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Speaker 1: What is the moment of scientific discovery? Actually, like I

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Speaker 1: mean in the movies, it always seems so crisp scientists

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Speaker 1: find something in her data or an experiment, Suddenly it

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Speaker 1: dramatically works. We go from ignorance to knowledge in a moment,

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Speaker 1: from failure to success that kind of drama works for

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Speaker 1: the movie screen, but how does it happen in real life?

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Speaker 1: Is it a slow and steady march rather than a

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Speaker 1: sudden leap, or are there actually real moments of insight

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Speaker 1: where all of a sudden light penetrates the darkness and

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Speaker 1: the scientists learn something new about the universe that no

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Speaker 1: human has ever known before. Hi, I'm Daniel. I'm a

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Speaker 1: particle physicist and I've been doing particle physics experiments for

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Speaker 1: decades but never discovered a new particle. And welcome to

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Speaker 1: the podcast. Daniel and Jorge explain the Universe, in which

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Speaker 1: we examine everything about the universe, from its origins to

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Speaker 1: its ends, from its biggest things to its smallest things,

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Speaker 1: from all of its mysteries and all of our discoveries.

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Speaker 1: Our goal in this podcast is to open our minds

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Speaker 1: to all of the craziest, biggest, deepest, most important questions,

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Speaker 1: the one that frame the context of being human, the

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Speaker 1: ones that tell us what it means to be in

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Speaker 1: this universe and how this universe works. We tackle all

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Speaker 1: those questions and we go right to the forefront of

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Speaker 1: scientific knowledge. We take you right to the edge where

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Speaker 1: scientists are currently working can we explain all of it

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Speaker 1: to you in a way that we hope makes sense

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Speaker 1: and maybe even occasionally makes you laugh. My co host,

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Speaker 1: Jorge Tam the Creative PhD Comics, can't be here today,

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Speaker 1: so I'm going to share with you one of my

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Speaker 1: favorite stories of scientific discovery. And I mentioned earlier on

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Speaker 1: that I have never discovered a new particle. That's not

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Speaker 1: one hundred percent true. My career in particle physics spans

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Speaker 1: from the mid nineteen nineties till today, and in the

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Speaker 1: mid nineteen nineties was the discovery of the top quark.

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Speaker 1: Jorge and I did a really fun episode about that

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Speaker 1: whole amazing, hilarious, dramatic story. But I sort of joined

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Speaker 1: the field right when that had already happened, so I

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Speaker 1: wasn't around when the top quark was discovered. I didn't

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Speaker 1: get to participate in that moment of discovery. I was, however,

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Speaker 1: part of the team that discovered the Higgs boson. But

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Speaker 1: you have to understand, this was a really big group

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Speaker 1: of people, thousands of thousands of people who all contributed

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Speaker 1: little bits here and there, and there wasn't really a

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Speaker 1: dramatic moment when we said, aha, the Higgs is there.

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Speaker 1: It solely emerged out of the data, sort of the

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Speaker 1: way a treasure chest might be revealed in the sand

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Speaker 1: of a beach, as a tide pulls out inch by inch,

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Speaker 1: showing you more and more of it. That was sort

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Speaker 1: of the way the Higgs Boson discovery went. We saw

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Speaker 1: a little peak, we thought it might be it. It

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Speaker 1: got bigger and bigger and bigger, and there was never

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Speaker 1: really a moment other than the official announcement when we

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Speaker 1: could say, now we have discovered the Higgs. But that

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Speaker 1: sort of was a bureaucratic choice and artificial choice. There

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Speaker 1: was no single aha moment. And part of that is

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Speaker 1: because we knew what we were looking for. We suspected

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Speaker 1: the Higgs was there, we knew how to find it,

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Speaker 1: we knew how to look for it, we knew what

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Speaker 1: to expect, and so when we saw it, it was

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Speaker 1: just sort of this slow creeping realization that we had

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Speaker 1: found what we had been hunting. But that doesn't mean

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Speaker 1: it's always like that. There are moments of discovery in science.

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Speaker 1: Usually they happen when we're more surprised, when we see

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Speaker 1: something we didn't expect. When you go looking for one

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Speaker 1: thing and you find something else moments, for example, like

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Speaker 1: the discovery of the cosmic microwave background that we talked

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Speaker 1: about a few episodes ago. Today, we're going to tell

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Speaker 1: the story of one of those moments when discovery came quickly,

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Speaker 1: when someone went looking for one thing and found something else,

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Speaker 1: something alarming and astonishing, a moment of insight about the universe. Actually,

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Speaker 1: we're going to tell a story of two of those moments,

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Speaker 1: because this discovery has multiple parts, and for one of

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Speaker 1: those parts, we happen to have real historical audio of

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Speaker 1: those scientists realizing their discovery in real time as it happens,

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Speaker 1: so you'll get to hear what it actually sounds like

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Speaker 1: when scientists are astonished when they make a real life discovery.

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Speaker 1: So that's super fun, and for me, it's always really

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Speaker 1: interesting to try to understand what it was like to

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Speaker 1: make that discovery. You know, it's easy in hindsight to say, oh,

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Speaker 1: these things exist, here's how you look for them. That

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Speaker 1: when did it badaboom but a being done. But you

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Speaker 1: have to go back to what it was like before

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Speaker 1: we knew it was there, to put yourself back in

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Speaker 1: that mental position of ignorance, not knowing whether something is

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Speaker 1: out there, not understanding whether you live in the universe

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Speaker 1: where it's real or where it's just an idea, not

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Speaker 1: knowing which direction human knowledge and science will take. Science

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Speaker 1: is so easy in hindsight and so difficult in foresight.

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Speaker 1: When you stand in the forefront of human ignorance, you

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Speaker 1: don't know necessarily which way to go. So it's really

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Speaker 1: valuable to revisit these moments when we took a step forward,

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Speaker 1: when we went from ignorance to knowledge, and understand what

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Speaker 1: was required, how it happened, and the bravery it took

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Speaker 1: to make that claim to say I have found something new.

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Speaker 1: I now know something about the universe that no human

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Speaker 1: ever knew before. And so today we're going to be

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Speaker 1: telling one of my favorite stories of discovery, one about

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Speaker 1: a really weird kind of star, a very fast, very dense,

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Speaker 1: very bizarre kind of star that we've talked about on

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Speaker 1: the podcast. And so today's episode we'll be answering the

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Speaker 1: question how were pulsars discovered? And so, as usual, before

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Speaker 1: we dig into the topic and tell you the story today,

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Speaker 1: I wanted to know how much people already knew about

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Speaker 1: this sort of famous story. So I went out and

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Speaker 1: solicited volunteers from the answernet to tell us what they

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Speaker 1: knew about various questions in science, of this being one

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Speaker 1: of them. So thank you to all of those who

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Speaker 1: participated and give us their speculation without the opportunity to

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Speaker 1: look into any reference material whatsoever on the honor system.

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Speaker 1: Of course, if you'd like to participate and hear your

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Speaker 1: voice on the podcast in the future, please don't be shy.

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Speaker 1: I promise you it's fun. Send me an email to

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Speaker 1: questions at Danielandjorge dot com. But in the meantime, think

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Speaker 1: to yourself, do you know the story of how pulsars

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Speaker 1: were discovered? Here's what people had to say. I am

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Speaker 1: eighty percent sure that were discovered when they stuck a

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Speaker 1: stethoscope onto the Hubble space telescope.

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Speaker 4: I'm guessing pulsars were discovered by scientists who observe these

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Speaker 4: stars that were kind of flashing, so dimming and brightening

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Speaker 4: in these regular pulses. Hence the name pulsar. I realized

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Speaker 4: I just described what a pulsar is, not how they

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Speaker 4: were discovered, So sorry about that.

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Speaker 3: For what a pulsar is, I would say it was

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Speaker 3: discovered as a rapidly blinking source of light in the sky.

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Speaker 5: They were discovered by I think she was a graduate

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Speaker 5: student in the sixties. Something they were they discovered through

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Speaker 5: listening to some radio signals, and first they thought it

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Speaker 5: was EXTRATRACI in life, because they called that little Green

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Speaker 5: Men LGM.

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Speaker 6: But I always confused pulsars and quasars. I'm going to

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Speaker 6: guess that someone saw repetition of light in some part

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Speaker 6: an investigation that found the pulsars.

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Speaker 4: Pulsars were discovered by a woman, and I believe it

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Speaker 4: was in the nineteen seventies, but I'm not sure how

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Speaker 4: or why or where even.

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Speaker 7: There was a woman astronomer, radio astronomer whose name, unfortunately

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Speaker 7: I cannot remember, was doing some sort of sky survey

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Speaker 7: when she noticed a set of pulses that were incredibly

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Speaker 7: regularly spaced. She actually annotated them as LGM for little

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Speaker 7: Green men. One time they thought it might have been

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Speaker 7: discovery of aliens, but later they discovered that it was

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Speaker 7: actually a rotating neutron star and the magnetic field was

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Speaker 7: exciting the gas molecules around it and giving off radio energy.

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Speaker 1: All right, So congratulations to our excellently informed listeners together,

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Speaker 1: they really do have most of the story there. There's

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Speaker 1: a lot of really insightful stuff and a lot of

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Speaker 1: bits of the story are there in pieces here and there.

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Speaker 1: So let's dig into it and to really understand how

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Speaker 1: pulsars were discovered, we have to understand, of course, first

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Speaker 1: what a pulsar is, how we came to the idea

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Speaker 1: of it existing in the universe, and that'll help us

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Speaker 1: understand how it was seen and how we knew what

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Speaker 1: we were seeing. All right, So first of all, what

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Speaker 1: is a pulsar. A pulsar is a very very compact object.

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Speaker 1: Neutron stars and white dwarfs are more famous as the

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Speaker 1: sort of like densest things in the universe, and a

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Speaker 1: pulsar is a version of these. It's most commonly considered

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Speaker 1: to be a version of a neutron star, but it

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Speaker 1: can also be a white dwarf, but both of them

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Speaker 1: essentially are the end points of stars. Stars have these

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Speaker 1: incredible life cycles where you start out as a big

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Speaker 1: molecular cloud, huge blob of gas and dust that's somehow

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Speaker 1: shocked to collapse into a hot and dense object, a

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Speaker 1: star which burns for billions and billions of years in

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Speaker 1: this incredible, incredible balance between gravity that's pulling it together,

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Speaker 1: trying to turn it into a black hole or something

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Speaker 1: very very dense, and fusion which is erupting and sending

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Speaker 1: radiation out to prevent the collapse of that star. And

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Speaker 1: it always amazes me that these things go on for

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Speaker 1: so long, these two cosmic forces so different, both so powerful,

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Speaker 1: can be so balanced for so many billions of years. Well,

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Speaker 1: at some point the star gives up because it's burned

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Speaker 1: most of its fuel and its core has become very

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Speaker 1: very heavy and filled with things that it can no

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Speaker 1: longer fuse. When the core of the star is filled

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Speaker 1: with iron, for example, fusing iron doesn't generate heat, it

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Speaker 1: actually costs energy, so it cools the star. So now

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Speaker 1: the star no longer has that power from fusion to

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Speaker 1: resist gravity, and it collapses. There's some intermediate stages in

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Speaker 1: there we'll skip over, such as it becoming a red giant.

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Speaker 1: But depending on the size of the star, this collapse

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Speaker 1: generally triggers a supernova. So you have this collapse with

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Speaker 1: the materials racing inwards, which then causes that back reaction outwards,

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Speaker 1: a massive explosion where a huge chunk of the stuff

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Speaker 1: that used to be the star is now spread out

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Speaker 1: into a new nebula, like a big sprawling cloud of

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Speaker 1: gas and dust. At the core of it, however, is

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Speaker 1: a very dense, very hot remnant, and that remnant can

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Speaker 1: either be a white dwarf or a neutron star or

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Speaker 1: a black hole, depending on the mass of the original star.

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Speaker 1: So smaller stars end up as white dwarfs, which are

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Speaker 1: basically just like huge hot chunks of metal that are

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Speaker 1: resisting collapsing because there are fermions and they don't like

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Speaker 1: to overlap too much. Or if they are larger, they

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Speaker 1: become neutron stars, where gravity now pushes them together and

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Speaker 1: forces all of the protons and the electrons together into

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Speaker 1: forming new neutrons, and you have this really weird material

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Speaker 1: that's sort of like the nucleus of an atom, but

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Speaker 1: the size of a mountain, So it's incredibly dense, incredibly

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Speaker 1: weird stuff, something we even still today do not understand

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Speaker 1: in detail. And then, of course, if the star is

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Speaker 1: more massive, it would become a black hole. So the

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Speaker 1: gravity totally wins and nothing prevents the collapse and it

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Speaker 1: becomes a black hole. But it's the first two categories

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Speaker 1: that are more interested in. And let's focus on the

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Speaker 1: neutron star category because that's the majority of pulsars. So

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Speaker 1: you have this very dense object, right, and the object

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Speaker 1: is a huge chunk of the material that used to

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Speaker 1: be a star, not all of it. Some of the

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Speaker 1: material is lost in the supernova and some of it

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Speaker 1: remains in this cloud that surrounds the neutron star. But

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Speaker 1: this neutron star is a very very dense object and

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Speaker 1: very very small because gravity's really pulled it together. And

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Speaker 1: what that means is that it's spinning really fast. Why

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Speaker 1: is it spinning fast, Well, the star itself was spinning

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Speaker 1: because everything in the universe is spinning. And the reason

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Speaker 1: is simple is because angular momentum is conserved. You know

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Speaker 1: how momentum is conserved. If you push on something, it

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Speaker 1: stays in motion until something else pushes on it. Or

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Speaker 1: if you don't push on something, it stays still until

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Speaker 1: something does push on it. That's conservation of momentum. Those

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Speaker 1: are Newton's laws. Well, there are similar laws for angular momentum.

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Speaker 1: That is that something spinning tends to keep spinning. And

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Speaker 1: to make something spin, you got to give it a push.

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Speaker 1: So if you leave something alone, it will keep spinning

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Speaker 1: the way it's always been spinning, right, that's conservation of

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Speaker 1: angular momentum. And so the original gas cloud that formed

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Speaker 1: that star had some spin to it, and that spin

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Speaker 1: can't go away. It needs to stick around. And as

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Speaker 1: the gas cloud gets smaller and smaller and turns into

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Speaker 1: a star, the star spins faster. Now that might sound

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Speaker 1: like it violates conservation of angular momentum because it's spinning faster, right, Well,

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Speaker 1: the velocity of the stars spin is not what's conserved.

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Speaker 1: It's the angular momentum, which is the product of the

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Speaker 1: velocity and their radius. So things that are larger spins

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Speaker 1: slower with the same angular momentum is things that are

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Speaker 1: smaller than spin faster. You know this because if you're

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Speaker 1: a figure skater and you pull your arms in, you

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Speaker 1: spin faster. You have the same angular momentum. You're not

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Speaker 1: pushing against anything to spin faster, but you spin faster

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Speaker 1: because your radius is smaller. So to have the same

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Speaker 1: angler momentum, you gotta go faster. That's why the star

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Speaker 1: spins faster than the original gas cloud. And that's why

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Speaker 1: the super compact, dense, little neutron star that has a

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Speaker 1: huge chunk of the star's mass, but is much much smaller.

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Speaker 1: We're talking about something only kilometers in size, you know,

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Speaker 1: maybe ten fifteen kilometers has to be spinning really really

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Speaker 1: fast to have the same angler momentum as most of

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Speaker 1: the original star. So that's why these things are spinning

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Speaker 1: so fast, because they are so small, because they are

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Speaker 1: so dense. In addition, some of these things are highly magnetic.

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Speaker 1: There's a magnetic field of these stars, just like every

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Speaker 1: star and most planets have a magnetic field, and that's

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Speaker 1: because the motion of charged particles inside it. A neutron

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Speaker 1: star is mostly neutrons, but there are protons and there

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Speaker 1: are electrons, and they are moving around sometimes on the surface,

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Speaker 1: and the flux of the particles on the inside can

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Speaker 1: create these magnetic fields. So you have this object that's

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Speaker 1: spinning really really fast and it has a magnetic field.

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Speaker 1: In addition, it's generating a huge amount of radiation. The

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Speaker 1: magnetic field of the thing is rotating, which generates an

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Speaker 1: electric field which accelerates the protons and the electrons on

300
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Speaker 1: the surface of the neutron star, and that creates a

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Speaker 1: bunch of radiation because when you accelerate particles they radiate photons.

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Speaker 1: So you have this magnetic fields on this neutron star

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Speaker 1: that's rotating and is generating an electric field which pushes

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Speaker 1: the electrons and protons on the surface of the star,

305
00:17:58,280 --> 00:18:01,439
Speaker 1: creating a lot of radiation. Radiation doesn't go in every

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00:18:01,440 --> 00:18:05,760
Speaker 1: direction because there's a strong magnetic field. That radiation tends

307
00:18:05,800 --> 00:18:09,200
Speaker 1: to go along the magnetic north and the magnetic south

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Speaker 1: because magnetic fields are really good at bending the path

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Speaker 1: of charged particles. The reason that we don't get a

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Speaker 1: lot of radiation from space is because we have a

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Speaker 1: magnetic field here on Earth, and when particles come from space,

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Speaker 1: they are bent around those magnetic field lines. The magnetic

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Speaker 1: field lines are sort of like the lines on a basketball,

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Speaker 1: right they run from north to south, and if a

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Speaker 1: particle comes from space, it gets bent by those magnetic

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Speaker 1: fields and goes out in another direction where sometimes they

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Speaker 1: loop around those magnetic field lines all the way up

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Speaker 1: to the north or the south pole, and then they

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Speaker 1: can slip in between the magnetic field lines. And that's,

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Speaker 1: for example, why we have the northern lights and the

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Speaker 1: southern lights, because magnetic fields guide charged particles in the

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Speaker 1: same way. If you generate radiation on the surface of

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Speaker 1: the planet. It's also bound by those magnetic fields, and

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Speaker 1: so in this case, the magnetic fields are even much

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Speaker 1: more powerful, and essentially all of the radiation from the

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Speaker 1: neutron star gets guided towards the north or the south

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Speaker 1: pole of the magnetic field. So you get these beams

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Speaker 1: of radiation shooting off of this crazy neutron star. Right

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Speaker 1: Like it's not crazy enough, it's already super hot, super dense,

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Speaker 1: super small, spinning, super fast, really magnetized, and now on

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Speaker 1: top of that, it's shining these two crazy flashlights out

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Speaker 1: into the universe, one from its magnetic north pole and

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Speaker 1: the other from its magnetic south pole. And these beams

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Speaker 1: don't come for free. They are very bright. They cost

335
00:19:37,720 --> 00:19:40,159
Speaker 1: a lot of energy, and this energy comes from the

336
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Speaker 1: spinning of the neutron star, because that's what's generating this

337
00:19:43,640 --> 00:19:47,160
Speaker 1: electric field, the rotation of the magnetic field, and eventually

338
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Speaker 1: it's going to slow it down, like these pulsars. They

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Speaker 1: generate these beams and they last for maybe ten or

340
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Speaker 1: one hundred million years, but they don't last for their

341
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Speaker 1: whole lifetime. At some point, the beams turn off because

342
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Speaker 1: the neutron star has slow down and it's not generating

343
00:20:01,560 --> 00:20:04,680
Speaker 1: that radiation anymore. What that means is that for most

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Speaker 1: of a lifetime, the pulsar is actually quiet. They don't

345
00:20:07,800 --> 00:20:11,200
Speaker 1: emit these beams, and so something like ninety nine percent

346
00:20:11,520 --> 00:20:15,480
Speaker 1: of the pulsars out there aren't actually emitting any radiation anymore.

347
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Speaker 1: They are quiet. The universe is filled with dead pulsars,

348
00:20:19,920 --> 00:20:23,280
Speaker 1: pulsars that have gone quiet. So we've explained what a

349
00:20:23,280 --> 00:20:26,360
Speaker 1: pulsar is and how it emits these beams. But why

350
00:20:26,359 --> 00:20:29,679
Speaker 1: do we call it a pulsar? Are these beams themselves

351
00:20:29,800 --> 00:20:33,000
Speaker 1: like pulsing? Do they turn on and off? Now, the

352
00:20:33,000 --> 00:20:35,200
Speaker 1: beams don't turn on and off. I mean, they last

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Speaker 1: for millions of years and they eventually fade, but they

354
00:20:37,560 --> 00:20:40,159
Speaker 1: don't like flicker on and off. The reason we call

355
00:20:40,200 --> 00:20:43,600
Speaker 1: it a pulsar is because we only see those beams

356
00:20:43,640 --> 00:20:46,600
Speaker 1: as they pass by the Earth, because the beam is

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Speaker 1: shooting up and down along the magnetic field lines. But

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Speaker 1: that's not necessarily the same as the axis that the

359
00:20:52,880 --> 00:20:56,040
Speaker 1: pulsar is spinning around. So if it were, if the

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Speaker 1: magnetic north and the magnetic south were the same as

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Speaker 1: the north and south of the actual star, so spinning

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Speaker 1: around the north pole, then it would always be shooting

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Speaker 1: the beam north and a beam south. However, if instead

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00:21:09,760 --> 00:21:12,680
Speaker 1: the magnetic field is tilted so that it's like spinning

365
00:21:12,720 --> 00:21:15,840
Speaker 1: along one axis, but its beams are shooting off a

366
00:21:15,880 --> 00:21:19,480
Speaker 1: little bit skewed, then when it spins around, the direction

367
00:21:19,560 --> 00:21:22,760
Speaker 1: of that beam changes right. It's like if you're holding

368
00:21:22,760 --> 00:21:25,760
Speaker 1: a flashlight and you point it straight up and then spin,

369
00:21:26,119 --> 00:21:28,320
Speaker 1: the direction of the flashlight doesn't change. But if you

370
00:21:28,400 --> 00:21:31,600
Speaker 1: hold a flashlight straight out and then spin right, then

371
00:21:31,640 --> 00:21:34,880
Speaker 1: what happens. Then your flashlight's going to sweep around three

372
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Speaker 1: hundred and sixty degrees every time you rotate. And what

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Speaker 1: if somebody see if they are standing in front of

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Speaker 1: you watching you spin, they see a flash. They see

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Speaker 1: a pulse of light only when the flashlight is pointed

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Speaker 1: in your direction. So it's this difference between the direction

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00:21:50,480 --> 00:21:55,240
Speaker 1: of the pulsar's magnetic field and its actual spin axis,

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Speaker 1: which makes it a pulsar, right, That's what makes it

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Speaker 1: appear to pulse. They don't actually pulse. They're sending bright

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Speaker 1: streams of light continuously out into the universe until they fade.

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Speaker 1: But we see them pulsing because that beam sweeps across Earth,

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Speaker 1: and that's what we see. So that's what a pulse

383
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Speaker 1: are is an introduction to these weird things in the universe. Next,

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Speaker 1: we're going to talk about why we suspected they might

385
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Speaker 1: exist and how they were actually found. But first let's

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00:24:53,640 --> 00:24:56,920
Speaker 1: Salt Lake City Branch Member FDIC terms and more at

434
00:24:56,920 --> 00:24:59,360
Speaker 1: applecard dot com. When you pop a piece of cheese

435
00:24:59,400 --> 00:25:02,399
Speaker 1: into your mouth or enjoy a rich spoonful of Greek yogurt,

436
00:25:02,520 --> 00:25:06,160
Speaker 1: you're probably not thinking about the environmental impact of each

437
00:25:06,400 --> 00:25:08,880
Speaker 1: and every bite. But the people in the dairy industry

438
00:25:08,920 --> 00:25:12,840
Speaker 1: are US. Dairy has set themselves some ambitious sustainability goals,

439
00:25:12,960 --> 00:25:16,280
Speaker 1: including being greenhouse gas neutral by twenty to fifty. That's

440
00:25:16,280 --> 00:25:18,480
Speaker 1: why they're working hard every day to find new ways

441
00:25:18,520 --> 00:25:22,159
Speaker 1: to reduce waste, conserve natural resources, and drive down greenhouse

442
00:25:22,160 --> 00:25:25,640
Speaker 1: gas emissions. Take water, for example, most dairy farms reuse

443
00:25:25,720 --> 00:25:28,720
Speaker 1: water up to four times. The same water cools the milk,

444
00:25:28,880 --> 00:25:32,199
Speaker 1: cleans equipment, washes the barn, and irrigates the crops. How

445
00:25:32,320 --> 00:25:35,879
Speaker 1: is US Dairy tackling greenhouse gases? Many farms use anaerobic

446
00:25:35,920 --> 00:25:39,199
Speaker 1: digestors that turn the methane from maneuver into renewable energy

447
00:25:39,320 --> 00:25:42,000
Speaker 1: that can power farms, towns, and electric cars. So the

448
00:25:42,040 --> 00:25:43,880
Speaker 1: next time you grab a slice of pizza or lick

449
00:25:43,960 --> 00:25:46,560
Speaker 1: an ice cream cone, know that dairy farmers and processors

450
00:25:46,600 --> 00:25:49,800
Speaker 1: around the country are using the latest practices and innovations

451
00:25:49,920 --> 00:25:52,760
Speaker 1: to provide the nutrient dense dairy products we love with

452
00:25:52,920 --> 00:25:56,240
Speaker 1: less of an impact. Visit usdairy dot com slash sustainability

453
00:25:56,280 --> 00:26:06,720
Speaker 1: to learn more. All right, we're back and we're talking

454
00:26:06,800 --> 00:26:10,359
Speaker 1: about the incredible story of the discovery of pulsars. And

455
00:26:10,400 --> 00:26:14,600
Speaker 1: we reminded ourselves that pulsars are tiny, very hot, very dense,

456
00:26:14,840 --> 00:26:19,359
Speaker 1: very quickly spinning stars the left over heart of a supernova.

457
00:26:19,480 --> 00:26:22,040
Speaker 1: They're shooting a beam of light out into the universe,

458
00:26:22,080 --> 00:26:24,119
Speaker 1: and they are also spinning, and so that beam of

459
00:26:24,200 --> 00:26:28,080
Speaker 1: light passes over the Earth and looks like pulsations. It

460
00:26:28,119 --> 00:26:31,480
Speaker 1: looks like pulses from something out there in the universe.

461
00:26:31,680 --> 00:26:35,280
Speaker 1: And before we discovered these things, we had a suspicion

462
00:26:35,440 --> 00:26:38,320
Speaker 1: that they existed. People have been thinking about the life

463
00:26:38,320 --> 00:26:42,679
Speaker 1: cycle of stars, and in nineteen thirty four people suggested

464
00:26:42,680 --> 00:26:45,399
Speaker 1: that when you had a supernova, it might not all

465
00:26:45,400 --> 00:26:48,920
Speaker 1: blow out into the universe, that you might get this small,

466
00:26:49,280 --> 00:26:52,520
Speaker 1: dense core left over, and if so, it would have

467
00:26:52,560 --> 00:26:56,000
Speaker 1: this really weird state of matter. These neutrons would form.

468
00:26:56,040 --> 00:26:58,120
Speaker 1: They would be in a really dense state, this thing

469
00:26:58,160 --> 00:27:00,480
Speaker 1: that is sort of like nuclear matter. This in the

470
00:27:00,520 --> 00:27:03,920
Speaker 1: heart of atoms, but now on the size of a mountain,

471
00:27:04,000 --> 00:27:07,960
Speaker 1: something kilometers wide. Imagine that the nucleus of an atom,

472
00:27:08,000 --> 00:27:11,040
Speaker 1: but kilometers wide. So this was a novelty, but nobody

473
00:27:11,040 --> 00:27:13,280
Speaker 1: had ever seen one before. We didn't know if neutron

474
00:27:13,320 --> 00:27:15,879
Speaker 1: stars existed in nineteen thirty four, and they would be

475
00:27:15,960 --> 00:27:19,480
Speaker 1: difficult to detect because these things don't have fusion anymore.

476
00:27:19,520 --> 00:27:22,760
Speaker 1: They don't glow the same way that very bright stars do,

477
00:27:23,080 --> 00:27:25,760
Speaker 1: so to see neutron stars seem like a puzzle. But

478
00:27:25,840 --> 00:27:28,160
Speaker 1: then decades later people said, well, you know, they might

479
00:27:28,240 --> 00:27:31,760
Speaker 1: have very strong magnetic fields, and if so, they might

480
00:27:31,800 --> 00:27:36,120
Speaker 1: be rotating, and if so, then they might be pulsing.

481
00:27:36,480 --> 00:27:39,920
Speaker 1: And so this idea sort of came into existence in

482
00:27:39,960 --> 00:27:45,280
Speaker 1: the sixties, the idea the pulsars as weird, spinning, magnetized,

483
00:27:45,480 --> 00:27:49,119
Speaker 1: beaming light neutron stars might be out there. But you

484
00:27:49,240 --> 00:27:52,240
Speaker 1: have to remember that there are lots of crazy ideas

485
00:27:52,240 --> 00:27:55,119
Speaker 1: for what might be out there. The astronomy literature is

486
00:27:55,200 --> 00:27:58,480
Speaker 1: filled with people speculating maybe these things exist, maybe boson

487
00:27:58,520 --> 00:28:01,320
Speaker 1: stars exist, maybe these other things exist. Now, with a

488
00:28:01,359 --> 00:28:03,679
Speaker 1: hindsight of history, we can go back and trace the

489
00:28:03,720 --> 00:28:06,600
Speaker 1: development of this one thread of an idea that turned

490
00:28:06,640 --> 00:28:09,720
Speaker 1: out to describe something in the actual universe. But don't

491
00:28:09,760 --> 00:28:12,720
Speaker 1: forget it was buried at the time in a forest

492
00:28:12,800 --> 00:28:15,880
Speaker 1: of other crazy, wrong ideas about what might be out

493
00:28:15,880 --> 00:28:19,000
Speaker 1: there in the universe. You know, pulsars exist, and if

494
00:28:19,000 --> 00:28:20,960
Speaker 1: you took a time machine back to the sixties, you

495
00:28:21,000 --> 00:28:23,040
Speaker 1: might say, I know these things exist, and I know

496
00:28:23,080 --> 00:28:25,159
Speaker 1: how to find them. It's not actually that hard. But

497
00:28:25,280 --> 00:28:27,880
Speaker 1: without the hindsight of that history, of course, it's hard

498
00:28:27,920 --> 00:28:30,280
Speaker 1: to pick the wheat from the chaff. So let's get

499
00:28:30,320 --> 00:28:32,560
Speaker 1: to the story of how they were actually discovered. They

500
00:28:32,560 --> 00:28:36,000
Speaker 1: were found by a graduate student at the University of Cambridge,

501
00:28:36,119 --> 00:28:39,200
Speaker 1: a woman named Jocelyn Bell, and she was not looking

502
00:28:39,240 --> 00:28:42,520
Speaker 1: for pulsars. In fact, she wasn't looking for stars at all.

503
00:28:42,960 --> 00:28:46,840
Speaker 1: She was trying to study quasars. Quasars are at the

504
00:28:46,880 --> 00:28:50,800
Speaker 1: heart of really large galaxies. They are the accretion disks

505
00:28:50,880 --> 00:28:54,600
Speaker 1: around black holes, the stuff that has not yet fallen

506
00:28:54,680 --> 00:28:57,800
Speaker 1: into the black hole but is swirling around. And because

507
00:28:57,800 --> 00:29:00,760
Speaker 1: of the tidal forces and the incredible gravity, these things

508
00:29:00,800 --> 00:29:03,160
Speaker 1: get really hot and they radiate a lot of light.

509
00:29:03,520 --> 00:29:05,280
Speaker 1: And we had seen these things, and we knew that

510
00:29:05,320 --> 00:29:08,560
Speaker 1: they were very very far away because these quasars have

511
00:29:08,680 --> 00:29:11,000
Speaker 1: existed for a long time. They were formed in the

512
00:29:11,080 --> 00:29:14,680
Speaker 1: very early universe, like a billion years after the Big Bang.

513
00:29:14,880 --> 00:29:17,160
Speaker 1: But they're still super duper bright. And for a long

514
00:29:17,160 --> 00:29:19,960
Speaker 1: time there were big mystery because people thought, well, what

515
00:29:20,000 --> 00:29:23,640
Speaker 1: could it be that it's so incredibly bright and so

516
00:29:23,800 --> 00:29:26,360
Speaker 1: far away, so at its source, it's got to be

517
00:29:26,440 --> 00:29:29,680
Speaker 1: like mind bogglingly bright. What could that even be? People

518
00:29:29,680 --> 00:29:32,160
Speaker 1: thought for a long time, this was a mistake. It's

519
00:29:32,200 --> 00:29:35,440
Speaker 1: not even really a thing. We must be misunderstanding how

520
00:29:35,520 --> 00:29:38,760
Speaker 1: these things work. And Jocelyn Bell was trying to understand

521
00:29:38,800 --> 00:29:42,600
Speaker 1: these quasars. She was trying to understand how these quasars twinkle,

522
00:29:42,840 --> 00:29:45,280
Speaker 1: how they scintillate. You know that when you look at

523
00:29:45,320 --> 00:29:48,160
Speaker 1: a star in the sky, you see a twinkling, and

524
00:29:48,200 --> 00:29:51,320
Speaker 1: that's mostly because the stuff between you and the star

525
00:29:51,720 --> 00:29:55,160
Speaker 1: is interfering with the star light. That's why planets, for example,

526
00:29:55,240 --> 00:29:58,040
Speaker 1: don't twinkle, but stars do, because the light from the

527
00:29:58,080 --> 00:30:01,960
Speaker 1: star has to go really really so quoasars kind of

528
00:30:01,960 --> 00:30:05,520
Speaker 1: twinkle as well. They do this thing called scintillation, and

529
00:30:05,560 --> 00:30:08,960
Speaker 1: it's due to fluctuations in the densities of particles in

530
00:30:09,000 --> 00:30:11,800
Speaker 1: the solar wind. So the way we see quasars is

531
00:30:11,840 --> 00:30:14,320
Speaker 1: not by looking usually at visible light, but by looking

532
00:30:14,400 --> 00:30:17,400
Speaker 1: at radio waves. These things come from really really far away,

533
00:30:17,440 --> 00:30:20,239
Speaker 1: and with they're best seen in the radio spectrum. And

534
00:30:20,280 --> 00:30:23,800
Speaker 1: in the radio spectrum, an obstacle is the solar wind.

535
00:30:23,960 --> 00:30:27,080
Speaker 1: Remember that the Sun doesn't just shoot out photons. It

536
00:30:27,160 --> 00:30:30,240
Speaker 1: also shoots out a bunch of charge particles, protons and

537
00:30:30,280 --> 00:30:33,080
Speaker 1: electrons and other crazy stuff, and this is what we

538
00:30:33,160 --> 00:30:36,600
Speaker 1: call the solar wind. And when a radio photon enters

539
00:30:36,640 --> 00:30:40,280
Speaker 1: our solar system from somewhere really really far away, it

540
00:30:40,360 --> 00:30:43,800
Speaker 1: hits this barrage of radiation coming from the Sun and

541
00:30:43,960 --> 00:30:47,040
Speaker 1: interacts with it. It's radio signal made of light and

542
00:30:47,240 --> 00:30:52,320
Speaker 1: electromagnetic radiation. Essentially, photons comes from these quasars billions of

543
00:30:52,440 --> 00:30:56,480
Speaker 1: years away. They sometimes get deflected or interfered with by

544
00:30:56,520 --> 00:30:58,719
Speaker 1: these particles in the solar wind, and so that's what

545
00:30:58,800 --> 00:31:01,960
Speaker 1: makes these quasars scintillate. So she wanted to study this

546
00:31:02,000 --> 00:31:04,720
Speaker 1: because she wanted to understand koisars. People at that time

547
00:31:04,840 --> 00:31:07,640
Speaker 1: didn't know that black holes were real, so they didn't

548
00:31:07,680 --> 00:31:11,000
Speaker 1: know what was powering these quasars, what could possibly be

549
00:31:11,160 --> 00:31:14,360
Speaker 1: generating so much radiation from so far away. So she

550
00:31:14,440 --> 00:31:17,880
Speaker 1: built a radio telescope. And a radio telescope is just

551
00:31:17,920 --> 00:31:20,840
Speaker 1: a bunch of antennas. But the thing about radio waves

552
00:31:20,960 --> 00:31:23,680
Speaker 1: is that their wavelength is very very long. They could

553
00:31:23,680 --> 00:31:27,000
Speaker 1: be meters or hundreds of meters. So to capture a

554
00:31:27,120 --> 00:31:31,320
Speaker 1: radio photon, you need a big antenna, You need something large.

555
00:31:31,720 --> 00:31:34,920
Speaker 1: So she built something which was four and a half acres,

556
00:31:35,240 --> 00:31:38,239
Speaker 1: like this thing is big. She spent two years and

557
00:31:38,520 --> 00:31:42,520
Speaker 1: for her, doing astronomy meant every day pounding fence posts

558
00:31:42,560 --> 00:31:45,920
Speaker 1: into the ground and stringing wire among them. Imagine one

559
00:31:45,920 --> 00:31:48,640
Speaker 1: of those old fashioned TV antennas. It was like a

560
00:31:48,640 --> 00:31:51,520
Speaker 1: grid of metal that could capture a signal. That's essentially

561
00:31:51,560 --> 00:31:54,520
Speaker 1: what she built. And she strung one hundred and twenty

562
00:31:54,720 --> 00:31:58,000
Speaker 1: miles of wire over two years to build her radio

563
00:31:58,040 --> 00:32:01,400
Speaker 1: telescope to capture this signal from these quasars to look

564
00:32:01,400 --> 00:32:04,640
Speaker 1: at them scintillating. She wanted to see the fluctuations in

565
00:32:04,680 --> 00:32:07,440
Speaker 1: these signals. And that's really key because what she did

566
00:32:07,640 --> 00:32:10,200
Speaker 1: is get these radio signals and look at them and

567
00:32:10,240 --> 00:32:14,160
Speaker 1: develop her own personal sense for what this data should

568
00:32:14,160 --> 00:32:18,400
Speaker 1: look like. She was looking for characteristic wiggles changes in

569
00:32:18,400 --> 00:32:21,440
Speaker 1: this data as they study the pulsar. And this is

570
00:32:21,480 --> 00:32:24,160
Speaker 1: back in the day before they had computers and before

571
00:32:24,240 --> 00:32:26,760
Speaker 1: people could just like you know, dump the data onto

572
00:32:26,800 --> 00:32:29,600
Speaker 1: the screen and analyze it bump, bump bump. Her data

573
00:32:29,680 --> 00:32:33,960
Speaker 1: came out directly onto a printer like her radio telescope capture.

574
00:32:34,000 --> 00:32:36,960
Speaker 1: This turned it into an electrical signal which would directly

575
00:32:37,000 --> 00:32:40,200
Speaker 1: send to a printer which dumped it onto paper. So

576
00:32:40,600 --> 00:32:43,920
Speaker 1: her output from her telescope was stored on one hundred

577
00:32:43,960 --> 00:32:47,200
Speaker 1: feet per day of printer paper, which is like came

578
00:32:47,240 --> 00:32:50,000
Speaker 1: out steadily and she would stand there and look at it.

579
00:32:50,040 --> 00:32:51,760
Speaker 1: She would get to know it. She was like a

580
00:32:51,880 --> 00:32:55,120
Speaker 1: natural neural network where she learned, oh, if I'm looking

581
00:32:55,160 --> 00:32:57,240
Speaker 1: over here, then I'm going to see this thing before

582
00:32:57,280 --> 00:32:59,040
Speaker 1: pointing at the sun, that I'm going to see this

583
00:32:59,120 --> 00:33:01,040
Speaker 1: kind of radio wave. And this is the kind of

584
00:33:01,040 --> 00:33:03,200
Speaker 1: thing that she could easily point right. This thing is

585
00:33:03,240 --> 00:33:07,040
Speaker 1: just something you build in the ground, but the Earth turns,

586
00:33:07,040 --> 00:33:09,920
Speaker 1: and as the Earth turns, this thing is essentially pointed

587
00:33:09,960 --> 00:33:13,160
Speaker 1: in a new direction. She herself is like sweeping her

588
00:33:13,240 --> 00:33:17,240
Speaker 1: instrument across the sky, examining different parts of the universe.

589
00:33:17,400 --> 00:33:20,520
Speaker 1: And you can get some directional information from a radio

590
00:33:20,560 --> 00:33:23,600
Speaker 1: antenna based on like when the signal arrives, does it

591
00:33:23,680 --> 00:33:26,280
Speaker 1: arrive first on the eastern part of the antenna or

592
00:33:26,440 --> 00:33:28,840
Speaker 1: first on the western part of the antenna. But it's

593
00:33:28,880 --> 00:33:31,960
Speaker 1: not great at telling where something is coming from exactly.

594
00:33:32,200 --> 00:33:34,800
Speaker 1: So she became really good analyzing these signals. And then

595
00:33:34,880 --> 00:33:39,440
Speaker 1: one day, November twenty eighth, nineteen sixty seven, she saw

596
00:33:39,480 --> 00:33:42,160
Speaker 1: the signal that she did not understand, something she had

597
00:33:42,200 --> 00:33:46,240
Speaker 1: never seen before. What she saw were pulses separated by

598
00:33:46,440 --> 00:33:49,480
Speaker 1: one and the third seconds, So it was like boop

599
00:33:50,400 --> 00:33:54,160
Speaker 1: boop boop, and she would get these pulses of radio

600
00:33:54,200 --> 00:33:58,080
Speaker 1: waves and the regularity of it. The exact distance between

601
00:33:58,080 --> 00:34:00,800
Speaker 1: the pulses is what made it seem weird. And at

602
00:34:00,800 --> 00:34:03,400
Speaker 1: first she thought, oh, this must be a signal from

603
00:34:03,480 --> 00:34:06,560
Speaker 1: something here on Earth, because of course there are lots

604
00:34:06,600 --> 00:34:10,680
Speaker 1: of sources of radio waves here on Earth. Almost everything

605
00:34:10,719 --> 00:34:14,799
Speaker 1: we do with our electronics generates radio noise. Every time

606
00:34:14,840 --> 00:34:17,160
Speaker 1: you turn on your television, certainly every time you use

607
00:34:17,200 --> 00:34:20,480
Speaker 1: your cell phone, and of course there are radio transmitters

608
00:34:20,520 --> 00:34:23,400
Speaker 1: all over the planet. And so first she had to

609
00:34:23,480 --> 00:34:27,759
Speaker 1: rule out various sources of human interference, like other radio astronomers,

610
00:34:27,840 --> 00:34:30,560
Speaker 1: people sending pulses off the Moon to measure the distance

611
00:34:30,560 --> 00:34:35,240
Speaker 1: to the Moon, television signals, beeps from orbiting satellites, even

612
00:34:35,400 --> 00:34:39,240
Speaker 1: like you know, possible effects from large corrugated metal buildings

613
00:34:39,320 --> 00:34:42,200
Speaker 1: near the telescopes. She went through this whole list, and

614
00:34:42,239 --> 00:34:43,919
Speaker 1: you got to do that when you see something weird

615
00:34:43,920 --> 00:34:45,960
Speaker 1: in your data, you got to first look for the

616
00:34:46,040 --> 00:34:49,319
Speaker 1: boring explanation like, oh, well, maybe I'm just measuring what

617
00:34:49,480 --> 00:34:52,320
Speaker 1: happens when somebody turns on the microwave in the breakroom

618
00:34:52,719 --> 00:34:54,919
Speaker 1: or something like that. You don't go straight to I've

619
00:34:54,920 --> 00:34:58,160
Speaker 1: discovered something new in the universe. So she very carefully

620
00:34:58,239 --> 00:35:01,520
Speaker 1: went through all these different explanations and eventually even borrowed

621
00:35:01,520 --> 00:35:05,959
Speaker 1: somebody else's radio telescope to confirm her observations. She wanted

622
00:35:05,960 --> 00:35:08,160
Speaker 1: to make sure it wasn't just like some weird blip

623
00:35:08,160 --> 00:35:11,120
Speaker 1: in her telescope. So she knew it wasn't just her telescope.

624
00:35:11,360 --> 00:35:15,120
Speaker 1: She ruled out all sources of human earth bound interference,

625
00:35:15,320 --> 00:35:17,960
Speaker 1: and she saw that it tracked with a particular location

626
00:35:18,200 --> 00:35:20,759
Speaker 1: in the sky. And that's a great clue that tells

627
00:35:20,760 --> 00:35:23,680
Speaker 1: you that it's not from Earth, because if it's from Earth,

628
00:35:23,880 --> 00:35:26,640
Speaker 1: then it doesn't matter which direction the Earth is pointed.

629
00:35:26,800 --> 00:35:29,399
Speaker 1: If it's not from Earth, then you will only see

630
00:35:29,400 --> 00:35:31,600
Speaker 1: it when the Earth is pointed in a certain direction,

631
00:35:31,880 --> 00:35:35,279
Speaker 1: only when the message itself sweeped across your radio telescope.

632
00:35:35,360 --> 00:35:38,680
Speaker 1: So where do their minds go. The strange regularity of it,

633
00:35:38,719 --> 00:35:41,400
Speaker 1: the fact that it came like every one and a

634
00:35:41,520 --> 00:35:46,560
Speaker 1: third seconds, made them think not of some new astrophysical object,

635
00:35:46,680 --> 00:35:51,240
Speaker 1: because nature is not often that precise, right. Nature is messy.

636
00:35:51,440 --> 00:35:53,400
Speaker 1: When you go out into the world, you don't see

637
00:35:53,440 --> 00:35:56,920
Speaker 1: like rocks that are exactly square. You don't see like

638
00:35:57,400 --> 00:36:00,600
Speaker 1: ten rocks exactly the same size you don't see this

639
00:36:00,680 --> 00:36:03,040
Speaker 1: sort of regular patterns. I mean, sometimes you do in

640
00:36:03,120 --> 00:36:06,640
Speaker 1: crystals and in other places, but nature is more often

641
00:36:06,760 --> 00:36:11,520
Speaker 1: messy than precise and regular. So their media thought was like, wow,

642
00:36:11,760 --> 00:36:16,280
Speaker 1: maybe this is alien intelligence. You know, she says quote.

643
00:36:16,480 --> 00:36:18,680
Speaker 1: We did not really believe that we had picked up

644
00:36:18,680 --> 00:36:22,520
Speaker 1: signals from another civilization, but obviously the idea had crossed

645
00:36:22,560 --> 00:36:24,800
Speaker 1: our minds, and we had no proof that it was

646
00:36:24,840 --> 00:36:28,719
Speaker 1: an entirely natural radio emission. It is an interesting problem

647
00:36:28,920 --> 00:36:31,360
Speaker 1: if one thinks one may have detected life elsewhere in

648
00:36:31,360 --> 00:36:34,920
Speaker 1: the universe, how does one announce the results responsibly? So

649
00:36:35,040 --> 00:36:37,760
Speaker 1: they really didn't know what they had. They were wondering,

650
00:36:37,880 --> 00:36:40,799
Speaker 1: is this something weird and knew? Are these aliens? Or

651
00:36:40,880 --> 00:36:44,960
Speaker 1: is this some natural source of radio emission that's weirdly regular.

652
00:36:45,440 --> 00:36:49,000
Speaker 1: So in their internal notes they called this thing LGM,

653
00:36:49,080 --> 00:36:52,000
Speaker 1: one for little Green Men. And so here you can

654
00:36:52,080 --> 00:36:56,040
Speaker 1: see the process of discovery in motion. Like there existed

655
00:36:56,480 --> 00:36:59,839
Speaker 1: in the literature, the speculation that these things might be

656
00:37:00,040 --> 00:37:03,600
Speaker 1: out there, that spinning neutron stars might generate pulses, and

657
00:37:03,719 --> 00:37:07,720
Speaker 1: here they are discovering pulses in the radio spectrum, essentially

658
00:37:07,760 --> 00:37:11,120
Speaker 1: exactly what was predicted. But they couldn't put it together, because,

659
00:37:11,160 --> 00:37:14,440
Speaker 1: as we mentioned before, there are lots of predictions out

660
00:37:14,440 --> 00:37:17,480
Speaker 1: there in the literature, only in hindsights you know exactly

661
00:37:17,560 --> 00:37:22,120
Speaker 1: who to listen to. It's like picking one of Nostrodamis's predictions, right.

662
00:37:22,239 --> 00:37:24,960
Speaker 1: Most of them are nonsense, and if you look back

663
00:37:25,000 --> 00:37:26,680
Speaker 1: to all of them, you can always find one that

664
00:37:26,760 --> 00:37:29,520
Speaker 1: seems to make sense. So what they did was they

665
00:37:29,640 --> 00:37:33,680
Speaker 1: kept looking, and pretty soon they found another pulsar somewhere

666
00:37:33,760 --> 00:37:36,719
Speaker 1: else in the sky, and that told them, m it's

667
00:37:36,800 --> 00:37:39,960
Speaker 1: probably not aliens, because there are signals coming from two

668
00:37:40,320 --> 00:37:44,840
Speaker 1: very different, very distant locations in the universe, so probably

669
00:37:44,880 --> 00:37:48,040
Speaker 1: it's a natural source. And then by Christmas of nineteen

670
00:37:48,160 --> 00:37:52,160
Speaker 1: sixty seven, right just like weeks after the first discovery,

671
00:37:52,320 --> 00:37:56,239
Speaker 1: they had found four of these things, so four pulsars.

672
00:37:56,480 --> 00:37:59,400
Speaker 1: And early next year they publicized their results and they

673
00:37:59,400 --> 00:38:02,719
Speaker 1: wrote a nice and this was a huge discovery, and

674
00:38:02,760 --> 00:38:06,840
Speaker 1: then everybody with a radio telescope started looking for these things, like, wow,

675
00:38:06,880 --> 00:38:09,440
Speaker 1: oh my gosh, these things are out there. The incredible

676
00:38:09,440 --> 00:38:11,640
Speaker 1: thing is that once you know to look for them,

677
00:38:11,680 --> 00:38:15,120
Speaker 1: they're not that hard to find. Pulsars are pretty bright.

678
00:38:15,280 --> 00:38:19,040
Speaker 1: Radio telescopes were kind of new optical astronomy was dominant

679
00:38:19,080 --> 00:38:20,840
Speaker 1: at the time, but there were a lot of radio

680
00:38:20,880 --> 00:38:24,040
Speaker 1: telescopes out there, and by the end of nineteen sixty eight,

681
00:38:24,480 --> 00:38:27,239
Speaker 1: dozens of these things had been found. And it was

682
00:38:27,280 --> 00:38:30,880
Speaker 1: another scientist, a guy named Thomas Gold, that put the

683
00:38:30,920 --> 00:38:35,360
Speaker 1: story together, who said, Ah, these pulsars are the rotating

684
00:38:35,440 --> 00:38:38,480
Speaker 1: neutron stars that we've been thinking about. What these folks

685
00:38:38,480 --> 00:38:42,080
Speaker 1: have seen out there in the universe is exactly what

686
00:38:42,120 --> 00:38:45,480
Speaker 1: we thought might happen in some circumstances at the end

687
00:38:45,480 --> 00:38:48,000
Speaker 1: of a supernova. So that was a really incredible moment

688
00:38:48,040 --> 00:38:51,640
Speaker 1: to say, like, Wow, these things, these crazy, weird little

689
00:38:51,640 --> 00:38:54,399
Speaker 1: blobs that we've predicted might be there as like the

690
00:38:54,400 --> 00:38:58,160
Speaker 1: tombstone on the end of a supernova, actually are out

691
00:38:58,160 --> 00:39:01,080
Speaker 1: there and they do this weird thing that lets us

692
00:39:01,280 --> 00:39:03,719
Speaker 1: find them. I think the discovery that really put a

693
00:39:03,760 --> 00:39:06,319
Speaker 1: pin in it was the discovery of a pulsar at

694
00:39:06,320 --> 00:39:09,160
Speaker 1: the heart of the crab Nebula. Crab Nebula is a

695
00:39:09,280 --> 00:39:12,120
Speaker 1: huge cloud of gas and dust. It's the remnant of

696
00:39:12,239 --> 00:39:14,759
Speaker 1: an old superd of a star that blew up and

697
00:39:14,800 --> 00:39:17,880
Speaker 1: spread most of its stuff out there in the universe.

698
00:39:18,000 --> 00:39:19,759
Speaker 1: So then when we looked with the radio and we

699
00:39:19,840 --> 00:39:23,400
Speaker 1: saw that at the heart of crab Nebula was a pulsar.

700
00:39:23,480 --> 00:39:25,920
Speaker 1: We thought, that's what this is, and that completes the

701
00:39:25,960 --> 00:39:28,719
Speaker 1: story that tells us that at the heart of many

702
00:39:28,800 --> 00:39:31,880
Speaker 1: nebula there may be these neutron stars. Not all of

703
00:39:31,920 --> 00:39:35,440
Speaker 1: them become pulsars, but pulsars tell us that the neutron

704
00:39:35,520 --> 00:39:39,120
Speaker 1: stars are there, that the supernova remnant has this hard

705
00:39:39,160 --> 00:39:41,960
Speaker 1: little nub at the core of it. But remember that

706
00:39:42,000 --> 00:39:44,759
Speaker 1: we're using radio waves so far to find these pulsars,

707
00:39:44,760 --> 00:39:47,799
Speaker 1: and radio waves are not very good at telling the

708
00:39:47,920 --> 00:39:51,200
Speaker 1: direction of a signal. It's not like an optical telescope,

709
00:39:51,320 --> 00:39:54,840
Speaker 1: where the photons of very short frequencies nanometers and you

710
00:39:54,880 --> 00:39:57,800
Speaker 1: can capture them. With a telescope pointed one specific direction,

711
00:39:58,200 --> 00:40:00,279
Speaker 1: you could tell exactly where on the lens it hit.

712
00:40:00,480 --> 00:40:03,600
Speaker 1: These things are captured by very large antenna and it's

713
00:40:03,640 --> 00:40:05,960
Speaker 1: hard to tell what direction they're coming from. So while

714
00:40:06,000 --> 00:40:08,239
Speaker 1: we say we saw a pulsar in the direction of

715
00:40:08,280 --> 00:40:10,719
Speaker 1: the crab nebula, it's not like we could really pin

716
00:40:10,840 --> 00:40:13,920
Speaker 1: down its location exactly. So there's a second part of

717
00:40:13,960 --> 00:40:17,680
Speaker 1: this discovery story, a part that was caught on audiotape

718
00:40:17,719 --> 00:40:19,960
Speaker 1: that I want to share with you, But first let's

719
00:40:19,960 --> 00:40:27,000
Speaker 1: take another break. When you pop a piece of cheese

720
00:40:27,040 --> 00:40:30,080
Speaker 1: into your mouth or enjoy a rich spoonful of Greek yogurt,

721
00:40:30,160 --> 00:40:33,840
Speaker 1: you're probably not thinking about the environmental impact of each

722
00:40:34,040 --> 00:40:36,719
Speaker 1: and every bite, But the people in the dairy industry are.

723
00:40:36,960 --> 00:40:41,000
Speaker 1: US Dairy has set themselves some ambitious sustainability goals, including

724
00:40:41,040 --> 00:40:44,040
Speaker 1: being greenhouse gas neutral by twenty to fifty. That's why

725
00:40:44,080 --> 00:40:46,239
Speaker 1: they're working hard every day to find new ways to

726
00:40:46,280 --> 00:40:50,560
Speaker 1: reduce waste, conserve natural resources, and drive down greenhouse gas emissions.

727
00:40:50,680 --> 00:40:53,839
Speaker 1: Take water, for example, most dairy farms reuse water up

728
00:40:53,880 --> 00:40:57,400
Speaker 1: to four times the same water cools the milk, cleans equipment,

729
00:40:57,600 --> 00:41:00,319
Speaker 1: washes the barn, and irrigates the crops. How is US

730
00:41:00,400 --> 00:41:04,200
Speaker 1: dairy tackling greenhouse gases? Many farms use anaerobic digestors that

731
00:41:04,280 --> 00:41:07,239
Speaker 1: turn the methane from maneuver into renewable energy that can

732
00:41:07,280 --> 00:41:10,080
Speaker 1: power farms, towns, and electric cars. So the next time

733
00:41:10,080 --> 00:41:11,839
Speaker 1: you grab a slice of pizza or lick an ice

734
00:41:11,880 --> 00:41:14,560
Speaker 1: cream cone, know that dairy farmers and processors around the

735
00:41:14,560 --> 00:41:18,040
Speaker 1: country are using the latest practices and innovations to provide

736
00:41:18,040 --> 00:41:20,840
Speaker 1: the nutrient intents dairy products we love with less of

737
00:41:20,840 --> 00:41:23,960
Speaker 1: an impact. Visit us dairy dot com slash sustainability to

738
00:41:24,040 --> 00:41:24,560
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739
00:41:25,600 --> 00:41:29,120
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740
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741
00:41:31,320 --> 00:41:33,680
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742
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743
00:41:36,760 --> 00:41:39,640
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744
00:41:39,680 --> 00:41:42,720
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745
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00:42:33,239 --> 00:42:36,480
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767
00:42:47,280 --> 00:42:49,520
Speaker 1: All right, So we are in the late sixties and

768
00:42:49,560 --> 00:42:52,200
Speaker 1: the field of astronomy was very excited because people had

769
00:42:52,239 --> 00:42:55,279
Speaker 1: been discovering pulsars. But these pulsars had been seen in

770
00:42:55,360 --> 00:42:58,160
Speaker 1: the radio frequency, which means they were hard to pin

771
00:42:58,320 --> 00:43:01,399
Speaker 1: down exactly where they were. People were wondering, are their

772
00:43:01,480 --> 00:43:03,920
Speaker 1: pulsars out there where? The beams of light that they

773
00:43:03,960 --> 00:43:07,799
Speaker 1: are shooting are visible light, not just radio noise, but

774
00:43:07,960 --> 00:43:11,600
Speaker 1: like actual visible beams that our eyes and our telescopes

775
00:43:11,640 --> 00:43:14,400
Speaker 1: could see. Well, most pulsars, we think are brightest in

776
00:43:14,440 --> 00:43:17,400
Speaker 1: the radio or the X ray. But the idea was

777
00:43:17,440 --> 00:43:19,880
Speaker 1: that there might be some optical pulsars. So there were

778
00:43:19,880 --> 00:43:22,760
Speaker 1: a couple of theorists named John Cook and Mike Disney,

779
00:43:22,920 --> 00:43:25,920
Speaker 1: and these were not experienced astronomers, but they were curious

780
00:43:25,960 --> 00:43:28,120
Speaker 1: about whether or not you could see one of these

781
00:43:28,160 --> 00:43:31,120
Speaker 1: pulsars in the optical So they decided, hey, let's give

782
00:43:31,120 --> 00:43:33,680
Speaker 1: this thing a shot. Let's sign up for some telescope time,

783
00:43:34,120 --> 00:43:36,400
Speaker 1: pointed at one of these pulsars and see if we

784
00:43:36,440 --> 00:43:40,080
Speaker 1: can see any flashes. So these guys not experimentalists, right,

785
00:43:40,120 --> 00:43:42,120
Speaker 1: they didn't really know how to use a telescope. This

786
00:43:42,160 --> 00:43:46,880
Speaker 1: is their first time using like real serious astronomical scientific equipment.

787
00:43:46,960 --> 00:43:49,279
Speaker 1: And they went down to Kidpeak near Tucson and they

788
00:43:49,320 --> 00:43:51,440
Speaker 1: signed up for a couple of days of observing time.

789
00:43:51,640 --> 00:43:53,560
Speaker 1: And what they had going for them was that they

790
00:43:53,560 --> 00:43:55,760
Speaker 1: were going to point this thing at the crab nebula.

791
00:43:55,840 --> 00:43:58,960
Speaker 1: And they already knew the frequency of the pulsar, so

792
00:43:59,000 --> 00:44:02,040
Speaker 1: they knew like what freakquency of light flashes to look for.

793
00:44:02,280 --> 00:44:04,839
Speaker 1: So what they did is they pointed this telescope at

794
00:44:04,880 --> 00:44:07,359
Speaker 1: the crab nebula and then they looked at the light

795
00:44:07,440 --> 00:44:09,840
Speaker 1: that came in. But remember that this again was before

796
00:44:09,880 --> 00:44:14,279
Speaker 1: like dedicated computers where you could rapidly inflexibly analyze your data.

797
00:44:14,320 --> 00:44:17,080
Speaker 1: What they needed was some sort of like dedicated electronics

798
00:44:17,239 --> 00:44:20,600
Speaker 1: that could turn their flashes of light into blips that

799
00:44:20,640 --> 00:44:22,640
Speaker 1: they could study. So there was a guy there who

800
00:44:22,760 --> 00:44:24,600
Speaker 1: was really good at electronics, and he happened to have

801
00:44:24,719 --> 00:44:27,560
Speaker 1: exactly what they needed, so they could plug their telescope

802
00:44:27,840 --> 00:44:30,480
Speaker 1: into this thing and it would analyze the frequency that

803
00:44:30,560 --> 00:44:33,239
Speaker 1: the time between blips and make a little plot for

804
00:44:33,320 --> 00:44:35,960
Speaker 1: them on a very small screen, so sort of like

805
00:44:36,000 --> 00:44:39,520
Speaker 1: a dedicated computer exactly to do this. They happened to

806
00:44:39,560 --> 00:44:42,319
Speaker 1: stumble across this guy who had exactly this equipment to

807
00:44:42,400 --> 00:44:44,600
Speaker 1: do what they needed. So they went out there for

808
00:44:44,640 --> 00:44:47,000
Speaker 1: their first day. They were very excited, thinking, wow, maybe

809
00:44:47,000 --> 00:44:49,200
Speaker 1: we're going to discover something. And they turned it on

810
00:44:49,480 --> 00:44:51,719
Speaker 1: and they saw nothing. And what they didn't know at

811
00:44:51,760 --> 00:44:53,440
Speaker 1: the time was that they had made a mistake in

812
00:44:53,480 --> 00:44:55,960
Speaker 1: their calculations and they had like tweaked the knobs on

813
00:44:56,040 --> 00:44:58,759
Speaker 1: this thing wrong, so they shouldn't have seen anything because

814
00:44:58,800 --> 00:45:01,520
Speaker 1: they were looking at the wrong sort of frequency spectrum.

815
00:45:01,560 --> 00:45:04,320
Speaker 1: The next two nights that they had were both cloudy,

816
00:45:04,680 --> 00:45:07,040
Speaker 1: and so they lost all of their observing time and

817
00:45:07,080 --> 00:45:09,200
Speaker 1: they never would have seen this thing if it hadn't

818
00:45:09,200 --> 00:45:12,040
Speaker 1: been for somebody else's bad luck. The person with the

819
00:45:12,080 --> 00:45:15,360
Speaker 1: telescope next after them, his wife got sick, so he

820
00:45:15,400 --> 00:45:17,080
Speaker 1: decided he was going to stay home and take care

821
00:45:17,120 --> 00:45:20,520
Speaker 1: of her, and he gave them his telescope time, so

822
00:45:20,560 --> 00:45:22,880
Speaker 1: they got an extra bonus of a couple of days

823
00:45:22,880 --> 00:45:25,520
Speaker 1: of observing time that they didn't expect to get. And

824
00:45:25,560 --> 00:45:28,319
Speaker 1: the clouds cleared and they had a beautiful night, and

825
00:45:28,360 --> 00:45:31,440
Speaker 1: they set their thing correctly, And they also had a

826
00:45:31,600 --> 00:45:36,040
Speaker 1: tape recorder running which recorded their conversation as well as

827
00:45:36,080 --> 00:45:39,440
Speaker 1: the data coming from the telescope. So this little box

828
00:45:39,480 --> 00:45:41,680
Speaker 1: not only makes a little depiction on their screen that

829
00:45:41,719 --> 00:45:44,240
Speaker 1: shows from the frequency, it also made a little tick

830
00:45:44,440 --> 00:45:47,160
Speaker 1: for every blip, So you'll hear those ticks on this tape.

831
00:45:47,280 --> 00:45:50,799
Speaker 1: You'll also hear them reacting in real time to the

832
00:45:50,840 --> 00:45:51,960
Speaker 1: discovery they are making.

833
00:45:56,880 --> 00:46:04,920
Speaker 8: Hey wow, you don't suppose that.

834
00:46:07,400 --> 00:46:14,120
Speaker 1: Can So you hear them saying that it's bang in

835
00:46:14,120 --> 00:46:16,319
Speaker 1: the middle of the period. Remember that they knew what

836
00:46:16,480 --> 00:46:19,480
Speaker 1: to look for. They knew the period of this pulse aar,

837
00:46:19,520 --> 00:46:22,120
Speaker 1: they knew their frequency at which it should flash, so

838
00:46:22,160 --> 00:46:25,279
Speaker 1: they were looking for a repeated pattern of flashes with

839
00:46:25,520 --> 00:46:28,200
Speaker 1: just the right period. They had zoomed in on exactly

840
00:46:28,239 --> 00:46:30,480
Speaker 1: what they were hoping to see. But of course they

841
00:46:30,520 --> 00:46:32,719
Speaker 1: never knew whether the universe would show it to them,

842
00:46:32,840 --> 00:46:36,720
Speaker 1: or whether it wouldn't. Here's the rest of their recording.

843
00:46:38,320 --> 00:46:59,840
Speaker 3: H it's very true. Yeah, look it is.

844
00:47:01,560 --> 00:47:04,160
Speaker 1: So you can hear literally the excitement in their voice.

845
00:47:04,239 --> 00:47:06,800
Speaker 1: One of them is astonished, look at that bleeding pulse,

846
00:47:07,200 --> 00:47:09,080
Speaker 1: and the other one is like, I can't believe this

847
00:47:09,120 --> 00:47:11,719
Speaker 1: is happening right now. It's getting bigger and bigger. You

848
00:47:11,760 --> 00:47:14,719
Speaker 1: can see them discovering it. You can hear in their

849
00:47:14,840 --> 00:47:18,600
Speaker 1: voices that they're realizing that they've caught it, that they've

850
00:47:18,680 --> 00:47:22,400
Speaker 1: seen this pulsar flickering invisible light, that they've pointed this

851
00:47:22,480 --> 00:47:26,080
Speaker 1: telescope at this weird, far away object and they've caught

852
00:47:26,120 --> 00:47:28,919
Speaker 1: it doing its thing. So that's a super fun little

853
00:47:28,960 --> 00:47:31,920
Speaker 1: follow up discovery. They've published that paper, and this must

854
00:47:31,960 --> 00:47:34,440
Speaker 1: have been a really fun moment for these guys because again,

855
00:47:34,560 --> 00:47:37,200
Speaker 1: this is the first time they ever went to a telescope.

856
00:47:37,440 --> 00:47:39,520
Speaker 1: This is the first time they ever looked out into

857
00:47:39,560 --> 00:47:41,880
Speaker 1: the universe. Most of their science was done with pencil

858
00:47:41,960 --> 00:47:44,120
Speaker 1: and paper and just sort of thinking about what might

859
00:47:44,160 --> 00:47:45,840
Speaker 1: be out there. And so I'm glad they got to

860
00:47:45,880 --> 00:47:49,400
Speaker 1: go out there and actually experienced this moment of discovery.

861
00:47:49,440 --> 00:47:52,719
Speaker 1: And it also really helped us understand what these pulsars were,

862
00:47:52,760 --> 00:47:55,759
Speaker 1: because with the optical telescope, with a visible light, you

863
00:47:55,760 --> 00:47:58,640
Speaker 1: could really pin down exactly where this thing was, and

864
00:47:58,680 --> 00:48:00,640
Speaker 1: we knew then that it really was at the heart

865
00:48:00,719 --> 00:48:03,240
Speaker 1: of the crowd nebula and it really was a pulsar.

866
00:48:03,520 --> 00:48:07,640
Speaker 1: So very exciting discovery and very quickly appreciated, of course

867
00:48:07,880 --> 00:48:11,840
Speaker 1: by the scientific community. And in nineteen seventy four, just

868
00:48:12,000 --> 00:48:15,719
Speaker 1: a few years later, Jocelyn Bell's advisor is the first

869
00:48:15,760 --> 00:48:19,680
Speaker 1: astronomer to ever win the Nobel Prize in physics. That's right,

870
00:48:19,960 --> 00:48:23,440
Speaker 1: her advisor won the Nobel Prize. Now, of course he

871
00:48:23,560 --> 00:48:26,960
Speaker 1: was involved, right, You know, a graduate student never works alone.

872
00:48:27,120 --> 00:48:30,400
Speaker 1: He gave lots of guidance, lots of ideas, probably provided

873
00:48:30,440 --> 00:48:32,960
Speaker 1: the funding. But it's clear that she's the one who

874
00:48:33,000 --> 00:48:35,440
Speaker 1: made the discovery. She built that thing, she was out

875
00:48:35,440 --> 00:48:37,920
Speaker 1: there day to day, she saw it in the data.

876
00:48:38,000 --> 00:48:40,640
Speaker 1: And there's a lot of discussion these days about why

877
00:48:40,719 --> 00:48:43,360
Speaker 1: she was left out of it. It's because she was

878
00:48:43,400 --> 00:48:46,239
Speaker 1: a student. While there are lots of other cases when

879
00:48:46,280 --> 00:48:50,279
Speaker 1: a student participated in discovery and was included in the

880
00:48:50,280 --> 00:48:54,280
Speaker 1: Nobel Prize discovery. Holton Taylor, for example, was a graduate

881
00:48:54,360 --> 00:48:58,160
Speaker 1: student advisor pair that discovered binary pulsars just a couple

882
00:48:58,160 --> 00:49:01,280
Speaker 1: of decades later, and they were both given the Nobel Prize,

883
00:49:01,320 --> 00:49:04,480
Speaker 1: even though one of them was a graduate student. Of course,

884
00:49:04,560 --> 00:49:07,080
Speaker 1: there's the question of whether or not it was sexism.

885
00:49:07,160 --> 00:49:09,720
Speaker 1: In the history of the Nobel Prizes, very few women

886
00:49:10,000 --> 00:49:12,719
Speaker 1: have been given the prize and many have been qualified,

887
00:49:12,760 --> 00:49:15,400
Speaker 1: so it seems like an obvious case of injustice. Burnelle

888
00:49:15,480 --> 00:49:18,239
Speaker 1: herself is very gracious about it. She recently was given

889
00:49:18,280 --> 00:49:21,360
Speaker 1: the Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics, which comes with millions

890
00:49:21,400 --> 00:49:24,360
Speaker 1: of dollars, which she then donated to advancing the cause

891
00:49:24,400 --> 00:49:27,120
Speaker 1: of having more women in physics. But of course she

892
00:49:27,200 --> 00:49:29,640
Speaker 1: did note that the journalists didn't ask her science questions.

893
00:49:29,640 --> 00:49:31,759
Speaker 1: They tended to ask her questions about like how many

894
00:49:31,760 --> 00:49:34,440
Speaker 1: boyfriends she had. But this kicked off a whole really

895
00:49:34,520 --> 00:49:38,040
Speaker 1: exciting era of astronomy, because every time you discover something

896
00:49:38,080 --> 00:49:40,840
Speaker 1: new out there in the universe, it gives you another handle,

897
00:49:40,840 --> 00:49:43,640
Speaker 1: it gives you a way to learn things, It reveals

898
00:49:43,719 --> 00:49:46,360
Speaker 1: new things about the universe that you didn't know before.

899
00:49:46,640 --> 00:49:49,120
Speaker 1: And just a few years after that, we discovered things

900
00:49:49,160 --> 00:49:52,920
Speaker 1: like millisecond pulsars. These are things that's been around so

901
00:49:53,200 --> 00:49:56,440
Speaker 1: fast that we see a pulse from them not every second,

902
00:49:56,719 --> 00:50:01,320
Speaker 1: but every millisecond. So these stars are spinning thousand times

903
00:50:01,440 --> 00:50:05,520
Speaker 1: faster than the original pulsar spun right every one point

904
00:50:05,560 --> 00:50:10,319
Speaker 1: six seconds. This incredible, enormous dense object spins around. These

905
00:50:10,360 --> 00:50:13,360
Speaker 1: things are moving really really fast, spinning like tens of

906
00:50:13,480 --> 00:50:16,799
Speaker 1: thousands of times per minute. The fastest pulsar we've ever

907
00:50:16,800 --> 00:50:19,280
Speaker 1: seen we talked about on our episode about the fastest

908
00:50:19,320 --> 00:50:23,120
Speaker 1: spinning things in the universe is sixteen kilometers in radius

909
00:50:23,160 --> 00:50:25,880
Speaker 1: and the surface of it is moving at a quarter

910
00:50:26,120 --> 00:50:29,120
Speaker 1: of the speed of light. That's how fastest thing spinning.

911
00:50:29,160 --> 00:50:31,560
Speaker 1: I won't tell you the name because it's a ridiculous

912
00:50:31,600 --> 00:50:34,840
Speaker 1: series of letters and numbers, but it's spinning at seven

913
00:50:34,920 --> 00:50:39,280
Speaker 1: hundred and sixteen hertz. That means every second, this entire

914
00:50:39,600 --> 00:50:44,480
Speaker 1: mountain sized blob of nuclear matter spins seven hundred times around,

915
00:50:44,600 --> 00:50:47,000
Speaker 1: and it's eighteen thousand light years from Earth in the

916
00:50:47,000 --> 00:50:51,360
Speaker 1: constellation Sagittarius and is sending us pulses very very regularly.

917
00:50:51,600 --> 00:50:54,200
Speaker 1: The other amazing thing about these pulsars is that they

918
00:50:54,200 --> 00:50:58,200
Speaker 1: are precisely timed. It's not just like roughly seven hundred

919
00:50:58,200 --> 00:51:02,000
Speaker 1: and sixteen herts. It's like exactly and every second it's

920
00:51:02,080 --> 00:51:05,440
Speaker 1: the same. These things do not change, and it's astounding

921
00:51:05,440 --> 00:51:07,800
Speaker 1: when you see something in nature that is so regular.

922
00:51:08,120 --> 00:51:11,279
Speaker 1: These things have the regularity the consistency that rivals that

923
00:51:11,360 --> 00:51:14,320
Speaker 1: of atomic clocks. You can use them as a probe

924
00:51:14,400 --> 00:51:16,680
Speaker 1: of the rest of the universe because they send out

925
00:51:16,680 --> 00:51:20,480
Speaker 1: these very very regular pulses. For example, a pulsar was

926
00:51:20,520 --> 00:51:22,920
Speaker 1: actually the first way that we had evidence of a

927
00:51:22,960 --> 00:51:26,719
Speaker 1: planet around another star, because when a pulsar has a

928
00:51:26,760 --> 00:51:29,720
Speaker 1: planet around it, that planet is tugging on it gravitationally

929
00:51:29,760 --> 00:51:32,360
Speaker 1: as it orbits, and it means the pulsar moves towards

930
00:51:32,440 --> 00:51:34,960
Speaker 1: us sometimes and away from us other times, and this

931
00:51:35,120 --> 00:51:38,360
Speaker 1: velocity changes the frequency of the pulsar by a very

932
00:51:38,400 --> 00:51:41,759
Speaker 1: small amount. But because the pulsars are so precise and

933
00:51:41,840 --> 00:51:44,319
Speaker 1: so accurate, we can detect that, and if it's a

934
00:51:44,360 --> 00:51:47,319
Speaker 1: regular shift in the frequency of the pulsar, you can

935
00:51:47,360 --> 00:51:50,719
Speaker 1: deduce the presence of a planet around the pulsar. How

936
00:51:50,760 --> 00:51:53,200
Speaker 1: do you have a planet around a pulsar. It's crazy, right,

937
00:51:53,560 --> 00:51:56,640
Speaker 1: because a pulsar comes from when the Sun was destroyed,

938
00:51:56,840 --> 00:52:00,920
Speaker 1: so probably some chunk of that nebula has now reformed

939
00:52:00,920 --> 00:52:04,120
Speaker 1: some planet which is orbiting the pulsar, or some planet

940
00:52:04,239 --> 00:52:09,320
Speaker 1: happened to amazingly survive the supernova explosion that created the pulsar.

941
00:52:09,480 --> 00:52:12,840
Speaker 1: And you can also use them to navigate around the galaxy.

942
00:52:12,880 --> 00:52:15,600
Speaker 1: Because every pulsar is different, each one has like its

943
00:52:15,680 --> 00:52:19,120
Speaker 1: own unique fingerprint. You can tell which one you are

944
00:52:19,160 --> 00:52:22,200
Speaker 1: listening to, and you can also tell where you are

945
00:52:22,200 --> 00:52:24,680
Speaker 1: in its cycle. Is it pointing towards me or away

946
00:52:24,719 --> 00:52:27,040
Speaker 1: from me? And if you look at multiple of these things,

947
00:52:27,080 --> 00:52:29,560
Speaker 1: you can tell like how many cycles you are away

948
00:52:29,560 --> 00:52:33,360
Speaker 1: from multiple pulsars, lets you triangulate exactly where you are

949
00:52:33,360 --> 00:52:36,280
Speaker 1: in the galaxy. But a whole fun podcast episode about

950
00:52:36,440 --> 00:52:40,360
Speaker 1: navigating deep space using pulsars, and people have crazy plans

951
00:52:40,400 --> 00:52:43,360
Speaker 1: for how to use pulsars. For example, they want to

952
00:52:43,440 --> 00:52:46,880
Speaker 1: use them as gravitational wave detectors. Remember that we have

953
00:52:47,000 --> 00:52:50,239
Speaker 1: seen ripples in the fabric of space by seeing how

954
00:52:50,280 --> 00:52:55,920
Speaker 1: these gravitational waves stretch and shrink the distances here on Earth. Well,

955
00:52:55,960 --> 00:52:58,160
Speaker 1: there might be really massive ones that we can measure

956
00:52:58,160 --> 00:53:01,439
Speaker 1: they're stretching and shrinking the entire galaxy, and those would

957
00:53:01,440 --> 00:53:05,400
Speaker 1: affect the pulses from these pulsars, and so a bunch

958
00:53:05,400 --> 00:53:08,799
Speaker 1: of really precise clocks sending us dings from all around

959
00:53:08,840 --> 00:53:12,839
Speaker 1: the galaxy can be used to detect gravitational waves. So

960
00:53:12,880 --> 00:53:15,400
Speaker 1: there's a bright future for the signs of pulsars, as

961
00:53:15,480 --> 00:53:18,560
Speaker 1: well as a fascinating story that tells us exactly how

962
00:53:18,600 --> 00:53:20,960
Speaker 1: they were discovered. So thanks for coming along with me

963
00:53:21,040 --> 00:53:25,000
Speaker 1: on this ride of historical exploration to understand how we

964
00:53:25,080 --> 00:53:28,360
Speaker 1: actually make these breakthroughs, how people actually win Nobel prizes

965
00:53:28,640 --> 00:53:31,000
Speaker 1: or are sometimes cut out of it by their advisor,

966
00:53:31,080 --> 00:53:35,319
Speaker 1: but how scientific knowledge is very slowly, very painstakingly, but

967
00:53:35,520 --> 00:53:39,439
Speaker 1: very excitingly accumulated. Thanks for joining us. Tune in next time.

968
00:53:47,280 --> 00:53:50,080
Speaker 1: Thanks for listening, and remember that Daniel and Jorge Explain

969
00:53:50,120 --> 00:53:54,120
Speaker 1: the Universe is a production of iHeartRadio. For more podcasts

970
00:53:54,120 --> 00:53:58,800
Speaker 1: from iHeartRadio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever

971
00:53:58,840 --> 00:54:00,520
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981
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982
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990
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Speaker 9: and roads every day. Remember they're real people with loved

991
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992
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993
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