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<v Speaker 1>a flu vaccine factory into a covid vaccine factory, and

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<v Speaker 1>we asked Mount Sinai. That is, they asked Peter Plais

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<v Speaker 1>and his colleagues at Mount Sinai if there was a

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<v Speaker 1>way to make a covid vaccine using a virus that

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<v Speaker 1>would replicate in eggs. They said, yes, We've done this

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<v Speaker 1>before with an avian virus called Newcastle disease virus virulent.

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<v Speaker 1>Newcastle disease or simply Newcastle disease, is an avian disease,

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<v Speaker 1>a bird flu. In other words, it can infect humans,

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<v Speaker 1>but rarely produce the symptoms in people. The disease is

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<v Speaker 1>caused by the appropriately named Newcastle disease virus, and it

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<v Speaker 1>spreads from bird to bird through their poop and other

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<v Speaker 1>bodily secretions. It's a big problem for commercial chicken factories

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<v Speaker 1>that squeeze a lot of chickens into densely packed spaces

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<v Speaker 1>amorally in my opinion, but that's neither here nor there.

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<v Speaker 1>Newcastle disease can spread on a factory farm and sicken

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<v Speaker 1>or kill their chickens. So the commercial chicken companies spray

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<v Speaker 1>Newcastle disease vaccines into their factories and vaccinate all the

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<v Speaker 1>chickens at once. Here's Peter to give a somewhat apocalyptic

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<v Speaker 1>visual in these big, big factories, and Newcastle disease virus

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<v Speaker 1>is put in canastus on the back of people and

0:14:39.365 --> 0:14:44.085
<v Speaker 1>they go into these factories. In spray life Newcastle disease virus,

0:14:45.485 --> 0:14:48.725
<v Speaker 1>chickens can also get flu viruses, and the factories didn't

0:14:48.725 --> 0:14:51.125
<v Speaker 1>want them getting that either. So Peter had worked on

0:14:51.165 --> 0:14:53.965
<v Speaker 1>a Newcastle disease vaccine that could also stop chickens from

0:14:54.005 --> 0:14:58.165
<v Speaker 1>getting the flu. Newcastle disease has also been explored as

0:14:58.205 --> 0:15:01.045
<v Speaker 1>a vector for carrying an ebola gene and for carrying

0:15:01.125 --> 0:15:03.965
<v Speaker 1>cancer killing viruses. And so we said, okay, why I

0:15:03.965 --> 0:15:09.205
<v Speaker 1>don't put the a saus coronavirus spike protein into Newcastle

0:15:09.245 --> 0:15:12.525
<v Speaker 1>disease burs And that's what we do at Mount Sinai.

0:15:12.965 --> 0:15:17.005
<v Speaker 1>Peter as colleagues, including Fluorine Cramer and Adolpho Garcia Sastre,

0:15:17.525 --> 0:15:21.285
<v Speaker 1>engineered a Newcastle disease virus that could carry hexapro into humans.

0:15:21.965 --> 0:15:24.885
<v Speaker 1>So the Newcastle disease is the vector for the hexapro

0:15:25.085 --> 0:15:31.925
<v Speaker 1>stabilized spike protein. They call the vaccine NDV HXPS NDV

0:15:32.725 --> 0:15:39.525
<v Speaker 1>Newcastle Disease Virus h XPS hexapro spike instead of using

0:15:39.605 --> 0:15:43.245
<v Speaker 1>super specialized machinery. They're making this vaccine and chicken eggs.

0:15:43.445 --> 0:15:47.125
<v Speaker 1>They've made multiple lots of vaccine, initially at pilot scale,

0:15:47.165 --> 0:15:49.965
<v Speaker 1>which might involve a few thousand eggs, and we're getting

0:15:50.125 --> 0:15:55.165
<v Speaker 1>typically about seven to eight finished vaccine doses per inoculated egg.

0:15:55.245 --> 0:15:57.885
<v Speaker 1>You can think of the egg as a mini bioreactor,

0:15:58.005 --> 0:16:00.965
<v Speaker 1>each one self contained bioreactor. And now they're in the

0:16:01.045 --> 0:16:06.205
<v Speaker 1>process of manufacturing investigational vaccine lots at full commercial scale.

0:16:07.005 --> 0:16:12.525
<v Speaker 1>Clinical trials and humans for NDVHXPS are already underway in Vietnam, Thailand,

0:16:12.645 --> 0:16:16.125
<v Speaker 1>and Brazil. In Vietnam and Thailand they moved on to

0:16:16.245 --> 0:16:19.325
<v Speaker 1>phase two after phase one trials show that the vaccines

0:16:19.325 --> 0:16:23.285
<v Speaker 1>are safe and produce an immune response in people. In Thailand,

0:16:23.645 --> 0:16:26.485
<v Speaker 1>they're also onto phase two and expect to produce twenty

0:16:26.525 --> 0:16:29.365
<v Speaker 1>million or more doses of the vaccine per year starting

0:16:29.445 --> 0:16:32.965
<v Speaker 1>in twenty twenty two. Brazil has entered phase one, and

0:16:33.045 --> 0:16:36.485
<v Speaker 1>if all three country trials proved successful, they can produce

0:16:36.605 --> 0:16:40.605
<v Speaker 1>vaccines fairly quickly since they already have functioning flu vaccine

0:16:40.645 --> 0:16:44.565
<v Speaker 1>production facilities. I can't tell you our quick clin Nicola

0:16:44.725 --> 0:16:48.565
<v Speaker 1>and animal challenge experience, how compelling. I can't take I

0:16:48.685 --> 0:16:51.805
<v Speaker 1>can't protect every mouse and every hamstand the world against

0:16:51.845 --> 0:16:57.205
<v Speaker 1>any sauces. It works beautifully in the animal systems we had.

0:16:57.685 --> 0:17:00.805
<v Speaker 1>Based on the animal studies, you can feel like it's

0:17:00.845 --> 0:17:05.005
<v Speaker 1>a really very good sign, no doubt, no doubt. So

0:17:05.165 --> 0:17:08.325
<v Speaker 1>Pete is very confident that the Hexa pro Newcastle hybrid

0:17:08.445 --> 0:17:12.365
<v Speaker 1>vaccine will work well in people, and let's hope that

0:17:12.445 --> 0:17:15.205
<v Speaker 1>it does. Not only is it really cheap and easy

0:17:15.285 --> 0:17:18.685
<v Speaker 1>to produce, there's another benefit to this vaccine. One of

0:17:18.725 --> 0:17:21.285
<v Speaker 1>the reasons if fives are in well, the end of

0:17:21.365 --> 0:17:23.765
<v Speaker 1>vaccine also expensive. You know what. One of the reasons

0:17:23.885 --> 0:17:26.925
<v Speaker 1>is stability. They have to have the binus foody and

0:17:27.005 --> 0:17:31.605
<v Speaker 1>minus eighty degree freezers explorinly expensive. All of vaccine is

0:17:31.685 --> 0:17:37.605
<v Speaker 1>stable at kitchen refrigeration temperatures two to four degrees four weeks,

0:17:38.325 --> 0:17:41.565
<v Speaker 1>so it is very very stable. That's one of the

0:17:41.645 --> 0:17:45.485
<v Speaker 1>biggest issues with modern medicine in developing countries. It's not

0:17:45.605 --> 0:17:50.485
<v Speaker 1>always possible to keep it cold enough. Ndv HXPS helps

0:17:50.525 --> 0:17:53.925
<v Speaker 1>with that a ton by staying stable at refrigerator temperatures,

0:17:56.005 --> 0:17:58.925
<v Speaker 1>and the manufacturers that Path is working with can make

0:17:59.005 --> 0:18:02.605
<v Speaker 1>a lot of vaccine in big bunches. Here's Bruce. A

0:18:02.725 --> 0:18:07.445
<v Speaker 1>typical lot size involves more than five thousand eggs that

0:18:07.645 --> 0:18:11.125
<v Speaker 1>are inuculated and harvested three days later. And when I

0:18:11.165 --> 0:18:14.085
<v Speaker 1>say innoculated and harvested, you put a small amount of

0:18:14.245 --> 0:18:17.365
<v Speaker 1>seed virus into the egg. It propagates in the embryo

0:18:17.405 --> 0:18:20.805
<v Speaker 1>when it's incubated at thirty seven degrees. Then the eggs

0:18:20.845 --> 0:18:23.085
<v Speaker 1>are chilled overnight at the end of a seventy two

0:18:23.125 --> 0:18:27.205
<v Speaker 1>hour period and the egg fluids the whites of the

0:18:27.285 --> 0:18:30.805
<v Speaker 1>egg are harvested and from that you can purify the

0:18:30.965 --> 0:18:36.525
<v Speaker 1>virus inactivate it formulated for administration. So the Southeast Asian

0:18:36.605 --> 0:18:40.525
<v Speaker 1>countries will have a typical lot size of around fifty

0:18:40.565 --> 0:18:44.725
<v Speaker 1>to forty to fifty thousand eggs per lot, and each

0:18:44.805 --> 0:18:50.805
<v Speaker 1>manufacturer can initiate multiple lots in a given week. Vietnam,

0:18:50.925 --> 0:18:54.285
<v Speaker 1>for example, as of this recording, is still instituting a

0:18:54.325 --> 0:18:58.205
<v Speaker 1>severe nationwide lockdown because only seven percent of their population

0:18:58.325 --> 0:19:01.325
<v Speaker 1>has been able to get fully vaccinated, so being able

0:19:01.405 --> 0:19:05.885
<v Speaker 1>to produce their own vaccine would be huge. Is a

0:19:05.925 --> 0:19:10.645
<v Speaker 1>middle income country, relatively wealthy by world standards. Seven percent

0:19:10.845 --> 0:19:15.525
<v Speaker 1>is high compared to low income countries, which, like I said, earlier,

0:19:15.805 --> 0:19:20.125
<v Speaker 1>are only two percent vaccinated. Right now, the US and

0:19:20.245 --> 0:19:24.005
<v Speaker 1>other wealthy countries maybe doing okay with vaccination, but we're

0:19:24.045 --> 0:19:27.605
<v Speaker 1>doing a shit job as a planet. The Newcastle hexapro

0:19:27.765 --> 0:19:31.965
<v Speaker 1>vaccine could help change that. Our aspiration, and we shared

0:19:32.045 --> 0:19:34.965
<v Speaker 1>this with the manufacturers, is that this would be one

0:19:35.085 --> 0:19:39.845
<v Speaker 1>of the most affordable vaccines possible. The starting material is

0:19:39.885 --> 0:19:43.685
<v Speaker 1>an embryonated egg, a fertile egg and a small bit

0:19:43.765 --> 0:19:48.605
<v Speaker 1>of seed virus, and the cost of eggs for production

0:19:48.725 --> 0:19:51.725
<v Speaker 1>for vaccines is somewhere between twenty five and thirty cents

0:19:51.765 --> 0:19:54.405
<v Speaker 1>an egg. And I told you that there's seven to

0:19:54.525 --> 0:19:58.005
<v Speaker 1>ten doses per egg, so that's only pennies per dose.

0:19:58.365 --> 0:19:59.925
<v Speaker 1>Of course it has to be mixed with a bunch

0:19:59.965 --> 0:20:03.485
<v Speaker 1>of other ingredients first, but you can imagine the NDVHXPS

0:20:03.565 --> 0:20:06.525
<v Speaker 1>vaccine ends up pretty cheap. If the main thing doing

0:20:06.565 --> 0:20:09.525
<v Speaker 1>the work in it only costs a few cents, that's

0:20:09.525 --> 0:20:12.285
<v Speaker 1>a good way to get the world vaccinated. This is

0:20:12.365 --> 0:20:17.485
<v Speaker 1>a grand experiment. The inactivated Newcastle disease virus vaccine has

0:20:17.725 --> 0:20:21.765
<v Speaker 1>never been administered to human subjects before. It's brand new technology.

0:20:22.045 --> 0:20:27.045
<v Speaker 1>It's very very exciting, and the preclinical data were astonishing.

0:20:27.405 --> 0:20:32.685
<v Speaker 1>We think that the covid pandemic won't abate until everyone

0:20:32.765 --> 0:20:34.965
<v Speaker 1>has access to vaccine. There are many countries that have

0:20:35.085 --> 0:20:40.485
<v Speaker 1>been left behind. We hope that the ndv hxp S

0:20:40.605 --> 0:20:45.245
<v Speaker 1>vaccine will have an important impact on helping to abate

0:20:45.445 --> 0:20:48.685
<v Speaker 1>the epidemic and will be used in years to come

0:20:49.525 --> 0:20:53.605
<v Speaker 1>for controlling endemic covid disease which is likely to continue

0:20:53.645 --> 0:20:59.245
<v Speaker 1>to circulate them on human populations. The next and last

0:20:59.325 --> 0:21:01.525
<v Speaker 1>episode of long Shot is going to be a little

0:21:01.565 --> 0:21:04.365
<v Speaker 1>different than the others. We're going to go over everything

0:21:04.405 --> 0:21:06.445
<v Speaker 1>we've talked about in a series and put it all

0:21:06.485 --> 0:21:09.525
<v Speaker 1>together into one story and then fill in some gaps

0:21:09.685 --> 0:21:14.005
<v Speaker 1>from the history of vaccines that's next week on long Shot.

0:21:17.885 --> 0:21:20.725
<v Speaker 1>Long Shot is a production of School of Humans and iHeartRadio.

0:21:21.405 --> 0:21:25.565
<v Speaker 1>Today's episode was produced, written, and narrated by me Sean Revive.

0:21:26.365 --> 0:21:29.605
<v Speaker 1>A co producer is Gabby Watts. Special thanks to Noel

0:21:29.645 --> 0:21:34.605
<v Speaker 1>Brown and iHeartRadio. Executive producers are Virginia Prescott, Elsie Crowley,

0:21:34.645 --> 0:21:38.005
<v Speaker 1>and Brandon Barr. Fact Checking for this episode is by

0:21:38.045 --> 0:21:41.965
<v Speaker 1>Adam Shadow. Long Shot was scored by Jason Shannon. The

0:21:42.085 --> 0:21:45.125
<v Speaker 1>score was mixed by Vic Stafford. Sound Design and audio

0:21:45.205 --> 0:21:59.605
<v Speaker 1>mixed was by Harper Harris with Tunewielders School of Humans