WEBVTT - How Andreas Vesalius Proved Women Have Just as Many Teeth as Men 0:00:01.680 --> 0:00:05.320 Welcome to Criminalia, a production of Shonda Land Audio in 0:00:05.400 --> 0:00:16.480 partnership with I Heart Radio. We can't not talk about 0:00:16.640 --> 0:00:21.319 Andreas Vesalius. He was a sixteenth century Flemish anatomist whose 0:00:21.320 --> 0:00:25.080 work revolutionized the study of the human body. And he 0:00:25.120 --> 0:00:27.880 was able to do so because he was also a 0:00:28.040 --> 0:00:32.440 body snatcher, who used his hands on observations to publish groundbreaking, 0:00:32.920 --> 0:00:36.680 forward thinking works about how our bodies function. And in 0:00:36.800 --> 0:00:41.680 doing so, this body snatcher became the father of modern anatomy. 0:00:42.240 --> 0:00:46.880 Welcome to Criminalia. I'm Maria tru Marquis and I'm Holly Fry. First, 0:00:47.280 --> 0:00:52.120 a little administrative detailed to noon. Andreas Vesalius is actually 0:00:52.159 --> 0:00:56.080 the Anglicized form of the Dutch name Andre's von Vizel. 0:00:56.600 --> 0:00:59.520 It was a common practice among European scholars during the 0:00:59.560 --> 0:01:03.520 sixteen century to anglicize their names, and you might see 0:01:03.560 --> 0:01:07.319 his name with many other spellings and pronunciations. We have 0:01:07.520 --> 0:01:10.880 encountered six other versions during research, and we are confident 0:01:10.959 --> 0:01:14.120 we did not find them all. We're going to refer 0:01:14.160 --> 0:01:17.880 to him by his commonly used name, Andrea's Vesalius, and 0:01:18.360 --> 0:01:21.600 with that out of the way, Andreas was born, as 0:01:21.640 --> 0:01:25.880 we said, Andrey's van Vesel on December thirty one, fifteen fourteen, 0:01:26.280 --> 0:01:30.000 to Anders von Wiseel and Isabel crab in Brussels, which 0:01:30.040 --> 0:01:33.839 at that point was part of the Habsburg Netherlands. Andreas 0:01:33.880 --> 0:01:37.120 had two brothers and a sister, and when he was thirty, 0:01:37.319 --> 0:01:40.120 after finishing medical school, he married a woman named and 0:01:40.400 --> 0:01:43.479 van Hama, the daughter of a wealthy counselor of Brussels. 0:01:43.959 --> 0:01:47.320 The couple welcomed a daughter, also named am in fifteen 0:01:47.400 --> 0:01:50.880 forty five. The von Vosso family was full of physicians 0:01:50.880 --> 0:01:54.960 and pharmacists. The sands is great grandfather, Yawn, taught medicine 0:01:55.040 --> 0:01:59.680 at the University of Luven. His grandfather, Averard, was the 0:02:00.000 --> 0:02:03.400 all physician of Emperor Maximilian. His father, too was a 0:02:03.400 --> 0:02:06.720 healer and served as apothecary to Maximilian and later Valet 0:02:06.800 --> 0:02:10.440 de Champ to its successor, Charles. The fifth Andreas family 0:02:10.560 --> 0:02:13.560 encouraged him to follow in the family tradition, and he 0:02:13.600 --> 0:02:17.640 did and with great success. The sixteenth century has often 0:02:17.680 --> 0:02:21.200 been called the century of anatomy, kind of perfectly nicknamed 0:02:21.200 --> 0:02:25.280 for Andreas's time. During his primary years, he attended the 0:02:25.360 --> 0:02:28.160 Brethren of the common Life in Brussels, at the age 0:02:28.200 --> 0:02:31.680 of fifteen, he enrolled in the University of Luverne, which 0:02:31.680 --> 0:02:36.280 we know today as the Old University, attending from fifteen 0:02:36.639 --> 0:02:40.840 nine till fifteen thirty three. Andreas studied at least initially 0:02:41.080 --> 0:02:45.760 the arts, including rhetoric, philosophy and logic in Latin, Classical, 0:02:45.760 --> 0:02:51.720 Greek and Hebrew. At the Collegium Trilingue, Andreas became interested 0:02:51.840 --> 0:02:55.440 in anatomy and surgery and showed skill in those areas. 0:02:56.120 --> 0:02:59.440 He soon acted as the de facto anatomy instructor on 0:02:59.480 --> 0:03:03.680 an in for normal basis, demonstrating anatomical dissections to his 0:03:03.760 --> 0:03:08.080 fellow students. After receiving his bachelor's degree in medicine in 0:03:08.160 --> 0:03:11.640 fifteen thirty three, he continued his studies at the prestigious 0:03:11.680 --> 0:03:15.400 medical school at the University of Paris. While in Paris, 0:03:15.400 --> 0:03:20.399 Andreas studied under famous physicians and anatomists, including French anatomist 0:03:20.680 --> 0:03:26.120 Jacobus Silvius and Johann Gunther Von Andernach, an osteologist and mycologist. 0:03:26.880 --> 0:03:30.360 Said Johan of his pupil, quote, the Salius is a 0:03:30.400 --> 0:03:35.200 young man of great promise, possessing an extraordinary knowledge of medicine, 0:03:35.600 --> 0:03:39.640 proficient in Latin, and Greek, and very skilled in dissection 0:03:39.680 --> 0:03:43.200 of bodies. It was in Paris for Andreas was first 0:03:43.280 --> 0:03:47.360 given the opportunity to dissect a human cadaver. It's probably 0:03:47.360 --> 0:03:51.320 actually safe to say cadaver's plural in this instance. During 0:03:51.320 --> 0:03:53.680 this time he devoted much of his study to human 0:03:53.720 --> 0:03:57.280 bones and the skeletal system. In fact, in his own words, 0:03:57.360 --> 0:03:59.880 he has said the following about body snatching for his 0:04:00.040 --> 0:04:03.880 education quote, the cemetery of the Innocence in Paris was 0:04:03.920 --> 0:04:06.760 where I began my study of bones, in company with 0:04:06.840 --> 0:04:10.480 Matteis Terminus. There we found a rich supply of bones, 0:04:10.560 --> 0:04:13.160 which we examined over a long period until we were 0:04:13.200 --> 0:04:15.320 able to make a bet with our fellow students that 0:04:15.640 --> 0:04:19.560 blindfolded we could identify by touch alone any bone which 0:04:19.600 --> 0:04:21.680 they pulled from the piles over a half an hour 0:04:21.800 --> 0:04:24.760 period and handed to us. We were forced to these 0:04:24.839 --> 0:04:28.359 links because, though eager to learn, we had no teachers 0:04:28.440 --> 0:04:32.679 to assist us in this aspect of medicine. Andreas left 0:04:32.720 --> 0:04:35.840 Paris though before he graduated, but not because of any 0:04:35.880 --> 0:04:39.680 academic failing. While he was studying at the university, the 0:04:39.760 --> 0:04:43.200 Italian War, which spanned fifteen thirty six to fifteen thirty 0:04:43.200 --> 0:04:46.720 eight broke out. This was a conflict between King Francis 0:04:46.720 --> 0:04:49.799 the First of France and Charles the fifth Holy Roman 0:04:49.839 --> 0:04:52.520 Emperor and King of Spain, and a lot of it 0:04:52.600 --> 0:04:56.159 was fought in France. Andrea's returned to the University of 0:04:56.240 --> 0:04:59.920 Leuven and in early fifty seven transferred to the Universe 0:05:00.120 --> 0:05:03.200 of Padua in what was then the Republic of Venice. 0:05:03.880 --> 0:05:07.000 At the time Andreas enrolled, the university was known to 0:05:07.040 --> 0:05:10.159 have a progressive medical program with a strong emphasis on 0:05:10.200 --> 0:05:14.320 anatomical dissection. It was a famous center of medical education 0:05:14.400 --> 0:05:18.440 during the Renaissance. It said at one time the anatomy 0:05:18.480 --> 0:05:21.279 college brought in a troop of musicians to play throughout 0:05:21.279 --> 0:05:25.040 a dissection to set the right kind of sober scene. 0:05:25.440 --> 0:05:30.280 At Patua, he performed several human anatomical dissections and analyzed 0:05:30.560 --> 0:05:33.919 at least two skeletons in the spam of just one year. 0:05:34.480 --> 0:05:38.080 Andreas received his Doctor of Medicine degree with highest distinction 0:05:38.240 --> 0:05:42.640 in December of fifty seven, and just one day after 0:05:42.720 --> 0:05:47.200 his graduation, the Senate of Venice nominated vi Salius as 0:05:47.240 --> 0:05:51.320 Professor of Surgery at the University of Padua. He accepted 0:05:51.360 --> 0:05:54.880 the position and was responsible for lecturing in surgical topics 0:05:55.240 --> 0:05:59.520 as well as giving anatomical demonstrations. We're going to take 0:05:59.560 --> 0:06:01.720 a brand for word from our sponsor now and when 0:06:01.760 --> 0:06:07.400 we return, will share Andreas's advice to would be body snatchers. 0:06:19.960 --> 0:06:25.360 Welcome back to Criminalia. Andreas Phuslias wasn't shy about criticizing 0:06:25.400 --> 0:06:29.040 his teachers for studying the carcasses of cats, dogs, and 0:06:29.160 --> 0:06:33.360 pigs rather than humans. Let's talk about how a little 0:06:33.400 --> 0:06:36.680 body snatching could go a long way when you study anatomy. 0:06:37.560 --> 0:06:40.560 As Alius was one of the first physicians to accurately 0:06:40.680 --> 0:06:45.640 record and illustrate human anatomy based on his own findings 0:06:45.720 --> 0:06:50.440 from autopsies and dissections. His work directly led to improved 0:06:50.520 --> 0:06:54.600 understanding of the human body as well as enhanced surgical techniques. 0:06:55.120 --> 0:06:59.400 We've spoken throughout this entire season about surgeons and physicians 0:06:59.440 --> 0:07:03.040 interested in human anatomy who employed grave robbers so they 0:07:03.040 --> 0:07:07.160 could get their jobs done. Some engaged in body snatching themselves. 0:07:07.560 --> 0:07:11.200 The Salius was the latter. He felt strongly that book 0:07:11.280 --> 0:07:15.080 learning alone could not be enough, and that verifiable evidence 0:07:15.120 --> 0:07:18.560 should take precedence over written text. There's a story that 0:07:18.600 --> 0:07:20.600 says he snatched a body while he was a student 0:07:20.640 --> 0:07:22.920 in Paris, just so he could have a skeleton for 0:07:23.000 --> 0:07:27.520 reference in his work. Before the Salius came on the scene. 0:07:28.000 --> 0:07:31.200 An anatomical lecture and dissection kind of looked like this. 0:07:31.720 --> 0:07:36.480 A professor sat in the chair teaching from a textbook. Concurrently, 0:07:36.960 --> 0:07:41.120 a surgeon would perform the dissection, and students sat around 0:07:41.160 --> 0:07:46.240 and observed. There was no divergence from the text. The Salius, 0:07:46.280 --> 0:07:49.800 on the other hand, accomplished his work by not reading 0:07:49.800 --> 0:07:53.400 about bodies, but by snatching bodies from local graves and 0:07:53.480 --> 0:07:57.160 directly studying them. He often led his own students to 0:07:57.240 --> 0:08:01.240 the graveyard, imparting his grave robbing knowledge along the way. 0:08:01.360 --> 0:08:03.600 It was smart. He told them to keep an eye 0:08:03.680 --> 0:08:07.720 on any terminal patients in public hospitals. He taught and 0:08:07.880 --> 0:08:11.320 encouraged his students how to acquire a set of duplicate 0:08:11.440 --> 0:08:15.840 keys for local graveyards to break into tombs. He also 0:08:15.920 --> 0:08:19.320 advised them to watch the gibbets for corpses. Hanging the 0:08:19.360 --> 0:08:22.840 body of an executed criminal in chains was known as gibbeting. 0:08:23.560 --> 0:08:27.600 He successfully negotiated with judges and authorities to make long 0:08:27.680 --> 0:08:32.360 life sentences into death sentences instead and once the prisoner 0:08:32.440 --> 0:08:36.120 was executed, their body would end up on his dissection table. 0:08:36.960 --> 0:08:39.720 He would never, though, have considered himself to be like 0:08:39.760 --> 0:08:42.160 the resurrection men that we have talked about in other 0:08:42.240 --> 0:08:46.680 episodes this season. Andreas just needed the tools for his job, 0:08:46.800 --> 0:08:49.960 and that is how he saw things. This was how 0:08:50.040 --> 0:08:53.680 things went, though if he were among the Renaissance era anatomists. 0:08:53.720 --> 0:08:57.000 Historical accounts tell a lot of narratives. Actually that sounds 0:08:57.000 --> 0:09:00.440 something like this. After the death of a local, hasn't, 0:09:00.600 --> 0:09:05.280 local scholars rushed the scene, all hoping to illegally snatch 0:09:05.400 --> 0:09:09.120 the fresh corpse. Despite the illegality of the body snatching 0:09:09.160 --> 0:09:13.560 and the dissection, crowds packed lecture theaters when public dissections 0:09:13.559 --> 0:09:18.359 were held. In fifteen thirty eight, one year into his professorship, 0:09:18.480 --> 0:09:22.800 Andreas published the Tabulae and atomic a sex or Six 0:09:22.800 --> 0:09:26.760 Anatomical Tables, which were six sheets created by the Flemish 0:09:26.840 --> 0:09:30.720 artist Jan van Kulkar, an apprentice of Renaissance painter Titian, 0:09:31.200 --> 0:09:36.480 but based largely on Visalius's own drawings. Titiano Viccellio, known 0:09:36.520 --> 0:09:39.520 in English as Titian, was an Italian painter during the 0:09:39.600 --> 0:09:42.840 Renaissance and is considered to be the most important member 0:09:42.920 --> 0:09:47.560 of the sixteenth century Venetian School. Six Anatomical Tables was 0:09:47.640 --> 0:09:51.760 Visalius's attempt to outline the long history of human dissection, 0:09:52.360 --> 0:09:56.920 starting from the third century BC. It can feel somewhat 0:09:56.960 --> 0:10:00.760 overwhelming to think about the impact on as his work 0:10:00.880 --> 0:10:04.640 had on medicine. By the end of fifteen thirty eight, 0:10:04.640 --> 0:10:08.440 he had assembled a collection of anatomical information large and 0:10:08.520 --> 0:10:13.040 detailed enough on which he could and did base illustrations 0:10:13.080 --> 0:10:17.000 on the human bodies, parts and organs, really all systems 0:10:17.080 --> 0:10:21.240 from head to toe. He drew detailed composite illustrations of 0:10:21.240 --> 0:10:26.320 the human bodies anatomical structures, including the skeletal system, circulatory system, 0:10:26.480 --> 0:10:31.800 organ systems, muscular systems, nervous system, and reproductive system. Based 0:10:31.840 --> 0:10:35.560 upon his observations and dissections that he performed himself. Within 0:10:35.600 --> 0:10:38.800 the first year of his professorship, the Salius wrote and 0:10:38.880 --> 0:10:43.120 illustrated the first comprehensive textbook of anatomy, called the human 0:10:43.200 --> 0:10:46.960 E Corporus Fabrica Libra Septum, or the Seven Books on 0:10:47.000 --> 0:10:49.960 the Structure of the Human Body. It is commonly known 0:10:50.000 --> 0:10:54.160 as the Fabrica. Historians estimate that he must have had 0:10:54.200 --> 0:10:58.319 at least thirteen cadavers to work with. Before fifty three, 0:10:58.360 --> 0:11:01.320 which is when the book was published, these bodies would 0:11:01.320 --> 0:11:04.640 have come from cemeteries in the city, places of execution, 0:11:04.920 --> 0:11:10.400 and sometimes from hospitals. In fifteen forty two, Vissalius traveled 0:11:10.440 --> 0:11:14.360 from Padua to Venice, and while it's not exactly clear 0:11:14.440 --> 0:11:17.440 what his journey entailed, we do know that he met 0:11:17.440 --> 0:11:21.040 with Jon von Kalkar. It's very likely he was the 0:11:21.120 --> 0:11:25.480 artist who transferred at least some of Assalius's illustrations into 0:11:25.480 --> 0:11:28.880 woodblock prints. Wood block printing, just to kind of sum 0:11:28.880 --> 0:11:31.480 this up, because it's an interesting process, is an old 0:11:31.559 --> 0:11:35.440 form of printmaking. These prints are created by carving the 0:11:35.480 --> 0:11:38.280 surface of a wooden block. It's a form of relief 0:11:38.360 --> 0:11:41.320 printing based on the idea that the parts that aren't 0:11:41.440 --> 0:11:44.160 to be printed are the parts that get cut out, 0:11:44.320 --> 0:11:47.280 so anything that will be printed would be on level 0:11:47.360 --> 0:11:51.000 with the surface of the block. Andrea sent the woodblocks 0:11:51.000 --> 0:11:54.600 of his drawings to printer Johannes Apornus in Basel, Switzerland, 0:11:54.800 --> 0:11:58.920 who could mass reproduce the images, and the resulting manuscript 0:11:59.000 --> 0:12:02.200 was published in fifty forty three. And as we've said, 0:12:02.280 --> 0:12:05.760 that work was a game changer in anatomy and surgery. 0:12:05.920 --> 0:12:10.640 The Fabrica included fully illustrated anatomy of male and female bodies, 0:12:10.720 --> 0:12:14.439 both full bodies and body parts. There were more than 0:12:14.520 --> 0:12:19.080 two hundred seventy detailed illustrations included in the work. It 0:12:19.120 --> 0:12:23.760 included detailed diagrams of uteruses, some drawn with intact fetuses. 0:12:24.480 --> 0:12:27.600 This was huge. Yes, this book was huge in length, 0:12:27.640 --> 0:12:31.120 but also nothing like this existed and it was considered 0:12:31.200 --> 0:12:36.000 quite radical. Before the sixteenth century, most medical texts were 0:12:36.120 --> 0:12:40.480 mostly devoid of illustrations, the very opposite of Andreas's book, 0:12:41.240 --> 0:12:45.280 says Lila Vercurdie, head of Special Collections at the Smithsonian Libraries, 0:12:45.320 --> 0:12:49.320 the Fabrica was quote an immense achievement. This almost seven 0:12:49.400 --> 0:12:53.160 hundred pages long, huge folio volume is one of the 0:12:53.200 --> 0:12:57.800 heralds of the scientific revolution. Of course, Andrea's isn't the 0:12:57.840 --> 0:13:02.560 first to study, teach, and publish about anatomy, but as 0:13:02.720 --> 0:13:06.640 Arnaldo Benini, emeritus Professor of Neurosurgery and Neurology at the 0:13:06.720 --> 0:13:10.160 University of Zurich as well as former head of neurosurgery 0:13:10.200 --> 0:13:14.600 at the Schultis Foundation in Zurich, says, the Fabrica was 0:13:14.640 --> 0:13:19.320 the first anatomical book based on first hand dissections of 0:13:19.400 --> 0:13:23.920 human cadavers, and he's right, it absolutely was. But there's 0:13:23.960 --> 0:13:27.520 another really important guy among anatomists that we need to 0:13:27.559 --> 0:13:30.720 talk about. We're gonna take a break for a word 0:13:30.720 --> 0:13:33.200 from our sponsor, and when we're back we will talk 0:13:33.240 --> 0:13:37.160 a lot about Galen and how Andreas disproved many of 0:13:37.240 --> 0:13:54.240 his longstanding anatomical truths. Welcome back to Criminalia. Before we 0:13:54.280 --> 0:13:58.400 wrap up this episode, someone will call Andreas vis alias 0:13:58.559 --> 0:14:05.439 an insolent and ig arrant slanderer. But who Claudius Galenus, 0:14:05.480 --> 0:14:09.480 known simply as Galen, was a renowned physician and philosopher 0:14:09.600 --> 0:14:13.640 in ancient Greece. Along with Hippocrates, you could safely say 0:14:13.720 --> 0:14:17.960 he's the most influential physician and most important medical scholar 0:14:18.040 --> 0:14:22.920 of classical antiquity. When Vesalius received his medical education, it 0:14:22.960 --> 0:14:26.360 would have been dominated by the works of Galen, works 0:14:26.360 --> 0:14:31.400 that had been published thirteen hundred years earlier. Galen's writings 0:14:31.440 --> 0:14:34.280 and teachings were still de rigor more than a thousand 0:14:34.400 --> 0:14:38.120 years after his death, and they were considered authoritative texts 0:14:38.120 --> 0:14:42.600 in medical education in Vesalius's time. Here's one of the 0:14:42.640 --> 0:14:47.880 biggest differences between Galen and Vesalius. Almost all of Galen's 0:14:47.880 --> 0:14:53.680 anatomical observations came from animal dissections, primarily apes and other primates, 0:14:53.960 --> 0:14:58.680 but never from humans. Dissecting a human corpse was taboo 0:14:58.840 --> 0:15:02.880 under Roman religion during Galen's time of study. To be honest, 0:15:02.880 --> 0:15:07.040 of course, it wasn't legal during Andreas' time either. During 0:15:07.080 --> 0:15:10.520 the sixteenth century, many people believed in the resurrection of 0:15:10.560 --> 0:15:14.040 the body after death, so interfering with the dead body 0:15:14.080 --> 0:15:18.120 by dissecting it was really really problematic, but it still happened, 0:15:18.320 --> 0:15:20.960 and that certainly did not stop Andreas from visiting the 0:15:20.960 --> 0:15:25.560 graveyard on the regular. Galen's understanding of medicine, including anatomy, 0:15:25.720 --> 0:15:29.080 was influenced by the then popular theory that there were 0:15:29.080 --> 0:15:33.880 four humors blood, yellow bile, black bile, and phlegm. Humoral 0:15:33.960 --> 0:15:37.560 theory was a system of medicine. It detailed a theorized 0:15:37.600 --> 0:15:40.480 working of the human body, and it was adopted by 0:15:40.560 --> 0:15:44.040 ancient Greek and Roman physicians and philosophers, and it was 0:15:44.080 --> 0:15:48.920 adopted for a really, really long time too. Galen authored 0:15:48.960 --> 0:15:51.840 his groundbreaking work called on the Nature of Man in 0:15:51.880 --> 0:15:56.240 the Hippocratic Corpus, based on this theory. The most famous 0:15:56.240 --> 0:15:58.560 work thought in the Hippocratic corpus is, of course, the 0:15:58.640 --> 0:16:02.440 Hippocratic Oath, the famous oath of ethics taken by physicians 0:16:02.560 --> 0:16:08.560 still today. Galen's works on dissection were problematic for visalias. 0:16:08.880 --> 0:16:12.360 Galen worked from anatomical reports that were based at least 0:16:12.360 --> 0:16:16.640 mainly on the dissection of barbary apes. He later, upon 0:16:16.720 --> 0:16:21.000 discovering that the apes had humanlike facial expressions, switched to 0:16:21.120 --> 0:16:26.720 other mammals, usually pigs. Galen believed personal experiences and observation 0:16:26.840 --> 0:16:30.520 were the best way to gain anatomical knowledge, but because 0:16:30.560 --> 0:16:34.560 dissection and vivisection on human bodies were strictly prohibited at 0:16:34.600 --> 0:16:37.160 the time in the Holy Roman Empire, he could only 0:16:37.400 --> 0:16:42.040 encourage his students to seek out corpses not for dissection. 0:16:42.200 --> 0:16:45.400 For example, he would suggest that they look at dead 0:16:45.440 --> 0:16:49.120 gladiators or bodies that washed ashore in order to get 0:16:49.120 --> 0:16:52.520 better acquainted with the human body. The Salius wrote of 0:16:52.560 --> 0:16:56.320 Galen quote, Indeed, those who are now dedicated to the 0:16:56.360 --> 0:16:59.920 ancient study of medicine are beginning to learn, to their satisfaction, 0:17:00.040 --> 0:17:03.160 and how little and how feebly men have labored in 0:17:03.200 --> 0:17:05.719 the field of anatomy to this day, From the times 0:17:05.760 --> 0:17:10.520 of Galen, who did not dissect the human body, and 0:17:10.600 --> 0:17:13.840 the fact is now evident that he described, not to 0:17:13.840 --> 0:17:17.280 say imposed upon us, the fabric of the ape's body, 0:17:17.440 --> 0:17:21.280 although the latter differs from the former in many respects 0:17:22.160 --> 0:17:25.520 on the nature of man, and Galen's anatomical work remained 0:17:25.720 --> 0:17:30.960 uncontested until Vassalius's Fabrica was printed. Andreas had no reason 0:17:31.000 --> 0:17:34.320 to question the theories of Galen. Those theories were in place, 0:17:34.440 --> 0:17:37.680 as we've said, for more than a thousand years. Though 0:17:37.760 --> 0:17:41.720 Visalius praised Galen throughout his work, he also corrected him, 0:17:41.760 --> 0:17:45.399 and that had never been done before. The act was 0:17:45.480 --> 0:17:48.440 viewed by many scholars as an attack on the accepted 0:17:48.480 --> 0:17:53.280 Galenic doctrine. Andreas received heavy criticism from many who were 0:17:53.320 --> 0:17:58.400 respected in the medical community, including his former teacher Jacobus Sylvius, 0:17:58.400 --> 0:18:02.840 who called him quote the insolent and ignorant slanderer who 0:18:02.880 --> 0:18:07.240 treacherously attacked his teachers with violent mendacity, and time and 0:18:07.280 --> 0:18:11.120 time again distorted the truth of nature. Here's a look 0:18:11.119 --> 0:18:15.000 at some of the inaccurate ideas that his observation based 0:18:15.040 --> 0:18:19.600 works disproved. He disproved Galen's assertion that men have more 0:18:19.640 --> 0:18:23.760 teeth than women. He disproved the two horned uterus, the 0:18:23.920 --> 0:18:28.439 five lobed liver, the seven segmented stern um, the double 0:18:28.520 --> 0:18:32.280 bile duct, and he proved there is no bone at 0:18:32.280 --> 0:18:35.679 the base of the heart. There's more, and we encourage 0:18:35.680 --> 0:18:37.439 you to look it up if you're interested. Actually, some 0:18:37.560 --> 0:18:41.439 of our historical anatomical beliefs are really quite a trip 0:18:41.560 --> 0:18:46.199 over the years. According to Dr William Richardson, classicist at 0:18:46.200 --> 0:18:49.600 the University of Auckland, some people in the medical field 0:18:49.680 --> 0:18:54.080 condemned the Salius's Fabrica for his audacity in questioning and 0:18:54.119 --> 0:18:58.239 criticizing Galen, but there were others who did praise it. 0:18:58.680 --> 0:19:02.240 Before we move on, one thing about Richardson. Richardson is 0:19:02.280 --> 0:19:05.359 an interesting guy when it comes to the Slias. In 0:19:05.480 --> 0:19:09.560 nine nine he began the enormous project of undertaking the 0:19:09.640 --> 0:19:13.399 first English translation of the seven book collection of on 0:19:13.520 --> 0:19:17.040 the Fabric of the Human Body. In two thousand and nine, 0:19:17.160 --> 0:19:20.480 the project he and anatomy professor John Carmen began was 0:19:20.520 --> 0:19:27.680 complete twenty years later. Two weeks after publishing The Fabrica, 0:19:28.119 --> 0:19:32.720 the Salius published again his work, The Humanic Corporus Fabrica 0:19:32.760 --> 0:19:36.080 liborum Epitome or Abridgment of the structure of the human 0:19:36.080 --> 0:19:40.399 body consisted of eleven woodblock prints that included illustrations of 0:19:40.400 --> 0:19:46.280 the skeleton, muscles, nerves, veins, and arteries. The epitome differed 0:19:46.320 --> 0:19:49.280 from the Fabrica though in that, for instance, the muscles 0:19:49.359 --> 0:19:52.920 were drawn in their natural resting position and in layers 0:19:52.960 --> 0:19:56.119 showing the way from superficial to deep, which was a 0:19:56.200 --> 0:20:00.880 view helpful to surgeons when operating and treating wounds. Following 0:20:00.920 --> 0:20:03.480 the release of the Epitome, when you think he may 0:20:03.520 --> 0:20:06.080 have been at the top of his game here, as 0:20:06.160 --> 0:20:10.320 Salius resigned from his professorship at Padua and subsequently and 0:20:10.760 --> 0:20:15.000 perhaps hastily burned his entire collection of notes and sketches. 0:20:15.560 --> 0:20:18.560 Some historians believe this was in reaction to the negative 0:20:18.600 --> 0:20:24.400 reception or his perceived negative reception, of the Fabrica. Upon 0:20:24.480 --> 0:20:27.399 leaving Padua, of As Salius moved to Madrid, where he 0:20:27.440 --> 0:20:30.880 became court physician of Charles, the fifth Holy Roman Emperor 0:20:30.880 --> 0:20:34.840 and King of Spain. With this, Andreas became the fifth 0:20:34.920 --> 0:20:38.520 generation of the Vassalius family to be an imperial service. 0:20:39.520 --> 0:20:43.360 When Charles advocated the throne, he granted Andreas a lifelong 0:20:43.400 --> 0:20:46.679 pension and gave him the title of Count Palatine for 0:20:46.760 --> 0:20:50.560 his loyal service. Thessalius then held the same role of 0:20:50.600 --> 0:20:53.879 physician for Charles's son, King Philip the Second of Spain. 0:20:54.880 --> 0:20:58.200 Although Visalius was increasingly called to act as a physician 0:20:58.240 --> 0:21:00.920 and surgeon, he did not abandon in his former work 0:21:00.960 --> 0:21:04.280 for the royals, and continued to edit and refine his 0:21:04.359 --> 0:21:08.240 writings and drawings. He did not teach or body snatch 0:21:08.280 --> 0:21:11.040 in Spain, at least not that we know of. It 0:21:11.160 --> 0:21:13.600 was during his time in Spain when Andreas wrote what 0:21:13.640 --> 0:21:16.920 would be his final work, a critique of the anatomical 0:21:16.960 --> 0:21:22.840 observations of his contemporary Gabriella Fallopio Spain forbade dissection of 0:21:22.920 --> 0:21:26.880 human cadavers, and according to medical historian James Ball, it's 0:21:26.920 --> 0:21:30.760 doubtful that Vissalius could have even quote touched a dried skull. 0:21:31.840 --> 0:21:35.280 But he continued to work on his editions and corrections 0:21:35.280 --> 0:21:37.879 of the Fabrica while in Spain, of which a second 0:21:38.000 --> 0:21:42.439 version was published in fifteen fifty five. The revised edition 0:21:42.720 --> 0:21:46.639 is considered itself a major contribution, rather than just an 0:21:46.720 --> 0:21:51.480 update of the earlier version. In fifteen sixty four, Vissalius 0:21:51.600 --> 0:21:54.800 left Spain with his family While his wife and daughter 0:21:54.840 --> 0:21:58.919 returned to Brussels, he undertook a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The 0:21:58.960 --> 0:22:02.560 reasons for this journe they have never been completely explained, 0:22:02.680 --> 0:22:06.359 but it's his return that we're concerned with right now. 0:22:07.040 --> 0:22:09.560 His ship was caught in a storm and washed ashore 0:22:09.640 --> 0:22:12.879 on the Greek island of Zakinthos. The Salius did not 0:22:13.000 --> 0:22:16.440 recover and died at age forty nine in October fifteen 0:22:16.640 --> 0:22:25.639 sixty four. So I guess that means he wasn't dissected 0:22:25.920 --> 0:22:29.240 on a dissection table. Unlikely, so probably. But shall we 0:22:29.280 --> 0:22:31.080 give a toast to the man who is considered the 0:22:31.119 --> 0:22:35.120 founder of modern anatomy. Yes, although the name he might 0:22:35.160 --> 0:22:38.919 find insulting, but it's really just because I enjoyed the 0:22:38.920 --> 0:22:41.199 word play of it. He might have too, we don't know. 0:22:41.480 --> 0:22:43.960 I don't think he would. Maybe he would. In thinking 0:22:44.000 --> 0:22:47.959 about this one, this is a choose your own adventure situation. 0:22:48.320 --> 0:22:55.119 Always love those, and it will surprise you, I think, 0:22:55.560 --> 0:23:01.120 because what I started to think about was the Salius's 0:23:01.480 --> 0:23:10.800 Flemish origin, and thus Belgium, and thus beer Holly goes 0:23:10.840 --> 0:23:14.199 down the beer path. I'm not a beer drinker. I 0:23:14.280 --> 0:23:19.920 don't I don't love beer. However, a few things. One 0:23:20.000 --> 0:23:24.399 thing that I have noticed recently is that more and 0:23:24.480 --> 0:23:29.760 more there's like this resurgence or maybe first wave of 0:23:30.359 --> 0:23:35.199 popularity of beer cocktails. I don't know if you have 0:23:35.359 --> 0:23:37.439 encountered them, but I keep seeing them popping up on 0:23:37.520 --> 0:23:40.600 menus places. I've been seeing them pop up as well. Yeah, 0:23:40.760 --> 0:23:42.679 I haven't. I can't say I have any experience, but 0:23:42.760 --> 0:23:48.080 I yeah. And so I thought I may not be 0:23:48.119 --> 0:23:51.560 a beer drinker, but I thought a couple of things. One, 0:23:52.160 --> 0:23:55.360 how could I make beer more palatable to myself? And 0:23:55.480 --> 0:23:58.560 two maybe beer drinkers would like a cocktail as well. 0:23:58.920 --> 0:24:01.360 Then I got, of course, to thinking about beer cocktails. 0:24:01.359 --> 0:24:03.480 And this is not really a new thing. They've been 0:24:03.480 --> 0:24:07.080 made in Europe for literal hundreds of years. And there's 0:24:07.119 --> 0:24:10.840 the basic beer cocktail, although what it consists of you 0:24:10.880 --> 0:24:14.480 may find disagreement on. Is called a shandy. Oh, I know, 0:24:14.560 --> 0:24:18.560 the sandy, and it's equal parts beer and something else, 0:24:18.600 --> 0:24:21.680 because there's something else people argue about. But often you'll 0:24:21.720 --> 0:24:25.440 see it going back to the older versions of even 0:24:25.560 --> 0:24:29.760 either equal parts beer and ginger ale or ginger beer. 0:24:30.520 --> 0:24:34.000 And so I thought, let's try a little shandy experiment, 0:24:34.040 --> 0:24:38.880 which I'm gonna call Galen Sculp Galen. Oh, I see 0:24:38.880 --> 0:24:42.760 where you're going here. That's why he's like, how much 0:24:42.800 --> 0:24:45.480 of this could I take a part? But I like alliteration. 0:24:46.040 --> 0:24:49.159 It's gonna start. You're gonna do equal parts of a 0:24:49.240 --> 0:24:53.159 pale ale get a good one. And I went with 0:24:53.240 --> 0:24:56.920 ginger beer. And then here's the choose your own adventure part. 0:24:57.400 --> 0:24:59.600 I will tell you again, I know and I do 0:24:59.680 --> 0:25:01.840 not in any shade to any of the beer drinkers 0:25:01.840 --> 0:25:04.880 in the crowd. All beer tastes the same to me, 0:25:05.040 --> 0:25:07.160 and it is not a good taste. I don't think 0:25:07.160 --> 0:25:09.119 everyone likes beer, so I think we can be on 0:25:09.280 --> 0:25:11.439 you know, I think we can be on your side. No, 0:25:11.560 --> 0:25:14.840 but I know there are people that like, really love beer, 0:25:15.000 --> 0:25:17.240 and they can pick out all of the flavors and 0:25:17.280 --> 0:25:19.240 the notes of a beer the way that someone would 0:25:19.280 --> 0:25:21.360 do with wine, or that I feel like I can 0:25:21.359 --> 0:25:25.160 do with vodka. But you have but you do have 0:25:25.240 --> 0:25:28.440 an alcohol that is like that for you. People will 0:25:28.480 --> 0:25:31.119 do that also with coffees and whatnot. Like everybody, I 0:25:31.160 --> 0:25:33.800 do not have a palette that can pluck those notes 0:25:33.840 --> 0:25:35.560 out food, so it all cases the same to me. 0:25:35.840 --> 0:25:38.439 So I don't love a basic shandy that is a 0:25:38.520 --> 0:25:42.680 one in one. But then there are experiments, and this 0:25:42.720 --> 0:25:45.840 is where becomes to choose your own adventure. In thinking 0:25:45.880 --> 0:25:48.360 about what we talked about last week, where I was like, oh, 0:25:48.480 --> 0:25:50.520 you know, what might be fun is to throw a 0:25:50.560 --> 0:25:52.840 little mango in there. I brought that over this week 0:25:52.880 --> 0:25:56.560 and I used three ounces of pale ale, three ounces 0:25:56.560 --> 0:25:59.000 of ginger beer, and about three quarters of an ounce 0:25:59.040 --> 0:26:02.520 like flashed it in of mango syrup. And that got 0:26:02.560 --> 0:26:08.359 real interesting and it's quite nice. I also did one 0:26:08.720 --> 0:26:11.400 with a rose syrup. Of course, because I'm predictable, I 0:26:11.440 --> 0:26:14.639 did one with grenadine, which is very yummy. Actually, I 0:26:14.680 --> 0:26:16.560 was gonna say, actually I was imagining that before I 0:26:16.560 --> 0:26:19.000 asked the question of how how was that? It pulled 0:26:19.040 --> 0:26:22.200 out all of the fruity flavors of the beer, which 0:26:22.240 --> 0:26:25.280 is quite nice. And then I also did one with 0:26:25.320 --> 0:26:27.320