1 00:00:00,040 --> 00:00:02,840 Speaker 1: Hello, everyone, it's Eves checking in here to let you 2 00:00:02,880 --> 00:00:04,960 Speaker 1: know that you're going to be hearing two different events 3 00:00:04,960 --> 00:00:07,400 Speaker 1: in history in this episode. They're both good, if I 4 00:00:07,440 --> 00:00:11,640 Speaker 1: do say so myself. On with the show. Welcome to 5 00:00:11,720 --> 00:00:15,040 Speaker 1: this day and History Class where history waits for no One. 6 00:00:23,000 --> 00:00:28,159 Speaker 1: The day was February nineteen fifty four. A group of 7 00:00:28,240 --> 00:00:33,280 Speaker 1: children from Arsenal Elementary School in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, received the 8 00:00:33,280 --> 00:00:38,120 Speaker 1: first vaccines for polio, a disabling and potentially deadly infectious 9 00:00:38,159 --> 00:00:43,080 Speaker 1: disease that can cause meningitis and paralysis, among other symptoms. 10 00:00:44,400 --> 00:00:48,120 Speaker 1: The new vaccine have been developed by Dr Jonas Salk, 11 00:00:48,560 --> 00:00:53,600 Speaker 1: an American physician and medical researcher. Salk's vaccine was a 12 00:00:53,640 --> 00:00:58,200 Speaker 1: continuation of the work many other researchers had done before him, 13 00:00:58,240 --> 00:01:01,680 Speaker 1: and it wouldn't serve as be all in all solution 14 00:01:02,080 --> 00:01:06,959 Speaker 1: to polio transmission. What the vaccine did do, though, was 15 00:01:07,040 --> 00:01:10,200 Speaker 1: reduced the rate at which polio was occurring among middle 16 00:01:10,240 --> 00:01:16,600 Speaker 1: class Americans. Polio, the shortened name for polio myelitis, is 17 00:01:16,680 --> 00:01:21,520 Speaker 1: caused by the poliovirus. As the contagious virus spreads from 18 00:01:21,560 --> 00:01:24,679 Speaker 1: person to person, it can wreak havoc on the nervous 19 00:01:24,680 --> 00:01:29,040 Speaker 1: system of the affected, causing muscle deterioration and even death 20 00:01:29,440 --> 00:01:34,080 Speaker 1: if it disrupts the processes of breathing or swallowing. There 21 00:01:34,080 --> 00:01:38,280 Speaker 1: were only twenty two reported cases of polio worldwide in TV, 22 00:01:39,720 --> 00:01:43,120 Speaker 1: but back in the early nineteen fifties, the number of 23 00:01:43,240 --> 00:01:46,360 Speaker 1: known polio cases in the world was in the hundreds 24 00:01:46,400 --> 00:01:50,560 Speaker 1: of thousands, and the United States was facing an epidemic. 25 00:01:51,560 --> 00:01:54,920 Speaker 1: The rate of paralysis and death from polio was on 26 00:01:54,960 --> 00:01:59,600 Speaker 1: the rise, and the public was rightfully scared. People were 27 00:01:59,640 --> 00:02:02,600 Speaker 1: in se seingly aware of the need for a polio 28 00:02:02,720 --> 00:02:07,320 Speaker 1: vaccine by this time. Teams have been working to find 29 00:02:07,400 --> 00:02:12,160 Speaker 1: an effective and safe vaccine for polio for decades, and 30 00:02:12,240 --> 00:02:15,640 Speaker 1: people were racing to find ways to help prevent incidences 31 00:02:15,680 --> 00:02:20,720 Speaker 1: of polio. In nineteen thirty five, both Maurice Brody and 32 00:02:20,880 --> 00:02:25,120 Speaker 1: John Colemer developed polio vaccines and tested them on monkeys 33 00:02:25,600 --> 00:02:31,120 Speaker 1: then children, but people were paralyzed and died in both experiments, 34 00:02:31,520 --> 00:02:35,960 Speaker 1: even though Brody's results were promising and other researchers reactions 35 00:02:35,960 --> 00:02:41,200 Speaker 1: to the tests were overwhelmingly negative. In nineteen thirty eight, 36 00:02:41,520 --> 00:02:44,680 Speaker 1: the March of Dimes was established when people sent dimes 37 00:02:44,720 --> 00:02:48,880 Speaker 1: to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt who have been diagnosed with polio, 38 00:02:49,280 --> 00:02:53,240 Speaker 1: to help raise funds to fight the disease. In nineteen 39 00:02:53,360 --> 00:02:58,280 Speaker 1: forty nine, researchers at the Polio Myelitis Laboratory at Johns 40 00:02:58,280 --> 00:03:02,959 Speaker 1: Hopkins University as established that there were three immunologically different 41 00:03:03,040 --> 00:03:08,560 Speaker 1: varieties of polio and too much well deserved ethical concern. 42 00:03:09,240 --> 00:03:14,560 Speaker 1: Researcher Hilary Kaprowski tested a live attenuated vaccine on children 43 00:03:14,919 --> 00:03:19,720 Speaker 1: and an institution for mentally and physically disabled people. The 44 00:03:19,760 --> 00:03:24,040 Speaker 1: point is by nineteen and fifty two, many breakthroughs related 45 00:03:24,120 --> 00:03:27,799 Speaker 1: to polio vaccination had been made, and medicine was well 46 00:03:27,840 --> 00:03:30,680 Speaker 1: on its way to figuring out how to prevent polio. 47 00:03:32,040 --> 00:03:35,600 Speaker 1: Dr Jonas Salk was head of the virus Research Lab 48 00:03:35,720 --> 00:03:40,000 Speaker 1: at the University of Pittsburgh. In nineteen forty eight, he 49 00:03:40,080 --> 00:03:43,800 Speaker 1: was given a grant to study polio and potentially develop 50 00:03:43,880 --> 00:03:47,560 Speaker 1: a vaccine for it, and he did just that using 51 00:03:47,560 --> 00:03:51,640 Speaker 1: a procedure the aforementioned Maurice Brodie had tried years earlier. 52 00:03:52,760 --> 00:03:56,040 Speaker 1: Salk would grow samples of the polio virus and then 53 00:03:56,280 --> 00:04:01,680 Speaker 1: deactivate them using a solution called formulin. Then he would 54 00:04:01,720 --> 00:04:05,640 Speaker 1: inject the dead virus into a patient's bloodstream, and that 55 00:04:05,680 --> 00:04:10,520 Speaker 1: person's immune system would create antibodies that prevented future exposure 56 00:04:10,560 --> 00:04:15,320 Speaker 1: to polio. The vaccine required three injections and a booster. 57 00:04:16,640 --> 00:04:19,520 Speaker 1: Salk and his team began early test of the vaccine 58 00:04:19,960 --> 00:04:23,840 Speaker 1: on physically and mentally disabled children in nineteen fifty two 59 00:04:24,440 --> 00:04:27,039 Speaker 1: using funds from the March of Dimes, which was then 60 00:04:27,160 --> 00:04:32,159 Speaker 1: called the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis, and in nineteen 61 00:04:32,200 --> 00:04:37,400 Speaker 1: fifty three, Salk injected himself, his wife, and his sons 62 00:04:37,440 --> 00:04:41,800 Speaker 1: with the polio vaccine. Children were given the first injections 63 00:04:41,800 --> 00:04:45,719 Speaker 1: of the new vaccine at Arsenal Elementary School on February 64 00:04:46,440 --> 00:04:50,040 Speaker 1: nineteen fifty four, and a couple of months later, a 65 00:04:50,120 --> 00:04:54,760 Speaker 1: large scale trial of the polio vaccine began. Nearly two 66 00:04:54,839 --> 00:04:59,400 Speaker 1: million children ended up participating in the trial. The next year, 67 00:04:59,760 --> 00:05:03,080 Speaker 1: when results of the trial were announced, they showed that 68 00:05:03,160 --> 00:05:07,279 Speaker 1: the vaccines had largely been effective. Salt had become a 69 00:05:07,360 --> 00:05:12,360 Speaker 1: sort of celebrity or household name, but his success did 70 00:05:12,400 --> 00:05:18,720 Speaker 1: not come without controversy. Formulin wasn't always successful at deactivating 71 00:05:18,760 --> 00:05:22,440 Speaker 1: the live virus, so the live virus could remain in 72 00:05:22,480 --> 00:05:27,120 Speaker 1: some vaccines. Because of this, a bad batch of polio 73 00:05:27,200 --> 00:05:32,400 Speaker 1: vaccines made by Cutter Laboratories caused forty thousand cases of 74 00:05:32,440 --> 00:05:38,160 Speaker 1: polio myelitis, dozens of cases of paralytic polio, several deaths, 75 00:05:38,760 --> 00:05:43,479 Speaker 1: and an epidemic within affected communities, and Cutter's vaccine was 76 00:05:43,520 --> 00:05:49,520 Speaker 1: taken off the market. Some immunologists and epidemiologists were concerned 77 00:05:49,600 --> 00:05:53,719 Speaker 1: that SALKS vaccine wasn't as safe and practical as it 78 00:05:53,760 --> 00:05:58,560 Speaker 1: needed to be to effectively produce lifelong immunity in millions 79 00:05:58,600 --> 00:06:03,440 Speaker 1: of people. They argued that an oral attenuated live virus 80 00:06:03,520 --> 00:06:08,039 Speaker 1: vaccine was a better option, But by nineteen fifty six, 81 00:06:08,440 --> 00:06:12,000 Speaker 1: the number of polio cases in the US had dropped 82 00:06:12,120 --> 00:06:15,600 Speaker 1: for more than fourteen thousand and nineteen fifty five to 83 00:06:15,800 --> 00:06:19,960 Speaker 1: less than six thousand, and nearly a hundred other countries 84 00:06:20,279 --> 00:06:25,680 Speaker 1: were using sALS vaccine by nineteen fifty nine. Albert Saban 85 00:06:25,880 --> 00:06:29,680 Speaker 1: did develop an oral attenuated live virus vaccine that was 86 00:06:29,760 --> 00:06:34,400 Speaker 1: licensed in nineteen sixty two. It was cheaper and easier 87 00:06:34,440 --> 00:06:39,760 Speaker 1: to take than sALS vaccine and thus became more popular. Today, 88 00:06:40,279 --> 00:06:44,400 Speaker 1: sALS vaccine is once again the favorite method of polio immunization, 89 00:06:44,880 --> 00:06:47,599 Speaker 1: but elsewhere in the world where polio occurs at a 90 00:06:47,680 --> 00:06:53,440 Speaker 1: higher rate, Saban's vaccine is preferred. I'm each Jeff Coote 91 00:06:53,720 --> 00:06:56,720 Speaker 1: and hopefully you know a little more about history today 92 00:06:56,880 --> 00:07:00,599 Speaker 1: than you did yesterday. And if you like to follow 93 00:07:00,680 --> 00:07:03,520 Speaker 1: us on social media, you can find us at T 94 00:07:04,040 --> 00:07:09,480 Speaker 1: D I h C Podcast on Twitter, Instagram and Facebook. 95 00:07:11,160 --> 00:07:14,360 Speaker 1: Thanks for joining me on this trip through history. See 96 00:07:14,400 --> 00:07:31,920 Speaker 1: you here, same place tomorrow. Hi again, everyone, it's Eves 97 00:07:32,160 --> 00:07:35,360 Speaker 1: and welcome to this Day in History class, a show 98 00:07:35,480 --> 00:07:45,960 Speaker 1: where history waits for no one. The day was February. 99 00:07:48,600 --> 00:07:52,200 Speaker 1: The Stalinist regime ordered the Chechens in the English to 100 00:07:52,320 --> 00:07:56,240 Speaker 1: be deported to Central Asia and Siberia, accusing them of 101 00:07:56,320 --> 00:08:01,080 Speaker 1: collaboration with the invading Nazis. The Chech in English are 102 00:08:01,200 --> 00:08:05,600 Speaker 1: Northeast Caucasian ethnic groups. Together, the groups are known as 103 00:08:05,640 --> 00:08:10,000 Speaker 1: the Wynock peoples. Hostilities and violence between the Chechens in 104 00:08:10,080 --> 00:08:14,520 Speaker 1: Russia date back centuries. In the nineteen twenties and nineteen thirties, 105 00:08:14,840 --> 00:08:18,440 Speaker 1: after the Soviet Union was formed, the Chechens resisted Stalin's 106 00:08:18,480 --> 00:08:23,800 Speaker 1: collectivization and Sovietization policies, but in nineteen thirty four, the 107 00:08:23,840 --> 00:08:28,400 Speaker 1: Soviet government merged the Chechen and English Autonomous Oblast into 108 00:08:28,440 --> 00:08:32,960 Speaker 1: a single political administrative entity. That entity became the Chechen 109 00:08:33,080 --> 00:08:38,960 Speaker 1: English Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in nineteen thirty six. Encouraged 110 00:08:39,000 --> 00:08:41,439 Speaker 1: by Soviet defeats in the Winter War against Finland, in 111 00:08:41,520 --> 00:08:45,679 Speaker 1: late nineteen thirty and early nineteen forty, Chechen nationalist Kassan 112 00:08:45,840 --> 00:08:49,320 Speaker 1: Israel Law led a rebellion of Chechen and English people's 113 00:08:49,440 --> 00:08:53,920 Speaker 1: against the Soviets. The uprising gained momentum, and by the 114 00:08:53,960 --> 00:08:56,439 Speaker 1: time of the German invasion of the Soviet Union in 115 00:08:56,559 --> 00:09:00,000 Speaker 1: nineteen forty one, the movement had gained thousands of fighters 116 00:09:00,160 --> 00:09:05,760 Speaker 1: and sympathizers. In nineteen forty two, Maryribeck Schripav, another leader 117 00:09:05,800 --> 00:09:09,760 Speaker 1: in the Chechen insurgency, joined forces with israel Law. It 118 00:09:09,800 --> 00:09:13,199 Speaker 1: was rumored that the Germans assisted the Chechens in their rebellion, 119 00:09:13,640 --> 00:09:17,600 Speaker 1: but many historians deny that this claim is true. The 120 00:09:17,679 --> 00:09:21,560 Speaker 1: rebellion lasted until nineteen forty four. In February of that year, 121 00:09:21,720 --> 00:09:25,199 Speaker 1: Labyrncy Barrier, the head of the nk v D, ordered 122 00:09:25,320 --> 00:09:28,680 Speaker 1: that the Chechens in English be deported to remote areas 123 00:09:28,720 --> 00:09:32,160 Speaker 1: in the Soviet Union. N k v D stands for 124 00:09:32,160 --> 00:09:35,719 Speaker 1: the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs. The n k v 125 00:09:35,840 --> 00:09:38,920 Speaker 1: D was a government organ of the state and secret police. 126 00:09:40,000 --> 00:09:43,880 Speaker 1: During the Second World War, Stalin implemented many systems of 127 00:09:43,920 --> 00:09:49,040 Speaker 1: deportation and forced transfers. There were the Gulag forced labor camps, 128 00:09:49,120 --> 00:09:53,680 Speaker 1: and there were massive deportations of ethnic minorities. Part of 129 00:09:53,720 --> 00:09:57,160 Speaker 1: the n k v d's responsibilities were to imprison and 130 00:09:57,240 --> 00:10:01,280 Speaker 1: deport political and ethnic enemies of the Viet Union. The 131 00:10:01,320 --> 00:10:05,119 Speaker 1: deportation of the Chechens in English was known as Operation 132 00:10:05,400 --> 00:10:10,800 Speaker 1: Checha visa for Operation Lintel. Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin accused 133 00:10:10,800 --> 00:10:14,120 Speaker 1: the groups of collaborating with the Nazis, even though no 134 00:10:14,200 --> 00:10:17,400 Speaker 1: substantial evidence to support this claim has ever been discovered. 135 00:10:18,400 --> 00:10:22,520 Speaker 1: The deportations began on February twenty third, ninety four, when 136 00:10:22,520 --> 00:10:26,520 Speaker 1: the deportees were given basically no time to gather their belongings. 137 00:10:27,400 --> 00:10:30,640 Speaker 1: The number of people deported varies by source, but it's 138 00:10:30,800 --> 00:10:34,880 Speaker 1: usually estimated at anywhere between four hundred thousand and six 139 00:10:34,960 --> 00:10:39,000 Speaker 1: hundred thousand people. Through the rest of February and into March, 140 00:10:39,440 --> 00:10:43,680 Speaker 1: families were loaded onto trains and forcibly transferred to places 141 00:10:43,720 --> 00:10:48,400 Speaker 1: like Kazakhstan. In Siberia, the terrain and Chechen resistance in 142 00:10:48,440 --> 00:10:52,200 Speaker 1: the mountains slowed. The deportation and the conditions and the 143 00:10:52,240 --> 00:10:55,320 Speaker 1: cattle trains and freight cars were terrible. There was no 144 00:10:55,440 --> 00:10:58,920 Speaker 1: running water or heat, and people were hungry and subject 145 00:10:58,960 --> 00:11:04,439 Speaker 1: to infection. The deportees were put into so called special settlements. 146 00:11:04,440 --> 00:11:07,600 Speaker 1: Over the next thirteen years, they were overseen by the 147 00:11:07,720 --> 00:11:10,240 Speaker 1: n k v D and we're not able to leave 148 00:11:10,280 --> 00:11:14,319 Speaker 1: their villages past a short distance. They had to perform 149 00:11:14,520 --> 00:11:18,600 Speaker 1: hard physical labor. Estimates put the number of Chechen and 150 00:11:18,679 --> 00:11:21,760 Speaker 1: English deaths from the deportation and exile at up to 151 00:11:21,800 --> 00:11:25,719 Speaker 1: two hundred thousand. The Chech in English a s s 152 00:11:25,840 --> 00:11:28,920 Speaker 1: R was dissolved in nineteen forty four, but it was 153 00:11:29,000 --> 00:11:33,280 Speaker 1: restored in nineteen fifty seven after Nikita Khrushchev came to power. 154 00:11:34,080 --> 00:11:37,240 Speaker 1: The Chechens in English began returning to their homelands by 155 00:11:37,280 --> 00:11:40,920 Speaker 1: the thousands. There they found their land and homes occupied 156 00:11:41,040 --> 00:11:46,120 Speaker 1: or deteriorated, and they continued to face ethnic conflicts. I'm 157 00:11:46,120 --> 00:11:48,480 Speaker 1: Eves Jeff Coote, and hopefully you know a little more 158 00:11:48,480 --> 00:11:52,360 Speaker 1: about history of today than you did yesterday. If you 159 00:11:52,480 --> 00:11:55,080 Speaker 1: know you already spend too much time on social media, 160 00:11:55,440 --> 00:11:58,480 Speaker 1: spend some of that time with us at t D 161 00:11:58,520 --> 00:12:03,760 Speaker 1: I H. C Pie Podcast on Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. 162 00:12:03,800 --> 00:12:06,760 Speaker 1: You can also shoot us an email at this day 163 00:12:07,000 --> 00:12:11,240 Speaker 1: at i heart media dot com. Thank you again for 164 00:12:11,360 --> 00:12:23,480 Speaker 1: listening and we'll see you tomorrow. For more podcasts from 165 00:12:23,480 --> 00:12:26,280 Speaker 1: I heart Radio, visit the iHeart Radio app, Apple Podcasts, 166 00:12:26,360 --> 00:12:28,040 Speaker 1: or wherever you listen to your favorite shows.