1
00:00:00,080 --> 00:00:02,960
Speaker 1: If you love iPhone, you'll love Apple Card. It's the

2
00:00:03,040 --> 00:00:06,920
Speaker 1: credit card designed for iPhone. It gives you unlimited daily

3
00:00:07,040 --> 00:00:10,000
Speaker 1: cash back that can earn four point four zero percent

4
00:00:10,160 --> 00:00:12,960
Speaker 1: annual percentage yield. When you open a high Yield savings

5
00:00:13,000 --> 00:00:16,280
Speaker 1: account through Apple Card, apply for Applecard in the wallet

6
00:00:16,280 --> 00:00:19,520
Speaker 1: app subject to credit approval. Savings is available to Apple

7
00:00:19,560 --> 00:00:22,800
Speaker 1: Card owners subject to eligibility. Apple Card and Savings by

8
00:00:22,840 --> 00:00:26,120
Speaker 1: Goldman Sachs Bank USA, Salt Lake City Branch Member FDIC

9
00:00:26,520 --> 00:00:29,280
Speaker 1: terms and more at applecard dot com. When you pop

10
00:00:29,320 --> 00:00:31,240
Speaker 1: a piece of cheese into your mouth, you're probably not

11
00:00:31,360 --> 00:00:34,280
Speaker 1: thinking about the environmental impact. But the people in the

12
00:00:34,360 --> 00:00:37,680
Speaker 1: dairy industry are. That's why they're working hard every day

13
00:00:37,720 --> 00:00:40,760
Speaker 1: to find new ways to reduce waste, conserve natural resources,

14
00:00:40,800 --> 00:00:44,400
Speaker 1: and drive down greenhouse gas emissions. How is US Dairy

15
00:00:44,400 --> 00:00:48,520
Speaker 1: tackling greenhouse gases? Many farms use anaerobic digesters to turn

16
00:00:48,560 --> 00:00:53,080
Speaker 1: the methane from manure into renewable energy that can power farms, towns,

17
00:00:53,120 --> 00:00:57,240
Speaker 1: and electric cars. Visit us dairy dot COM's Last Sustainability

18
00:00:57,280 --> 00:00:58,000
Speaker 1: to learn more.

19
00:00:58,800 --> 00:01:01,320
Speaker 2: This is Jonathan Strickland from tech Stuff. Do you have

20
00:01:01,360 --> 00:01:03,920
Speaker 2: a smart TV or a dumb screen? That does more

21
00:01:03,960 --> 00:01:07,000
Speaker 2: fighting with the Internet than streaming. It's time to stream,

22
00:01:07,080 --> 00:01:08,880
Speaker 2: play and surf the way you were meant to, with

23
00:01:08,920 --> 00:01:12,480
Speaker 2: a powerful boost from the Skyworth Leaps Spoor from Jelfa Solutions,

24
00:01:12,640 --> 00:01:15,680
Speaker 2: two generations ahead of the leading streaming devices. The Skyworth

25
00:01:15,800 --> 00:01:18,759
Speaker 2: Leibst Spot streams in four K, comes with free Google

26
00:01:18,800 --> 00:01:21,440
Speaker 2: TV and has access to plenty of apps and content.

27
00:01:21,760 --> 00:01:24,280
Speaker 2: Save five dollars off each device now with code tech

28
00:01:24,319 --> 00:01:28,679
Speaker 2: stuff at Jelfa Solutions dot com, dj E l FA

29
00:01:28,760 --> 00:01:31,319
Speaker 2: solutions dot com.

30
00:01:31,480 --> 00:01:35,000
Speaker 3: There are children, friends, and families walking, riding on passing

31
00:01:35,000 --> 00:01:37,400
Speaker 3: the roads every day. Remember they're real people with loved

32
00:01:37,440 --> 00:01:38,199
Speaker 3: ones who need them.

33
00:01:38,120 --> 00:01:38,959
Speaker 4: To get home safely.

34
00:01:39,160 --> 00:01:42,600
Speaker 3: Protect our cyclists and pedestrians because they're people too, Go safely.

35
00:01:42,640 --> 00:01:46,040
Speaker 3: California from the California Office of Traffic Safety and Caltrans.

36
00:01:54,000 --> 00:01:56,880
Speaker 5: Hey, Daniel, what's your favorite thing about looking up at

37
00:01:56,880 --> 00:01:57,400
Speaker 5: the stars?

38
00:01:57,800 --> 00:01:59,400
Speaker 1: You mean other than the hot coco?

39
00:02:00,160 --> 00:02:02,200
Speaker 5: Drink hot cocoa? When you look at the stars, you

40
00:02:02,280 --> 00:02:03,640
Speaker 5: have like a Peplodian response.

41
00:02:03,680 --> 00:02:06,640
Speaker 1: There can you see stars if you're not holding hot cocoa?

42
00:02:06,840 --> 00:02:07,680
Speaker 1: I've never tried.

43
00:02:07,800 --> 00:02:10,400
Speaker 5: You might steam up your glasses. No, But I mean,

44
00:02:10,440 --> 00:02:12,760
Speaker 5: like I about the actual stars, not just not what

45
00:02:12,880 --> 00:02:14,079
Speaker 5: you're drinking when you look at them.

46
00:02:14,240 --> 00:02:17,320
Speaker 1: I don't know. I love how big everything is up there,

47
00:02:17,480 --> 00:02:21,919
Speaker 1: the stars, the galaxies, all of it's just so overwhelmingly huge.

48
00:02:22,639 --> 00:02:24,520
Speaker 5: But aren't you a little bit biased about that?

49
00:02:24,880 --> 00:02:25,400
Speaker 1: What do you mean?

50
00:02:25,480 --> 00:02:26,959
Speaker 5: I mean, you're only seeing the big stuff when you

51
00:02:26,960 --> 00:02:29,680
Speaker 5: look up at the sky. There's plenty of little cute

52
00:02:29,760 --> 00:02:32,200
Speaker 5: stuff on those stars or on those planets.

53
00:02:32,320 --> 00:02:34,640
Speaker 1: Oh yeah, that's true, I suppose, But it doesn't change

54
00:02:34,680 --> 00:02:37,080
Speaker 1: my mind. You still like big stuff. I like my

55
00:02:37,240 --> 00:02:39,079
Speaker 1: universe the way I like my hot cocoa.

56
00:02:39,440 --> 00:02:59,040
Speaker 4: Big and dark.

57
00:02:56,760 --> 00:02:59,320
Speaker 5: Or Hamming cartoonists and the creator of PhD comics.

58
00:02:59,440 --> 00:03:02,440
Speaker 1: Hi, I'm Daniel. I'm a particle physicist and a professor

59
00:03:02,560 --> 00:03:05,760
Speaker 1: at UC Irvine, and I don't really drink that much

60
00:03:05,840 --> 00:03:08,000
Speaker 1: hot coco. But does that mean you don't look at

61
00:03:08,000 --> 00:03:10,440
Speaker 1: the stars very much? It does, unfortunately, mean I don't

62
00:03:10,480 --> 00:03:12,400
Speaker 1: look at the stars very much. Basically, it's because I

63
00:03:12,400 --> 00:03:14,440
Speaker 1: don't do as much camping as I used to, and

64
00:03:14,560 --> 00:03:17,040
Speaker 1: camping was my number one way to see the stars

65
00:03:17,080 --> 00:03:18,640
Speaker 1: and also to drink hot coco.

66
00:03:18,880 --> 00:03:21,360
Speaker 5: You know you can do all those three things independently.

67
00:03:21,760 --> 00:03:24,919
Speaker 1: What that's not true? You can't just make hot coco

68
00:03:25,000 --> 00:03:27,639
Speaker 1: at home in your living room or look at the

69
00:03:27,720 --> 00:03:29,520
Speaker 1: stars next to you telling me you can like make

70
00:03:29,560 --> 00:03:31,080
Speaker 1: s'mores over your range.

71
00:03:31,400 --> 00:03:33,960
Speaker 5: You could even do it on the microwave. What didn't

72
00:03:34,440 --> 00:03:37,120
Speaker 5: you have one of those super smart microwaves that you

73
00:03:37,160 --> 00:03:37,960
Speaker 5: got for free.

74
00:03:38,640 --> 00:03:40,840
Speaker 1: I think that would cause offense to the fundamental nature

75
00:03:40,840 --> 00:03:43,320
Speaker 1: of space and time making s'mores in the microwave.

76
00:03:43,440 --> 00:03:46,760
Speaker 5: Yes, you'd be blacklisted by the Boy and Girl Scouts.

77
00:03:47,240 --> 00:03:49,840
Speaker 5: But anyways, welcome to our podcast Daniel and Jorge Explain

78
00:03:49,920 --> 00:03:53,240
Speaker 5: the Universe, a production of iHeartRadio in which we take a.

79
00:03:53,240 --> 00:03:57,360
Speaker 1: Long, deep sip of this sweet, sweet universe, trying to

80
00:03:57,440 --> 00:04:02,160
Speaker 1: appreciate all of its incredible flavors and colors and mysteries.

81
00:04:02,280 --> 00:04:05,000
Speaker 1: We look out into the cosmos and we wonder why

82
00:04:05,080 --> 00:04:07,560
Speaker 1: things are the way they are, why they look the

83
00:04:07,600 --> 00:04:10,760
Speaker 1: way they do, and if it's possible to explain all

84
00:04:10,840 --> 00:04:13,560
Speaker 1: of it, to understand the swirling and the dancing and

85
00:04:13,600 --> 00:04:16,159
Speaker 1: the frothing and all the tuing and frowing that's happening

86
00:04:16,240 --> 00:04:19,440
Speaker 1: up there in the night sky, and to explain all

87
00:04:19,480 --> 00:04:20,240
Speaker 1: of it to you.

88
00:04:20,600 --> 00:04:23,800
Speaker 5: That's right, We give you some more of this amazing universe,

89
00:04:23,880 --> 00:04:26,599
Speaker 5: all the hot stuff, all the cold stuff, all of

90
00:04:26,640 --> 00:04:29,080
Speaker 5: the chocolate stuff, and even all of the vanilla stuff.

91
00:04:29,120 --> 00:04:30,560
Speaker 5: That's also pretty interesting.

92
00:04:30,680 --> 00:04:32,800
Speaker 1: Did you say even all of the vanilla stuff, like

93
00:04:32,880 --> 00:04:35,560
Speaker 1: vanilla's an afterthought. I thought you were a great defender

94
00:04:35,640 --> 00:04:37,159
Speaker 1: of vanilla as an actual flavor.

95
00:04:37,279 --> 00:04:39,279
Speaker 5: I am a big defender. It's my favorite flavor.

96
00:04:39,440 --> 00:04:41,320
Speaker 1: That's like saying your favorite color is white.

97
00:04:41,160 --> 00:04:45,839
Speaker 5: Dude, it is. Actually I love nothing more than a

98
00:04:45,839 --> 00:04:49,039
Speaker 5: blank page. The more white I can put into my drawings,

99
00:04:49,040 --> 00:04:50,040
Speaker 5: the less work I have to do.

100
00:04:50,400 --> 00:04:53,400
Speaker 1: A white page is usually the enemy of creative types,

101
00:04:53,400 --> 00:04:55,720
Speaker 1: but I'm glad that it inspires you. But it's true

102
00:04:55,760 --> 00:04:58,080
Speaker 1: that there's a lot of stuff out there to enjoy

103
00:04:58,240 --> 00:05:01,880
Speaker 1: and to experience, of all different flavor and all different sizes.

104
00:05:02,360 --> 00:05:06,159
Speaker 1: Sometimes people focus on the biggest, craziest, most extreme stuff

105
00:05:06,200 --> 00:05:08,599
Speaker 1: in the universe, but there's a whole scale of things

106
00:05:08,600 --> 00:05:11,760
Speaker 1: happening out there, tiny little gas clouds all the way

107
00:05:11,839 --> 00:05:14,200
Speaker 1: up to super massive galaxies.

108
00:05:14,480 --> 00:05:16,400
Speaker 5: That's right, All of the big stuff in the universe

109
00:05:16,520 --> 00:05:19,560
Speaker 5: usually gets all the big headlines. People mostly pay attention

110
00:05:19,600 --> 00:05:23,400
Speaker 5: to super massive black holes or giant superstars that are

111
00:05:23,440 --> 00:05:25,720
Speaker 5: millions of times bigger than our sun. But sometimes it's

112
00:05:25,760 --> 00:05:27,800
Speaker 5: the little stuff that can tell you a lot about

113
00:05:28,160 --> 00:05:29,960
Speaker 5: the big ideas in the universe.

114
00:05:30,120 --> 00:05:33,200
Speaker 1: Because remember that we don't get to control what happens

115
00:05:33,240 --> 00:05:35,440
Speaker 1: in the universe. If we want to learn the way

116
00:05:35,480 --> 00:05:37,840
Speaker 1: the universe works, we just got to sit back and

117
00:05:38,040 --> 00:05:41,560
Speaker 1: watch the experiments that nature has arranged for us. We

118
00:05:41,600 --> 00:05:43,760
Speaker 1: don't get to say what happens if you shoot two

119
00:05:43,760 --> 00:05:46,080
Speaker 1: black holes together. We just have to look to see

120
00:05:46,160 --> 00:05:49,760
Speaker 1: if somebody has already smashed them together. And so, because

121
00:05:49,800 --> 00:05:52,120
Speaker 1: we are beggars, we don't get to be choosers, and

122
00:05:52,160 --> 00:05:54,080
Speaker 1: that means that we need to make the most of

123
00:05:54,160 --> 00:05:56,640
Speaker 1: everything that's out there. We need to think about what

124
00:05:56,680 --> 00:05:59,000
Speaker 1: we can learn from the big stuff and also what

125
00:05:59,040 --> 00:06:01,880
Speaker 1: we can learn from little stuff, because everything out there

126
00:06:01,880 --> 00:06:04,000
Speaker 1: in the universe has something to teach.

127
00:06:03,839 --> 00:06:05,839
Speaker 5: Us, and there is a lot to be taught out

128
00:06:05,839 --> 00:06:09,200
Speaker 5: there in the universe, a lot of amazing things big

129
00:06:09,240 --> 00:06:11,960
Speaker 5: and small. And so today we're going to focus on

130
00:06:11,960 --> 00:06:13,880
Speaker 5: one type of thing out there in the universe that

131
00:06:13,960 --> 00:06:16,400
Speaker 5: maybe doesn't get as much attention as some of the

132
00:06:16,520 --> 00:06:18,760
Speaker 5: big stuff. So to be on the program, we'll be

133
00:06:18,800 --> 00:06:27,200
Speaker 5: asking the question, what are dwarf galaxies?

134
00:06:27,680 --> 00:06:29,240
Speaker 1: I love that we're going to get to talk about

135
00:06:29,320 --> 00:06:31,599
Speaker 1: dwarf galaxies today because they are some of the most

136
00:06:31,680 --> 00:06:36,440
Speaker 1: fascinating and interesting and reviewing aspects of the universe. They

137
00:06:36,480 --> 00:06:39,400
Speaker 1: have so much to teach us about what's going on

138
00:06:39,520 --> 00:06:40,919
Speaker 1: and where everything came from.

139
00:06:41,000 --> 00:06:44,560
Speaker 5: Yeah, they're pretty exciting and pretty awesome, and so as usual,

140
00:06:44,640 --> 00:06:46,839
Speaker 5: we were wondering how many people out there had thought

141
00:06:46,839 --> 00:06:49,240
Speaker 5: about dwarf galaxies or know what they are.

142
00:06:49,400 --> 00:06:51,960
Speaker 1: So thank you very much to everybody who answers these

143
00:06:52,040 --> 00:06:55,200
Speaker 1: questions for the podcast. We love hearing your thoughts, as

144
00:06:55,240 --> 00:06:57,960
Speaker 1: does everybody else. And if you are out there and

145
00:06:58,040 --> 00:06:59,800
Speaker 1: have been listening to the podcasts for a while and

146
00:07:00,120 --> 00:07:02,960
Speaker 1: like to share your voice for everybody else, please don't

147
00:07:02,960 --> 00:07:06,440
Speaker 1: be shy. Write to us two questions at Danielanjorge dot com.

148
00:07:06,480 --> 00:07:08,160
Speaker 1: So think about it for a second. What do you

149
00:07:08,200 --> 00:07:12,200
Speaker 1: think are dwarf galaxies? Here's what people had to say.

150
00:07:12,360 --> 00:07:15,680
Speaker 5: My guess is they're just smaller galaxies, smaller collections of

151
00:07:15,680 --> 00:07:18,760
Speaker 5: stars that have not yet been swallowed up by a

152
00:07:18,800 --> 00:07:19,520
Speaker 5: big galaxy.

153
00:07:20,320 --> 00:07:22,760
Speaker 1: I would imagine that all galaxies kind of start out

154
00:07:22,800 --> 00:07:27,480
Speaker 1: that way and grow and merge and until they become big,

155
00:07:27,520 --> 00:07:29,880
Speaker 1: beautiful spirals like the Milky Way.

156
00:07:30,320 --> 00:07:33,800
Speaker 6: Dwarf galaxies are like those little mini galaxies, and they

157
00:07:33,840 --> 00:07:38,040
Speaker 6: can be like satellite galaxies to galaxies like the Milky Way,

158
00:07:38,360 --> 00:07:41,520
Speaker 6: just tiny little galaxies, not that big. I don't know.

159
00:07:41,640 --> 00:07:45,280
Speaker 7: Maybe a dwarf galaxy is a galaxy with not enough

160
00:07:45,600 --> 00:07:46,360
Speaker 7: MOUs to be.

161
00:07:46,360 --> 00:07:49,720
Speaker 1: Considered a galaxy, like what happened to Pluto.

162
00:07:49,800 --> 00:07:50,240
Speaker 2: I don't know.

163
00:07:50,640 --> 00:07:55,000
Speaker 5: I'm guessing the dwarf galaxies, as the name suggests, are

164
00:07:55,400 --> 00:07:56,480
Speaker 5: smaller galaxies.

165
00:07:56,720 --> 00:08:00,200
Speaker 8: I guess that by the name, dwarf galaxies have a

166
00:08:00,240 --> 00:08:04,760
Speaker 8: lot less stars and planets and other stuff. But I

167
00:08:04,760 --> 00:08:07,320
Speaker 8: don't know how smaller it has to be to be

168
00:08:07,360 --> 00:08:09,000
Speaker 8: considered a dwarf galaxy.

169
00:08:10,160 --> 00:08:14,160
Speaker 9: The term dwarf galaxies kind of reminds me of the

170
00:08:14,200 --> 00:08:20,160
Speaker 9: galaxies that are like globular clusters. So or it might

171
00:08:20,280 --> 00:08:22,240
Speaker 9: just be as it says in the name, they're just

172
00:08:23,080 --> 00:08:31,160
Speaker 9: smaller galaxies, maybe much less stars, maybe a different shape,

173
00:08:30,680 --> 00:08:35,440
Speaker 9: maybe less dark matter keeping them together.

174
00:08:38,000 --> 00:08:38,720
Speaker 5: I don't believe.

175
00:08:38,720 --> 00:08:42,320
Speaker 9: There probably won't be any black hole in the center,

176
00:08:43,480 --> 00:08:44,600
Speaker 9: but there might be. I don't know.

177
00:08:44,760 --> 00:08:48,360
Speaker 5: All right, some pretty straightforward answers here, everyone said they're

178
00:08:48,400 --> 00:08:49,960
Speaker 5: just galaxies but smaller.

179
00:08:50,440 --> 00:08:52,679
Speaker 1: It's like a dwarf serving of ice cream or a

180
00:08:52,760 --> 00:08:54,040
Speaker 1: dwarf cup of cocoa.

181
00:08:54,160 --> 00:08:57,440
Speaker 5: Oh yeah, that is that a new diet, perhaps.

182
00:08:57,240 --> 00:09:00,000
Speaker 1: Little servings of everything. I think that's maybe the old

183
00:09:00,080 --> 00:09:00,600
Speaker 1: this diet.

184
00:09:00,679 --> 00:09:02,480
Speaker 5: Well, that's a thing on the internet, right, there are

185
00:09:02,480 --> 00:09:05,320
Speaker 5: all these videos that people making like little tiny, like

186
00:09:05,440 --> 00:09:06,640
Speaker 5: lego sized foods.

187
00:09:08,080 --> 00:09:09,920
Speaker 1: Really like instead of having a sandwich, you just have

188
00:09:10,000 --> 00:09:11,200
Speaker 1: like a tiny little sandwich.

189
00:09:11,320 --> 00:09:14,079
Speaker 5: Yeah, there's this whole genre of YouTube videos they make

190
00:09:14,160 --> 00:09:14,880
Speaker 5: like tiny food.

191
00:09:15,000 --> 00:09:17,160
Speaker 1: Oh but that's not for eating, right, that's just for

192
00:09:17,360 --> 00:09:20,760
Speaker 1: like being silly. Nobody's sitting down to tuck into like

193
00:09:20,800 --> 00:09:22,160
Speaker 1: a tiny roast chicken, are they.

194
00:09:22,240 --> 00:09:25,199
Speaker 5: Well maybe they could, they could, I don't know. They

195
00:09:25,240 --> 00:09:27,160
Speaker 5: usually cut the videos after they'd make the food.

196
00:09:27,400 --> 00:09:30,040
Speaker 1: I do like those tiny kitchen videos. Those are really fun.

197
00:09:30,320 --> 00:09:32,880
Speaker 5: All right, Well let's dig into it, Daniel. What is

198
00:09:32,880 --> 00:09:33,760
Speaker 5: a dwarf galaxy?

199
00:09:33,960 --> 00:09:38,360
Speaker 1: So everybody was basically right, dwarf galaxies are little cute galaxies,

200
00:09:38,520 --> 00:09:42,080
Speaker 1: because it turns out that galaxies come in all sorts

201
00:09:42,120 --> 00:09:45,600
Speaker 1: of sizes. We tend to think about galaxies in terms

202
00:09:45,679 --> 00:09:48,240
Speaker 1: of ones like our own the Milky Way that has

203
00:09:48,640 --> 00:09:52,640
Speaker 1: hundreds of billions of stars, but galaxies that are much

204
00:09:52,720 --> 00:09:55,120
Speaker 1: much bigger than the Milky Way all the way down

205
00:09:55,200 --> 00:09:58,240
Speaker 1: to galaxies that are very very small things that you

206
00:09:58,440 --> 00:10:00,679
Speaker 1: probably wouldn't even call a galaxy.

207
00:10:00,800 --> 00:10:03,400
Speaker 5: Maybe let's put things into perspective, like how big is

208
00:10:03,520 --> 00:10:06,960
Speaker 5: our galaxy? What are the size range you said qualify

209
00:10:07,000 --> 00:10:08,400
Speaker 5: a galaxy as a dwarf galaxy.

210
00:10:08,480 --> 00:10:12,000
Speaker 1: So our galaxy has somewhere around two hundred to four

211
00:10:12,120 --> 00:10:16,280
Speaker 1: hundred billion stars. That's a really difficult number to wrap

212
00:10:16,320 --> 00:10:17,040
Speaker 1: your mind around.

213
00:10:17,120 --> 00:10:20,440
Speaker 5: Two hundred billion, like a billion times two hundred exactly.

214
00:10:20,440 --> 00:10:24,880
Speaker 1: There are more stars in the galaxy than people on Earth, right,

215
00:10:25,000 --> 00:10:27,960
Speaker 1: It's incredible, like every single person on Earth could have

216
00:10:28,040 --> 00:10:30,840
Speaker 1: like point to or so stars just for themselves in

217
00:10:30,880 --> 00:10:34,360
Speaker 1: the Milky Way. It's really an incredible number of stars

218
00:10:34,360 --> 00:10:37,559
Speaker 1: out there, all them firing and burning with planets around them,

219
00:10:37,640 --> 00:10:40,320
Speaker 1: lots of Earth like planets. It's really hard to sort

220
00:10:40,320 --> 00:10:42,840
Speaker 1: of like get the whole scope of the galaxy in

221
00:10:42,880 --> 00:10:45,840
Speaker 1: your mind. But that's the size of our galaxy. A

222
00:10:45,880 --> 00:10:47,840
Speaker 1: few hundred billion stars.

223
00:10:48,040 --> 00:10:50,440
Speaker 5: You'd be like Oprah, you'd be giving up stars to everyone.

224
00:10:50,679 --> 00:10:53,280
Speaker 5: You get a star, and you get a star, You're

225
00:10:53,320 --> 00:10:53,960
Speaker 5: all stars.

226
00:10:54,320 --> 00:10:56,520
Speaker 1: That's right. Donate to the podcast and I will give

227
00:10:56,520 --> 00:10:58,200
Speaker 1: you a star in return.

228
00:10:58,320 --> 00:11:01,360
Speaker 5: Now, do you offer free home delivery that or do

229
00:11:01,400 --> 00:11:02,920
Speaker 5: you have to pay for shipping? See that's how they

230
00:11:03,000 --> 00:11:06,400
Speaker 5: get you the shipping. It's the free star, but it's

231
00:11:06,440 --> 00:11:09,080
Speaker 5: going to cost you ten trillion dollars to deliver it

232
00:11:09,120 --> 00:11:11,480
Speaker 5: to your house and also the life of very human

233
00:11:11,520 --> 00:11:11,880
Speaker 5: on Earth.

234
00:11:11,960 --> 00:11:12,319
Speaker 4: Mm hmm.

235
00:11:12,360 --> 00:11:14,080
Speaker 1: Yeah. And in this case, it's not just the shipping,

236
00:11:14,240 --> 00:11:17,360
Speaker 1: it's the handling, right, because that's particularly tricky when you're

237
00:11:17,360 --> 00:11:20,560
Speaker 1: dealing with something several thousand degrees Calvin, But no, I

238
00:11:20,600 --> 00:11:22,840
Speaker 1: will email you a plaque of ownership of your star

239
00:11:22,960 --> 00:11:24,360
Speaker 1: if you donate to the podcast.

240
00:11:24,480 --> 00:11:26,600
Speaker 5: Oh boy, I feel like you just made a serious offer.

241
00:11:27,679 --> 00:11:30,199
Speaker 1: Let's see if we get any takers. But our galaxy,

242
00:11:30,360 --> 00:11:33,200
Speaker 1: as big as it is, is not even the biggest

243
00:11:33,200 --> 00:11:34,080
Speaker 1: galaxy out there.

244
00:11:34,800 --> 00:11:38,520
Speaker 5: How big do galaxies get? Like Andromeda? How big is Andromeda?

245
00:11:38,640 --> 00:11:41,760
Speaker 1: Andromeda has more than a trillion stars in it. It's

246
00:11:41,800 --> 00:11:44,800
Speaker 1: about five times as big as the Milky Way, like

247
00:11:45,000 --> 00:11:48,920
Speaker 1: totally dwarfs us in terms of galaxies. And there are

248
00:11:48,920 --> 00:11:51,320
Speaker 1: other galaxies out there that are even bigger.

249
00:11:51,440 --> 00:11:54,160
Speaker 5: Whoa, what's the biggest galaxy that we know of? Or

250
00:11:54,200 --> 00:11:56,080
Speaker 5: what's the biggest galaxy that Google knows of?

251
00:11:56,240 --> 00:11:58,800
Speaker 1: So the biggest galaxy that we know is about a

252
00:11:58,840 --> 00:12:01,880
Speaker 1: billion light years of a way. It's called I See

253
00:12:02,120 --> 00:12:05,600
Speaker 1: one one one, and there's a lot of uncertainty, but

254
00:12:05,640 --> 00:12:07,840
Speaker 1: the current estimate is that it has the mass of

255
00:12:07,840 --> 00:12:12,640
Speaker 1: about one hundred trillion stars, so like one hundred times

256
00:12:12,760 --> 00:12:14,880
Speaker 1: more stars than Andromeda.

257
00:12:14,600 --> 00:12:17,319
Speaker 5: Whoa, which is already five times bigger than us, So

258
00:12:17,360 --> 00:12:20,000
Speaker 5: it's like five hundred times bigger than us in terms

259
00:12:20,040 --> 00:12:20,600
Speaker 5: of mass.

260
00:12:20,760 --> 00:12:23,400
Speaker 1: Yeah, there's some nuances there because there's a big variation

261
00:12:23,520 --> 00:12:27,160
Speaker 1: in the masses of stars. Actually, more stars are smaller

262
00:12:27,200 --> 00:12:30,080
Speaker 1: than the mass of our sun. Remember, the most common

263
00:12:30,120 --> 00:12:32,200
Speaker 1: kind of star out there is a red dwarf, which

264
00:12:32,240 --> 00:12:34,400
Speaker 1: is smaller than the kind of star that we have.

265
00:12:34,760 --> 00:12:36,880
Speaker 1: So if you're just measuring the mass in terms of

266
00:12:36,920 --> 00:12:40,760
Speaker 1: like our solar masses, that's going to underestimate the number

267
00:12:40,800 --> 00:12:43,320
Speaker 1: of stars that are out there in that galaxy. So

268
00:12:43,360 --> 00:12:45,800
Speaker 1: it may even be more. This is just like a

269
00:12:45,840 --> 00:12:48,920
Speaker 1: really shocking number, hundreds of trillions of stars. You know.

270
00:12:49,040 --> 00:12:53,160
Speaker 1: For comparison, there's like a few trillion trees on Earth,

271
00:12:53,200 --> 00:12:55,840
Speaker 1: so that means that like every tree on Earth could

272
00:12:55,920 --> 00:12:58,840
Speaker 1: have like twenty stars in that mega galaxy.

273
00:12:59,160 --> 00:12:59,559
Speaker 4: WHOA.

274
00:13:00,120 --> 00:13:04,840
Speaker 5: Sure trees are collecting stars these days, but you're welcome

275
00:13:04,880 --> 00:13:08,560
Speaker 5: to assign a star for every tree in that galaxy.

276
00:13:08,600 --> 00:13:11,120
Speaker 1: Any tree that donates the podcast, I will email them

277
00:13:11,160 --> 00:13:12,640
Speaker 1: a certificate of ownership.

278
00:13:13,280 --> 00:13:15,760
Speaker 5: They technical they kind of do already because I print

279
00:13:15,800 --> 00:13:18,880
Speaker 5: out the outline every single time on paper.

280
00:13:18,960 --> 00:13:21,559
Speaker 1: Wow, which means you're sacrificing trees for the podcast.

281
00:13:21,679 --> 00:13:24,360
Speaker 5: Yeah. I like to think they donated for the good

282
00:13:24,360 --> 00:13:28,040
Speaker 5: of the of knowledge, But I guess maybe a question

283
00:13:28,120 --> 00:13:30,120
Speaker 5: is like, is there an upper limit to the size

284
00:13:30,160 --> 00:13:33,520
Speaker 5: of a galaxy? Where can galaxies just be infinitely big?

285
00:13:33,600 --> 00:13:36,080
Speaker 5: And if there's a limit, what causes that limit? Is

286
00:13:36,080 --> 00:13:38,760
Speaker 5: it something about the conditions at the beginning of the universe.

287
00:13:38,800 --> 00:13:41,359
Speaker 1: There's no technical limit to the size of a galaxy.

288
00:13:41,640 --> 00:13:45,640
Speaker 1: Galaxies just form and get bigger and bigger. That's fundamentally

289
00:13:45,720 --> 00:13:48,560
Speaker 1: the history of the universe is that galaxy started out

290
00:13:48,640 --> 00:13:52,160
Speaker 1: basically a small clumps of stars, which then merge with

291
00:13:52,280 --> 00:13:54,640
Speaker 1: other clumps of stars, and so you get this like

292
00:13:54,840 --> 00:13:59,520
Speaker 1: hierarchical formation, this merging of mergers of mergers, and so

293
00:13:59,679 --> 00:14:02,520
Speaker 1: there's no reason why you can't just like keep clumping

294
00:14:02,559 --> 00:14:05,520
Speaker 1: galaxies together, and they are going to keep clumping together. Really,

295
00:14:05,559 --> 00:14:08,240
Speaker 1: the only thing that limits the size of the galaxy

296
00:14:08,400 --> 00:14:10,640
Speaker 1: is the fact that the universe is expanding, and that

297
00:14:10,760 --> 00:14:15,559
Speaker 1: expansion is accelerating, so it's increasing the distances between galaxies.

298
00:14:15,880 --> 00:14:18,200
Speaker 1: So it sort of like keeps the galaxies separated a

299
00:14:18,200 --> 00:14:21,480
Speaker 1: little bit and prevents them from colliding all into one

300
00:14:21,840 --> 00:14:24,600
Speaker 1: huge mega galaxy. So it's a bit of a race

301
00:14:24,640 --> 00:14:29,320
Speaker 1: against time, right because recently the universe has started accelerating

302
00:14:29,400 --> 00:14:31,840
Speaker 1: right in terms of its expansion, So maybe we have

303
00:14:31,960 --> 00:14:35,040
Speaker 1: seen the biggest galaxies that will ever form. Some cosmologists

304
00:14:35,080 --> 00:14:37,360
Speaker 1: think that we live at the time of the biggest

305
00:14:37,520 --> 00:14:41,400
Speaker 1: structures in the universe because of the accelerating expansion of

306
00:14:41,440 --> 00:14:45,200
Speaker 1: the universe, then size of structures cannot grow anymore because

307
00:14:45,240 --> 00:14:49,120
Speaker 1: so much space is being created between existing galaxies. And so,

308
00:14:49,240 --> 00:14:52,040
Speaker 1: like we have galaxies, and we have clusters of galaxies

309
00:14:52,080 --> 00:14:54,320
Speaker 1: that are mostly held together by gravity. Then we have

310
00:14:54,400 --> 00:14:56,960
Speaker 1: superclusters which are sort of on the edge of whether

311
00:14:57,080 --> 00:14:59,880
Speaker 1: gravity can hold them together or dark energy will re

312
00:15:00,160 --> 00:15:02,480
Speaker 1: them apart. And so it might be that, like our

313
00:15:02,560 --> 00:15:07,080
Speaker 1: cluster of galaxies eventually collapses into one big galaxy, maybe

314
00:15:07,120 --> 00:15:11,400
Speaker 1: even our supercluster collapses into a super galaxy. But the

315
00:15:11,440 --> 00:15:14,800
Speaker 1: stuff and other superclusters. Probably dark energy will keep us

316
00:15:14,840 --> 00:15:17,560
Speaker 1: from ever merging with them, So we might get future

317
00:15:17,600 --> 00:15:20,920
Speaker 1: bigger galaxies, but we won't ever get like bigger blobs

318
00:15:20,960 --> 00:15:23,600
Speaker 1: of stuff. We might have reached sort of like peak

319
00:15:23,920 --> 00:15:25,040
Speaker 1: size of blob.

320
00:15:26,880 --> 00:15:29,760
Speaker 5: We're like at the end of purity. It's all downhill

321
00:15:29,800 --> 00:15:30,160
Speaker 5: after that.

322
00:15:31,280 --> 00:15:33,160
Speaker 1: Stuff just starts falling apart after that.

323
00:15:33,440 --> 00:15:36,160
Speaker 5: Yeah, hopefully let's get to party as much as we

324
00:15:36,200 --> 00:15:38,000
Speaker 5: can right now. But I guess it also depends on

325
00:15:38,040 --> 00:15:40,080
Speaker 5: what dark energy is going to do in the future,

326
00:15:40,120 --> 00:15:43,040
Speaker 5: right Isn't it a possibility that dark energy will reverse

327
00:15:43,200 --> 00:15:45,920
Speaker 5: and it will cause everything to start contracting and then

328
00:15:45,960 --> 00:15:48,680
Speaker 5: will very basically at the entire universe is going to

329
00:15:49,000 --> 00:15:52,040
Speaker 5: collapse into a clump and then it'll be like one

330
00:15:52,040 --> 00:15:52,800
Speaker 5: giant galaxy.

331
00:15:52,880 --> 00:15:55,680
Speaker 1: Basically, it certainly does depend on that. The scenario we

332
00:15:55,800 --> 00:15:59,360
Speaker 1: just outlined assumes that dark energy continues the way that

333
00:15:59,440 --> 00:16:02,800
Speaker 1: it has that is constant in space, and that as

334
00:16:02,880 --> 00:16:06,080
Speaker 1: space gets bigger, you add more dark energy. So dark

335
00:16:06,160 --> 00:16:09,640
Speaker 1: energy is an increasing fraction of the energy density of

336
00:16:09,680 --> 00:16:13,240
Speaker 1: the universe, which just further accelerates the expansion. If you

337
00:16:13,320 --> 00:16:16,080
Speaker 1: just extrapolate that out naively, then yeah, you get the

338
00:16:16,080 --> 00:16:18,600
Speaker 1: scenario we just outlined. But as you say, we don't

339
00:16:18,600 --> 00:16:21,600
Speaker 1: really understand dark energy where it comes from. What is

340
00:16:21,640 --> 00:16:24,440
Speaker 1: this source of potential energy that's accelerating the expansion of

341
00:16:24,440 --> 00:16:26,960
Speaker 1: the universe. Could it change? And in fact it might,

342
00:16:27,120 --> 00:16:31,200
Speaker 1: right because we don't know the underlying mechanism that creates it.

343
00:16:31,200 --> 00:16:34,000
Speaker 1: It could be that there's some complicated dynamics there that

344
00:16:34,120 --> 00:16:36,880
Speaker 1: change with time and give us a different future. Like

345
00:16:36,920 --> 00:16:39,360
Speaker 1: it could just all turn off suddenly and then we

346
00:16:39,440 --> 00:16:42,080
Speaker 1: have a big crunch where everything collapses down, as you say,

347
00:16:42,280 --> 00:16:47,920
Speaker 1: into one big superstructure, one megagalaxy. But we're not here

348
00:16:47,960 --> 00:16:50,440
Speaker 1: today to talk about the super big galaxies. They get

349
00:16:50,520 --> 00:16:53,360
Speaker 1: enough attention. Let's turn our mental eyes down to the

350
00:16:53,400 --> 00:16:55,200
Speaker 1: other end of the spectrum.

351
00:16:55,280 --> 00:16:58,200
Speaker 5: Yep, yep, we're talking about dwarf galaxies. And like you said,

352
00:16:58,280 --> 00:17:01,840
Speaker 5: it's the case that all galaxies started out as dwarf galaxies,

353
00:17:01,920 --> 00:17:05,280
Speaker 5: right Like at the beginning of the universe, everything was

354
00:17:05,280 --> 00:17:07,560
Speaker 5: spread out, but then these things started to clump together,

355
00:17:08,240 --> 00:17:10,760
Speaker 5: and so everything started with the small galaxies.

356
00:17:10,840 --> 00:17:14,680
Speaker 1: Yeah, everything started with these little fluctuations due to quantum mechanics.

357
00:17:14,720 --> 00:17:16,520
Speaker 1: A little bit that was more dense over here, a

358
00:17:16,520 --> 00:17:18,680
Speaker 1: little bit that was less dense over there, and then

359
00:17:18,760 --> 00:17:21,960
Speaker 1: gravity did its work and pulled that stuff together and

360
00:17:22,000 --> 00:17:25,280
Speaker 1: made little clumps of gas which then turned into stars,

361
00:17:25,320 --> 00:17:27,679
Speaker 1: and that's how you got the first galaxies. So there

362
00:17:27,720 --> 00:17:30,520
Speaker 1: was like a size of those clumps that formed the

363
00:17:30,560 --> 00:17:33,080
Speaker 1: first galaxies. And you know, some of those have merged

364
00:17:33,080 --> 00:17:35,320
Speaker 1: into bigger galaxies, and some of them have not, and

365
00:17:35,359 --> 00:17:37,800
Speaker 1: some of them are more recent and haven't yet merged

366
00:17:38,040 --> 00:17:40,879
Speaker 1: into other galaxies. So at the small end of the

367
00:17:40,920 --> 00:17:44,119
Speaker 1: scale are those little mini galaxies that have not merged

368
00:17:44,240 --> 00:17:46,120
Speaker 1: or not merged as many times.

369
00:17:46,240 --> 00:17:49,239
Speaker 5: I wonder if there's like an average size galaxy at

370
00:17:49,240 --> 00:17:51,640
Speaker 5: the beginning of the universe, do you know what I mean?

371
00:17:51,680 --> 00:17:55,280
Speaker 5: Like the universe presumably was kind of the same everywhere

372
00:17:55,440 --> 00:17:58,320
Speaker 5: when there's a certain density of stuff, which means that

373
00:17:58,480 --> 00:18:01,399
Speaker 5: on average there was probably like like every galaxy was

374
00:18:01,680 --> 00:18:04,400
Speaker 5: almost the same size, right, some small size.

375
00:18:04,480 --> 00:18:06,600
Speaker 1: Yeah, And we can actually see this in the cosmic

376
00:18:06,640 --> 00:18:09,840
Speaker 1: microwave background radiation. We can see this pattern of overdensity

377
00:18:09,880 --> 00:18:13,080
Speaker 1: and under density, and we can use that size actually

378
00:18:13,080 --> 00:18:16,240
Speaker 1: to measure like the expansion rate of the universe. We

379
00:18:16,320 --> 00:18:19,000
Speaker 1: have a whole podcast episode about like measuring the curvature

380
00:18:19,160 --> 00:18:21,600
Speaker 1: of space and the history of it, and you can

381
00:18:21,640 --> 00:18:25,040
Speaker 1: see those kinds of things expand from an early characteristic

382
00:18:25,080 --> 00:18:30,040
Speaker 1: quantum fluctuation size blown up into something macroscopic, which, as

383
00:18:30,080 --> 00:18:33,920
Speaker 1: you say, then determines basically the size of these initial clumps.

384
00:18:34,040 --> 00:18:37,200
Speaker 5: Yeah, but again it's quantum base, right, so it's totally random.

385
00:18:37,240 --> 00:18:39,320
Speaker 5: So there could have been maybe a spot in the universe,

386
00:18:39,359 --> 00:18:42,240
Speaker 5: but that had a big fluctuation which maybe would have

387
00:18:42,280 --> 00:18:44,760
Speaker 5: made a big galaxy out there at the beginning of time.

388
00:18:45,000 --> 00:18:47,720
Speaker 1: Yeah, it is random, you're right, and so it's less likely,

389
00:18:47,760 --> 00:18:50,960
Speaker 1: but it's possible to get a larger gravitational collapse an

390
00:18:50,960 --> 00:18:53,840
Speaker 1: early galaxy that started out big. But there's also a

391
00:18:53,880 --> 00:18:59,240
Speaker 1: typical characteristic size where galaxies start, and so that's on

392
00:18:59,280 --> 00:19:02,119
Speaker 1: the little end. So these dwarf galaxies are basically on

393
00:19:02,240 --> 00:19:06,120
Speaker 1: that smaller end of little gravitational clumps that formed little

394
00:19:06,160 --> 00:19:07,160
Speaker 1: stellar neighborhoods.

395
00:19:08,240 --> 00:19:11,280
Speaker 5: So right now we have these galaxies and giant structures

396
00:19:11,320 --> 00:19:13,480
Speaker 5: of galaxies. But it used to be the case, maybe

397
00:19:13,520 --> 00:19:16,480
Speaker 5: at the beginning of the universe, where like the entire

398
00:19:16,560 --> 00:19:20,760
Speaker 5: universe was just kind of evenly distributed with tiny little galaxies.

399
00:19:20,880 --> 00:19:24,000
Speaker 1: Yeah, and these galaxies get to be pretty small, like

400
00:19:24,119 --> 00:19:28,560
Speaker 1: remember the milky ways hundreds of billions of stars. Dwarf

401
00:19:28,600 --> 00:19:31,440
Speaker 1: galaxies can go all the way down to like hundreds

402
00:19:31,560 --> 00:19:34,320
Speaker 1: or thousands of stars, all the way up to like

403
00:19:34,440 --> 00:19:38,440
Speaker 1: several billion stars. So there's an enormous spectrum of size there,

404
00:19:38,480 --> 00:19:41,040
Speaker 1: from really just a handful of stars all the way

405
00:19:41,119 --> 00:19:42,480
Speaker 1: up to billions of stars.

406
00:19:42,840 --> 00:19:46,159
Speaker 5: Hmmm. Interesting. All right, let's get more into actual dwarf

407
00:19:46,160 --> 00:19:48,720
Speaker 5: galaxies and what they can tell us about dark matter

408
00:19:48,880 --> 00:19:51,840
Speaker 5: and the rest of how the universe formed. But first,

409
00:19:52,000 --> 00:19:53,480
Speaker 5: let's take a quick break.

410
00:19:57,440 --> 00:20:00,440
Speaker 1: With big wireless providers. What you see is for what

411
00:20:00,480 --> 00:20:03,160
Speaker 1: you get. Somewhere between the store and your first month's bill.

412
00:20:03,200 --> 00:20:06,240
Speaker 1: The price, your thoughts you were paying magically skyrockets. With

413
00:20:06,359 --> 00:20:09,760
Speaker 1: mint Mobile, you'll never have to worry about gotcha's ever again.

414
00:20:09,880 --> 00:20:12,119
Speaker 1: When mint Mobile says fifteen dollars a month for a

415
00:20:12,119 --> 00:20:14,960
Speaker 1: three month plan, they really mean it. I've used mint

416
00:20:14,960 --> 00:20:17,440
Speaker 1: Mobile and the call quality is always so crisp and

417
00:20:17,520 --> 00:20:19,960
Speaker 1: so clear. I can recommend it to you, So say

418
00:20:19,960 --> 00:20:23,199
Speaker 1: bye bye to your overpriced wireless plans, jaw dropping monthly

419
00:20:23,240 --> 00:20:26,359
Speaker 1: bills and unexpected overages. You can use your own phone

420
00:20:26,440 --> 00:20:28,920
Speaker 1: with any mint Mobile plan and bring your phone number

421
00:20:29,040 --> 00:20:32,320
Speaker 1: along with your existing contacts, So dit your overpriced wireless

422
00:20:32,320 --> 00:20:34,640
Speaker 1: with Mint Mobiles deal and get three months a premium

423
00:20:34,760 --> 00:20:37,199
Speaker 1: wireless service for fifteen bucks a month. To get this

424
00:20:37,240 --> 00:20:39,680
Speaker 1: new customer offer and your new three month premium wireless

425
00:20:39,680 --> 00:20:41,680
Speaker 1: plan for just fifteen bucks a month, go to mintmobile

426
00:20:41,720 --> 00:20:45,240
Speaker 1: dot com slash universe. That's mintmobile dot com slash universe.

427
00:20:45,240 --> 00:20:47,240
Speaker 1: Cut your wireless bill to fifteen bucks a month at

428
00:20:47,240 --> 00:20:50,399
Speaker 1: mintmobile dot com slash universe. Forty five dollars upfront payment

429
00:20:50,400 --> 00:20:53,119
Speaker 1: required equivalent to fifteen dollars per month new customers on

430
00:20:53,160 --> 00:20:55,960
Speaker 1: first three month plan only speeds slower about forty gigabytes.

431
00:20:56,000 --> 00:20:58,760
Speaker 1: On unlimited plan. Additional taxi speeds and restrictions apply. See

432
00:20:58,800 --> 00:20:59,920
Speaker 1: mint mobile for details.

433
00:21:00,160 --> 00:21:03,240
Speaker 7: AI might be the most important new computer technology ever.

434
00:21:03,480 --> 00:21:06,679
Speaker 7: It's storming every industry and literally billions of dollars are

435
00:21:06,720 --> 00:21:10,920
Speaker 7: being invested, so buckle up. The problem is that AI

436
00:21:11,040 --> 00:21:13,880
Speaker 7: needs a lot of speed and processing power. So how

437
00:21:13,880 --> 00:21:17,040
Speaker 7: do you compete without cost spiraling out of control. It's

438
00:21:17,080 --> 00:21:19,399
Speaker 7: time to upgrade to the next generation of the cloud.

439
00:21:19,720 --> 00:21:24,920
Speaker 7: Oracle Cloud Infrastructure or OCI. OCI is a single platform

440
00:21:24,960 --> 00:21:29,800
Speaker 7: for your infrastructure, database, application development, and AI needs. OCI

441
00:21:29,960 --> 00:21:32,360
Speaker 7: has four to eight times the bandwidth of other clouds,

442
00:21:32,720 --> 00:21:36,280
Speaker 7: offers one consistent price instead of variable regional pricing, and

443
00:21:36,359 --> 00:21:39,440
Speaker 7: of course nobody does data better than Oracle, So now

444
00:21:39,480 --> 00:21:41,679
Speaker 7: you can train your AI models at twice the speed

445
00:21:41,880 --> 00:21:44,240
Speaker 7: and less than half the cost of other clouds. If

446
00:21:44,240 --> 00:21:46,480
Speaker 7: you want to do more and spend less, like Uber

447
00:21:46,600 --> 00:21:49,240
Speaker 7: eight by eight and Data Bricks Mosaic, take a free

448
00:21:49,280 --> 00:21:53,200
Speaker 7: test drive of OCI at Oracle dot com slash strategic.

449
00:21:53,480 --> 00:21:58,760
Speaker 7: That's Oracle dot com slash Strategic Oracle dot com slash strategic.

450
00:21:59,000 --> 00:22:01,879
Speaker 1: If you love iPhone, you'll love Apple Card. It's that

451
00:22:02,000 --> 00:22:05,879
Speaker 1: credit card designed for iPhone. It gives you unlimited daily

452
00:22:06,000 --> 00:22:08,960
Speaker 1: cash back that can earn four point four zero percent

453
00:22:09,080 --> 00:22:11,959
Speaker 1: annual percentage yield. When you open a high yield savings

454
00:22:11,960 --> 00:22:14,760
Speaker 1: account through Apple Card, apply for Apple Card in the

455
00:22:14,840 --> 00:22:18,119
Speaker 1: wallet app, subject to credit approval. Savings is available to

456
00:22:18,160 --> 00:22:21,600
Speaker 1: Apple Card owners subject to eligibility. Apple Card and Savings

457
00:22:21,600 --> 00:22:24,520
Speaker 1: by Goldman Sachs Bank USA Salt Lake City Branch Member

458
00:22:24,600 --> 00:22:27,960
Speaker 1: FDIC terms and more at applecard dot com. When you

459
00:22:28,000 --> 00:22:30,000
Speaker 1: pop a piece of cheese into your mouth or enjoy

460
00:22:30,040 --> 00:22:33,320
Speaker 1: a rich spoonful of Greek yogurt, you're probably not thinking

461
00:22:33,359 --> 00:22:36,919
Speaker 1: about the environmental impact of each and every bite. But

462
00:22:36,960 --> 00:22:39,640
Speaker 1: the people in the dairy industry are US Dairy has

463
00:22:39,640 --> 00:22:44,080
Speaker 1: set themselves some ambitious sustainability goals, including being greenhouse gas

464
00:22:44,119 --> 00:22:46,920
Speaker 1: neutral by twenty fifty. That's why they're working hard every

465
00:22:47,000 --> 00:22:50,119
Speaker 1: day to find new ways to reduce waste, conserve natural resources,

466
00:22:50,119 --> 00:22:53,640
Speaker 1: and drive down greenhouse gas emissions. Take water, for example,

467
00:22:53,760 --> 00:22:56,800
Speaker 1: most dairy farms reuse water up to four times. The

468
00:22:56,840 --> 00:22:59,879
Speaker 1: same water cools the milk, cleans equipment, washes the bar,

469
00:23:00,080 --> 00:23:03,920
Speaker 1: and irrigates the crops. How is US Dairy tackling greenhouse gases.

470
00:23:03,960 --> 00:23:06,919
Speaker 1: Many farms use anaerobic digestors that turn the methane from

471
00:23:06,960 --> 00:23:10,359
Speaker 1: maneuver into renewable energy that can power farms, towns, and

472
00:23:10,400 --> 00:23:12,640
Speaker 1: electric cars. So the next time you grab a slice

473
00:23:12,640 --> 00:23:14,560
Speaker 1: of pizza or lick an ice cream cone, know that

474
00:23:14,640 --> 00:23:17,280
Speaker 1: dairy farmers and processors around the country are using the

475
00:23:17,359 --> 00:23:21,119
Speaker 1: latest practices and innovations to provide the nutrient dense dairy

476
00:23:21,119 --> 00:23:23,800
Speaker 1: products we love with less of an impact. Visit us

477
00:23:23,880 --> 00:23:26,440
Speaker 1: dairy dot com slash sustainability to learn more.

478
00:23:34,800 --> 00:23:37,400
Speaker 5: All right, we're talking about dwarf galaxies, and we talked

479
00:23:37,440 --> 00:23:40,040
Speaker 5: a little bit about how Basically, dwarf galaxies were the

480
00:23:40,080 --> 00:23:43,920
Speaker 5: og galaxies in the universe, right, Like the beginning of time,

481
00:23:43,960 --> 00:23:45,359
Speaker 5: every galaxy was a dwarf galls.

482
00:23:46,359 --> 00:23:49,360
Speaker 1: Yeah, there may have been some larger galaxies formed randomly

483
00:23:49,400 --> 00:23:52,000
Speaker 1: as you said, but the original galaxies, yeah, we're all

484
00:23:52,119 --> 00:23:54,240
Speaker 1: dwarf galaxies. That's how it all began.

485
00:23:55,520 --> 00:23:58,399
Speaker 5: And they usually kind of have a fuzzy shape to them, right,

486
00:23:58,440 --> 00:24:02,080
Speaker 5: They don't have maybe this nice spar shape or form

487
00:24:02,160 --> 00:24:03,080
Speaker 5: that the Milky Way has.

488
00:24:03,200 --> 00:24:06,040
Speaker 1: It's actually an interesting and really subtle point there, because

489
00:24:06,080 --> 00:24:09,159
Speaker 1: if you have an initial clump of stuff that collapses

490
00:24:09,240 --> 00:24:12,159
Speaker 1: under gravity, it tends to form a disk. And it

491
00:24:12,200 --> 00:24:14,480
Speaker 1: forms a disk because it's spinning, and it's spinning like

492
00:24:14,520 --> 00:24:17,680
Speaker 1: around some particular axis. Gravity can squeeze it down sort

493
00:24:17,680 --> 00:24:21,320
Speaker 1: of along that axis, but on the plane perpendicular to it,

494
00:24:21,320 --> 00:24:23,320
Speaker 1: it can't squeeze it down as much because it's still

495
00:24:23,359 --> 00:24:26,280
Speaker 1: spinning and it retains that angular momentum. So if you

496
00:24:26,280 --> 00:24:28,439
Speaker 1: have just like an initial spinning blob of stuff, it

497
00:24:28,440 --> 00:24:31,480
Speaker 1: tends to form a disk. Now, when dwarf galaxies merge

498
00:24:31,480 --> 00:24:33,920
Speaker 1: together to make bigger galaxies, then you have like disks

499
00:24:33,920 --> 00:24:36,159
Speaker 1: spinning in lots of different directions. And you end up

500
00:24:36,200 --> 00:24:40,440
Speaker 1: with like more ellipsoid galaxies which eventually later then also

501
00:24:40,520 --> 00:24:43,920
Speaker 1: collapse into like some big overall disc, which is why,

502
00:24:44,000 --> 00:24:46,320
Speaker 1: like the Milky Way is mostly a disc.

503
00:24:47,200 --> 00:24:49,480
Speaker 5: All right, Well, then like how many I guess the

504
00:24:49,560 --> 00:24:51,960
Speaker 5: question is, like how many dwarf galaxies do you need

505
00:24:52,119 --> 00:24:54,840
Speaker 5: to come together to make a galaxy like the Milky Way,

506
00:24:54,880 --> 00:24:56,960
Speaker 5: Because you're saying the Milky Wave probably formed out of

507
00:24:57,000 --> 00:24:59,520
Speaker 5: dwarf galaxies coming together, right, I'm just wondering how many

508
00:24:59,600 --> 00:25:00,000
Speaker 5: it takes.

509
00:25:00,320 --> 00:25:02,840
Speaker 1: Yeah, I mean if dwarf galaxies start out as a

510
00:25:02,880 --> 00:25:06,679
Speaker 1: few thousand stars, right, and the Milky Way has a

511
00:25:06,760 --> 00:25:11,119
Speaker 1: few hundred billion stars, then that means that the Milky

512
00:25:11,119 --> 00:25:14,840
Speaker 1: Way might be like a million dwarf galaxies all smoohed

513
00:25:14,880 --> 00:25:16,560
Speaker 1: together into one big galaxy.

514
00:25:16,680 --> 00:25:18,919
Speaker 5: But you said the range is between like a dwarf

515
00:25:18,920 --> 00:25:21,760
Speaker 5: galaxy is between one thousand and several billions.

516
00:25:21,920 --> 00:25:23,560
Speaker 1: Yeah, Well, you know, this is one of those sort

517
00:25:23,560 --> 00:25:26,679
Speaker 1: of artificial distinctions in astronomy, like what do you call

518
00:25:26,720 --> 00:25:28,720
Speaker 1: it galaxy and what do you call a dwarf galaxy.

519
00:25:28,760 --> 00:25:32,040
Speaker 1: There's this threshold of like above a few billion or

520
00:25:32,080 --> 00:25:35,600
Speaker 1: a few tens of billions of stars, It's called a galaxy,

521
00:25:35,880 --> 00:25:38,600
Speaker 1: and below that it is called a dwarf galaxy. For example,

522
00:25:38,760 --> 00:25:42,200
Speaker 1: the large Magallanic Cloud is orbiting the Milky Way and

523
00:25:42,240 --> 00:25:45,040
Speaker 1: it has like thirty billion stars in it. Some people

524
00:25:45,080 --> 00:25:47,280
Speaker 1: call it a dwarf galaxy. Some people say no, no,

525
00:25:47,359 --> 00:25:49,600
Speaker 1: it's its own galaxy. And so that's a bit of

526
00:25:49,640 --> 00:25:51,439
Speaker 1: an artificial distinction. But if you want to go like

527
00:25:51,480 --> 00:25:54,200
Speaker 1: all the way back to the og galaxies out of

528
00:25:54,240 --> 00:25:56,399
Speaker 1: which everything was built, then those are all going to

529
00:25:56,400 --> 00:25:59,040
Speaker 1: start out pretty small. So if those are like a

530
00:25:59,040 --> 00:26:01,399
Speaker 1: few thousand stars, then it's going to take millions of

531
00:26:01,440 --> 00:26:03,160
Speaker 1: those to make a Milky Way.

532
00:26:03,359 --> 00:26:03,679
Speaker 10: Mmmm.

533
00:26:04,160 --> 00:26:06,480
Speaker 5: I feel like if you have a thousand stars, maybe

534
00:26:06,480 --> 00:26:09,160
Speaker 5: you shouldn't be called the galaxy, you know. That's such

535
00:26:09,160 --> 00:26:11,520
Speaker 5: a sad that's more like a I don't know, like

536
00:26:11,560 --> 00:26:15,639
Speaker 5: a star neighborhood or something star clump associated stars.

537
00:26:15,880 --> 00:26:18,439
Speaker 1: That's the bias, right, that's us looking at our neighborhood

538
00:26:18,560 --> 00:26:22,159
Speaker 1: and observing other galaxies. But something we learn as we

539
00:26:22,240 --> 00:26:25,359
Speaker 1: develop better tools is to see fainter stuff, is to

540
00:26:25,400 --> 00:26:28,199
Speaker 1: discover the stuff that is not as easy to spot.

541
00:26:28,240 --> 00:26:31,240
Speaker 1: And the whole history of science is us drawing big

542
00:26:31,280 --> 00:26:34,639
Speaker 1: conclusions from the stuff we first see and then discovering, oh,

543
00:26:34,800 --> 00:26:37,280
Speaker 1: that wasn't representative in terms of we need to revise

544
00:26:37,359 --> 00:26:40,040
Speaker 1: our whole picture of how things work. And so we've

545
00:26:40,080 --> 00:26:43,159
Speaker 1: been seeing the biggest, brightest, most exciting galaxies, but the

546
00:26:43,400 --> 00:26:45,880
Speaker 1: whole spectrum of other kind of stuff out there, whether

547
00:26:45,920 --> 00:26:48,280
Speaker 1: you want to call it a galaxy or mini galaxy

548
00:26:48,560 --> 00:26:52,159
Speaker 1: or galaxy no or dwarf galaxy. You know that's just

549
00:26:52,240 --> 00:26:52,640
Speaker 1: the name.

550
00:26:53,000 --> 00:26:55,040
Speaker 5: You mean, Like, there could be aliens out there in

551
00:26:55,040 --> 00:26:57,639
Speaker 5: one of these mega galaxies looking at us and saying

552
00:26:57,680 --> 00:26:58,880
Speaker 5: that's not a real galaxy.

553
00:26:59,200 --> 00:27:01,960
Speaker 1: It only has you know, four hundred billion stars. That's

554
00:27:02,040 --> 00:27:05,320
Speaker 1: nothing exactly. Remember if we demote other galaxies, that day

555
00:27:05,400 --> 00:27:06,200
Speaker 1: might come for us.

556
00:27:06,400 --> 00:27:08,520
Speaker 5: Yeah, but you're saying so, you're saying that our galaxy,

557
00:27:08,560 --> 00:27:11,760
Speaker 5: the Milky Way, it probably is made up of hundreds

558
00:27:11,920 --> 00:27:14,959
Speaker 5: of these original dwarf galaxies that the universe started out with.

559
00:27:15,200 --> 00:27:19,560
Speaker 1: Hundreds or thousands or maybe even millions of dwarf galaxies

560
00:27:19,600 --> 00:27:22,280
Speaker 1: have been smoothed together. Like the stars that are in

561
00:27:22,320 --> 00:27:24,880
Speaker 1: the Milky Way did not all start in the same

562
00:27:25,240 --> 00:27:28,080
Speaker 1: part of the universe. They all came together after they

563
00:27:28,160 --> 00:27:31,440
Speaker 1: already formed clumps of stars. So all the stars in

564
00:27:31,440 --> 00:27:33,080
Speaker 1: the Milky Way did not form out of the same

565
00:27:33,280 --> 00:27:36,520
Speaker 1: big gas cloud. You had like millions of different gas

566
00:27:36,520 --> 00:27:39,960
Speaker 1: clouds that made millions of little pockets of stars which

567
00:27:40,040 --> 00:27:43,120
Speaker 1: then formed together later into a bigger galaxy.

568
00:27:43,400 --> 00:27:46,960
Speaker 5: You mean they were all sort of clumped together initially maybe,

569
00:27:47,040 --> 00:27:49,280
Speaker 5: is that what we're saying? But then within that giant

570
00:27:49,359 --> 00:27:53,280
Speaker 5: cloud little galaxies form that then eventually clumped together.

571
00:27:53,400 --> 00:27:55,760
Speaker 1: Well, I mean they clumped together eventually, the same way

572
00:27:55,800 --> 00:27:59,000
Speaker 1: that for example, Andromeda and the Milky Way will eventually

573
00:27:59,080 --> 00:28:03,200
Speaker 1: merge in a few million years. Gravity is inextually pulling

574
00:28:03,280 --> 00:28:06,200
Speaker 1: us together and we will form some big combined galaxy.

575
00:28:06,280 --> 00:28:08,080
Speaker 1: I don't know what you call it, like the Andromeda

576
00:28:08,119 --> 00:28:10,320
Speaker 1: Way or Milky Andromeda or something.

577
00:28:10,520 --> 00:28:15,520
Speaker 5: Vanilla Andromeda. I vote for Vanilla Andromeda. Contribute to the

578
00:28:15,560 --> 00:28:16,720
Speaker 5: greatest flavor.

579
00:28:16,600 --> 00:28:19,520
Speaker 1: Right, sounds good. And then you can ask like, well,

580
00:28:19,560 --> 00:28:21,720
Speaker 1: you know, did the Milky Way Andromeda did they form

581
00:28:21,800 --> 00:28:24,359
Speaker 1: together out of the same big clump. Well, their gravitational

582
00:28:24,400 --> 00:28:26,719
Speaker 1: future is secure that they will eventually be together, But

583
00:28:26,840 --> 00:28:29,520
Speaker 1: really they formed separately and then came together. And that

584
00:28:29,720 --> 00:28:32,960
Speaker 1: same idea applies to all the dwarf galaxies that formed

585
00:28:33,000 --> 00:28:35,879
Speaker 1: the Milky Way and the Dwarf galaxies that formed Andromeda.

586
00:28:36,040 --> 00:28:38,760
Speaker 1: They sort of formed separately and then later came together

587
00:28:38,920 --> 00:28:40,560
Speaker 1: to make bigger galaxies.

588
00:28:40,840 --> 00:28:44,240
Speaker 5: So then has enough time gone by to explain how

589
00:28:44,280 --> 00:28:47,560
Speaker 5: our galaxy form out of maybe millions of little galaxies,

590
00:28:47,920 --> 00:28:50,680
Speaker 5: like I know, that's a big mystery with black holes, right.

591
00:28:50,600 --> 00:28:52,520
Speaker 1: Yeah, that's a great question. And that's actually one of

592
00:28:52,560 --> 00:28:55,400
Speaker 1: the great triumphs of dark matter is that when we

593
00:28:55,440 --> 00:28:58,400
Speaker 1: do simulations of our universe and we say, here's so

594
00:28:58,480 --> 00:29:01,160
Speaker 1: much dark matter there was, and here's some quantum fluctuations,

595
00:29:01,320 --> 00:29:03,680
Speaker 1: and then we just like run the clock forward, we

596
00:29:03,840 --> 00:29:08,080
Speaker 1: can actually reproduce the large scale structure of the universe,

597
00:29:08,160 --> 00:29:11,080
Speaker 1: formation of the big galaxies that we see. And actually

598
00:29:11,160 --> 00:29:13,720
Speaker 1: the bigger galaxies we see do appear in our simulations.

599
00:29:13,720 --> 00:29:15,800
Speaker 1: But as we'll talk about later in the podcast, the

600
00:29:15,920 --> 00:29:18,800
Speaker 1: dwarf galaxies, we don't really understand why there aren't more

601
00:29:18,840 --> 00:29:20,880
Speaker 1: of them. So we do understand some of it, but

602
00:29:21,000 --> 00:29:21,680
Speaker 1: not all of it.

603
00:29:22,280 --> 00:29:25,880
Speaker 5: Interesting, are there still dwarf galaxies merging into our Milky

604
00:29:25,880 --> 00:29:28,320
Speaker 5: Way galaxy or within our Milky Way galaxy? Or are

605
00:29:28,400 --> 00:29:31,800
Speaker 5: we pretty much like just one big unified family right now?

606
00:29:31,800 --> 00:29:34,320
Speaker 1: There's so many dwarf galaxies still out there right now.

607
00:29:34,360 --> 00:29:37,040
Speaker 1: A bunch of them are orbiting the Milky Way, right,

608
00:29:37,040 --> 00:29:39,880
Speaker 1: which means eventually they might get slurred up by the

609
00:29:39,880 --> 00:29:40,440
Speaker 1: Milky Way.

610
00:29:40,480 --> 00:29:43,080
Speaker 5: Wait, what we have like a galaxy system?

611
00:29:43,480 --> 00:29:43,600
Speaker 7: Oh?

612
00:29:43,680 --> 00:29:45,680
Speaker 5: Yeah, like we have our galaxy and we have little

613
00:29:45,680 --> 00:29:47,080
Speaker 5: galaxies orbiting around this.

614
00:29:47,280 --> 00:29:51,640
Speaker 1: Yeah, we have satellite galaxies, right, little dwarf galaxies orbiting

615
00:29:51,680 --> 00:29:55,320
Speaker 1: the Milky Way, trapped by our gravity, and eventually they'll

616
00:29:55,360 --> 00:29:56,120
Speaker 1: get slurped up.

617
00:29:56,280 --> 00:29:58,479
Speaker 5: WHOA, How many satellite galaxies do we have?

618
00:29:58,600 --> 00:30:01,360
Speaker 1: That's an interesting and complicated question. We have something around

619
00:30:01,360 --> 00:30:05,840
Speaker 1: a couple dozen satellite galaxies that we've discovered, and one

620
00:30:05,840 --> 00:30:08,719
Speaker 1: of the big questions about the research right now is

621
00:30:08,840 --> 00:30:12,600
Speaker 1: why don't we have more. So if you run these simulations,

622
00:30:12,800 --> 00:30:15,480
Speaker 1: they suggest that you should get galaxies about the size

623
00:30:15,480 --> 00:30:17,520
Speaker 1: of the Milky Way, and we do, and that all

624
00:30:17,560 --> 00:30:20,400
Speaker 1: makes sense, but they also suggest that the Milky Way

625
00:30:20,440 --> 00:30:24,360
Speaker 1: should have a lot more dwarf galaxy satellites. There should

626
00:30:24,400 --> 00:30:27,280
Speaker 1: be like five hundred of them orbiting the Milky Way,

627
00:30:27,320 --> 00:30:29,560
Speaker 1: but we only see a couple dozen. And that's one

628
00:30:29,560 --> 00:30:31,520
Speaker 1: of the things people are still confused about. And that's

629
00:30:31,560 --> 00:30:35,160
Speaker 1: why dwarf galaxies are so interesting, because they're one of

630
00:30:35,160 --> 00:30:39,080
Speaker 1: the things that remain not well understood. M interesting.

631
00:30:39,200 --> 00:30:41,240
Speaker 5: So you're saying that we run a simulation of the

632
00:30:41,320 --> 00:30:43,880
Speaker 5: universe based on what we know, and it explains the

633
00:30:43,920 --> 00:30:47,000
Speaker 5: big stuff out there, like the galaxy superclusters and the

634
00:30:47,040 --> 00:30:51,800
Speaker 5: bowls and the walls of superclusters, but it doesn't match

635
00:30:51,840 --> 00:30:54,239
Speaker 5: what we see kind of at the local level around us,

636
00:30:54,360 --> 00:30:55,280
Speaker 5: around our galaxy.

637
00:30:55,360 --> 00:30:57,880
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. It suggests that if you're going to have

638
00:30:57,920 --> 00:31:00,520
Speaker 1: big galaxies that comes out of formation of a bunch

639
00:31:00,560 --> 00:31:03,200
Speaker 1: of little ones, but not all the little ones should

640
00:31:03,280 --> 00:31:05,480
Speaker 1: get slurped up into the big ones, that you should

641
00:31:05,560 --> 00:31:08,440
Speaker 1: have lots and lots of little galaxies still left over

642
00:31:08,960 --> 00:31:11,440
Speaker 1: orbiting the bigger galaxies. But when we look out into

643
00:31:11,480 --> 00:31:13,680
Speaker 1: the night sky, we just don't see them like we

644
00:31:13,760 --> 00:31:15,800
Speaker 1: look for them. We try to spot them, We see

645
00:31:15,800 --> 00:31:18,120
Speaker 1: some of them, but we don't see as many as

646
00:31:18,120 --> 00:31:18,719
Speaker 1: we expect.

647
00:31:18,880 --> 00:31:22,200
Speaker 5: Sounds like there's something wrong with the simulation, not necessarily

648
00:31:22,240 --> 00:31:23,040
Speaker 5: with the universe.

649
00:31:24,320 --> 00:31:26,760
Speaker 1: No, the universe has to follow our program, man.

650
00:31:27,280 --> 00:31:30,800
Speaker 5: Yeah, that's what I'm saying. I don't think the universe cares.

651
00:31:30,920 --> 00:31:33,320
Speaker 1: No, it's not that the universe has like done something wrong.

652
00:31:33,400 --> 00:31:35,680
Speaker 1: It needs to be chastised or something. This is just

653
00:31:35,720 --> 00:31:37,920
Speaker 1: the process we have. We think we understand the rules

654
00:31:37,920 --> 00:31:40,680
Speaker 1: that control how things happen, and so then we do

655
00:31:40,760 --> 00:31:43,400
Speaker 1: a bunch of simulations to say what do the rules predict,

656
00:31:43,440 --> 00:31:45,760
Speaker 1: And if they predict something we don't see, that means

657
00:31:45,760 --> 00:31:48,680
Speaker 1: obviously something is wrong with the simulation. But the question

658
00:31:48,920 --> 00:31:51,840
Speaker 1: is what Or the other thing is maybe something is

659
00:31:51,840 --> 00:31:53,960
Speaker 1: wrong with what we're seeing, like maybe we're just not

660
00:31:54,160 --> 00:31:58,400
Speaker 1: seeing everything that's out there. Dwarf galaxies are tricky to

661
00:31:58,560 --> 00:32:01,560
Speaker 1: spot because they're small. They only have hundreds, thousands, or

662
00:32:01,600 --> 00:32:04,160
Speaker 1: maybe millions of stars in them, so they are much

663
00:32:04,240 --> 00:32:08,000
Speaker 1: fainter than other galaxies, which make them more challenging too spot.

664
00:32:08,840 --> 00:32:11,520
Speaker 5: So we were expecting from the simulations to see about

665
00:32:11,560 --> 00:32:14,480
Speaker 5: five hundred dwarf galaxies orbiting the Milky Way, but we've

666
00:32:14,480 --> 00:32:17,640
Speaker 5: only seen about twelve. And you're saying, like, I wonder

667
00:32:17,640 --> 00:32:19,640
Speaker 5: if you could maybe even see them from our point

668
00:32:19,640 --> 00:32:22,400
Speaker 5: of view, right, like they're so small, maybe to us

669
00:32:22,400 --> 00:32:24,920
Speaker 5: they just look like a little cluster of stars, not

670
00:32:24,960 --> 00:32:26,480
Speaker 5: necessarily a whole other galaxy.

671
00:32:26,600 --> 00:32:28,800
Speaker 1: It is complicated by the fact that we are inside

672
00:32:28,840 --> 00:32:31,040
Speaker 1: the Milky Way, which makes it harder to see out

673
00:32:31,120 --> 00:32:33,240
Speaker 1: of the Milky Way because there's so many stars and

674
00:32:33,240 --> 00:32:35,480
Speaker 1: a's gas and dust in between. They have taken that

675
00:32:35,520 --> 00:32:38,400
Speaker 1: into account, Like how many galaxies should we have seen

676
00:32:38,880 --> 00:32:41,600
Speaker 1: from our point of view that they have factored in.

677
00:32:41,840 --> 00:32:44,280
Speaker 1: Something that they're not sure about has to do with

678
00:32:44,360 --> 00:32:48,560
Speaker 1: the dark matter in these dwarf galaxies. Like we also suspect,

679
00:32:48,600 --> 00:32:50,120
Speaker 1: and I want to dig into this in a minute,

680
00:32:50,160 --> 00:32:53,480
Speaker 1: that these dwarf galaxies are much heavier in dark matter

681
00:32:53,840 --> 00:32:57,000
Speaker 1: than in normal matter. A typical galaxy is about eighty

682
00:32:57,080 --> 00:33:00,959
Speaker 1: five percent dark matter fifteen percent normal matter. The Milky

683
00:33:00,960 --> 00:33:04,120
Speaker 1: Way is a bit above that, like ninety percent dark

684
00:33:04,160 --> 00:33:08,120
Speaker 1: matter ten percent normal matter. But these dwarf galaxies might

685
00:33:08,160 --> 00:33:11,040
Speaker 1: be overwhelmingly dark matter. They might have a lot more

686
00:33:11,160 --> 00:33:14,000
Speaker 1: dark matter in them than normal matter, which of course

687
00:33:14,240 --> 00:33:15,680
Speaker 1: make them harder to spot.

688
00:33:16,320 --> 00:33:19,400
Speaker 5: Now, this mystery about not seeing enough dwarf galaxies around

689
00:33:19,400 --> 00:33:21,840
Speaker 5: the Milky Way, is that also true for other galaxies?

690
00:33:22,160 --> 00:33:24,600
Speaker 5: Like if you look at the Androma galaxy, do you

691
00:33:24,680 --> 00:33:28,920
Speaker 5: also see less or fewer dwarf galaxies than you'd think

692
00:33:28,960 --> 00:33:29,360
Speaker 5: you would.

693
00:33:29,520 --> 00:33:32,320
Speaker 1: Yeah, it's a problem everywhere. It's harder to study for

694
00:33:32,400 --> 00:33:35,960
Speaker 1: more distant galaxies because they are more distant, and these

695
00:33:36,000 --> 00:33:39,440
Speaker 1: galaxies are small. So you know, our observations of dwarf

696
00:33:39,440 --> 00:33:42,239
Speaker 1: galaxies around Andromeda are not even as good as our

697
00:33:42,280 --> 00:33:45,400
Speaker 1: observations of dwarf galaxies around the Milky Way, which are

698
00:33:45,520 --> 00:33:48,520
Speaker 1: already very challenging to see. So the Milky Way is

699
00:33:48,560 --> 00:33:51,120
Speaker 1: sort of like the best laboratory for studying this. But yeah,

700
00:33:51,120 --> 00:33:54,160
Speaker 1: we see similar stuff in Andromeda. Beyond that, it's just

701
00:33:54,200 --> 00:33:55,280
Speaker 1: too difficult to study.

702
00:33:55,760 --> 00:33:57,840
Speaker 5: I guess it's kind of like trying to detect the

703
00:33:57,960 --> 00:34:01,880
Speaker 5: wisps of smoke around, like a giant cloud of smoke, right,

704
00:34:02,000 --> 00:34:03,920
Speaker 5: that's kind of what these galaxies look like from.

705
00:34:03,720 --> 00:34:06,200
Speaker 1: Afar exactly, and it's not always easy to tell, like

706
00:34:06,360 --> 00:34:08,319
Speaker 1: where is the edge of a galaxy and is that

707
00:34:08,360 --> 00:34:10,920
Speaker 1: the count is a dwarf galaxy or is it already

708
00:34:10,920 --> 00:34:15,000
Speaker 1: falling into the main galaxy right against all sorts of distinctions.

709
00:34:15,320 --> 00:34:17,560
Speaker 5: Oh, I see, that's the real mystery. I just change

710
00:34:17,560 --> 00:34:20,359
Speaker 5: how you call them, then done, we can check off

711
00:34:20,360 --> 00:34:21,200
Speaker 5: that box.

712
00:34:21,760 --> 00:34:23,600
Speaker 1: No, it doesn't matter what you call them, because there's

713
00:34:23,640 --> 00:34:27,560
Speaker 1: just a disagreement about the distribution of stars in our

714
00:34:27,560 --> 00:34:30,560
Speaker 1: simulations and what we see out there in the universe.

715
00:34:30,640 --> 00:34:33,200
Speaker 1: But a lot of astronomers think that probably this will

716
00:34:33,239 --> 00:34:36,359
Speaker 1: be resolved if we improve our abilities to discover these

717
00:34:36,400 --> 00:34:40,840
Speaker 1: dwarf galaxies. For example, recently they found eight new Milky

718
00:34:40,840 --> 00:34:43,839
Speaker 1: Way dwarf galaxies that they hadn't spotted before because they

719
00:34:43,840 --> 00:34:46,600
Speaker 1: are ultra faint, because they are more than ninety nine

720
00:34:46,719 --> 00:34:51,160
Speaker 1: point nine percent dark matter. They're basically dark matter galaxies

721
00:34:51,160 --> 00:34:53,319
Speaker 1: with a little sprinkling of stars in them.

722
00:34:53,640 --> 00:34:57,040
Speaker 5: WHOA wait, I feel like now you're getting into the

723
00:34:57,040 --> 00:35:00,080
Speaker 5: definition of a galaxy itself. Like are you saying, like

724
00:35:00,600 --> 00:35:03,160
Speaker 5: a bunch of dark matter with a few stars in it,

725
00:35:03,320 --> 00:35:04,360
Speaker 5: that's a galaxy.

726
00:35:04,360 --> 00:35:08,399
Speaker 1: Still, that's a galaxy according to astronomers. Yeah, it has

727
00:35:08,440 --> 00:35:10,560
Speaker 1: the mass, right, it has stars in it, so yeah,

728
00:35:10,560 --> 00:35:11,680
Speaker 1: they call that a galaxy.

729
00:35:12,160 --> 00:35:14,319
Speaker 5: I guess maybe the definition then is just like a

730
00:35:14,400 --> 00:35:17,480
Speaker 5: clump of stuff out there in space that's maybe separate

731
00:35:17,560 --> 00:35:18,720
Speaker 5: from other clumps of stuff.

732
00:35:19,160 --> 00:35:20,520
Speaker 1: Yeah, But then you get in the question of like,

733
00:35:20,600 --> 00:35:22,920
Speaker 1: what do you call a globular cluster? Why is that

734
00:35:23,040 --> 00:35:25,240
Speaker 1: not a dwarf galaxy? Why is it a cluster?

735
00:35:25,640 --> 00:35:27,800
Speaker 5: Exactly right, That's what I would ask. Why I'm confused?

736
00:35:28,080 --> 00:35:31,799
Speaker 1: Yeah, well, welcome the club. Astronomy is a disaster when

737
00:35:31,840 --> 00:35:33,799
Speaker 1: it comes to naming things, and that comes from a

738
00:35:33,800 --> 00:35:35,959
Speaker 1: particle physicist, and I know that we have no high

739
00:35:35,960 --> 00:35:37,759
Speaker 1: ground when it comes to naming things.

740
00:35:37,840 --> 00:35:41,200
Speaker 5: Yeah, I guess it's hard to name things in general, right,

741
00:35:41,200 --> 00:35:43,520
Speaker 5: It's hard to name your kids. I can only imagine

742
00:35:43,600 --> 00:35:44,800
Speaker 5: naming the entire universe.

743
00:35:44,880 --> 00:35:46,440
Speaker 1: Well, the real challenge here is that a lot of

744
00:35:46,440 --> 00:35:49,239
Speaker 1: this is historical. You know, we didn't always understand the

745
00:35:49,239 --> 00:35:52,160
Speaker 1: connections between things. We saw stuff in the sky, we

746
00:35:52,239 --> 00:35:54,480
Speaker 1: gave it different names. Later we realized, oh, this is

747
00:35:54,520 --> 00:35:56,360
Speaker 1: really another kind of that. You know, even if you

748
00:35:56,440 --> 00:35:58,160
Speaker 1: just look in our solar system, you know, we have

749
00:35:58,320 --> 00:36:01,400
Speaker 1: like comets and asteroids, and then we have like centaurs,

750
00:36:01,440 --> 00:36:04,759
Speaker 1: which are sort of like between comets and asteroids. We

751
00:36:04,800 --> 00:36:06,799
Speaker 1: have planets, and we have moons, and like, you know,

752
00:36:06,800 --> 00:36:10,040
Speaker 1: the distinctions between these things are fuzzy. What's really going

753
00:36:10,080 --> 00:36:12,520
Speaker 1: on is that you have a whole spectrum of stuff

754
00:36:12,560 --> 00:36:15,680
Speaker 1: out there, from big to small and everything in between.

755
00:36:15,920 --> 00:36:19,200
Speaker 1: So the distinctions between things are sort of artificial labels

756
00:36:19,200 --> 00:36:21,120
Speaker 1: that we are just putting on stuff because what we

757
00:36:21,320 --> 00:36:24,960
Speaker 1: historically saw first, what we sort of originally called things.

758
00:36:25,360 --> 00:36:28,120
Speaker 1: The truth is that there's a smooth spectrum of all

759
00:36:28,160 --> 00:36:29,239
Speaker 1: sorts of stuff out there.

760
00:36:29,440 --> 00:36:32,880
Speaker 5: Sounds like you just need to call everything stuff. Like

761
00:36:33,160 --> 00:36:35,200
Speaker 5: a lot of galaxy. It's just stuff that's not a

762
00:36:35,200 --> 00:36:37,839
Speaker 5: black hole. It's just stuff. If I should change your

763
00:36:37,880 --> 00:36:38,279
Speaker 5: name from.

764
00:36:38,160 --> 00:36:41,760
Speaker 1: Physicists, stuff is is yeah exactly.

765
00:36:41,840 --> 00:36:43,360
Speaker 5: I'm just you can be stuffy. Stuff is this.

766
00:36:43,480 --> 00:36:45,120
Speaker 1: Yeah, I'm just trying to stuff as much knowledge in

767
00:36:45,120 --> 00:36:48,040
Speaker 1: my mind about stuff. Basically, you know, it's different from

768
00:36:48,160 --> 00:36:51,359
Speaker 1: like biology. Cats and dogs really are different things. There's

769
00:36:51,360 --> 00:36:54,239
Speaker 1: not an entire spectrum of every creature between a cat

770
00:36:54,280 --> 00:36:56,279
Speaker 1: and a dog that doesn't exist. But I think out

771
00:36:56,280 --> 00:36:58,879
Speaker 1: there in the universe there really is like every kind

772
00:36:58,920 --> 00:37:01,560
Speaker 1: of thing between every other kind of thing. So there's

773
00:37:01,560 --> 00:37:03,680
Speaker 1: a whole spectrum of stuff out there. It's just waiting

774
00:37:03,719 --> 00:37:04,440
Speaker 1: to be discovered.

775
00:37:04,640 --> 00:37:04,960
Speaker 10: Mm.

776
00:37:05,320 --> 00:37:08,560
Speaker 5: Interesting. All right, Well, let's get a little bit deeper

777
00:37:08,600 --> 00:37:12,600
Speaker 5: into this connection between dark matter and dwarf galaxies and

778
00:37:12,640 --> 00:37:15,560
Speaker 5: how maybe dwarf galaxies can help us understand or finally

779
00:37:15,600 --> 00:37:19,239
Speaker 5: figure out what dark matter is. But first, let's take

780
00:37:19,320 --> 00:37:20,240
Speaker 5: another quick break.

781
00:37:24,360 --> 00:37:26,160
Speaker 1: When you pop a piece of cheese into your mouth

782
00:37:26,280 --> 00:37:29,400
Speaker 1: or enjoy a rich spoonful of Greek yogurt, you're probably

783
00:37:29,480 --> 00:37:33,480
Speaker 1: not thinking about the environmental impact of each and every bite,

784
00:37:33,520 --> 00:37:36,160
Speaker 1: but the people in the dairy industry are. US Dairy

785
00:37:36,200 --> 00:37:40,480
Speaker 1: has set themselves some ambitious sustainability goals, including being greenhouse

786
00:37:40,520 --> 00:37:43,080
Speaker 1: gas neutral by twenty to fifty. That's why they're working

787
00:37:43,120 --> 00:37:45,439
Speaker 1: hard every day to find new ways to reduce waste,

788
00:37:45,520 --> 00:37:49,759
Speaker 1: conserve natural resources, and drive down greenhouse gas emissions. Take water,

789
00:37:49,800 --> 00:37:52,880
Speaker 1: for example, most dairy farms reuse water up to four

790
00:37:52,920 --> 00:37:56,399
Speaker 1: times the same water cools the milk, cleans equipment, washes

791
00:37:56,440 --> 00:37:59,240
Speaker 1: the barn, and irrigates the crops. How is US dairy

792
00:37:59,239 --> 00:38:02,759
Speaker 1: tackling greenhouse house gases? Many farms use anaerobic digestors that

793
00:38:02,840 --> 00:38:05,799
Speaker 1: turn the methane from maneuver into renewable energy that can

794
00:38:05,800 --> 00:38:08,640
Speaker 1: power farms, towns, and electric cars. So the next time

795
00:38:08,640 --> 00:38:10,399
Speaker 1: you grab a slice of pizza or lick an ice

796
00:38:10,440 --> 00:38:13,120
Speaker 1: cream cone, know that dairy farmers and processors around the

797
00:38:13,120 --> 00:38:16,560
Speaker 1: country are using the latest practices and innovations to provide

798
00:38:16,600 --> 00:38:19,400
Speaker 1: the nutrient dense dairy products we love with less of

799
00:38:19,400 --> 00:38:22,520
Speaker 1: an impact. Visit us dairy dot com slash sustainability to

800
00:38:22,600 --> 00:38:23,120
Speaker 1: learn more.

801
00:38:24,160 --> 00:38:27,680
Speaker 3: There are children, friends, and families walking, riding on passing

802
00:38:27,680 --> 00:38:30,080
Speaker 3: the roads every day. Remember they're real people with loved

803
00:38:30,120 --> 00:38:32,319
Speaker 3: ones who need them to get home safely protect our

804
00:38:32,360 --> 00:38:35,880
Speaker 3: cyclists and pedestrians because they're people too. Go Safely California

805
00:38:35,920 --> 00:38:38,799
Speaker 3: from the California Office of Traffic Safety and caltrans.

806
00:38:38,280 --> 00:38:41,080
Speaker 11: Time is a luxury for us, especially if you're a mom.

807
00:38:41,320 --> 00:38:44,240
Speaker 11: That's why we need a skincare routine that's easy, fast,

808
00:38:44,360 --> 00:38:47,480
Speaker 11: and gives us results. Plus, what of your products had

809
00:38:47,560 --> 00:38:51,360
Speaker 11: thousands of five star reviews, We're natural and affordable. Well

810
00:38:51,560 --> 00:38:55,239
Speaker 11: say hello to din Beauty. Din Beauty is clean, high

811
00:38:55,320 --> 00:38:58,480
Speaker 11: end skincare that is affordable and it really works. Not

812
00:38:58,520 --> 00:39:01,400
Speaker 11: sure where to start? I highly recommend the work system.

813
00:39:01,640 --> 00:39:04,960
Speaker 11: It's everything you need in one powerful package. Take out

814
00:39:04,960 --> 00:39:07,720
Speaker 11: the guestwork with a proven routine that includes a gentle

815
00:39:07,800 --> 00:39:11,840
Speaker 11: yet effective cleanser, a super skin toner, two incredible serums,

816
00:39:11,960 --> 00:39:15,920
Speaker 11: and two luxurious moisturizers. See what everyone is raving about.

817
00:39:16,080 --> 00:39:19,200
Speaker 11: From serum sets to the always sold out retinol alternative

818
00:39:19,200 --> 00:39:22,920
Speaker 11: TBT cream, you'll find your perfect skincare match. Dime has

819
00:39:22,960 --> 00:39:26,120
Speaker 11: over two million happy customers and their product reviews are

820
00:39:26,160 --> 00:39:30,480
Speaker 11: literally five stars. Love your skin again. Go to dimebautyco

821
00:39:30,600 --> 00:39:33,520
Speaker 11: dot com for twenty percent off with code get Dime.

822
00:39:33,800 --> 00:39:37,560
Speaker 11: That's din beautyco dot Com. Code get dime for twenty

823
00:39:37,560 --> 00:39:38,200
Speaker 11: percent off.

824
00:39:38,360 --> 00:39:40,040
Speaker 5: It is Ryan Seacrest here.

825
00:39:40,080 --> 00:39:42,960
Speaker 10: There was a recent social media trend which consisted of

826
00:39:43,000 --> 00:39:46,040
Speaker 10: flying on a plane with no music, no movies, no entertainment.

827
00:39:46,120 --> 00:39:48,720
Speaker 10: But a better trend would be going to chumpback Casino

828
00:39:48,840 --> 00:39:51,279
Speaker 10: dot com. It's like having a mini social casino in

829
00:39:51,320 --> 00:39:54,320
Speaker 10: your pocket. Chumpac Casino has over one hundred online casino

830
00:39:54,320 --> 00:39:57,279
Speaker 10: style games, all absolutely free. It's the most fun you

831
00:39:57,280 --> 00:39:59,480
Speaker 10: can have online and on a plane. So grab your

832
00:39:59,520 --> 00:40:02,400
Speaker 10: free welcome bonus now at chumpacasino dot com sponsored by

833
00:40:02,440 --> 00:40:06,239
Speaker 10: chump A Casino. No purchase necessary. VGW group void. We're

834
00:40:06,280 --> 00:40:09,080
Speaker 10: prohibited by Law eighteen plus. Terms and conditions apply.

835
00:40:17,719 --> 00:40:22,000
Speaker 5: All right, we're talking about dwarf galaxies, and it's pretty

836
00:40:22,000 --> 00:40:24,280
Speaker 5: interesting that what you said earlier that like a clump

837
00:40:24,320 --> 00:40:26,760
Speaker 5: of dark matter, which is a few sprinkles of stars,

838
00:40:26,920 --> 00:40:28,600
Speaker 5: you would still call that a galaxy.

839
00:40:29,200 --> 00:40:31,440
Speaker 1: I would still call that a galaxy. I mean, think

840
00:40:31,480 --> 00:40:35,320
Speaker 1: about where that came from. Originally, you had a clump

841
00:40:35,320 --> 00:40:37,839
Speaker 1: of stuff in the very early universe a tiny little

842
00:40:37,840 --> 00:40:41,359
Speaker 1: bit denser than everything else. Mostly that means the dark matter,

843
00:40:41,400 --> 00:40:43,759
Speaker 1: because it was more dark matter than everything else. That

844
00:40:43,840 --> 00:40:45,560
Speaker 1: dark matter makes like a little we call it a

845
00:40:45,600 --> 00:40:51,200
Speaker 1: gravitational well. Everything likes to roll downhill towards lower gravitational potential.

846
00:40:51,400 --> 00:40:55,799
Speaker 1: Gravity gathers stuff together, and so every little gravitational well

847
00:40:55,840 --> 00:40:58,839
Speaker 1: gathered together blob of dark matter and a blob of

848
00:40:59,000 --> 00:41:02,720
Speaker 1: normal matter gas, et cetera. And that led to star formation.

849
00:41:03,160 --> 00:41:06,200
Speaker 1: And so it's because of dark matter that gas clumped

850
00:41:06,200 --> 00:41:09,040
Speaker 1: together and made the first stars in the early universe.

851
00:41:09,440 --> 00:41:12,439
Speaker 1: And so every sort of like original og clump there.

852
00:41:12,680 --> 00:41:14,280
Speaker 1: I guess we call a dwarf galaxy.

853
00:41:14,840 --> 00:41:16,560
Speaker 5: I see, okay, I guess it's kind of also like

854
00:41:16,719 --> 00:41:20,239
Speaker 5: our galaxies mostly dark matter too, Like the Milky Way

855
00:41:20,400 --> 00:41:23,000
Speaker 5: is mostly dark matter with a few sprinkles of stars,

856
00:41:23,080 --> 00:41:26,120
Speaker 5: like by mass, where the Milky Way's with fifteen percent.

857
00:41:25,920 --> 00:41:29,600
Speaker 1: Yeah, exactly. On average, the universe is about eighty percent

858
00:41:29,800 --> 00:41:32,719
Speaker 1: dark matter in terms of mass, and so everything out

859
00:41:32,719 --> 00:41:35,800
Speaker 1: there is mostly dark matter with a sprinkling of stars.

860
00:41:35,960 --> 00:41:38,239
Speaker 5: Wait, are you saying the Milky Way should actually be

861
00:41:38,239 --> 00:41:40,040
Speaker 5: called the milk chocolate the way.

862
00:41:40,040 --> 00:41:42,360
Speaker 1: It's more like the hot cocoa Way, right, It's really

863
00:41:42,680 --> 00:41:46,120
Speaker 1: a river of dark deliciousness with a few sprinkles of marshmallows,

864
00:41:46,120 --> 00:41:48,239
Speaker 1: like the stars are the marshmallows on top of the

865
00:41:48,320 --> 00:41:52,520
Speaker 1: dark matter. Hot cocoa give mesmore. But what's fascinating is

866
00:41:52,600 --> 00:41:55,839
Speaker 1: that these dwarf galaxies have much more dark matter than

867
00:41:55,920 --> 00:41:58,520
Speaker 1: typical Like they can be up to ninety nine point

868
00:41:58,600 --> 00:41:59,919
Speaker 1: ninety nine percent dark.

869
00:42:00,760 --> 00:42:03,640
Speaker 5: All dwarf galaxies are just these last few that we found.

870
00:42:03,840 --> 00:42:07,400
Speaker 1: Most dwarf galaxies are overwhelmingly dark matter. There's a few

871
00:42:07,600 --> 00:42:09,680
Speaker 1: that are like satellites of the Milky Way that have

872
00:42:09,719 --> 00:42:11,719
Speaker 1: had their dark matter stripped out of them, but the

873
00:42:11,760 --> 00:42:15,120
Speaker 1: great majority of them are overwhelmingly dark matter. It's just

874
00:42:15,120 --> 00:42:17,440
Speaker 1: sort of like the size of that clump of stuff

875
00:42:17,719 --> 00:42:21,160
Speaker 1: tends to have fewer stars. Really, why is that, Well,

876
00:42:21,160 --> 00:42:23,279
Speaker 1: if you have a smaller clump of stuff, you have

877
00:42:23,360 --> 00:42:27,240
Speaker 1: less gravity sort of holding those initial stars together because

878
00:42:27,320 --> 00:42:30,200
Speaker 1: stars are sort of poisoned to other stars. Like what

879
00:42:30,280 --> 00:42:32,600
Speaker 1: happens when you form stars is you get a bunch

880
00:42:32,640 --> 00:42:35,400
Speaker 1: of radiation shooting out from that star, and that tends

881
00:42:35,400 --> 00:42:37,680
Speaker 1: to heat up and blow out all the gas that

882
00:42:37,719 --> 00:42:40,479
Speaker 1: you need to make stars. So remember to make a star,

883
00:42:40,560 --> 00:42:43,279
Speaker 1: you need a blob of cold gas. The gas can't

884
00:42:43,280 --> 00:42:46,160
Speaker 1: be like moving around too fast, or gravity which is

885
00:42:46,200 --> 00:42:48,720
Speaker 1: super weak won't have a chance to suck it together.

886
00:42:48,880 --> 00:42:51,520
Speaker 1: So as soon as you start forming stars, then those

887
00:42:51,520 --> 00:42:54,120
Speaker 1: stars like push out all the other gas. And then

888
00:42:54,160 --> 00:42:56,160
Speaker 1: as soon as you have the first super nova, it

889
00:42:56,200 --> 00:42:59,000
Speaker 1: basically blows out all the gas from a dwarf galaxy.

890
00:42:59,600 --> 00:43:02,040
Speaker 1: But if you have a big enough clump, then it

891
00:43:02,120 --> 00:43:05,879
Speaker 1: can retain that gas anyway. Right, So as you're sort

892
00:43:05,880 --> 00:43:08,360
Speaker 1: of serving of gravity, you get smaller, you get too

893
00:43:08,400 --> 00:43:11,960
Speaker 1: small to sort of overcome these supernova and these other

894
00:43:12,000 --> 00:43:14,240
Speaker 1: effects that are killing your star formation.

895
00:43:14,520 --> 00:43:17,080
Speaker 5: Oh, I see, because I guess when a star explodes

896
00:43:17,120 --> 00:43:21,080
Speaker 5: in a supernova, the dark matter doesn't care, right, Like,

897
00:43:21,440 --> 00:43:23,879
Speaker 5: star will explode, but the dark mess is it doesn't

898
00:43:23,960 --> 00:43:27,080
Speaker 5: interact with dark matter. The dark matter doesn't care, but

899
00:43:27,120 --> 00:43:29,560
Speaker 5: it will blow out all the other star stuff that's

900
00:43:29,680 --> 00:43:32,360
Speaker 5: in that Meni galaxy. And that's why if you're small,

901
00:43:32,520 --> 00:43:35,400
Speaker 5: then you'll most likely blow out all of your star stuff,

902
00:43:35,560 --> 00:43:38,719
Speaker 5: but you'll keep your dark matter stuff. So it's like

903
00:43:38,719 --> 00:43:43,719
Speaker 5: you're super concentrating the dark matter. You're purifying it, distilling it.

904
00:43:43,760 --> 00:43:45,240
Speaker 5: There you go, Yeah, distilling.

905
00:43:45,440 --> 00:43:47,840
Speaker 1: So the dwarf galaxies that are still around, they're the

906
00:43:47,840 --> 00:43:51,320
Speaker 1: ones with overwhelmingly dark matter and very very few stars

907
00:43:51,320 --> 00:43:54,120
Speaker 1: in them. They had like one initial round of star

908
00:43:54,239 --> 00:43:56,960
Speaker 1: formation and then they basically poison the well. So they're

909
00:43:57,000 --> 00:43:59,480
Speaker 1: also super fascinating from that point of view because they're

910
00:43:59,520 --> 00:44:02,760
Speaker 1: like fossils of star formation they didn't have like many

911
00:44:02,800 --> 00:44:05,480
Speaker 1: many cycles like that, sort of like a window into

912
00:44:05,520 --> 00:44:08,960
Speaker 1: a much earlier part of the universe. But also there

913
00:44:09,000 --> 00:44:12,040
Speaker 1: are these very cool blobs of dark matter, and you know,

914
00:44:12,320 --> 00:44:16,759
Speaker 1: dark matter a continuing source of mystery and consternation for physicists,

915
00:44:17,040 --> 00:44:20,320
Speaker 1: and these are really awesome laboratories to study dark matter.

916
00:44:20,480 --> 00:44:23,439
Speaker 5: But I guess you can't really see this dark matter, right,

917
00:44:23,560 --> 00:44:26,040
Speaker 5: you're just inferring that it's there, or that this clump

918
00:44:26,080 --> 00:44:30,400
Speaker 5: of stars has ninety nine point whatever amount of dark matter.

919
00:44:30,640 --> 00:44:32,640
Speaker 5: You're just seeing a little bit of stars that are

920
00:44:32,719 --> 00:44:35,880
Speaker 5: clumped together and spinning more than they should, and so

921
00:44:36,040 --> 00:44:38,120
Speaker 5: you're inferring that there's a bunch of dark matter there.

922
00:44:38,200 --> 00:44:41,280
Speaker 1: Yeah, we're not seeing this dark matter like directly using

923
00:44:41,360 --> 00:44:44,240
Speaker 1: gravitational lensing for example. I mean, in a few cases

924
00:44:44,280 --> 00:44:47,040
Speaker 1: we can, but mostly we're inferring that these clumps of

925
00:44:47,080 --> 00:44:49,319
Speaker 1: stars have a lot of dark matter based on the

926
00:44:49,360 --> 00:44:52,920
Speaker 1: motion of the stars, which is originally how we discovered

927
00:44:53,000 --> 00:44:56,560
Speaker 1: dark matter. We saw that stars are moving really really fast,

928
00:44:56,600 --> 00:44:59,239
Speaker 1: but that there's not enough stuff in the galaxy to

929
00:44:59,280 --> 00:45:01,480
Speaker 1: hold them together, or if they're moving that fast, and

930
00:45:01,520 --> 00:45:03,759
Speaker 1: which you can do if you look at the velocity

931
00:45:03,800 --> 00:45:06,239
Speaker 1: of stars, how fast they're moving around the center of

932
00:45:06,239 --> 00:45:09,080
Speaker 1: a galaxy, is you can tell how much gravity does

933
00:45:09,120 --> 00:45:11,400
Speaker 1: there have to be to keep that star at that

934
00:45:11,520 --> 00:45:14,160
Speaker 1: distance from the center of that galaxy. And that gives

935
00:45:14,200 --> 00:45:17,080
Speaker 1: you like a map of the gravity of that galaxy,

936
00:45:17,120 --> 00:45:19,600
Speaker 1: which you can turn into a map of the mass

937
00:45:19,600 --> 00:45:21,719
Speaker 1: of the galaxy. And so you can say, based on

938
00:45:21,800 --> 00:45:24,680
Speaker 1: the spinning stars that I see, where is the mass

939
00:45:24,719 --> 00:45:27,120
Speaker 1: in that galaxy? And that tells you where the dark

940
00:45:27,160 --> 00:45:30,279
Speaker 1: matter is in that galaxy. So like a few tracers

941
00:45:30,360 --> 00:45:33,960
Speaker 1: in a galaxy will tell you basically where the invisible

942
00:45:34,040 --> 00:45:34,560
Speaker 1: mass is.

943
00:45:36,160 --> 00:45:39,080
Speaker 5: What about our Milky Way, Like what's our percentage of

944
00:45:39,360 --> 00:45:40,920
Speaker 5: dark matter to regular stars?

945
00:45:41,000 --> 00:45:43,319
Speaker 1: So the Milky Way is a little bit more dark

946
00:45:43,400 --> 00:45:46,360
Speaker 1: matter than the rest of the universe. We're like ninety

947
00:45:46,440 --> 00:45:50,120
Speaker 1: percent dark matter and ten percent other stuff, whereas the

948
00:45:50,120 --> 00:45:52,880
Speaker 1: rest of the universe is about eighty percent dark matter.

949
00:45:52,960 --> 00:45:56,200
Speaker 1: But it also varies with distance from the center of

950
00:45:56,239 --> 00:45:58,719
Speaker 1: the galaxy, like where we are where the Sun is

951
00:45:58,840 --> 00:46:01,240
Speaker 1: relative to the center of the gas galaxy. Everything between

952
00:46:01,320 --> 00:46:03,879
Speaker 1: us and the center is about fifty to fifty dark

953
00:46:03,960 --> 00:46:06,120
Speaker 1: matter and other kinds of matter, whereas if you go

954
00:46:06,200 --> 00:46:09,240
Speaker 1: further out then it starts to be overwhelmingly dark matter.

955
00:46:09,640 --> 00:46:11,760
Speaker 1: And remember that the dark matter halo for the Milky

956
00:46:11,760 --> 00:46:14,719
Speaker 1: Way is much bigger than the distribution of stars that

957
00:46:14,800 --> 00:46:17,640
Speaker 1: goes out much much further, So the stars peter out

958
00:46:17,640 --> 00:46:19,520
Speaker 1: and at some point it's only dark matter.

959
00:46:20,000 --> 00:46:23,200
Speaker 5: I guess anytime you're in between stars, you're basically sitting

960
00:46:23,200 --> 00:46:24,080
Speaker 5: in dark matter.

961
00:46:23,960 --> 00:46:26,000
Speaker 1: Right, Yeah, Well, we don't really know the sort of

962
00:46:26,040 --> 00:46:28,920
Speaker 1: fine scale structure of dark matter. We have these very

963
00:46:28,960 --> 00:46:31,799
Speaker 1: coarse probes from like how stars move, and we have

964
00:46:31,880 --> 00:46:34,520
Speaker 1: stellar streams. We actually do the whole podcast episode about

965
00:46:34,560 --> 00:46:37,080
Speaker 1: like trying to see the fine scale structure of dark

966
00:46:37,080 --> 00:46:39,840
Speaker 1: matter within the galaxy. It's really hard, and the bottom

967
00:46:39,880 --> 00:46:42,239
Speaker 1: line reason is that gravity is just super weak, and

968
00:46:42,239 --> 00:46:43,840
Speaker 1: so in order to measure where the dark matter is,

969
00:46:43,960 --> 00:46:46,400
Speaker 1: you need really big blobs of it, which means we

970
00:46:46,440 --> 00:46:49,120
Speaker 1: can't see small blobs of it. But we can look

971
00:46:49,200 --> 00:46:52,000
Speaker 1: at these dwarf galaxies and trace the motion of their

972
00:46:52,000 --> 00:46:54,719
Speaker 1: stars and use that to figure out where the dark

973
00:46:54,760 --> 00:46:57,640
Speaker 1: matter is in those galaxies and how much of it

974
00:46:57,719 --> 00:46:58,080
Speaker 1: there is.

975
00:46:58,440 --> 00:47:01,440
Speaker 5: Well, it's interesting that our milk Kay galaxy has kind

976
00:47:01,480 --> 00:47:04,600
Speaker 5: of like a higher concentration of dark matter than the

977
00:47:04,640 --> 00:47:08,160
Speaker 5: rest of the other the universe in general and other

978
00:47:08,239 --> 00:47:10,920
Speaker 5: other galaxies as well. Are we a higher concentration of

979
00:47:11,000 --> 00:47:12,440
Speaker 5: dark matter than like Andromeda.

980
00:47:12,640 --> 00:47:14,960
Speaker 1: We do have bored dark matter on average and Andromeda.

981
00:47:14,920 --> 00:47:17,840
Speaker 1: And Dromeda is a bigger galaxy, and so it's a

982
00:47:17,880 --> 00:47:21,120
Speaker 1: smaller chance to like fluctuate up to have more dark

983
00:47:21,200 --> 00:47:24,239
Speaker 1: matter than a smaller galaxy like the Milky Way. But

984
00:47:24,320 --> 00:47:26,959
Speaker 1: these smaller galaxies, like the dwarf ones, they're really fun

985
00:47:27,000 --> 00:47:30,360
Speaker 1: ways to study dark matter because one thing we can do,

986
00:47:30,400 --> 00:47:32,560
Speaker 1: for example, is we can look to see whether the

987
00:47:32,640 --> 00:47:36,560
Speaker 1: dark matter in these dwarf galaxies is banging into itself

988
00:47:36,880 --> 00:47:40,520
Speaker 1: and giving off some sort of like telltale signature. Particle

989
00:47:40,520 --> 00:47:44,040
Speaker 1: physicists particular are like pointing their telescopes at these dwarf

990
00:47:44,080 --> 00:47:47,360
Speaker 1: galaxies to try to see signals from the dark matter.

991
00:47:47,680 --> 00:47:49,839
Speaker 5: Oh, I see what you're saying. Like, we can use

992
00:47:49,920 --> 00:47:53,560
Speaker 5: dwarf galaxies as kind of like a way to know

993
00:47:53,600 --> 00:47:55,640
Speaker 5: where there's a lot of dark matter out there in

994
00:47:55,680 --> 00:47:58,160
Speaker 5: the emptiness of space. Like if you see a dwarf galaxy,

995
00:47:58,200 --> 00:48:00,520
Speaker 5: then that gives you a target to point your telescope

996
00:48:00,560 --> 00:48:02,640
Speaker 5: to and say, okay, I know for sure there's a

997
00:48:02,680 --> 00:48:05,719
Speaker 5: lot of dark matter in this one spot. Is the

998
00:48:05,800 --> 00:48:08,719
Speaker 5: dark matter doing anything interesting that might tell us a

999
00:48:08,760 --> 00:48:10,760
Speaker 5: little bit about what it is exactly?

1000
00:48:10,800 --> 00:48:14,160
Speaker 1: And one particularly interesting thing that people hope dark matter

1001
00:48:14,200 --> 00:48:17,600
Speaker 1: will do is that two dark matter particles, whatever they are,

1002
00:48:17,719 --> 00:48:20,239
Speaker 1: we don't know what they are, might smash into each

1003
00:48:20,239 --> 00:48:23,359
Speaker 1: other and they might annihilate, might turn into something else,

1004
00:48:23,719 --> 00:48:28,200
Speaker 1: and occasionally that will involve turning into photons. So normally

1005
00:48:28,280 --> 00:48:31,680
Speaker 1: we think of dark matter as dark not creating any photons,

1006
00:48:31,920 --> 00:48:33,839
Speaker 1: but there are some theories where it has some kind

1007
00:48:33,880 --> 00:48:37,360
Speaker 1: of interaction which eventually can turn into photons. And so

1008
00:48:37,400 --> 00:48:41,240
Speaker 1: you see this like characteristic flash of gamma rays. Problem

1009
00:48:41,360 --> 00:48:43,759
Speaker 1: is the universe filled with gamma rays. All sorts of

1010
00:48:43,840 --> 00:48:46,279
Speaker 1: other stuff generates gamma rays. So one thing you can

1011
00:48:46,320 --> 00:48:48,080
Speaker 1: do is point your telescope at the center of the

1012
00:48:48,080 --> 00:48:49,800
Speaker 1: galaxy where you expect there to be a lot of

1013
00:48:49,880 --> 00:48:52,440
Speaker 1: dark matter and look for gamma rays. But you're like

1014
00:48:52,680 --> 00:48:56,520
Speaker 1: swamped in gamma rays from other stuff. Dwarf galaxies have

1015
00:48:56,680 --> 00:49:00,360
Speaker 1: very little other stuff. They're mostly dark matter. Points your

1016
00:49:00,360 --> 00:49:03,319
Speaker 1: telescope at the heart of these dark matter galaxies, these

1017
00:49:03,400 --> 00:49:06,600
Speaker 1: dwarf galaxies, and you see gamma rays there, then you

1018
00:49:06,640 --> 00:49:09,240
Speaker 1: can be more certain that it comes from dark matter.

1019
00:49:09,360 --> 00:49:12,279
Speaker 1: We haven't seen any there's nothing unusual emanating from the

1020
00:49:12,360 --> 00:49:15,040
Speaker 1: hearts of these dwarf galaxies. But they've given us some

1021
00:49:15,080 --> 00:49:18,239
Speaker 1: really powerful limits telling us what dark matter doesn't do.

1022
00:49:18,440 --> 00:49:20,960
Speaker 5: Wait, are you saying that dark matter might be actually

1023
00:49:21,040 --> 00:49:24,799
Speaker 5: shining and might e mid light? Would you have to

1024
00:49:24,880 --> 00:49:27,839
Speaker 5: change the name then, from dark matter to like dim

1025
00:49:27,920 --> 00:49:30,080
Speaker 5: matter darkish matter.

1026
00:49:30,200 --> 00:49:32,600
Speaker 1: There's so many theories of dark matter that you can't

1027
00:49:32,600 --> 00:49:34,840
Speaker 1: even really describe all of them, and so many ways

1028
00:49:34,880 --> 00:49:37,160
Speaker 1: to look for dark matter. You know, people complain to

1029
00:49:37,200 --> 00:49:39,480
Speaker 1: me sometimes like you guys are still looking for dark matter,

1030
00:49:39,480 --> 00:49:40,880
Speaker 1: you haven't found it when you're going to give up.

1031
00:49:40,920 --> 00:49:42,719
Speaker 1: The problem is that there's so many ways that dark

1032
00:49:42,760 --> 00:49:45,279
Speaker 1: matter could be discovered, and so many different ideas for

1033
00:49:45,360 --> 00:49:47,640
Speaker 1: what it could look like because we know so little

1034
00:49:47,680 --> 00:49:49,920
Speaker 1: about it that we've got to try lots of different ways.

1035
00:49:49,960 --> 00:49:52,440
Speaker 1: And in some of those theories, yeah, dark matter can

1036
00:49:52,480 --> 00:49:55,799
Speaker 1: annihilate and turn into photons, so yeah, what is still

1037
00:49:55,800 --> 00:49:57,840
Speaker 1: be called dark matter. I look forward to having that

1038
00:49:57,960 --> 00:50:00,239
Speaker 1: argument with you when we collect our Nobel Pride for

1039
00:50:00,280 --> 00:50:01,320
Speaker 1: discovering dark matter.

1040
00:50:01,480 --> 00:50:03,719
Speaker 5: Well, if dark matter doesn't midlight, it's going to be

1041
00:50:03,840 --> 00:50:06,560
Speaker 5: kind of dim and it's going to be a dark

1042
00:50:06,719 --> 00:50:08,520
Speaker 5: ish and it's going to be sort of red shifted, right,

1043
00:50:08,560 --> 00:50:11,120
Speaker 5: because these galaxies are probably moving away from us, which

1044
00:50:11,120 --> 00:50:13,720
Speaker 5: means that you could technically call it chocolate matter.

1045
00:50:16,120 --> 00:50:17,799
Speaker 1: And if it's red shifted, it should be like rose

1046
00:50:17,880 --> 00:50:18,520
Speaker 1: chocolate matter.

1047
00:50:18,600 --> 00:50:20,200
Speaker 5: Right, Is that a thing?

1048
00:50:20,440 --> 00:50:23,080
Speaker 1: Is rose chocolate thing? Yeah? Absolutely, they invented it recently.

1049
00:50:23,120 --> 00:50:26,239
Speaker 1: He had dark chocolate, milk, chocolate, white chocolate, and now

1050
00:50:26,520 --> 00:50:28,360
Speaker 1: rose chocolate. It's a whole new process.

1051
00:50:28,520 --> 00:50:32,560
Speaker 5: Hmmmm, Well, there you go. Physicists are inventing new things

1052
00:50:32,600 --> 00:50:33,160
Speaker 5: all the time.

1053
00:50:33,800 --> 00:50:35,960
Speaker 1: That was definitely not a physics invention. I think it

1054
00:50:36,000 --> 00:50:38,040
Speaker 1: was Nestle that came up with it. But we can

1055
00:50:38,120 --> 00:50:41,200
Speaker 1: do more than just look for dark matter annihilating with itself.

1056
00:50:41,440 --> 00:50:44,640
Speaker 1: We can also study in detail the distribution of dark matter,

1057
00:50:44,719 --> 00:50:47,560
Speaker 1: like where in these dwarf galaxies did did dark matter

1058
00:50:47,680 --> 00:50:51,000
Speaker 1: end up? And does it agree with our simulations and

1059
00:50:51,080 --> 00:50:54,200
Speaker 1: our calculations, because we can tell not just how much

1060
00:50:54,280 --> 00:50:56,760
Speaker 1: dark matter there is, but also like is it mostly

1061
00:50:56,800 --> 00:50:59,680
Speaker 1: at the core. Is it really clumped? Is it smoothly

1062
00:50:59,719 --> 00:51:02,160
Speaker 1: spread out? This kind of stuff, and what we see

1063
00:51:02,280 --> 00:51:05,000
Speaker 1: is that it does not agree with what we predict.

1064
00:51:05,160 --> 00:51:06,880
Speaker 1: That our simulations get it wrong.

1065
00:51:07,120 --> 00:51:09,719
Speaker 5: Wait, how can we tell how it's distributed. If it's invisible,

1066
00:51:09,880 --> 00:51:12,520
Speaker 5: it's invisible, but it affects the motion of the stars.

1067
00:51:13,000 --> 00:51:15,040
Speaker 5: And so if, for example, you have all the dark

1068
00:51:15,080 --> 00:51:17,840
Speaker 5: matter at the very very center, then the stars closer

1069
00:51:17,840 --> 00:51:20,040
Speaker 5: to the center will be going really really fast. If

1070
00:51:20,080 --> 00:51:22,440
Speaker 5: the dark matter is more spread out, then the stars

1071
00:51:22,440 --> 00:51:24,440
Speaker 5: closer to the center are not as affected by all

1072
00:51:24,480 --> 00:51:26,799
Speaker 5: that dark matter. So by looking at how the velocity

1073
00:51:26,800 --> 00:51:29,480
Speaker 5: of the stars changes as you get further from the center,

1074
00:51:29,800 --> 00:51:32,440
Speaker 5: we can make a map of where in the galaxy

1075
00:51:32,840 --> 00:51:35,000
Speaker 5: that dark matter is. Is it all clumped in the center,

1076
00:51:35,120 --> 00:51:37,879
Speaker 5: is it more spread out? And when we do that,

1077
00:51:37,960 --> 00:51:40,640
Speaker 5: we see weird stuff that we don't understand. What do

1078
00:51:40,640 --> 00:51:41,640
Speaker 5: you mean weird stuff?

1079
00:51:41,719 --> 00:51:43,799
Speaker 1: So our simulations predict that you should have like a

1080
00:51:43,840 --> 00:51:46,239
Speaker 1: really hard core of dark matter that yeah, you have

1081
00:51:46,280 --> 00:51:48,920
Speaker 1: a big fluffy halo, but the density should rise really

1082
00:51:49,000 --> 00:51:51,360
Speaker 1: rapidly as you get towards the center. And what we

1083
00:51:51,400 --> 00:51:53,640
Speaker 1: see in our telescopes is not the same thing. We

1084
00:51:53,640 --> 00:51:56,200
Speaker 1: see like a flatter distribution. It doesn't like get as

1085
00:51:56,239 --> 00:51:59,120
Speaker 1: peaky towards the core. The density of dark matter at

1086
00:51:59,160 --> 00:52:02,319
Speaker 1: the very heart of the dwarf galaxies is lower than

1087
00:52:02,320 --> 00:52:04,759
Speaker 1: what we expect. In astronomy. This is called as the

1088
00:52:04,760 --> 00:52:08,719
Speaker 1: core versus cusp problem. Simulations predict a sharp cusp in

1089
00:52:08,719 --> 00:52:10,880
Speaker 1: the density, but what we see is more like a

1090
00:52:10,880 --> 00:52:11,640
Speaker 1: flat core.

1091
00:52:12,239 --> 00:52:14,680
Speaker 5: They're fuzzier than you expected. But isn't that just kind

1092
00:52:14,680 --> 00:52:17,400
Speaker 5: of a matter of time, Like over time it should

1093
00:52:17,440 --> 00:52:20,279
Speaker 5: clump together towards the center, right, because that's what dark

1094
00:52:20,320 --> 00:52:20,839
Speaker 5: matter does.

1095
00:52:20,920 --> 00:52:23,480
Speaker 1: It is and we factor that time into our simulations,

1096
00:52:23,520 --> 00:52:26,040
Speaker 1: and the predictions just disagree with what we expect to

1097
00:52:26,080 --> 00:52:28,719
Speaker 1: see at a universe of this age. Yes, so yeah,

1098
00:52:28,760 --> 00:52:30,920
Speaker 1: over time it will tend to clump more and more

1099
00:52:30,960 --> 00:52:33,840
Speaker 1: and more. But it hasn't clumped as much as we expected.

1100
00:52:33,920 --> 00:52:37,040
Speaker 5: Mmm, what could it be? What could be the explanation?

1101
00:52:37,200 --> 00:52:38,960
Speaker 1: Well, there's lots of really fun ideas. This is a

1102
00:52:38,960 --> 00:52:41,239
Speaker 1: big crack and sort of the success of dark matter

1103
00:52:41,280 --> 00:52:43,719
Speaker 1: and explaining the large structure of the universe, And some

1104
00:52:43,760 --> 00:52:46,319
Speaker 1: people think it's a good argument for moond or of

1105
00:52:46,360 --> 00:52:49,080
Speaker 1: these alternative theories. It says, you know, dark matter doesn't

1106
00:52:49,080 --> 00:52:52,480
Speaker 1: even exist at all. It's just that we've misunderstood gravity,

1107
00:52:52,560 --> 00:52:55,120
Speaker 1: and the gravity at different distance scales and at different

1108
00:52:55,200 --> 00:52:58,879
Speaker 1: accelerations works differently than we expected. And the whole dark

1109
00:52:58,920 --> 00:53:00,840
Speaker 1: matter thing is a big mistake. And it's true that

1110
00:53:00,960 --> 00:53:03,240
Speaker 1: dark matter does not do a good job of explaining

1111
00:53:03,360 --> 00:53:05,480
Speaker 1: what we see in these dwarf galaxies. It's like a

1112
00:53:05,480 --> 00:53:08,520
Speaker 1: big open problem for dark matter, and mind does a

1113
00:53:08,560 --> 00:53:11,400
Speaker 1: good job of explaining what we see in these galaxies,

1114
00:53:11,560 --> 00:53:13,680
Speaker 1: and so that's a bit of a puzzle, right. Mind

1115
00:53:13,719 --> 00:53:16,320
Speaker 1: also fails to explain lots of other stuff in the universe.

1116
00:53:16,360 --> 00:53:19,080
Speaker 1: Lots of reasons why we think dark matter is a

1117
00:53:19,080 --> 00:53:22,759
Speaker 1: better sort of overall picture than mind. But this is

1118
00:53:22,800 --> 00:53:25,600
Speaker 1: one place where mind does better than dark matter.

1119
00:53:25,760 --> 00:53:28,000
Speaker 5: What are some of these ideas then that maybe dark

1120
00:53:28,040 --> 00:53:31,280
Speaker 5: matter does have some strange interaction with itself, or maybe

1121
00:53:31,280 --> 00:53:34,000
Speaker 5: there's like a dark matter sun in the middle of

1122
00:53:34,040 --> 00:53:37,200
Speaker 5: that galaxy blowing out some of the dark matter stuff

1123
00:53:37,200 --> 00:53:37,440
Speaker 5: like that.

1124
00:53:37,760 --> 00:53:40,200
Speaker 1: Yeah, one really interesting clue is that there's actually a

1125
00:53:40,200 --> 00:53:43,240
Speaker 1: lot of variation, Like they're not as cuspies you expect,

1126
00:53:43,239 --> 00:53:45,680
Speaker 1: but also these cores, there is a lot of diversity

1127
00:53:45,760 --> 00:53:48,200
Speaker 1: of these cores, so you see lots of different sort

1128
00:53:48,200 --> 00:53:50,520
Speaker 1: of shapes, and people wonder like, why would you get

1129
00:53:50,560 --> 00:53:52,520
Speaker 1: so many different shape if the only thing that's happening

1130
00:53:52,560 --> 00:53:55,000
Speaker 1: here is gravity. Gravity is pretty simple. It's not as

1131
00:53:55,040 --> 00:53:58,480
Speaker 1: complicated as like buryonic physics, you know, with photons and

1132
00:53:58,480 --> 00:54:03,520
Speaker 1: protons and electromagnetism, very complicated. Dark matter should create simpler structures.

1133
00:54:04,160 --> 00:54:06,480
Speaker 1: And so one idea is just what you suggested, that

1134
00:54:06,520 --> 00:54:09,560
Speaker 1: maybe dark matter has some complicated self interaction that we

1135
00:54:09,600 --> 00:54:13,120
Speaker 1: don't know about that's creating interesting sorts of structures in

1136
00:54:13,160 --> 00:54:15,759
Speaker 1: the hearts of these galaxies that we just can't see

1137
00:54:15,840 --> 00:54:18,319
Speaker 1: because it's all made out of dark matter. So it's

1138
00:54:18,360 --> 00:54:20,520
Speaker 1: sort of like the cutting edge of current research is

1139
00:54:20,560 --> 00:54:22,840
Speaker 1: to try to understand what's going on at the hearts

1140
00:54:22,880 --> 00:54:26,680
Speaker 1: of these dwarf galaxies. What is dark matter doing right?

1141
00:54:26,760 --> 00:54:30,879
Speaker 5: Right? It could be fororing like rose chocolate bars, for.

1142
00:54:30,880 --> 00:54:34,280
Speaker 1: All you know, right, huge cups of rose chocolate cosmic

1143
00:54:34,320 --> 00:54:36,440
Speaker 1: hot cocoa could just be out there waiting for us

1144
00:54:36,480 --> 00:54:37,080
Speaker 1: to sip them.

1145
00:54:37,160 --> 00:54:39,799
Speaker 5: But then if you're out there sipping them, you're also

1146
00:54:39,840 --> 00:54:41,960
Speaker 5: looking at the stars, but you're inside of the stars.

1147
00:54:42,040 --> 00:54:43,319
Speaker 1: Kind of oh my gosh, I don't even know what

1148
00:54:43,360 --> 00:54:45,040
Speaker 1: to do, I'd have to be camping at the same time.

1149
00:54:45,280 --> 00:54:48,640
Speaker 5: Yeah, camping in space, space camping.

1150
00:54:48,760 --> 00:54:51,240
Speaker 1: That's absolutely the title of my new science fiction TV

1151
00:54:51,280 --> 00:54:52,680
Speaker 1: series that I'm pitching to Netflix.

1152
00:54:52,920 --> 00:54:55,400
Speaker 5: There you go. Well, I think they already have space camp,

1153
00:54:56,520 --> 00:54:59,760
Speaker 5: of course, but maybe you can get away with trademarking camp.

1154
00:55:02,520 --> 00:55:04,439
Speaker 1: This is why we have lawyers. They'll figure it out.

1155
00:55:04,560 --> 00:55:08,080
Speaker 5: Yeah, they'll figure it out, all right. Well, another interesting

1156
00:55:08,160 --> 00:55:11,040
Speaker 5: journey into a corner of the universe that maybe a

1157
00:55:11,040 --> 00:55:13,040
Speaker 5: lot of people don't pay attention to, but that could

1158
00:55:13,080 --> 00:55:16,480
Speaker 5: actually reveal a lot about how things work. Dwarf galaxies.

1159
00:55:16,640 --> 00:55:19,719
Speaker 1: And remember that as we develop better and more powerful

1160
00:55:19,800 --> 00:55:22,920
Speaker 1: technological eyeballs to look out into the universe, we see

1161
00:55:23,000 --> 00:55:26,360
Speaker 1: fainter stuff and smaller stuff, which might hold some of

1162
00:55:26,400 --> 00:55:29,239
Speaker 1: the answers to some of the enduring mysteries we've been

1163
00:55:29,239 --> 00:55:31,040
Speaker 1: puzzling over for a long time.

1164
00:55:31,120 --> 00:55:33,360
Speaker 5: So the next time you're out there camping or not,

1165
00:55:34,160 --> 00:55:36,759
Speaker 5: or looking at the stars or not, or drinking hot

1166
00:55:36,840 --> 00:55:41,240
Speaker 5: chocolate or not, you can do those three things independently.

1167
00:55:41,440 --> 00:55:43,759
Speaker 5: Think about the little structures of the universe out there

1168
00:55:43,800 --> 00:55:46,640
Speaker 5: and how they maybe have special properties that can really

1169
00:55:46,719 --> 00:55:50,360
Speaker 5: kind of reveal some of the more interesting inner workings

1170
00:55:50,400 --> 00:55:51,080
Speaker 5: of the universe.

1171
00:55:51,200 --> 00:55:53,000
Speaker 1: I have one last question for you before we sign

1172
00:55:53,000 --> 00:55:54,440
Speaker 1: off for here. Do you prefer a couple of hot

1173
00:55:54,480 --> 00:55:55,800
Speaker 1: cocoa or hot vanilla?

1174
00:55:56,000 --> 00:55:58,600
Speaker 5: Hot vanilla? You mean like pure vanilla extract?

1175
00:55:58,719 --> 00:56:00,879
Speaker 1: I don't know. You said vanilla's your favor flavor, better

1176
00:56:00,920 --> 00:56:03,960
Speaker 1: than chocolate. So what's a delicious vanilla beverage to enjoy

1177
00:56:03,960 --> 00:56:04,760
Speaker 1: in a camping trip?

1178
00:56:04,880 --> 00:56:10,799
Speaker 5: Oh? Boy, yeah, just warm milk. I think it's just

1179
00:56:10,840 --> 00:56:12,280
Speaker 5: called warm milk.

1180
00:56:12,680 --> 00:56:14,120
Speaker 1: Somebody invented that too.

1181
00:56:14,160 --> 00:56:17,480
Speaker 5: Man, Yeah, yeah, vanilla milk. Check. I'll take that camping

1182
00:56:17,480 --> 00:56:19,560
Speaker 5: any day. All right. Well, we hope you enjoyed that.

1183
00:56:19,920 --> 00:56:22,560
Speaker 5: Thanks for joining us, See you next time.

1184
00:56:30,400 --> 00:56:33,240
Speaker 1: Thanks for listening, and remember that Daniel and Jorge Explain

1185
00:56:33,280 --> 00:56:37,279
Speaker 1: the Universe is a production of iHeartRadio. For more podcasts

1186
00:56:37,280 --> 00:56:41,920
Speaker 1: from iHeartRadio, visit the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever

1187
00:56:42,000 --> 00:56:55,279
Speaker 1: you listen to your favorite shows. When you pop a

1188
00:56:55,280 --> 00:56:57,600
Speaker 1: piece of cheese into your mouth, you're probably not thinking

1189
00:56:57,640 --> 00:57:00,560
Speaker 1: about the environmental impact, but the people and the dairy

1190
00:57:00,560 --> 00:57:03,719
Speaker 1: industry are. That's why they're working hard every day to

1191
00:57:03,760 --> 00:57:06,799
Speaker 1: find new ways to reduce waste, conserve natural resources, and

1192
00:57:06,880 --> 00:57:11,720
Speaker 1: drive down greenhouse gas emissions house US dairy tackling greenhouse gases.

1193
00:57:12,000 --> 00:57:15,160
Speaker 1: Many farms use anaerobic digestors to turn the methane from

1194
00:57:15,160 --> 00:57:19,120
Speaker 1: manure into renewable energy that can power farms, towns, and

1195
00:57:19,280 --> 00:57:23,120
Speaker 1: electric cars. Visit you as dairy dot COM's Last Sustainability

1196
00:57:23,200 --> 00:57:23,919
Speaker 1: to learn more.

1197
00:57:25,480 --> 00:57:29,000
Speaker 3: There are children, friends, and families walking, riding on passing

1198
00:57:29,000 --> 00:57:31,400
Speaker 3: the roads every day. Remember they're real people with loved

1199
00:57:31,440 --> 00:57:33,640
Speaker 3: ones who need them to get home safely. Protect our

1200
00:57:33,680 --> 00:57:35,760
Speaker 3: cyclists and pedestrians because they're people too.

1201
00:57:36,040 --> 00:57:36,560
Speaker 1: Go safely.

1202
00:57:36,640 --> 00:57:39,520
Speaker 3: California from the California Office of Traffic Safety and Caltrans.

1203
00:57:39,600 --> 00:57:41,920
Speaker 10: Hello, it is Ryan, and we could all use an

1204
00:57:41,960 --> 00:57:44,240
Speaker 10: extra bright spot in our day, couldn't we just to

1205
00:57:44,280 --> 00:57:47,160
Speaker 10: make up for things like sitting in traffic, doing the dishes,

1206
00:57:47,320 --> 00:57:49,920
Speaker 10: counting or steps, you know, all the mundane stuff. That

1207
00:57:50,040 --> 00:57:52,440
Speaker 10: is why I'm such a big fan of Chumba Casino.

1208
00:57:52,560 --> 00:57:55,880
Speaker 10: Chumpback Casino has all your favorite social casino style games

1209
00:57:56,080 --> 00:58:00,000
Speaker 10: you can play for free, anytime, anywhere with daily bonuses.

1210
00:58:00,080 --> 00:58:03,000
Speaker 10: So sign up now at Chumbuck casino dot com. That's

1211
00:58:03,120 --> 00:58:04,760
Speaker 10: Chumbuck Casino dot com.

1212
00:58:04,480 --> 00:58:05,520
Speaker 5: Sponsored by Chumbuck Casino.

1213
00:58:05,560 --> 00:58:08,120
Speaker 3: No purchase necessary. VGW Group fordware prohibited by law eighteen

1214
00:58:08,160 --> 00:58:09,360
Speaker 3: plus terms and conditions apply.