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Speaker 1: Hey, Kelly, I've got a weird question for you. You You know,

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Speaker 1: we are going to have to recalibrate weird after all

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Speaker 1: of the strange questions that you asked me on this show.

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Speaker 1: All right, we'll leaves the question what's the most common

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Speaker 1: ingredient in your pantry? Wow? I was expecting you to

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Speaker 1: ask about the ways the universe might incinerate my children.

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Speaker 1: All right, So in the pantry, let's see by volume.

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Speaker 1: Probably flower, thanks to Zack's you know, pandemic baking experiments.

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Speaker 1: I love here and that, but what about like buying number,

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Speaker 1: do you have more bags of flower than like cans

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Speaker 1: of beans? You know? The answer to that is also flower.

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Speaker 1: So we have like loads of weird kinds of flower

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Speaker 1: thanks to all of Zack's baking experiments. So we've got

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Speaker 1: like rye buck wheats, wheats, chickpeas, almonds. If it's been creative,

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Speaker 1: we've probably tried it. We don't have any cricket flower yet.

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Speaker 1: I know that that's you can get that on the market,

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Speaker 1: but almost anything else we've probably tried. Sounds like your

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Speaker 1: family is a flower powered. Okay, flower and butter are

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Speaker 1: the fundamental particles of baking. Maybe I should get to

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Speaker 1: work on a butter collider. See that's the kind of

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Speaker 1: weird thing I was expecting from you. I'm here to

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Speaker 1: live up to your expectations. Bravo. Hi. I'm Daniel. I'm

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Speaker 1: a particle physicist and a professor at UC Irvine, and

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Speaker 1: I really do like colliding butter and flower. I'm Kelly

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Speaker 1: Wayner Smith, a parasitologist with Rice University, and I love

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Speaker 1: consuming the collision of butter and flour. But I tend

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Speaker 1: to stay out of the kitchen for everyone's sake, and

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Speaker 1: give us a sense for how often Zack's baking experiments

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Speaker 1: have a positive outcome. Like when the kids here of

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Speaker 1: dad's baking, are they excited or are they a little worried?

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Speaker 1: They're almost always excited. Zach is actually really good in

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Speaker 1: the kitchen, and most of the time he's not trying

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Speaker 1: to make like healthy foods. He's definitely making like cakes

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Speaker 1: and pies and muffins and very kid friendly things. So yeah,

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Speaker 1: most of the time the outcome of those collisions is good.

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Speaker 1: I see no cricket flour pastry crusts yet. No. No,

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Speaker 1: He's a vegetarian, and I think for him that extends

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Speaker 1: to crickets. All right, and welcome to the podcast. Daniel

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Speaker 1: and Jorge explain the universe, in which we experiment with

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Speaker 1: cooking up the universe into bite sized chunks for you.

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Speaker 1: We want to take everything that's out there in the universe,

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Speaker 1: the crazy black holes, the cosmic swirls of quasars, the tiny,

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Speaker 1: little frothing quantum particles. We want to weave together a

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Speaker 1: story that makes sense to your human brain, because, amazingly, incredibly,

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Speaker 1: we think that the human brain is capable of fashioning

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Speaker 1: stories about the nature of our universe that makes sense

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Speaker 1: to us. That our little mathematical capsules allow us to

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Speaker 1: predict the future, but also to get a sense of

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Speaker 1: explanation and understanding of why the universe is this way

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Speaker 1: and not some other way. My friend and co host

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Speaker 1: or Hey Champ, can't be with us today. He is

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Speaker 1: somewhere in the jungles of Panama, and so we've invited

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Speaker 1: our frequent guest host, Kelly were Smith to join as Kelly,

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Speaker 1: thanks very much for coming on the pot again. I'm

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Speaker 1: excited to be here to cook up brain snacks with you, Daniel.

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Speaker 1: One of the most amazing things to me about brain

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Speaker 1: snacks and real snacks. Is that when we look out

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Speaker 1: in the universe, there's such a huge variety of them.

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Speaker 1: We're lucky to get to eat lots of different kinds

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Speaker 1: of things when we live. You know, so many different

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Speaker 1: kind of fruits and vegetables and pastries filled with incredible stuff.

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Speaker 1: But also just as you look out in the universe,

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Speaker 1: there's just a lot of different kinds of stuff out there.

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Speaker 1: I mean there's like blueberries and plants and bushrooms and

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Speaker 1: iPhones and exploding stars. And you know, if you're trying

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Speaker 1: to tackle the quest and of like what's out there

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Speaker 1: in the universe and how do we make sense of it,

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Speaker 1: there's a lot of different kinds of things to make

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Speaker 1: sense of, right, so much different kinds of things to

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Speaker 1: make sense of. Yes, and as people who have just

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Speaker 1: started gardening, the like production of those things is mind blowing,

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Speaker 1: Like the facts that are chrome soil produces spicy peppers.

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Speaker 1: How does that happen? It is incredible that we have

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Speaker 1: these little biological machines for assembling spicy peppers basically out

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Speaker 1: of dirt, sunlight and air. Right, amazing chemistry done by

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Speaker 1: those plants. Yes, it is amazing. And at the same time,

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Speaker 1: the universe at its smallest level, Like the tiniest little

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Speaker 1: bits that I study in my research seemed to be

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Speaker 1: fairly small in number. I mean, there's just like a

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Speaker 1: few particles that make up everything. We know. You boil

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Speaker 1: down those peppers or your lunch or your husband into particles,

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Speaker 1: then you get a hundred elements, right, that basically make

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Speaker 1: up everything. You tear those apart into protons and neutrons

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Speaker 1: and electrons, and you hair the protons and neutrons apart,

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Speaker 1: and you're down to just like up corks and down

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Speaker 1: corks and electrons. With those three things, you can basically

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Speaker 1: put together everything. So it's a natural sort of philosophical

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Speaker 1: puzzle to understand, Like where does complexity arise? Why isn't

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Speaker 1: the universe just a bunch of really simple combinations of

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Speaker 1: these tiny little bits. Why is it possible to make

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Speaker 1: all sorts of complicated things like kittens and husbands and pies.

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Speaker 1: I'm a little concerned that you suggested boiling down my husband,

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Speaker 1: but I'm interested in the topics, so I'm going to

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Speaker 1: move forward with you here. It's just a thought experiment, right,

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Speaker 1: It's definitely a thought experiment. Nobody should try that at home,

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Speaker 1: either with kittens or husbands. But you know, kittens and

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Speaker 1: husbands and lava do have something really fascinating in common,

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Speaker 1: which is that they're made of the same ingredients. You know,

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Speaker 1: if you take a kilogram of lava and a kilogram

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Speaker 1: of flower, for example, that's only used non living examples

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Speaker 1: for now, then they're made of the same bits, the

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Speaker 1: same up corks and down corks and elect drowns, just

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Speaker 1: put together in different ways. Even if you think about

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Speaker 1: like different elements, different atoms, they're just made out of

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Speaker 1: different numbers of protons and neutrons, but they basically all

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Speaker 1: have the same ratio of one proton to one neutron

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Speaker 1: to one electron. There's not a lot of variation from

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Speaker 1: that in the periodic table, and so everything is just

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Speaker 1: different arrangements of the same stuff. And so by the

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Speaker 1: end of this podcast, I'd like to have a physicists

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Speaker 1: understanding of Carl Sagan's were all star stuff statements? Are

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Speaker 1: you going to give me that by the end of

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Speaker 1: this episode. By the end of the episode, I'm going

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Speaker 1: to give you a recipe to make literally anything in

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Speaker 1: your kitchen. Start with upcuorks and down corks at electrons

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Speaker 1: and you're done. There you go. That's how particle physicists cook,

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Speaker 1: you know, like it's it's some sort of crazy artistic

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Speaker 1: license that all cookbooks don't start at the quarks stage.

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Speaker 1: But what are you going to do with these authors?

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Speaker 1: But it is amazing how many different things you can

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Speaker 1: make out of these basic ingredients, right, It's incredible the

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Speaker 1: complexity that we see out there in the universe, and

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Speaker 1: not even just the biological complexity, but the chemical complexity

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Speaker 1: and the physical complexity. You know, if you started with

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Speaker 1: basic ingredients in your lego set, you can build essentially anything. Right.

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Speaker 1: Having a small number of building blocks but lots of

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Speaker 1: different ways to assemble them does allow you to introduce

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Speaker 1: complexity in the arrangement. But philosophically, it's fascinating to think

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Speaker 1: about what makes you you and what makes lava lava

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Speaker 1: is not the particles that you are made out of,

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Speaker 1: but just how they are put together. That means that,

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Speaker 1: like the information the units of you is somehow just

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Speaker 1: in the relationship between particles, which makes it seem sort

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Speaker 1: of like ineffable. I'd like to imagine that I'm built

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Speaker 1: out of bits of Daniel and you're built out a

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Speaker 1: bit of Kelly, but you're not the Kelly. Noess is

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Speaker 1: really just how those same pieces are put together, and

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Speaker 1: you could have put them together to make somebody else.

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Speaker 1: So I feel like the choice of your example matters

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Speaker 1: so much and whether the story is uplifting or not. So,

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Speaker 1: you know, when you were like, bits of Kelly are

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Speaker 1: sort of like lava, I'm like, oh, that's that's kind

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Speaker 1: of a downer. But you know, like as a biologist,

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Speaker 1: if you're like, oh, the bird in the sky you

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Speaker 1: share bits with that, that's sort of a beautiful idea,

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Speaker 1: although maybe a geologist would be like, tone it down, Kelly,

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Speaker 1: Lava is great. Yeah, you'd like to be compared to

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Speaker 1: a pigeon rather than lava. I mean, pigeons are basically

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Speaker 1: sky rats. You know. Rosemary Moscow wrote a great book

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Speaker 1: on pigeons recently and turns me around on pigeons, and so, yes,

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Speaker 1: I'm fine with being a pigeon. I love rats, though

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Speaker 1: I don't say sky rats as a negative description. You know,

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Speaker 1: we used to have rats living with us. They're wonderful pets,

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Speaker 1: very smart. So I'm also pro pigeons, but I gotta

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Speaker 1: say I'd rather be compared to lava. Lava is definitely

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Speaker 1: hotter than pigeons, and that's the measure for goodness in

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Speaker 1: your life. What has the highest temperature? Hey, you gotta

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Speaker 1: go with some quantifiable metric, right, So does it make

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Speaker 1: the sun the best? The Sun is pretty cool? Actually,

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Speaker 1: you know, there are definitely hotter things in the universe,

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Speaker 1: the interiors of new drawn stars, for example, cork gluon

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Speaker 1: plasmas created the large Hadron collider, or hotter than the

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Speaker 1: center or the service of the Sun. So maybe that

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Speaker 1: should be my point of reference. Perhaps, perhaps, But today

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Speaker 1: we are not interested in diving deep to understand the

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Speaker 1: core fundamental nature of reality and its materials, tearing apart

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Speaker 1: the upcork and down cork into the basic bits that

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Speaker 1: they might be made out of. We're going to do

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Speaker 1: something a little different. We're going to take a step

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Speaker 1: back and try to understand how those things come together

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Speaker 1: to make the amazing complexity and variety that we do

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Speaker 1: see in our universe. Because even if the elements of

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Speaker 1: the periodic table are not a fundamental description of the universe,

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Speaker 1: there are pretty important part of our lives. You get

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Speaker 1: too much mercury in your breakfast, cereal your life is

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Speaker 1: going to be different. You are built out of carbon

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Speaker 1: and you breathe oxygen. These things are important to understanding

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Speaker 1: how life starts in the universe and where life can

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Speaker 1: go if it wants to move to different places in

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Speaker 1: the universe, exactly. And so if you're interested in building kittens,

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Speaker 1: or baking pies or assembling podcast hosts, then you want

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Speaker 1: to know where you can find the ingredients. And so

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Speaker 1: today on the podcast, we'll be answering exactly that question.

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Speaker 1: We're gonna be talking about what elements are most common

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Speaker 1: in the universe. And we said a minute ago that

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Speaker 1: everything is made out of up corks and down corks

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Speaker 1: and electrons, and so you might get the sense that

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Speaker 1: it doesn't really matter, but there is an important categorization here.

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Speaker 1: When you put the upcorks and down corks together to

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Speaker 1: make protons and neutrons, and you put those together to

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Speaker 1: make elements, we tend to count those by the number

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Speaker 1: of protons inside the nucleus. Right, So if you have

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Speaker 1: just like a proton with one electron around it, that's hydrogen.

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Speaker 1: You can add a neutron to it. You still call

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Speaker 1: that hydrogen, right, it's a little bit different. You've added

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Speaker 1: a neutron, but you still call it hydrogen. It's like,

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Speaker 1: neutrons aren't as important as the proton and the electron,

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Speaker 1: but if you add another proton to it, then boom,

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Speaker 1: it's another element. It's helium because now in order to

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Speaker 1: make it neutral, you also need another electron. And that's

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Speaker 1: the key. The reason that we count things as different

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Speaker 1: elements when you add a proton but not a neutron,

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Speaker 1: is that you also have to add that electron, and

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Speaker 1: that change is fundamentally the chemical behavior of the thing

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Speaker 1: in a dramatic way, because now the bonds that conform

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Speaker 1: are different, and its reactivity and whether it emits light

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Speaker 1: or absorbs, like whether it likes to stick to stuff

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Speaker 1: or not, really changes. And so while like hydrogen and

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Speaker 1: deuterium are different, adding a neutron to that proton does

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Speaker 1: change it, it's not as big a change as adding

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Speaker 1: a proton. So we tend to categorize this stuff in

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Speaker 1: the universe by the number of protons in the nucleus.

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Speaker 1: So it's adding another proton means you have to get

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Speaker 1: another electron. Why don't we categorize things by the number

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Speaker 1: of electrons that are in there? A great unanswered question

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Speaker 1: in the history of science. I think it's probably because

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Speaker 1: protons are more massive, and so we used to before

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Speaker 1: we understood what was inside these things, we used to

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Speaker 1: categorize these things by atomic mass, just like how heavy

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Speaker 1: is a mole of these atoms, and that's account of

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Speaker 1: the number of protons and neutrons together, and so all

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Speaker 1: we could measure was sort of the atomic mass and

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Speaker 1: the overall charge. So I think it probably comes down

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Speaker 1: just to a bias in terms of the protons because

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Speaker 1: they're heavier and they also contribute to the atomic mass.

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Speaker 1: But you know, the pro electron folks have a good argument,

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Speaker 1: Oh that is that still a live debate. No. I

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Speaker 1: would like to imagine that there's like an ancient Victorian

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Speaker 1: got it? And I mean, I'm sure there's still somebody.

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Speaker 1: Everyone's got their thing. But the fascinating thing when you

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Speaker 1: look out into the universe is that we don't see

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Speaker 1: all of these elements in equal numbers. You don't have

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Speaker 1: as much uranium in the universe as you do nickel,

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Speaker 1: or as much nickel as you do hydrogen, for example.

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Speaker 1: And understanding where all these things come from, requires you

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Speaker 1: to do a deep dive into the history of the

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Speaker 1: universe itself and to understand how all of these things

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Speaker 1: come together. What engines there are out there in the

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Speaker 1: universe capable of manufacturing these cre easy elements. Let's see

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Speaker 1: what the audience thought. The answer was yes, So as usual,

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Speaker 1: I went out there to our cadre of volunteers to

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Speaker 1: ask them if they knew what the most common elements

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Speaker 1: in the universe were. If you like to participate in

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Speaker 1: this segment of the podcast and contribute your uneducated speculation

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Speaker 1: for our entertainment purposes only, then please write to me

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Speaker 1: two questions at Daniel and Jorgey dot com. We'd love

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Speaker 1: to hear your voice on the podcast. So think about

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Speaker 1: it for a minute. Do you know which elements are

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Speaker 1: most common in the universe? Here's with some of our

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Speaker 1: listeners had to say. First of all, I have a

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Speaker 1: fundamental lack of understanding of the periodic table and what

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Speaker 1: an element actually is. But let I guess hydrogen and

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Speaker 1: maybe helium. I don't know. I think hydrogen is the

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Speaker 1: most common that's kind of everywhere because it's the one

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Speaker 1: with it's you know, it's number one on the periodic

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Speaker 1: table when it's absolutely everywhere, and I think the next

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Speaker 1: one is helium, which is number two. AT don't if

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Speaker 1: it then continues, and I know that as atoms get

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Speaker 1: more protons and neutrons and they get heavier, they become

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Speaker 1: less common, I think, but definitely hydrogen. I think it's

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Speaker 1: dark marter. I don't know if it's really an element

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Speaker 1: that you are thinking about. What's the definition of an

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Speaker 1: element in that case? I don't know. The most common

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Speaker 1: elements in the universe is hydrogen, and because of the

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Speaker 1: way fusion works, I think after that is helium. If

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Speaker 1: I remember correctly, I think the most abundant elements in

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Speaker 1: the universe is hydrogen, helium, and oxygen and maybe carbon.

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Speaker 1: So basically just a few elements on top of the

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Speaker 1: periodic table. The most common universe should be hydrogen and helium.

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Speaker 1: But hydrogen by far and oxygen too added then that

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Speaker 1: is dark mellon element. We don't know, but that should

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Speaker 1: be the top three elements. Stuff we know, and we're

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Speaker 1: getting direct with I think in terms of all the

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Speaker 1: question and answer sessions that I've been around for on

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Speaker 1: this podcast, this is the one that had the most

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Speaker 1: consistency in the answers, it seems like most people you

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Speaker 1: know argued it was hydrogen, followed by helium. But then

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Speaker 1: there was some question about dark matter and whether it

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Speaker 1: counts as an element or not, and I think that

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Speaker 1: the answer is no. But yeah, what did you think

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Speaker 1: of these answers? Yeah, I was very glad to see

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Speaker 1: that everybody knew the basic story that hydrogen is the

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Speaker 1: most common thing out there, and we even heard some

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Speaker 1: ideas about why and how these things are made, and

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Speaker 1: so I was very pleased to hear that. I also

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Speaker 1: love the legalistic loophole of like, dark matter, is that

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Speaker 1: a thing? Is that an element? Does that count? When

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Speaker 1: you really ask me, is this a trick question? There's

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Speaker 1: a little bit of paranoia there. Is he trying to

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Speaker 1: kill me? That's the other question I think when I

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Speaker 1: talked to you exactly, because it's important to remember that

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Speaker 1: when we talk about elements, we're talking about atomic matter.

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Speaker 1: We're talking about things made out of adam. But in

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Speaker 1: the larger accounting of the universe, atomic matter is less

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Speaker 1: than five percent of the energy density of the universe.

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Speaker 1: If you take like a cubic light year of the

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Speaker 1: universe and you add of all of the energy in there,

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Speaker 1: then like seventy percent of the energy in that chunk

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Speaker 1: of the universe is devoted to dark energy, which contributes

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Speaker 1: to the accelerating expansion of the universe. Something like twenty

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Speaker 1: five percent is dark matter, some weird kind of stuff

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Speaker 1: that's out there, but it's invisible and almost intangible, so

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Speaker 1: it's hard to know exactly what it's made out of.

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Speaker 1: And the rest of it. This five percent is the

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Speaker 1: kind of stuff we're talking about today that I'm made

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Speaker 1: out of, and you are made out of, and kittens

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Speaker 1: are made out of, and pastry crusts are made out of.

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Speaker 1: Atomic matter. Things build out of protons, neutrons, and electrons,

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Speaker 1: and in understanding what flavor of those elements we have

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Speaker 1: and in what proportion, we're gonna understand a lot about

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Speaker 1: the history of the universe and also the role that

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Speaker 1: dark matter played in shaping this universe. Even though we

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Speaker 1: currently don't think that dark matter itself is made of atoms,

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Speaker 1: so that means it doesn't have any quarks, so like

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Speaker 1: even one level lower dark matter doesn't have that either. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: we think that dark matter is made of something else,

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Speaker 1: not quarks, not electrons, something totally different. And weird a

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Speaker 1: completely different kind of particle, or maybe not even a particle,

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Speaker 1: or maybe many different kinds of particles, or maybe tiny

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Speaker 1: cosmic kittens. I mean, we're kind of a little bit clueless.

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Speaker 1: You might get the sense I'm hoping for the cosmic kittens.

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Speaker 1: So you mentioned hydrogen is the most common thing in

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Speaker 1: the universe by atoms or that we're gonna be talking

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Speaker 1: about today. Where is that coming from? And hydrogen is

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Speaker 1: the most common thing in the universe, and it's not

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Speaker 1: even close, like not even a little bit. It's a

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Speaker 1: pretty good approximation to say the universe is hydrogen. If

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Speaker 1: you just said everything in the universe was hydrogen, you'd

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Speaker 1: be getting correct, which is, hey, that's an a right,

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Speaker 1: So you can just like move on. That's your description

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Speaker 1: of the universe. You're done. You're satisfied with your grade.

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Speaker 1: So that means that like, of the atoms that exist

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Speaker 1: in the universe, of them have only a single proton, right,

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Speaker 1: And it's incredible, like most of the universe hydrogen. It's

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Speaker 1: really just a tiny little bit Like the rest of

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Speaker 1: the universe is just like the spice in the recipe,

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Speaker 1: and so like, as a biologist always think about parsimony,

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Speaker 1: and so to me, I feel like, well, maybe that

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Speaker 1: makes sense because like the one proton doesn't need to

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Speaker 1: find anything else or bind up with anything else, and

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Speaker 1: so maybe just like it's easiest to get one proton

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Speaker 1: and that's why you've got a lot of it. But

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Speaker 1: that's not the answer at all, is it. No, that's

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Speaker 1: actually exactly the answer, right. It's the simplest thing you

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Speaker 1: can do with these particles that is stable. And so

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Speaker 1: the critical thing to understand is like, well, where do

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Speaker 1: any elements come from? You know, are they just like

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Speaker 1: created during the Big Bang or the same level? How

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Speaker 1: does this actually come together? How do you make elements

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Speaker 1: from the sort of early universe cosmic soup? Where do

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Speaker 1: they emerge? And so in understanding that story, you'll understand

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Speaker 1: very quickly why basically almost all started as hydrogen and so,

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Speaker 1: you know, going way back to the very very beginning,

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Speaker 1: before they was any atoms, any even corks, any elements

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Speaker 1: at all. Go back to like the pre Big Bang, right,

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Speaker 1: what was the universe at the very very beginning, Well,

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Speaker 1: there was some hot and dense state something. We don't

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Speaker 1: know what it was really at all, We just know

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Speaker 1: that it had a lot of energy, and it was

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Speaker 1: hot and dense. And a common misperception about the Big

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Speaker 1: Bang is that it was already like a tiny dot

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Speaker 1: of stuff which then exploded out into the universe. But instead,

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Speaker 1: the modern perception of the sort of pre Big Bang

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Speaker 1: early universe is that the universe was already filled with stuff.

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Speaker 1: It wasn't like mostly empty space with a tiny dot

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Speaker 1: which then exploded. Was filled with this hot, dense stuff

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Speaker 1: which then expanded and cooled rapidly. So the temperature is

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Speaker 1: dropping as space is expanding, So you should think the

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Speaker 1: Big Bang is sort of happening everywhere all at once,

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Speaker 1: not from a tiny little dot. And this is why

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Speaker 1: I worry about teaching my eight year old anything, because

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Speaker 1: I swear when I was in high school, I watched

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Speaker 1: a video where like started as a dot and it exploded,

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Speaker 1: and you just blew my mind that it wasn't that

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Speaker 1: and that matter was everywhere. And now I feel like,

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Speaker 1: how many other things that I learned in high school

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Speaker 1: are not the way we view things anymore. And anyway

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Speaker 1: you blew in my mind, let's move on. There's a

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Speaker 1: lot of misperception about that, and part of that is

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Speaker 1: because the whole idea of the Big Bang has evolved.

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Speaker 1: Now we think of Big Bang is sort of like

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Speaker 1: the inflationary epic. We have some of the sort of

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Speaker 1: like question mark, hot dense stuff which then expanded very

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Speaker 1: very rapidly via cosmic inflation. And for those of you

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Speaker 1: interested in more details on about exactly how that happened

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Speaker 1: what we do and don't know about that, check out

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Speaker 1: our episode called Did this Particle Create the Big Bang?

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Speaker 1: Which goes into detail about some theories about what might

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Speaker 1: have caused that. Anyway, you have this hot, dense question

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Speaker 1: mark stuff, and then it gets less hot and less

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Speaker 1: dense as things cool. Right now, we talk a lot

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Speaker 1: on the podcast about what space is, and we say

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Speaker 1: that space is filled with quantum fields. Right, You have

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Speaker 1: a unit of space that has quantum fields in it,

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Speaker 1: like a field for the electron and a field for

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Speaker 1: the cork, and of field for the photons, right, and

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Speaker 1: particles are just like apples in those fields. Now, you

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Speaker 1: go back to the very very early universe, everything was

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Speaker 1: so hot and so dense and so filled with energy

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Speaker 1: that it doesn't even really make sense to talk about

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Speaker 1: particles yet. It's like looking at the ocean and asking, like,

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Speaker 1: are there any drops in the ocean and you say, like, no,

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Speaker 1: it's just sort of like filled with water. In the

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Speaker 1: same way, these quantum fields were so energized because everything

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Speaker 1: was so hot and dense that the concept of a particle,

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Speaker 1: like a little localized packet of energy moving through the

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Speaker 1: universe doesn't really make sense, just like the wrong phase

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Speaker 1: of the universe. And it wasn't until a little bit

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Speaker 1: later after like ten to the minus thirty two seconds,

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Speaker 1: that things cooled down enough that you could say, here's

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Speaker 1: a particle. There's a particle. There's a particle. So that's

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Speaker 1: when like corks and gluons and photons and dark matter

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Speaker 1: all emerged from this early universe question mark stuff. So

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Speaker 1: the thing that triggered that then was cooling. So first

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Speaker 1: year have everything mixed up and they start separating when

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Speaker 1: it's cooling, and the cooling started just because time had

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Speaker 1: passed and things cool with time. Is that right? Or

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Speaker 1: did something trigger the movement from homogeneous whatever to like

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Speaker 1: specific things. It's the expansion that's the key. So space

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Speaker 1: is expanding, inflation is pulling space apart, and the same

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Speaker 1: process is happening right now. The universe is expanding. Currently

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Speaker 1: we call it dark energy, where space is making more space.

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Speaker 1: So between the atoms and your body, and between the

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Speaker 1: Earth and the Sun, and between our galaxy and other galaxies,

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Speaker 1: space is producing new chunks of space, so distances between

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Speaker 1: stuff is increasing. We don't understand why it's doing that

428
00:22:37,240 --> 00:22:38,920
Speaker 1: or how it's doing that. But in the very early

429
00:22:39,000 --> 00:22:42,080
Speaker 1: universe a very similar process happened, but much more dramatic

430
00:22:42,440 --> 00:22:46,680
Speaker 1: and much faster. And so this expansion then cools everything down.

431
00:22:46,760 --> 00:22:49,879
Speaker 1: So the overall arc of history of the universe is

432
00:22:50,200 --> 00:22:53,120
Speaker 1: start very hot and dense and then cool and expand

433
00:22:53,200 --> 00:22:56,520
Speaker 1: and become less dense and more dilute. And as that happens,

434
00:22:56,560 --> 00:22:59,520
Speaker 1: we sort of like move through different temperature regions, we

435
00:22:59,560 --> 00:23:01,440
Speaker 1: get differ and sort of effects, you know, the same

436
00:23:01,480 --> 00:23:03,560
Speaker 1: way like you have a gas and then a liquid

437
00:23:03,640 --> 00:23:06,560
Speaker 1: and a solid. We have different phases of matter. We

438
00:23:06,600 --> 00:23:09,199
Speaker 1: had different phases of sort of the physical laws of

439
00:23:09,240 --> 00:23:11,399
Speaker 1: the universe when it made sense to talk about the

440
00:23:11,440 --> 00:23:14,640
Speaker 1: universe in different ways. So only when things cooled down

441
00:23:14,800 --> 00:23:18,480
Speaker 1: enough could we even like talk about particles as phenomena

442
00:23:18,560 --> 00:23:21,240
Speaker 1: in quantum fields. So that went on for like ten

443
00:23:21,280 --> 00:23:24,760
Speaker 1: to the mine is twelve seconds, and then things kept cooling,

444
00:23:24,920 --> 00:23:28,400
Speaker 1: and the Higgs field is really weird field that interacts

445
00:23:28,400 --> 00:23:30,800
Speaker 1: with the particles and gives them mass. It cooled down

446
00:23:30,800 --> 00:23:32,639
Speaker 1: and sort of got stuck on a shelf, and we

447
00:23:32,640 --> 00:23:34,879
Speaker 1: talked about this in several episodes, how the Higgs field

448
00:23:34,880 --> 00:23:37,600
Speaker 1: is very weird because it doesn't relax down as much

449
00:23:37,640 --> 00:23:39,439
Speaker 1: as other fields, and that sort of stuck in a

450
00:23:39,560 --> 00:23:41,840
Speaker 1: high potential and it has a lot of energy stored

451
00:23:41,840 --> 00:23:44,280
Speaker 1: in it, and that's what gives a lot of particles mass.

452
00:23:44,280 --> 00:23:46,040
Speaker 1: We have a bunch of episodes on the Higgs boson

453
00:23:46,119 --> 00:23:48,160
Speaker 1: if you want to learn more details about that. So

454
00:23:48,280 --> 00:23:50,680
Speaker 1: here the particles now get mass. So you have the

455
00:23:50,760 --> 00:23:53,320
Speaker 1: quarks and the electrons. They used ton't have no mass,

456
00:23:53,600 --> 00:23:56,600
Speaker 1: now they do have mass. So the universe still has

457
00:23:56,640 --> 00:23:59,720
Speaker 1: no protons in it, but now it has like quarks

458
00:24:00,040 --> 00:24:03,600
Speaker 1: and electrons and gluons in this big hot suit called

459
00:24:03,640 --> 00:24:07,400
Speaker 1: cork gluon plasma. And we also have a whole episode

460
00:24:07,400 --> 00:24:09,560
Speaker 1: about what that is and how people make it at

461
00:24:09,560 --> 00:24:12,160
Speaker 1: a large change on collider to study the early universe.

462
00:24:12,320 --> 00:24:14,080
Speaker 1: So saying, you know, this happened at tend to the

463
00:24:14,119 --> 00:24:16,159
Speaker 1: negative thirty two seconds, and this other thing happened at

464
00:24:16,200 --> 00:24:18,800
Speaker 1: tend to the negative twelve seconds, Like, those are really

465
00:24:18,840 --> 00:24:22,400
Speaker 1: short time periods. Right to the negative something means that

466
00:24:22,480 --> 00:24:24,840
Speaker 1: many zeros after the decimal, right, So how do we

467
00:24:24,880 --> 00:24:27,520
Speaker 1: figure out down to that level of precision? Is that

468
00:24:27,560 --> 00:24:30,200
Speaker 1: too off course to be asking that question. No, it's

469
00:24:30,200 --> 00:24:32,760
Speaker 1: a great question. How well do we know these numbers?

470
00:24:33,040 --> 00:24:35,679
Speaker 1: We don't know them very well at all. All of

471
00:24:35,680 --> 00:24:37,920
Speaker 1: these come out of sort of our models for we

472
00:24:37,960 --> 00:24:40,720
Speaker 1: think happened, and of these huge question marks here we

473
00:24:40,720 --> 00:24:42,920
Speaker 1: could be off by, you know, big factors. So this

474
00:24:43,040 --> 00:24:45,760
Speaker 1: is sort of the current understanding, and so we should

475
00:24:45,760 --> 00:24:48,440
Speaker 1: put like big uncertainties on these numbers. For sure, it

476
00:24:48,480 --> 00:24:50,879
Speaker 1: couldn't have taken like a million years, because what happened

477
00:24:50,880 --> 00:24:54,679
Speaker 1: in the very early universe crystallized very quickly and it

478
00:24:54,720 --> 00:24:57,200
Speaker 1: has long term impacts on the rest of the universe

479
00:24:57,440 --> 00:24:59,840
Speaker 1: as we'll see. So we're pretty sure that this stuff

480
00:25:00,040 --> 00:25:03,080
Speaker 1: been very very quickly. That the specific numbers are a

481
00:25:03,080 --> 00:25:05,280
Speaker 1: little fuzzy, all right. So in like the blink of

482
00:25:05,280 --> 00:25:08,399
Speaker 1: an eye, we've got quarks but not yet protons exactly,

483
00:25:08,880 --> 00:25:11,720
Speaker 1: And so it's too hot for protons to form, Like

484
00:25:11,760 --> 00:25:14,320
Speaker 1: there's just too much energy because what is a proton?

485
00:25:14,400 --> 00:25:17,520
Speaker 1: You have three quarks, and they're bound together by the gluons.

486
00:25:17,560 --> 00:25:20,119
Speaker 1: But protons can get broken up, right, if you smash

487
00:25:20,160 --> 00:25:22,760
Speaker 1: them together, you put enough energy into your collider, you

488
00:25:22,760 --> 00:25:24,639
Speaker 1: can break them up. If you heat up the whole universe,

489
00:25:24,640 --> 00:25:28,040
Speaker 1: then protons sort of melt into their constituents, right, And

490
00:25:28,119 --> 00:25:30,160
Speaker 1: so what you need to do to make protons form

491
00:25:30,240 --> 00:25:32,439
Speaker 1: is you need the universe to cool down even further.

492
00:25:32,960 --> 00:25:35,800
Speaker 1: So then like ten to the minus six seconds, then

493
00:25:35,920 --> 00:25:39,960
Speaker 1: protons formed. The universe was now too cold for quarks

494
00:25:39,960 --> 00:25:42,600
Speaker 1: and gluons to just like fly around in this plasma,

495
00:25:42,760 --> 00:25:45,119
Speaker 1: and so that cooled down, and then you've got hadrons,

496
00:25:45,119 --> 00:25:48,120
Speaker 1: you've got protons, and you've got neutrons, and you have electrons,

497
00:25:48,440 --> 00:25:53,040
Speaker 1: and that's basically hydrogen. Right. Remember that protons are hydrogen.

498
00:25:53,440 --> 00:25:56,199
Speaker 1: Astronomers don't really care if there's an electron on it

499
00:25:56,320 --> 00:25:59,080
Speaker 1: or not. If there's a proton there, they call that hydrogen.

500
00:25:59,560 --> 00:26:02,119
Speaker 1: So that was the birth of hydrogen. Ten of the

501
00:26:02,119 --> 00:26:05,960
Speaker 1: minus six seconds into the universe. Hydrogen was born. So

502
00:26:06,000 --> 00:26:08,920
Speaker 1: does that mean that hydrogen is also the first element

503
00:26:09,200 --> 00:26:11,639
Speaker 1: that was ever made or just the most abundant that

504
00:26:11,680 --> 00:26:13,760
Speaker 1: was made at this point? I think both of those

505
00:26:13,800 --> 00:26:17,119
Speaker 1: things are true. Hydrogen was the first element made and

506
00:26:17,280 --> 00:26:19,800
Speaker 1: the most abundant, and in the next few seconds you'll

507
00:26:19,800 --> 00:26:22,400
Speaker 1: see that a little bit of other stuff was made

508
00:26:22,440 --> 00:26:25,520
Speaker 1: in this sort of like ending days of the Big Bang,

509
00:26:25,600 --> 00:26:28,800
Speaker 1: But basically it just formed huge amounts of hydrogen. That

510
00:26:28,840 --> 00:26:31,399
Speaker 1: also means that all the hydrogen in the universe is

511
00:26:31,400 --> 00:26:34,520
Speaker 1: super duper old. It's been around except for the first

512
00:26:34,560 --> 00:26:36,760
Speaker 1: ten to the minus six seconds of the universe. It's

513
00:26:36,800 --> 00:26:39,240
Speaker 1: been here. All hydrogen that's in the atmosphere or in

514
00:26:39,240 --> 00:26:41,640
Speaker 1: the sun or in the stars, it's as old as

515
00:26:41,680 --> 00:26:44,919
Speaker 1: the universe except for ten to the six seconds. So

516
00:26:44,960 --> 00:26:49,560
Speaker 1: we're all old souls. We are all old souls. So

517
00:26:49,640 --> 00:26:51,920
Speaker 1: that hydrogen has been hanging out for a long time,

518
00:26:51,960 --> 00:26:54,920
Speaker 1: and it's spent like three hundred and eighty thousand years

519
00:26:55,320 --> 00:26:58,359
Speaker 1: before it found its electrons, before the universe cooled even

520
00:26:58,440 --> 00:27:01,960
Speaker 1: further to make new trull hydrogen gas. So it's been

521
00:27:02,040 --> 00:27:04,800
Speaker 1: neutral hydrogen for a very, very very long time. But

522
00:27:04,840 --> 00:27:07,800
Speaker 1: it's been technically hydrogen since the very beginning. I guess

523
00:27:07,800 --> 00:27:09,520
Speaker 1: it took so long to get the electrons because you

524
00:27:09,600 --> 00:27:12,960
Speaker 1: needed just a whole lot more cooling before the electrons

525
00:27:13,000 --> 00:27:15,560
Speaker 1: came around. Yeah, things were still too hot, so electrons

526
00:27:15,720 --> 00:27:18,800
Speaker 1: had too much energy to get trapped by the protons.

527
00:27:19,160 --> 00:27:21,640
Speaker 1: So electrons and protons were flying around near each other,

528
00:27:22,080 --> 00:27:24,920
Speaker 1: but they were just moving too fast for the bonds

529
00:27:24,960 --> 00:27:26,960
Speaker 1: to form for them to pull into each other and

530
00:27:27,000 --> 00:27:28,919
Speaker 1: form hydrogen. So you just to wait for the universe

531
00:27:28,920 --> 00:27:32,920
Speaker 1: to keep cooling until like gelled into neutral hydrogen. Well,

532
00:27:32,920 --> 00:27:35,040
Speaker 1: speaking of cooling, the audience is going to have to

533
00:27:35,080 --> 00:27:37,240
Speaker 1: cool their heels for a little while because it's time

534
00:27:37,320 --> 00:27:52,360
Speaker 1: for a break. Alright, we're back. So we talked about

535
00:27:52,480 --> 00:27:55,879
Speaker 1: hydrogen already, which is the most abundant and the earliest

536
00:27:55,960 --> 00:28:00,560
Speaker 1: formed elements. So who takes the number two? But so

537
00:28:00,800 --> 00:28:05,320
Speaker 1: number two, no surprise is helium, right, Helium is element

538
00:28:05,440 --> 00:28:08,440
Speaker 1: number two. It's made out of two protons in the

539
00:28:08,560 --> 00:28:11,760
Speaker 1: nucleus with two electrons going around it, and there's usually

540
00:28:11,840 --> 00:28:15,359
Speaker 1: also some number of neutrons in there. And helium is

541
00:28:15,600 --> 00:28:19,440
Speaker 1: seven point one percent of the universe by atoms. So

542
00:28:19,480 --> 00:28:21,679
Speaker 1: if you just like lined up all the atoms in

543
00:28:21,720 --> 00:28:24,879
Speaker 1: the universe and counted them, helium would be about seven

544
00:28:24,920 --> 00:28:29,439
Speaker 1: point one percent. Remember that hydrogen is so already. In

545
00:28:29,600 --> 00:28:33,160
Speaker 1: hydrogen and helium together you have ninety hind point one

546
00:28:33,240 --> 00:28:36,240
Speaker 1: percent of all the atoms in the universe. Everything else

547
00:28:36,359 --> 00:28:39,440
Speaker 1: is now less than one percent of the stuff in

548
00:28:39,480 --> 00:28:43,320
Speaker 1: the universe. Wow, Is it possible that there's some universe

549
00:28:43,360 --> 00:28:46,400
Speaker 1: out there where there's more helium than hydrogen and everybody's

550
00:28:46,400 --> 00:28:48,640
Speaker 1: got a squeaky voice? Or you just have to always

551
00:28:48,720 --> 00:28:54,080
Speaker 1: have hydrogen first. I love thinking about that universe, and

552
00:28:54,120 --> 00:28:56,080
Speaker 1: I imagine for a moment maybe I would try to

553
00:28:56,080 --> 00:28:58,560
Speaker 1: do an Alvin Chipmunk voice to answer your question, and

554
00:28:58,600 --> 00:29:00,840
Speaker 1: then I realized I just couldn't do it. But it's

555
00:29:00,840 --> 00:29:03,160
Speaker 1: a good question, because you know, where did that helium

556
00:29:03,200 --> 00:29:06,480
Speaker 1: come from. It came from that primordial hydrogen in the

557
00:29:06,520 --> 00:29:08,360
Speaker 1: sort of ending days of the Big Bang, and its

558
00:29:08,360 --> 00:29:11,720
Speaker 1: immediate aftermath form that helium, and so we'll learn about

559
00:29:11,720 --> 00:29:14,200
Speaker 1: exactly how that happened. But it's hard to imagine converting

560
00:29:14,200 --> 00:29:17,160
Speaker 1: a majority of the hydrogen into helium in this early

561
00:29:17,280 --> 00:29:20,080
Speaker 1: universe fusion process, But it might be possible. You have

562
00:29:20,120 --> 00:29:22,400
Speaker 1: to tweak some of the laws of physics to make

563
00:29:22,440 --> 00:29:25,200
Speaker 1: that happen. A worthwhile endeavor, no doubt. And you know

564
00:29:25,240 --> 00:29:30,080
Speaker 1: what's funny about these elements is that astrophysicists think about

565
00:29:30,240 --> 00:29:32,920
Speaker 1: hydrogen and helium is basically most of the universe, and

566
00:29:32,960 --> 00:29:37,200
Speaker 1: everything else is the leftovers, which they call metals. You know, chemists,

567
00:29:37,240 --> 00:29:39,800
Speaker 1: when they talk about metals, they talk very specifically about

568
00:29:39,960 --> 00:29:42,320
Speaker 1: part of the periodic table that has you know, high

569
00:29:42,400 --> 00:29:45,600
Speaker 1: conductivity and is shiny. For example, the kind of things

570
00:29:45,600 --> 00:29:47,720
Speaker 1: that you and I think of as a metal. We

571
00:29:47,760 --> 00:29:49,880
Speaker 1: don't think like oxygen as a metal. We don't think

572
00:29:49,880 --> 00:29:54,240
Speaker 1: about the cells is like breathing metal gas. But to astronomers,

573
00:29:54,360 --> 00:29:58,040
Speaker 1: it's hydrogen, helium and metals. Why would they do that?

574
00:29:58,600 --> 00:30:01,280
Speaker 1: Is it just because it's a very different process, and

575
00:30:01,320 --> 00:30:03,160
Speaker 1: so they want a category. Is it as something else?

576
00:30:03,400 --> 00:30:06,040
Speaker 1: Ye As we'll see basically everything else is made after

577
00:30:06,080 --> 00:30:08,840
Speaker 1: the Big Bang inside stars, and they like to think

578
00:30:08,840 --> 00:30:12,880
Speaker 1: of stars as creating medals, and so for them, it's

579
00:30:12,880 --> 00:30:15,120
Speaker 1: just a totally different categorization. I think. Also it's just

580
00:30:15,160 --> 00:30:18,240
Speaker 1: because hydrogen helium are the big players, so they want

581
00:30:18,280 --> 00:30:21,320
Speaker 1: like a name for everything else, and like we often

582
00:30:21,320 --> 00:30:23,240
Speaker 1: do in physics, they took a name which exists and

583
00:30:23,280 --> 00:30:26,400
Speaker 1: means something else, and they gave it a new, confusing definition.

584
00:30:26,680 --> 00:30:29,840
Speaker 1: Find that very frustrating about, y'all. So let's continue with

585
00:30:29,880 --> 00:30:32,440
Speaker 1: the history of the universe to understand how other stuff

586
00:30:32,520 --> 00:30:34,600
Speaker 1: was made. So we're like ten of the minus six

587
00:30:34,800 --> 00:30:38,320
Speaker 1: seconds into the universe. We have protons, we have electrons,

588
00:30:38,600 --> 00:30:42,560
Speaker 1: we have neutrons. But everything is flying around really really hot,

589
00:30:42,640 --> 00:30:45,080
Speaker 1: and we also have a lot of anti matter. And

590
00:30:45,160 --> 00:30:48,000
Speaker 1: we think that in the very early universe we created matter,

591
00:30:48,040 --> 00:30:52,200
Speaker 1: but we also created antimatter, so that means anti protons

592
00:30:52,280 --> 00:30:55,920
Speaker 1: and anti electrons. And we imagine that the Big Bang

593
00:30:55,960 --> 00:30:58,640
Speaker 1: created this stuff in equal numbers. That when it's like

594
00:30:59,040 --> 00:31:02,880
Speaker 1: pre matter energy cooled down to create particles, it created

595
00:31:02,920 --> 00:31:06,240
Speaker 1: all the particles basically in equal numbers, and so we

596
00:31:06,360 --> 00:31:09,280
Speaker 1: think that antimatter was created at the same rate as matter.

597
00:31:09,760 --> 00:31:12,520
Speaker 1: So then you had like big flashes of life. Because

598
00:31:12,640 --> 00:31:16,520
Speaker 1: what happens when matter hits antimatter is it annihilates. You

599
00:31:16,560 --> 00:31:19,840
Speaker 1: have an electron hit and anti electron also called a positron,

600
00:31:20,040 --> 00:31:23,680
Speaker 1: you get a photon, and so huge amounts of matter

601
00:31:23,760 --> 00:31:28,120
Speaker 1: and antimatter disappeared very quickly, and a lot of photons

602
00:31:28,160 --> 00:31:31,920
Speaker 1: were made, and so after about ten seconds of living

603
00:31:31,920 --> 00:31:34,560
Speaker 1: it out in a crazy particle party, the universe then

604
00:31:34,600 --> 00:31:39,080
Speaker 1: became dominated by photons from matter antimatter annihilation. But if

605
00:31:39,120 --> 00:31:41,800
Speaker 1: you're wearing the star screen that you and I started

606
00:31:41,800 --> 00:31:44,120
Speaker 1: selling a couple of weeks ago. You'll be okay. But

607
00:31:44,160 --> 00:31:46,320
Speaker 1: so I'm trying to like match up the vision in

608
00:31:46,360 --> 00:31:47,880
Speaker 1: my head from when I was in high school. So

609
00:31:47,920 --> 00:31:50,160
Speaker 1: in that case, the light in like the video that

610
00:31:50,160 --> 00:31:52,800
Speaker 1: I'm remember, it was all in one center location and

611
00:31:52,800 --> 00:31:56,120
Speaker 1: then spread out. But here, like the photons being made,

612
00:31:56,120 --> 00:31:58,640
Speaker 1: it would be like everything would be lighting up at once, right,

613
00:31:58,680 --> 00:32:00,680
Speaker 1: it wouldn't be in one central local aation. It's all

614
00:32:00,680 --> 00:32:02,960
Speaker 1: over the place. That's right. Because we think the Big

615
00:32:02,960 --> 00:32:06,040
Speaker 1: Bang happened everywhere. It also means there's no center to

616
00:32:06,200 --> 00:32:09,240
Speaker 1: the universe, not like this stuff all happens somewhere and

617
00:32:09,280 --> 00:32:12,800
Speaker 1: it's flying out from there. It happened everywhere. It happened here.

618
00:32:13,280 --> 00:32:15,560
Speaker 1: You are right now at the place where the Big

619
00:32:15,560 --> 00:32:19,520
Speaker 1: Bang happened. Literally right. It happened everywhere, all at once,

620
00:32:19,680 --> 00:32:22,560
Speaker 1: And so the whole universe was filled with matter and antimatter,

621
00:32:22,600 --> 00:32:25,360
Speaker 1: which then annihilated very rapidly. And they know the universe

622
00:32:25,360 --> 00:32:28,240
Speaker 1: with the enormous amounts of high energy photons flying around.

623
00:32:28,560 --> 00:32:32,160
Speaker 1: So we call this the radiation dominated epoch of the universe,

624
00:32:32,160 --> 00:32:34,959
Speaker 1: when most of the energy was in photons and not

625
00:32:35,040 --> 00:32:37,880
Speaker 1: in like things we call matter, but there were small

626
00:32:37,920 --> 00:32:40,360
Speaker 1: amounts of matter that were left over for reasons we

627
00:32:40,360 --> 00:32:43,400
Speaker 1: still don't understand. There are mysterious processes that either created

628
00:32:43,440 --> 00:32:46,840
Speaker 1: more matter than antimatter or preferably converted some of the

629
00:32:46,880 --> 00:32:49,760
Speaker 1: antimatter to matter. So it's a little bit of an imbalance,

630
00:32:49,880 --> 00:32:52,479
Speaker 1: and some matter was left over. So you end up

631
00:32:52,480 --> 00:32:54,880
Speaker 1: with a universe with lots of photons and a little

632
00:32:54,880 --> 00:32:58,080
Speaker 1: bit of protons, electrons and neutrons left over all, right,

633
00:32:58,120 --> 00:33:00,560
Speaker 1: So then how do we get from all of those

634
00:33:00,600 --> 00:33:09,000
Speaker 1: photons to having mercury? I love this phrase murdering. It

635
00:33:09,040 --> 00:33:11,320
Speaker 1: makes it sound like a legal thing, like the protons

636
00:33:11,320 --> 00:33:13,480
Speaker 1: and the lawyers got together and they're like, let's talk

637
00:33:13,520 --> 00:33:16,160
Speaker 1: about the future of these particles. Well, I said, I

638
00:33:16,200 --> 00:33:20,040
Speaker 1: said mercury, but I prefer what you said. That what

639
00:33:20,160 --> 00:33:22,720
Speaker 1: you said is way more interesting, So we're going with that.

640
00:33:22,720 --> 00:33:24,440
Speaker 1: That's what I said. I made up a great new work.

641
00:33:24,760 --> 00:33:27,600
Speaker 1: You made up particle murdering. And so what happened next

642
00:33:27,760 --> 00:33:30,280
Speaker 1: is that you have a universe basically filled with hydrogen,

643
00:33:30,400 --> 00:33:34,040
Speaker 1: and this hydrogen also with not just pure proton plust electron,

644
00:33:34,200 --> 00:33:36,640
Speaker 1: A lot of them had a neutron tagging along. So

645
00:33:36,680 --> 00:33:40,360
Speaker 1: we call this deuterium. Where do means like too? So

646
00:33:40,400 --> 00:33:43,320
Speaker 1: you have two nucleons in their proton and a neutron

647
00:33:43,600 --> 00:33:47,160
Speaker 1: surrounded by an electron, and the universe was cool enough

648
00:33:47,200 --> 00:33:50,600
Speaker 1: to form that, but still hot enough for fusion, right,

649
00:33:50,640 --> 00:33:53,400
Speaker 1: So fusion is when you take two pieces of hydrogen,

650
00:33:53,400 --> 00:33:57,360
Speaker 1: two protons essentially, even though they repel each other electrically,

651
00:33:57,400 --> 00:34:01,480
Speaker 1: because they're both positively charged, you squeeze them together. Then

652
00:34:01,520 --> 00:34:04,480
Speaker 1: you can form helium. And so this happens in the

653
00:34:04,520 --> 00:34:06,960
Speaker 1: heart of stars all the time, and we're trying to

654
00:34:06,960 --> 00:34:09,239
Speaker 1: make it happen here on Earth in fusion reactors that

655
00:34:09,239 --> 00:34:12,719
Speaker 1: can release energy, but it requires very high temperatures and

656
00:34:12,840 --> 00:34:16,360
Speaker 1: very high densities. But for a few minutes after the

657
00:34:16,400 --> 00:34:19,959
Speaker 1: Big Bang of these conditions existed. So three minutes after

658
00:34:19,960 --> 00:34:23,879
Speaker 1: this unknown state expanded very very rapidly, the conditions were

659
00:34:23,960 --> 00:34:28,480
Speaker 1: perfect for hydrogen fusion into helium, and that's where most

660
00:34:28,560 --> 00:34:32,160
Speaker 1: of the helium in the universe was made after three minutes.

661
00:34:32,400 --> 00:34:35,839
Speaker 1: So this is my monthly moment of existential dread. All

662
00:34:35,840 --> 00:34:37,960
Speaker 1: of this talk about like heating and cooling, does that

663
00:34:38,000 --> 00:34:41,400
Speaker 1: mean that, like, if things had cooled down much faster,

664
00:34:42,480 --> 00:34:45,479
Speaker 1: none of this stuff would have happened, and like there's

665
00:34:45,520 --> 00:34:47,320
Speaker 1: you know we're talking about you know, ten to the

666
00:34:47,400 --> 00:34:50,320
Speaker 1: negative thirty two seconds, like these tiny little time scales.

667
00:34:50,600 --> 00:34:53,319
Speaker 1: If the timing had been a little bit different, whit

668
00:34:53,440 --> 00:34:57,359
Speaker 1: we have never gotten the photons to join together or whatever. Well,

669
00:34:57,360 --> 00:34:59,880
Speaker 1: the things had happened much faster than we wouldn't have

670
00:34:59,880 --> 00:35:01,960
Speaker 1: had as much time to make helium, so we'd have

671
00:35:02,040 --> 00:35:04,960
Speaker 1: more hydrogen in the universe. But hydrogen is sort of

672
00:35:04,960 --> 00:35:08,440
Speaker 1: the basic most stable thing, is sort of the inevitable endpoint.

673
00:35:08,480 --> 00:35:10,239
Speaker 1: If you take the universe and you cool it down,

674
00:35:10,320 --> 00:35:12,480
Speaker 1: you're gonna end up with hydrogen because it's got to

675
00:35:12,520 --> 00:35:15,160
Speaker 1: fall into up corks and down corks and electrons, and

676
00:35:15,239 --> 00:35:17,479
Speaker 1: as the universe cools, those things are going to form

677
00:35:17,520 --> 00:35:20,960
Speaker 1: stable objects. But it does determine how much helium you get.

678
00:35:21,160 --> 00:35:23,399
Speaker 1: So if you had like less time in that hot

679
00:35:23,440 --> 00:35:26,000
Speaker 1: phase when it was perfect to make helium, you get

680
00:35:26,080 --> 00:35:29,200
Speaker 1: less helium. Also, the density of the universe controls like

681
00:35:29,280 --> 00:35:31,800
Speaker 1: how much helium you get, and also how much lithium

682
00:35:31,840 --> 00:35:34,080
Speaker 1: you get. We'll talk about that in a moment. But

683
00:35:34,239 --> 00:35:37,600
Speaker 1: in this early phase you also sometimes we're able to

684
00:35:37,640 --> 00:35:40,319
Speaker 1: few things together to get lithium right, to get the

685
00:35:40,360 --> 00:35:43,520
Speaker 1: next element. But the ratio of hydrogen and helium and

686
00:35:43,560 --> 00:35:46,120
Speaker 1: lithium that you get is very very sensitive to the

687
00:35:46,160 --> 00:35:49,920
Speaker 1: temperature and to the cork density. So by understanding like

688
00:35:49,960 --> 00:35:52,759
Speaker 1: how much helium and hydrogen and lithium was made in

689
00:35:52,800 --> 00:35:55,719
Speaker 1: the early universe, we can tell what the cork density

690
00:35:55,880 --> 00:35:58,600
Speaker 1: was before that. Right, we know, for example, if you

691
00:35:58,680 --> 00:36:01,560
Speaker 1: had higher cork density, you would have gotten a different distribution.

692
00:36:01,600 --> 00:36:03,840
Speaker 1: You would have gotten more helium and more lithium. He

693
00:36:03,920 --> 00:36:06,319
Speaker 1: had less. Lower cork density, you would have gotten less

694
00:36:06,360 --> 00:36:08,640
Speaker 1: helium and less lithium. So what that means is that

695
00:36:08,680 --> 00:36:10,960
Speaker 1: we can account for the corks. We can say, look

696
00:36:10,960 --> 00:36:13,880
Speaker 1: out into the universe and we see the ratio hydrogen

697
00:36:13,920 --> 00:36:16,240
Speaker 1: and helium and lithium in the early universe. That tells

698
00:36:16,320 --> 00:36:19,000
Speaker 1: us about the cork density very early on. And that's

699
00:36:19,040 --> 00:36:22,440
Speaker 1: how we know that dark matter is not made of quarks,

700
00:36:22,920 --> 00:36:25,680
Speaker 1: because we can account for all those corks. We say,

701
00:36:25,680 --> 00:36:28,080
Speaker 1: we know how many corks were made very very early on.

702
00:36:28,200 --> 00:36:31,520
Speaker 1: Those all ended up in hydrogen and helium and lithium. Therefore,

703
00:36:31,600 --> 00:36:34,359
Speaker 1: the dark matter that's out there can't be made out

704
00:36:34,400 --> 00:36:36,360
Speaker 1: of corks. It's an important part of the argument for

705
00:36:36,400 --> 00:36:39,200
Speaker 1: why we think dark matter is not made of quarks

706
00:36:39,200 --> 00:36:42,160
Speaker 1: and not atomic matter at all. We are very clever.

707
00:36:42,239 --> 00:36:45,480
Speaker 1: Apes It's really incredible, And you know the folks who

708
00:36:45,520 --> 00:36:48,200
Speaker 1: think about, well, maybe dark matter is this other thing,

709
00:36:48,400 --> 00:36:51,120
Speaker 1: or maybe dark matter is a misunderstanding of gravity. This

710
00:36:51,160 --> 00:36:54,040
Speaker 1: is an important argument or why dark matter is matter

711
00:36:54,400 --> 00:36:57,440
Speaker 1: and why it's not just like dark heavy rocks floating

712
00:36:57,440 --> 00:37:00,160
Speaker 1: out in space that we haven't observed yet. So it's

713
00:37:00,200 --> 00:37:02,680
Speaker 1: really interesting how much you learn about the universe just

714
00:37:02,760 --> 00:37:06,040
Speaker 1: by understanding, like where these elements were crystallized and how

715
00:37:06,080 --> 00:37:08,920
Speaker 1: that process happened. That's awesome. We've talked about how you

716
00:37:08,960 --> 00:37:12,160
Speaker 1: make helium. Are there other ways to make helium or

717
00:37:12,200 --> 00:37:14,760
Speaker 1: did all of it come from this moment? So helium

718
00:37:14,840 --> 00:37:17,280
Speaker 1: is produced in the early universe, in the Big Bang,

719
00:37:17,320 --> 00:37:20,840
Speaker 1: but also much later right like our sun is a

720
00:37:20,920 --> 00:37:24,120
Speaker 1: helium factory because this process we talked about where hydrogen

721
00:37:24,239 --> 00:37:27,680
Speaker 1: comes together to make helium. That's exactly what's happening inside

722
00:37:27,680 --> 00:37:30,520
Speaker 1: our star. That's why it's like hot right now outside

723
00:37:30,719 --> 00:37:35,360
Speaker 1: because the energy from hydrogen burning inside the star is

724
00:37:35,440 --> 00:37:38,319
Speaker 1: producing helium. You have this complicated multi step process. We

725
00:37:38,360 --> 00:37:41,320
Speaker 1: actually need like two hydrogen nuclei to come together to

726
00:37:41,360 --> 00:37:44,480
Speaker 1: make deuterium. So you have two protons come together and

727
00:37:44,760 --> 00:37:47,759
Speaker 1: one of them actually converts into a neutron, which then

728
00:37:47,800 --> 00:37:50,920
Speaker 1: becomes an element of deuterium. You have it like another

729
00:37:51,000 --> 00:37:53,600
Speaker 1: hydrogen comes in and you make helium three, and then

730
00:37:53,600 --> 00:37:56,040
Speaker 1: those helium three merged together and you end up with

731
00:37:56,080 --> 00:37:59,319
Speaker 1: helium four. So it's a complicated, multi step process. But

732
00:37:59,360 --> 00:38:02,000
Speaker 1: this is what we call hydrogen burning, and it produces

733
00:38:02,280 --> 00:38:04,560
Speaker 1: most of the energy in the cores of most of

734
00:38:04,560 --> 00:38:06,600
Speaker 1: the stars out there. So when you look out in

735
00:38:06,680 --> 00:38:09,560
Speaker 1: the night sky and you see all that twinkling, mostly

736
00:38:09,600 --> 00:38:13,280
Speaker 1: you're observing hydrogen being turned into helium. Is that fusion

737
00:38:13,360 --> 00:38:16,600
Speaker 1: or fusion slightly different than what you just described. That

738
00:38:16,680 --> 00:38:18,960
Speaker 1: is exactly fusion that powers the stars, because you know,

739
00:38:19,000 --> 00:38:21,759
Speaker 1: there's a long gap here. We're talking about helium made

740
00:38:21,880 --> 00:38:24,840
Speaker 1: primordially during the Big Bang, the first three minutes of

741
00:38:24,880 --> 00:38:28,280
Speaker 1: the universe, but there were hundreds of millions of years

742
00:38:28,320 --> 00:38:31,520
Speaker 1: before the universe got to a place where it recreated

743
00:38:31,520 --> 00:38:34,720
Speaker 1: those conditions in the hearts of stars to make more helium,

744
00:38:34,760 --> 00:38:38,080
Speaker 1: because the universe was just vast clouds of hydrogen for

745
00:38:38,120 --> 00:38:40,600
Speaker 1: a long long time. We call these the dark ages

746
00:38:40,600 --> 00:38:44,040
Speaker 1: of the universe. Before gravity pulled those clouds together and

747
00:38:44,080 --> 00:38:47,239
Speaker 1: created the conditions for stars, so we could fuse this

748
00:38:47,320 --> 00:38:49,960
Speaker 1: hydrogen together to make more helium. So the universe have

749
00:38:50,040 --> 00:38:52,520
Speaker 1: been working on that be fourteen billion years or so,

750
00:38:52,640 --> 00:38:54,799
Speaker 1: and it still hasn't really changed the balance. You know,

751
00:38:55,000 --> 00:38:58,520
Speaker 1: most of the stuff out there is still just hydrogen. Wow,

752
00:38:58,640 --> 00:39:01,040
Speaker 1: helium doesn't usually go back to hydrogen, right, so you

753
00:39:01,040 --> 00:39:04,000
Speaker 1: still end up with that balance despite constantly turning hydrogen

754
00:39:04,040 --> 00:39:06,160
Speaker 1: into helium exactly. We've been working on it for a

755
00:39:06,200 --> 00:39:08,520
Speaker 1: long time, but it's a long process, and there's so

756
00:39:08,600 --> 00:39:10,880
Speaker 1: much hydrogen out there that it's going to take a

757
00:39:10,920 --> 00:39:12,920
Speaker 1: long time before we burn through it. We have an

758
00:39:12,920 --> 00:39:16,719
Speaker 1: episode about like how many generations of stars there will be,

759
00:39:17,000 --> 00:39:19,560
Speaker 1: and we think the universe has like trillions of years

760
00:39:19,560 --> 00:39:22,440
Speaker 1: of fuel potentially to burn stars. All Right, so I

761
00:39:22,480 --> 00:39:24,120
Speaker 1: can tell my kids about that because I won't scare

762
00:39:24,120 --> 00:39:27,759
Speaker 1: them to all Right, we've gotten hydrogen and helium, which

763
00:39:27,800 --> 00:39:30,239
Speaker 1: were the most common guesses from the audience. Let's take

764
00:39:30,239 --> 00:39:32,560
Speaker 1: a break, and then let's hear about who the runner

765
00:39:32,640 --> 00:39:48,120
Speaker 1: up is. Who's in third place? Alright, so the universe

766
00:39:48,280 --> 00:39:53,759
Speaker 1: is mostly hydrogen. Second place way far behind is helium.

767
00:39:53,760 --> 00:39:56,480
Speaker 1: Who's coming in third. You might think by extrapolation that

768
00:39:56,560 --> 00:39:59,239
Speaker 1: number three would be the element with three protons in it,

769
00:39:59,480 --> 00:40:02,680
Speaker 1: that you could like take helium and hydrogen infuse them

770
00:40:02,680 --> 00:40:05,880
Speaker 1: together to make lithium, which is three protons, But actually

771
00:40:05,880 --> 00:40:08,480
Speaker 1: lithium is very very rare in the universe. There only

772
00:40:08,600 --> 00:40:13,120
Speaker 1: trace amounts of lithium. Number three is actually oxygen. Oxygen

773
00:40:13,239 --> 00:40:16,040
Speaker 1: is the third most common element in the universe. So

774
00:40:16,080 --> 00:40:17,520
Speaker 1: we'll get to that in a minute, but let's talk

775
00:40:17,560 --> 00:40:20,800
Speaker 1: about lithium and like why it's so weird. It turns

776
00:40:20,800 --> 00:40:24,600
Speaker 1: out that lithium is really unstable, and so they are

777
00:40:24,760 --> 00:40:27,960
Speaker 1: produced in nuclear fusion, but only very briefly because they

778
00:40:27,960 --> 00:40:32,200
Speaker 1: basically fall apart very rapidly, So unlike helium or other stuff,

779
00:40:32,440 --> 00:40:34,320
Speaker 1: when you make lithium, it doesn't last very long. It

780
00:40:34,400 --> 00:40:37,360
Speaker 1: just sort of like falls back apart, and oxygen is

781
00:40:37,400 --> 00:40:40,440
Speaker 1: more stable. Oxygen is much more stable. So you might

782
00:40:40,480 --> 00:40:43,400
Speaker 1: be wondering, like, what makes something stable or not stable?

783
00:40:43,400 --> 00:40:45,439
Speaker 1: What were we talking about here? Remember that we're talking

784
00:40:45,480 --> 00:40:49,640
Speaker 1: about gluing protons and neutrons together, which is complicated. It's

785
00:40:49,680 --> 00:40:53,960
Speaker 1: well beyond the like chemistry of pluses and minuses. Everything

786
00:40:54,000 --> 00:40:57,719
Speaker 1: inside the nucleus is either positively charged or neutral. So

787
00:40:57,760 --> 00:41:00,480
Speaker 1: what's sticking them together anyway? Why can you stick to

788
00:41:00,600 --> 00:41:03,719
Speaker 1: protons together to make helium or even heavier stuff. The

789
00:41:03,719 --> 00:41:06,640
Speaker 1: answer is the strong nuclear force. The gluons that are

790
00:41:06,719 --> 00:41:09,960
Speaker 1: inside these protons and neutrons can also talk to each other.

791
00:41:10,200 --> 00:41:12,440
Speaker 1: So when you get two protons close enough to each other,

792
00:41:12,480 --> 00:41:14,560
Speaker 1: and the gluons that are inside them can sort of

793
00:41:14,840 --> 00:41:19,120
Speaker 1: grab onto each other and overcome their electrostatic repulsion. And

794
00:41:19,239 --> 00:41:22,600
Speaker 1: that's very complicated, and it's good in some configurations but

795
00:41:22,680 --> 00:41:25,800
Speaker 1: not in others, which is what makes some elements stable

796
00:41:25,800 --> 00:41:28,600
Speaker 1: and other elements not. And so you tend to form

797
00:41:28,680 --> 00:41:31,200
Speaker 1: these things in shells. Just like we have shells of

798
00:41:31,200 --> 00:41:34,520
Speaker 1: electrons inside the nucleus, we think there are shells of

799
00:41:34,600 --> 00:41:38,759
Speaker 1: protons and neutrons that arrange themselves in various configurations. Some

800
00:41:38,840 --> 00:41:41,400
Speaker 1: of those configurations are like very nicely packed, like a

801
00:41:41,520 --> 00:41:45,160
Speaker 1: roman arch that's stable, and other configurations are very unstable.

802
00:41:45,440 --> 00:41:48,879
Speaker 1: And lithium turns out to be like a very unstable configuration.

803
00:41:49,160 --> 00:41:50,560
Speaker 1: So this is another thing that I feel like I

804
00:41:50,560 --> 00:41:53,120
Speaker 1: don't remember learning when I was in high school or college.

805
00:41:53,200 --> 00:41:55,680
Speaker 1: Is this another like new thing? Or like was I sick?

806
00:41:55,719 --> 00:41:58,400
Speaker 1: On the wrong day. I don't know how often you

807
00:41:58,440 --> 00:42:01,479
Speaker 1: paid attention in college. This is something we've been working

808
00:42:01,480 --> 00:42:04,880
Speaker 1: on for a few decades. Understanding, like the nuclear shell model,

809
00:42:05,000 --> 00:42:07,120
Speaker 1: probably not very often taught in high school, but the

810
00:42:07,160 --> 00:42:09,600
Speaker 1: cold concept that some of these things are more stable

811
00:42:09,640 --> 00:42:12,560
Speaker 1: than others should be familiar. Yeah, okay, that's familiar. Okay,

812
00:42:12,600 --> 00:42:16,160
Speaker 1: So sets of three are just not very stable, and

813
00:42:16,160 --> 00:42:18,799
Speaker 1: that's why we don't have lithium around for a long time. Yeah,

814
00:42:18,880 --> 00:42:21,640
Speaker 1: lithium in general is just not very stable. Other elements

815
00:42:21,680 --> 00:42:23,920
Speaker 1: are much more stable. Like you get up to carbon.

816
00:42:24,040 --> 00:42:26,680
Speaker 1: Carbon is stable, and that has six right, And so

817
00:42:27,080 --> 00:42:29,400
Speaker 1: it's not as simple as like sets of three. Some

818
00:42:29,480 --> 00:42:31,680
Speaker 1: of these things the way they are arranged, are stable

819
00:42:31,680 --> 00:42:33,360
Speaker 1: and some of them are not. And it's not easy

820
00:42:33,400 --> 00:42:35,319
Speaker 1: to calculate either. It's not like you can just sit

821
00:42:35,360 --> 00:42:37,279
Speaker 1: down with a couple of equations and figure this stuff out,

822
00:42:37,320 --> 00:42:39,960
Speaker 1: because the strong force is very strong and very nasty

823
00:42:40,239 --> 00:42:42,840
Speaker 1: and very hard to do any calculations with. But because

824
00:42:42,960 --> 00:42:47,480
Speaker 1: lithium and the next element, beryllium are so unstable, basically

825
00:42:47,480 --> 00:42:49,799
Speaker 1: nothing else was made in the Big Bang. Big Bang

826
00:42:49,880 --> 00:42:53,360
Speaker 1: is like massive amounts of hydrogen, a little bit of helium,

827
00:42:53,520 --> 00:42:57,880
Speaker 1: tiny tiny bits of lithium and nothing else because lithium

828
00:42:57,920 --> 00:43:00,480
Speaker 1: is sort of like a barrier. You can't it past

829
00:43:00,640 --> 00:43:03,600
Speaker 1: lithium in the early universe, and so you couldn't really

830
00:43:03,640 --> 00:43:06,399
Speaker 1: make anything else. That's why the Big Bang didn't make

831
00:43:06,440 --> 00:43:10,560
Speaker 1: like uranium or plutonium, because one of the stepping stones

832
00:43:10,680 --> 00:43:13,640
Speaker 1: to get there was too unstable to last, and so

833
00:43:13,760 --> 00:43:16,640
Speaker 1: lithium is not a metal though, because it didn't stick around.

834
00:43:17,239 --> 00:43:20,040
Speaker 1: Astronomers would call lithium a metal for sure, because there

835
00:43:20,080 --> 00:43:22,440
Speaker 1: are some amounts of it in the universe, but it's very,

836
00:43:22,520 --> 00:43:25,759
Speaker 1: very rare. The same is true for berrillium, which is

837
00:43:25,800 --> 00:43:28,799
Speaker 1: the next element. It exists in the universe, but it

838
00:43:28,840 --> 00:43:31,399
Speaker 1: wasn't made in the Big Bang. It's too heavy, and

839
00:43:31,480 --> 00:43:35,000
Speaker 1: some of it is made inside stars. Right. If refused

840
00:43:35,000 --> 00:43:38,120
Speaker 1: to helium atoms together, sometimes you get burrillium, but a

841
00:43:38,160 --> 00:43:41,040
Speaker 1: lot of it is also very unstable, and so some

842
00:43:41,120 --> 00:43:43,880
Speaker 1: isotopes of it don't last very long. A lot of

843
00:43:43,880 --> 00:43:46,920
Speaker 1: it falls apart. Actually, most of the billium in the

844
00:43:47,000 --> 00:43:50,600
Speaker 1: universe was not made inside stars at all. Most of

845
00:43:50,640 --> 00:43:53,680
Speaker 1: the brillium in the universe was made by taking oxygen,

846
00:43:54,040 --> 00:43:58,640
Speaker 1: which is everywhere and exists between stars, and then hitting

847
00:43:58,719 --> 00:44:01,440
Speaker 1: it with a cosmic ray. So you have, for example,

848
00:44:01,520 --> 00:44:04,040
Speaker 1: stars are giving out their stellar wind, which is like

849
00:44:04,280 --> 00:44:07,239
Speaker 1: streams of particles, protons, electrons, all sorts of stuff. So

850
00:44:07,280 --> 00:44:10,040
Speaker 1: we call these things cosmic rays. Just high energy particles

851
00:44:10,040 --> 00:44:12,040
Speaker 1: flying through the universe. If one of them hits an

852
00:44:12,040 --> 00:44:15,920
Speaker 1: oxygen atom, it can knock off some of the protons

853
00:44:16,040 --> 00:44:19,359
Speaker 1: inside the oxygen atom. So this is like fission, right,

854
00:44:19,360 --> 00:44:22,080
Speaker 1: not fusion. You're taking lighter elements and using them to

855
00:44:22,120 --> 00:44:24,919
Speaker 1: build heavier stuff. This is taking heavier elements and break

856
00:44:24,960 --> 00:44:28,480
Speaker 1: them apart. It's like what happens in fission reactors with uranium.

857
00:44:28,480 --> 00:44:32,400
Speaker 1: You break uranium down into lighter elements. In the interstellar medium,

858
00:44:32,400 --> 00:44:35,240
Speaker 1: we think they're vast clouds of oxygen. Sometimes a proton

859
00:44:35,360 --> 00:44:38,160
Speaker 1: hits one and makes beryllium, so burrillium is actually made

860
00:44:38,160 --> 00:44:42,000
Speaker 1: by cosmic rays between stars. When oxygen gets hit by

861
00:44:42,000 --> 00:44:44,880
Speaker 1: a cosmic ray, does it always make billium or does

862
00:44:44,920 --> 00:44:47,279
Speaker 1: it sometimes make other things depending on like how it

863
00:44:47,320 --> 00:44:49,759
Speaker 1: got hit. It doesn't always make brilliums. Sometimes it just

864
00:44:49,800 --> 00:44:52,560
Speaker 1: bounce off each other. But sometimes a high enough energy

865
00:44:52,560 --> 00:44:55,719
Speaker 1: proton just the right way will crack open the oxygen

866
00:44:55,840 --> 00:44:58,359
Speaker 1: and break it up into pieces. And that's mostly how

867
00:44:58,400 --> 00:45:00,879
Speaker 1: berrillium was made in the universe. But it'll like never

868
00:45:00,960 --> 00:45:04,799
Speaker 1: break oxygen into like three heliums for example. You can

869
00:45:04,800 --> 00:45:06,880
Speaker 1: do that. Also, Yeah, you can get lots of different

870
00:45:06,880 --> 00:45:09,680
Speaker 1: stuff when you smash these particles together. So you mentioned

871
00:45:09,680 --> 00:45:11,719
Speaker 1: that carbon is the next thing that we have the

872
00:45:11,719 --> 00:45:15,360
Speaker 1: most of Where is the carbon coming from? So carbon

873
00:45:15,719 --> 00:45:18,279
Speaker 1: was not made in the very early universe because it's

874
00:45:18,400 --> 00:45:21,600
Speaker 1: kind of tricky. To make carbon requires this like three

875
00:45:21,680 --> 00:45:24,839
Speaker 1: step dance. Carbon requires six protons, right, And you can't

876
00:45:24,880 --> 00:45:27,759
Speaker 1: just fuse lithium together because lithium is unstable. You can't

877
00:45:27,760 --> 00:45:30,160
Speaker 1: just like take two lithium atoms and stick them together

878
00:45:30,160 --> 00:45:32,520
Speaker 1: because it just isn't enough lithium around. So what you

879
00:45:32,560 --> 00:45:35,400
Speaker 1: need to do instead of fusing two lithiums together is

880
00:45:35,400 --> 00:45:38,839
Speaker 1: you need to fuse three heliums together. So you need

881
00:45:38,920 --> 00:45:43,759
Speaker 1: six protons, two from each of three different helium atoms. Now,

882
00:45:43,760 --> 00:45:46,360
Speaker 1: in the very early universe we made helium and that

883
00:45:46,400 --> 00:45:48,360
Speaker 1: helium bounce off each other. But it's very hard to

884
00:45:48,400 --> 00:45:52,399
Speaker 1: get like three heliums together. It's much more complicated than

885
00:45:52,440 --> 00:45:56,080
Speaker 1: getting two heliums together. And so this is a complicated process.

886
00:45:56,160 --> 00:45:59,200
Speaker 1: We have two heliums come together to make beryllium, which

887
00:45:59,239 --> 00:46:02,640
Speaker 1: is also really unstable. But before the brillium falls apart,

888
00:46:02,680 --> 00:46:05,000
Speaker 1: you need that third helium to come in to swoop

889
00:46:05,040 --> 00:46:07,560
Speaker 1: in and turn it into carbon. So like if you

890
00:46:07,640 --> 00:46:10,640
Speaker 1: get that third one in place just in time, this

891
00:46:10,719 --> 00:46:13,600
Speaker 1: is called the three alpha process, then you can make

892
00:46:13,640 --> 00:46:17,560
Speaker 1: it over the unstable skipping stone of burrillium and get

893
00:46:17,600 --> 00:46:19,840
Speaker 1: the carbon. And where is this happening. Is this in

894
00:46:19,880 --> 00:46:22,200
Speaker 1: the sun or is this happening out where you get

895
00:46:22,200 --> 00:46:25,800
Speaker 1: the oxygen becoming brillium. So this happens inside of stars,

896
00:46:25,840 --> 00:46:28,040
Speaker 1: but it's not easy for it to happen right. In

897
00:46:28,160 --> 00:46:29,719
Speaker 1: order for this to happen, the star has to be

898
00:46:29,760 --> 00:46:32,760
Speaker 1: like really big and really hot so we can burn helium.

899
00:46:32,760 --> 00:46:34,040
Speaker 1: And it's not just that it has to be hot,

900
00:46:34,080 --> 00:46:36,800
Speaker 1: has to be dense, so you have like enough helium

901
00:46:36,840 --> 00:46:39,440
Speaker 1: around so that one of these helium atoms hits the

902
00:46:39,440 --> 00:46:42,640
Speaker 1: brillium before it breaks apart. But this is really fascinating

903
00:46:42,640 --> 00:46:45,759
Speaker 1: process because a lot of stars are not hot enough

904
00:46:45,800 --> 00:46:48,719
Speaker 1: to burn helium for most of their lives, like our star.

905
00:46:48,800 --> 00:46:51,439
Speaker 1: For example, Helium when you produce it in our star

906
00:46:51,760 --> 00:46:54,040
Speaker 1: just falls to the center of the star and accumulates

907
00:46:54,040 --> 00:46:55,799
Speaker 1: at the core. They're kind of inert for a long

908
00:46:55,840 --> 00:46:58,080
Speaker 1: long time. Our star is not hot enough to burn

909
00:46:58,120 --> 00:47:01,200
Speaker 1: the helium, but it will be for a very brief

910
00:47:01,320 --> 00:47:04,120
Speaker 1: moment near the end of its life, when enough of

911
00:47:04,160 --> 00:47:07,960
Speaker 1: that helium accumulates, so it's enough gravitational pressure, all of

912
00:47:08,040 --> 00:47:10,440
Speaker 1: a sudden, it's going to cross this threshold and it's

913
00:47:10,440 --> 00:47:13,920
Speaker 1: going to burn all of that helium really quickly into carbon.

914
00:47:14,239 --> 00:47:17,840
Speaker 1: It's called a helium flash, and for a few seconds,

915
00:47:17,920 --> 00:47:22,080
Speaker 1: the Sun will produce a hundred billion times as much

916
00:47:22,200 --> 00:47:26,120
Speaker 1: energy as it normally does. So that means that the

917
00:47:26,200 --> 00:47:29,120
Speaker 1: carbon on Earth didn't come from our Sun because our

918
00:47:29,120 --> 00:47:32,319
Speaker 1: son couldn't make it yet, So the carbon on Earth

919
00:47:32,360 --> 00:47:35,960
Speaker 1: came from other suns, yes, exactly, because we're like three

920
00:47:36,080 --> 00:47:39,000
Speaker 1: generations of suns in the universe. So most of the

921
00:47:39,000 --> 00:47:41,680
Speaker 1: carbon that we have here on Earth was formed during

922
00:47:41,680 --> 00:47:45,680
Speaker 1: one of these helium burning events inside another star, which

923
00:47:45,719 --> 00:47:49,279
Speaker 1: burned for billions of years and then died and exploded

924
00:47:49,440 --> 00:47:51,960
Speaker 1: and spread out its seeds into the universe. The universe

925
00:47:51,960 --> 00:47:54,560
Speaker 1: started out as almost all hydrogen in a little bit

926
00:47:54,560 --> 00:47:56,880
Speaker 1: of helium, so those first few stars in their solar

927
00:47:56,880 --> 00:47:59,880
Speaker 1: systems were almost all just hydrogen, but the next generation

928
00:48:00,000 --> 00:48:03,040
Speaker 1: were more metallic, as astronomers say, and the next generation

929
00:48:03,080 --> 00:48:05,799
Speaker 1: are even more metallic. So our Solar System is part

930
00:48:05,800 --> 00:48:07,840
Speaker 1: of the third generation, we think, And so we have

931
00:48:07,920 --> 00:48:11,640
Speaker 1: lots of leftover bits that were produced inside other stars.

932
00:48:11,680 --> 00:48:13,319
Speaker 1: So this is what you were talking about earlier. We

933
00:48:13,360 --> 00:48:16,440
Speaker 1: are all star stuff. The carbon that's inside our body

934
00:48:16,520 --> 00:48:20,160
Speaker 1: was made by fusing helium inside other stars. But so

935
00:48:20,200 --> 00:48:24,160
Speaker 1: then like the Moon doesn't have like any carbon, right,

936
00:48:24,200 --> 00:48:26,480
Speaker 1: so it's kind of the carbon sort of the star

937
00:48:26,640 --> 00:48:28,759
Speaker 1: explodes and the carbon goes out there, and then it's

938
00:48:28,760 --> 00:48:32,920
Speaker 1: sort of like actually distributed throughout the universe. Is that

939
00:48:32,960 --> 00:48:35,719
Speaker 1: fair to say, Yeah, exactly, because the Earth doesn't have

940
00:48:35,719 --> 00:48:38,640
Speaker 1: the same distribution of stuff as the whole universe does. Right,

941
00:48:38,719 --> 00:48:41,200
Speaker 1: Like when the Solar System formed, most of the hydrogen

942
00:48:41,680 --> 00:48:44,840
Speaker 1: that went into forming the Solar System went to Jupiter

943
00:48:44,960 --> 00:48:47,080
Speaker 1: and the Sun. We got very very little hydrogen. We

944
00:48:47,200 --> 00:48:49,239
Speaker 1: got a lot of the heavier stuff because we had

945
00:48:49,280 --> 00:48:51,799
Speaker 1: like a heavy, rocky seed that gathered together some of

946
00:48:51,840 --> 00:48:54,480
Speaker 1: the heavier stuff. So the Earth is not a representative

947
00:48:54,520 --> 00:48:57,320
Speaker 1: sample of the universe at all, but the Solar System

948
00:48:57,320 --> 00:49:00,000
Speaker 1: as a whole is more representative. Like I say, usually

949
00:49:00,000 --> 00:49:02,040
Speaker 1: of talking to you gives me like existential dread. But

950
00:49:02,080 --> 00:49:04,640
Speaker 1: I'm feeling pretty uplifted right now that all of these

951
00:49:04,680 --> 00:49:06,799
Speaker 1: different things that we've talked about have all so far

952
00:49:06,880 --> 00:49:09,560
Speaker 1: gone in the direction of creating the Earth. It seems

953
00:49:09,560 --> 00:49:12,560
Speaker 1: like a pretty low probability thing, all right. So moving

954
00:49:12,600 --> 00:49:14,560
Speaker 1: past carbon, tell me about some of the heavier stuff.

955
00:49:14,600 --> 00:49:17,520
Speaker 1: And so from there we need heavier, hotter stars that

956
00:49:17,560 --> 00:49:20,799
Speaker 1: are capable of burning helium and then capable of like

957
00:49:21,080 --> 00:49:24,239
Speaker 1: burning carbon. So if you have the right conditions, if

958
00:49:24,239 --> 00:49:27,160
Speaker 1: you have enough pressure and enough temperature and anough density,

959
00:49:27,280 --> 00:49:30,320
Speaker 1: you can fuse carbon together. This is called carbon burning.

960
00:49:30,760 --> 00:49:33,480
Speaker 1: And then it's just stepping your way up the periodic table.

961
00:49:33,840 --> 00:49:36,239
Speaker 1: You can get all the way up to iron. You

962
00:49:36,280 --> 00:49:39,640
Speaker 1: can fuse things up to iron, and the process releases energy.

963
00:49:39,760 --> 00:49:42,920
Speaker 1: And we talk about fusion. Were like smush two nuclear together.

964
00:49:43,000 --> 00:49:46,360
Speaker 1: We got a heavier nucleus plus energy. That's why stars

965
00:49:46,440 --> 00:49:49,240
Speaker 1: glow and continue to burn because the energy that's produced

966
00:49:49,239 --> 00:49:52,560
Speaker 1: from the fusion keeps the fusion going. But after iron,

967
00:49:53,040 --> 00:49:55,480
Speaker 1: when you try to fuse iron together with other stuff,

968
00:49:55,560 --> 00:49:59,239
Speaker 1: it eats energy. Like the weird nuclear structure that's keeping

969
00:49:59,320 --> 00:50:02,120
Speaker 1: these things together there, It starts to need energy to

970
00:50:02,200 --> 00:50:04,879
Speaker 1: form these other heavier elements. So you want to make

971
00:50:04,960 --> 00:50:07,600
Speaker 1: like lead and uranium inside your star. You can do it,

972
00:50:07,640 --> 00:50:10,640
Speaker 1: but it cools the star down, so it contributes to

973
00:50:10,800 --> 00:50:13,879
Speaker 1: killing the star rather than keeping it burning. And so

974
00:50:14,080 --> 00:50:16,239
Speaker 1: inside the star you can make like things up to

975
00:50:16,239 --> 00:50:20,279
Speaker 1: about iron with fusion, But afterwards the process slows down

976
00:50:20,360 --> 00:50:23,440
Speaker 1: really rapidly because it's a cooling process instead of a

977
00:50:23,440 --> 00:50:26,480
Speaker 1: heating process. But you need to get super hot to

978
00:50:26,560 --> 00:50:28,520
Speaker 1: make iron, right, so you get super hot, you start

979
00:50:28,560 --> 00:50:30,839
Speaker 1: making iron, and then that cools you down exactly, and

980
00:50:31,000 --> 00:50:34,400
Speaker 1: only the biggest, most massive stars can even make iron.

981
00:50:34,440 --> 00:50:37,400
Speaker 1: Like our sun will never make iron. It'll fuse helium

982
00:50:37,400 --> 00:50:39,239
Speaker 1: at its core and it will make some carbon and

983
00:50:39,320 --> 00:50:41,760
Speaker 1: its last few gasps, but it will never make anything

984
00:50:41,800 --> 00:50:44,080
Speaker 1: heavier than that. To get iron, you need like much

985
00:50:44,120 --> 00:50:47,480
Speaker 1: more massive stars. And then to get heavier than iron,

986
00:50:47,480 --> 00:50:49,279
Speaker 1: you might wonder like, well, where does that come from?

987
00:50:49,480 --> 00:50:51,600
Speaker 1: How is that possible? If you can't use fusion with

988
00:50:51,680 --> 00:50:54,520
Speaker 1: a few other processes to make that stuff. Like one

989
00:50:54,560 --> 00:50:57,480
Speaker 1: thing you can do is called neutron capture. So you

990
00:50:57,560 --> 00:50:59,960
Speaker 1: have some heavy thing floating around a star, You're all

991
00:51:00,040 --> 00:51:02,640
Speaker 1: a bunch of neutrons floating around. Sometimes instead of like

992
00:51:02,719 --> 00:51:05,440
Speaker 1: actual fusion, where you add protons to an element, you

993
00:51:05,480 --> 00:51:08,439
Speaker 1: can add a neutron. Let's take for example, gold which

994
00:51:08,480 --> 00:51:12,120
Speaker 1: has waited one If it absorbs a neutron, it's still gold,

995
00:51:12,640 --> 00:51:17,040
Speaker 1: but now it's and gold is unstable and tends to

996
00:51:17,160 --> 00:51:20,719
Speaker 1: baita decay, so that neutron turns into a proton, and

997
00:51:20,800 --> 00:51:23,440
Speaker 1: now it's mercury. And so the gold is taken like

998
00:51:23,440 --> 00:51:26,319
Speaker 1: a two step dance of absorbing a neutron flipping it

999
00:51:26,360 --> 00:51:29,359
Speaker 1: into a proton, and now it's taken one step up

1000
00:51:29,480 --> 00:51:32,080
Speaker 1: the periodic table. Wow, you go from something you really

1001
00:51:32,080 --> 00:51:35,920
Speaker 1: want to something you really don't. Hey, no judgment here.

1002
00:51:35,960 --> 00:51:38,560
Speaker 1: You know some people like mercury not in their pastries.

1003
00:51:38,680 --> 00:51:41,280
Speaker 1: You know, I don't see fancy mercury flakes on pastries

1004
00:51:41,320 --> 00:51:43,839
Speaker 1: as much as I see fancy gold foil. That's true. Yeah,

1005
00:51:44,000 --> 00:51:47,120
Speaker 1: I don't want any mercury flakes in my liquor either,

1006
00:51:47,480 --> 00:51:49,480
Speaker 1: or my my shampoo. Let's keep it out of our

1007
00:51:49,520 --> 00:51:52,400
Speaker 1: stuff exactly. And the heavier stuff is also made me

1008
00:51:52,520 --> 00:51:55,239
Speaker 1: think at the last moments of a star. Sometimes when

1009
00:51:55,239 --> 00:51:59,040
Speaker 1: a star is collapsing, it can produce the conditions necessary

1010
00:51:59,120 --> 00:52:02,360
Speaker 1: to make the heavier elements that it couldn't otherwise normally fuse,

1011
00:52:02,600 --> 00:52:05,040
Speaker 1: like if you don't have the conditions necessary to make

1012
00:52:05,080 --> 00:52:07,480
Speaker 1: heavier stuff. Well, at the last few moments of a

1013
00:52:07,520 --> 00:52:11,840
Speaker 1: star's life, when it undergoes gravitational collapse, it creates intense temperature,

1014
00:52:11,840 --> 00:52:15,360
Speaker 1: intense pressure, intense density, and in these last moments it

1015
00:52:15,440 --> 00:52:19,520
Speaker 1: can do what's called supernova nucleosynthesis, where it makes some

1016
00:52:19,640 --> 00:52:23,160
Speaker 1: of these heavier elements gold and europium and other kinds

1017
00:52:23,160 --> 00:52:26,120
Speaker 1: of things can be formed in those moments by supernova.

1018
00:52:26,239 --> 00:52:28,360
Speaker 1: Is that something that we've been able to observe, like

1019
00:52:28,400 --> 00:52:31,120
Speaker 1: a supernova happening in these things sort of being like

1020
00:52:31,239 --> 00:52:36,440
Speaker 1: ejected based on their like spectral characteristics or something even weirder,

1021
00:52:36,640 --> 00:52:41,000
Speaker 1: We find little crystals of it buried in the ocean. Yeah,

1022
00:52:41,040 --> 00:52:44,280
Speaker 1: the specific conditions for making these things are quite unique,

1023
00:52:44,480 --> 00:52:47,239
Speaker 1: and they make these little crystal nodules which we have

1024
00:52:47,320 --> 00:52:50,480
Speaker 1: found like sprayed out through the universe and dug out

1025
00:52:50,520 --> 00:52:52,480
Speaker 1: like from the bottom of the ocean. We have a

1026
00:52:52,480 --> 00:52:55,280
Speaker 1: whole episode about supernova and how people figure this out.

1027
00:52:55,520 --> 00:52:58,320
Speaker 1: And one thing they discovered when they understood this is

1028
00:52:58,360 --> 00:53:01,399
Speaker 1: that it didn't seem to be explaining rething like supernova

1029
00:53:01,440 --> 00:53:03,760
Speaker 1: can make some of these heavier elements, but it can't

1030
00:53:03,800 --> 00:53:07,000
Speaker 1: explain all of it, Like there needed to be another process.

1031
00:53:07,040 --> 00:53:09,480
Speaker 1: There weren't enough supernovas to make all the gold we

1032
00:53:09,600 --> 00:53:12,680
Speaker 1: see in the universe, for example, So there's a completely

1033
00:53:12,719 --> 00:53:15,879
Speaker 1: different way of making these heavier elements sometimes, and that's

1034
00:53:15,920 --> 00:53:20,600
Speaker 1: by combining neutron stars. So neutron stars like the leftover

1035
00:53:20,719 --> 00:53:23,480
Speaker 1: remnant of a really really heavy star. Maybe it had

1036
00:53:23,520 --> 00:53:25,680
Speaker 1: like a supernova and it collapsed, and it leaves this

1037
00:53:26,080 --> 00:53:30,520
Speaker 1: really hot, crazy core with strange nuclear matter, and it's

1038
00:53:30,560 --> 00:53:32,600
Speaker 1: not dense enough to form a black hole. Is just

1039
00:53:32,640 --> 00:53:35,120
Speaker 1: sort of sits there, hot and glowing in the X rays.

1040
00:53:35,239 --> 00:53:37,480
Speaker 1: But sometimes there are two of them, and the two

1041
00:53:37,520 --> 00:53:40,480
Speaker 1: are close enough to each other they'll spiral in and

1042
00:53:40,520 --> 00:53:44,120
Speaker 1: eventually combine and produce like gravitational waves. But in that

1043
00:53:44,200 --> 00:53:48,520
Speaker 1: moment they also produce really heavy elements. So neutron star

1044
00:53:48,600 --> 00:53:52,160
Speaker 1: collisions can make like gold and europeum, you know, we

1045
00:53:52,280 --> 00:53:54,960
Speaker 1: think that for example, in one of these collisions, you

1046
00:53:55,000 --> 00:53:59,160
Speaker 1: can make like five earth masses of gold. That's where

1047
00:53:59,200 --> 00:54:01,719
Speaker 1: we should be doing bas mining. How do we get

1048
00:54:01,719 --> 00:54:05,000
Speaker 1: out there? I think the conditions are a little treacherous,

1049
00:54:05,160 --> 00:54:09,080
Speaker 1: but exactly, it's incredible to think that these fairly rare

1050
00:54:09,160 --> 00:54:13,600
Speaker 1: and dramatic and cataclysmic events are responsible for making so

1051
00:54:13,640 --> 00:54:17,200
Speaker 1: many of the interesting atoms that make our universe fun

1052
00:54:17,320 --> 00:54:20,480
Speaker 1: and unique and make like technology possible. So many of

1053
00:54:20,480 --> 00:54:23,360
Speaker 1: those elements are important for like batteries here on Earth,

1054
00:54:23,400 --> 00:54:25,880
Speaker 1: and we take advantage of their weird properties for all

1055
00:54:25,920 --> 00:54:28,160
Speaker 1: sorts of like chemical processes, and none of that would

1056
00:54:28,200 --> 00:54:32,000
Speaker 1: be possible if we didn't have dramatic and cataclysmic destructive

1057
00:54:32,000 --> 00:54:35,960
Speaker 1: events out there in the universe weirdly producing these things, right. Yeah,

1058
00:54:36,000 --> 00:54:38,040
Speaker 1: you know, I know I say this every week, but

1059
00:54:38,120 --> 00:54:40,840
Speaker 1: every every week I am amazed at the things that

1060
00:54:40,920 --> 00:54:43,520
Speaker 1: physicists have learned about the universe and figured out that

1061
00:54:43,640 --> 00:54:45,719
Speaker 1: just like it blows my mind that we managed to

1062
00:54:45,719 --> 00:54:48,279
Speaker 1: figure all these details out. Yeah, I think one more

1063
00:54:48,320 --> 00:54:50,800
Speaker 1: thing that people should understand about these elements is that

1064
00:54:50,840 --> 00:54:53,040
Speaker 1: if you look at like the frequency of the elements

1065
00:54:53,080 --> 00:54:55,480
Speaker 1: in the universe, you can tell yourself a story like

1066
00:54:55,960 --> 00:54:59,160
Speaker 1: starts out with hydrogen and helium that it falls pretty quickly,

1067
00:54:59,200 --> 00:55:01,520
Speaker 1: and there's a couple of apps. They're like lithium and

1068
00:55:01,560 --> 00:55:04,040
Speaker 1: beryllium and boron are just unstable, so there aren't very

1069
00:55:04,040 --> 00:55:06,240
Speaker 1: many of them, and the heavier elements are less likely.

1070
00:55:06,400 --> 00:55:09,799
Speaker 1: But there's also a really weird zig zag pattern, like

1071
00:55:09,840 --> 00:55:13,759
Speaker 1: the even elements are more common than the odd you know,

1072
00:55:13,880 --> 00:55:16,720
Speaker 1: so like ten is more common than eleven, and forties

1073
00:55:16,760 --> 00:55:19,680
Speaker 1: more common than forty one, and seventy eight is more

1074
00:55:19,719 --> 00:55:23,160
Speaker 1: common than seventy nine, and that's weird. And that's another

1075
00:55:23,200 --> 00:55:26,040
Speaker 1: consequence of this nuclear shell model we were talking about earlier.

1076
00:55:26,239 --> 00:55:29,120
Speaker 1: Having like a certain number of protons and neutrons to

1077
00:55:29,160 --> 00:55:32,520
Speaker 1: fit together into the right pattern makes you more stable.

1078
00:55:32,760 --> 00:55:35,360
Speaker 1: And so this is called the auto Parkins rule that

1079
00:55:35,480 --> 00:55:39,400
Speaker 1: argues that elements with autotomic numbers have one unpaired proton

1080
00:55:39,680 --> 00:55:42,200
Speaker 1: and so are more likely to capture another one, increasing

1081
00:55:42,200 --> 00:55:45,960
Speaker 1: their atomic number. And so really, in the end, everything

1082
00:55:46,000 --> 00:55:48,239
Speaker 1: that we see in the universe, all these elements come

1083
00:55:48,320 --> 00:55:50,680
Speaker 1: from the basic rules of the protons and neutrons, like

1084
00:55:50,719 --> 00:55:53,080
Speaker 1: how you allowed to click them together, what they like

1085
00:55:53,239 --> 00:55:56,080
Speaker 1: to do, what conditions you need to make them do

1086
00:55:56,239 --> 00:55:59,120
Speaker 1: various things. It really does tell you just by looking

1087
00:55:59,160 --> 00:56:01,839
Speaker 1: at the distribution number of elements in the universe sort

1088
00:56:01,840 --> 00:56:04,960
Speaker 1: of what's allowed out there and our history, like how

1089
00:56:05,000 --> 00:56:08,360
Speaker 1: we've been cooking the universe so far, everything from computer

1090
00:56:08,440 --> 00:56:13,400
Speaker 1: chips to chat alright, so spread that on your forkacha

1091
00:56:13,520 --> 00:56:15,840
Speaker 1: and have it for lunch, all right. So thanks everybody

1092
00:56:15,840 --> 00:56:19,520
Speaker 1: for coming along with us on this cosmic culinary journey

1093
00:56:19,640 --> 00:56:22,279
Speaker 1: of creation as we talk about what's out there in

1094
00:56:22,280 --> 00:56:25,160
Speaker 1: the universe, how it's made, and where it all came from.

1095
00:56:25,200 --> 00:56:28,120
Speaker 1: And I hope that gave you an appetite. I'm hungry.

1096
00:56:28,440 --> 00:56:31,840
Speaker 1: Let's go eat. Try to avoid the mercury lace dishes.

1097
00:56:32,000 --> 00:56:34,400
Speaker 1: I'll pass that note on too, Zach, And thanks everybody

1098
00:56:34,440 --> 00:56:45,479
Speaker 1: for joining us. Tune in next time. Thanks by, thanks

1099
00:56:45,520 --> 00:56:48,160
Speaker 1: for listening, and remember that Daniel and Jorge explained. The

1100
00:56:48,239 --> 00:56:51,359
Speaker 1: universe is a production of I Heart Radio. For more

1101
00:56:51,440 --> 00:56:54,800
Speaker 1: podcast form my heart Radio, visit the I heart Radio app,

1102
00:56:55,040 --> 00:57:02,799
Speaker 1: Apple Podcasts, or wherever you listen to your favorite shows.