1 00:00:01,280 --> 00:00:04,000 Speaker 1: Welcome to Stuff You Missed in History Class, a production 2 00:00:04,120 --> 00:00:13,119 Speaker 1: of I Heart Radios How Stuff Works. Hello, and welcome 3 00:00:13,160 --> 00:00:16,280 Speaker 1: to the podcast. I'm Tracy V. Wilson and I'm Holly Frying. 4 00:00:16,520 --> 00:00:19,040 Speaker 1: We are coming up on the fiftieth anniversary of the 5 00:00:19,079 --> 00:00:22,600 Speaker 1: occupation of Alcatraz by a group of Native activists known 6 00:00:22,640 --> 00:00:24,720 Speaker 1: as Indians of All Tribes. This is something that's been 7 00:00:24,800 --> 00:00:27,000 Speaker 1: on my list for a while and I just kind 8 00:00:27,040 --> 00:00:30,200 Speaker 1: of held it knowing that the that the fiftieth anniversary 9 00:00:30,280 --> 00:00:33,920 Speaker 1: was coming up. This was a pivotal moment in Native 10 00:00:33,920 --> 00:00:37,160 Speaker 1: American activism and advocacy and for a lot of Native 11 00:00:37,200 --> 00:00:39,800 Speaker 1: people living at the time. They also talked about how 12 00:00:39,800 --> 00:00:43,480 Speaker 1: it shaped their own sense of identity, whether they physically 13 00:00:43,520 --> 00:00:45,960 Speaker 1: went to the island at some point or not. And 14 00:00:46,000 --> 00:00:47,800 Speaker 1: this is a story that we're going to be telling 15 00:00:47,880 --> 00:00:51,400 Speaker 1: in two parts because this act of protest was connected 16 00:00:51,440 --> 00:00:54,880 Speaker 1: to US government policies toward Native Americans in the nineteen 17 00:00:54,960 --> 00:00:58,280 Speaker 1: fifties and sixties that we haven't ever really talked about 18 00:00:58,320 --> 00:01:02,040 Speaker 1: on the show before. So today's episode is really about 19 00:01:02,040 --> 00:01:05,520 Speaker 1: the context for the occupation of Alcatraz, including sort of 20 00:01:05,520 --> 00:01:08,959 Speaker 1: a survey course of the long arc of US government 21 00:01:08,959 --> 00:01:12,600 Speaker 1: policy toward Native people from the colonial period up through 22 00:01:12,640 --> 00:01:16,679 Speaker 1: the nineteen fifties. It's basically like the very first portion 23 00:01:16,720 --> 00:01:18,880 Speaker 1: of the show. And then we'll talk about that policy 24 00:01:18,920 --> 00:01:20,800 Speaker 1: and how it set the stage for all of this, 25 00:01:21,120 --> 00:01:23,640 Speaker 1: and I get into a little bit of Alcatraz history 26 00:01:23,800 --> 00:01:26,880 Speaker 1: and an earlier occupation that happened in nineteen sixty four 27 00:01:27,560 --> 00:01:30,360 Speaker 1: before the nineteen sixty nine one. That is the bigger 28 00:01:30,400 --> 00:01:32,679 Speaker 1: part of this episode, and the next time we'll be 29 00:01:32,720 --> 00:01:37,240 Speaker 1: talking about that nineteen sixty nine occupation itself and its impact. 30 00:01:37,640 --> 00:01:39,880 Speaker 1: We do not have an exact count, or even an 31 00:01:39,880 --> 00:01:42,720 Speaker 1: agreed upon estimate, of how many people were living in 32 00:01:42,760 --> 00:01:47,840 Speaker 1: the Americas before Europeans arrived in four Sometimes you might 33 00:01:47,880 --> 00:01:50,280 Speaker 1: think no one was here, because the way history books 34 00:01:50,280 --> 00:01:53,680 Speaker 1: are written, that is false, super false. Europeans did not 35 00:01:53,960 --> 00:01:56,640 Speaker 1: really start trying to figure it out until decades or 36 00:01:56,680 --> 00:02:00,320 Speaker 1: even centuries after that fourteen ninety two start point of 37 00:02:00,360 --> 00:02:03,600 Speaker 1: when they started thinking about the Americas as somewhere they were, 38 00:02:04,120 --> 00:02:07,440 Speaker 1: and when their own activities had caused a massive population 39 00:02:07,520 --> 00:02:12,440 Speaker 1: drops through warfare, genocide, and introduced diseases. So the starting point, 40 00:02:12,520 --> 00:02:15,280 Speaker 1: based on what they observed around them, was a number 41 00:02:15,320 --> 00:02:19,120 Speaker 1: that had already been drastically reduced. Plus it worked in 42 00:02:19,160 --> 00:02:21,600 Speaker 1: Europeans own self interest to make it sound like the 43 00:02:21,639 --> 00:02:27,720 Speaker 1: continent had been very sparsely populated before colonization started. Again. Yeah, 44 00:02:27,760 --> 00:02:30,600 Speaker 1: that was not true at all. According to an article 45 00:02:30,639 --> 00:02:34,320 Speaker 1: published in Quaternary Science Reviews in March of en, there 46 00:02:34,320 --> 00:02:37,400 Speaker 1: were as many as sixty million people in the America's before, 47 00:02:38,800 --> 00:02:41,919 Speaker 1: with between two point eight million and five point seven 48 00:02:41,960 --> 00:02:45,360 Speaker 1: million of them living in North America. Some estimates for 49 00:02:45,400 --> 00:02:48,000 Speaker 1: the North American population go up as high as twenty 50 00:02:48,080 --> 00:02:51,359 Speaker 1: million people, with the total population of the America's being 51 00:02:51,440 --> 00:02:54,440 Speaker 1: much higher. That might not sound like that many compared 52 00:02:54,480 --> 00:02:57,720 Speaker 1: to how many people live here today, but like we're 53 00:02:57,720 --> 00:03:03,000 Speaker 1: talking about pre industrial populations, the whole world had fewer 54 00:03:03,000 --> 00:03:06,160 Speaker 1: people than it does today by a lot. This represented 55 00:03:06,400 --> 00:03:09,079 Speaker 1: thousands of different native nations, all of them with their 56 00:03:09,080 --> 00:03:12,560 Speaker 1: own languages and political systems and cultures and alliances. In 57 00:03:12,560 --> 00:03:15,800 Speaker 1: a general sense, you can divide US policy toward Native 58 00:03:15,840 --> 00:03:18,440 Speaker 1: Americans into a few general periods, some of which we 59 00:03:18,520 --> 00:03:20,640 Speaker 1: have talked about on the show before and some of 60 00:03:20,639 --> 00:03:24,040 Speaker 1: which we absolutely have not. The colonial period stretched from 61 00:03:24,040 --> 00:03:28,160 Speaker 1: fourteen ninety two to eighteen twenty eight, so from Columbus's arrival, 62 00:03:28,560 --> 00:03:31,239 Speaker 1: through the Revolutionary War, and then into the first few 63 00:03:31,240 --> 00:03:35,040 Speaker 1: decades of the United States existence as a nation. Of course, 64 00:03:35,120 --> 00:03:38,000 Speaker 1: the same process was also happening elsewhere in the America's 65 00:03:38,040 --> 00:03:40,040 Speaker 1: but we are really focusing on what is now the 66 00:03:40,160 --> 00:03:43,760 Speaker 1: US in these episodes. Some of our previous episodes on 67 00:03:43,800 --> 00:03:47,760 Speaker 1: this period cover, for example, Bacon's Rebellion, the Cochico Massacre, 68 00:03:47,960 --> 00:03:51,120 Speaker 1: and the Anglo Cherokee War. Obviously, the United States as 69 00:03:51,120 --> 00:03:54,000 Speaker 1: a nation didn't exist for all of that, and that 70 00:03:54,160 --> 00:03:58,440 Speaker 1: the colonial powers involved were not just England, but the 71 00:03:58,520 --> 00:04:03,240 Speaker 1: same patterns were similar through the whole continent. During this period, 72 00:04:04,000 --> 00:04:07,320 Speaker 1: European powers were claiming territory in the Americas under the 73 00:04:07,360 --> 00:04:10,120 Speaker 1: doctrine of Discovery, and this doctrine had roots in a 74 00:04:10,120 --> 00:04:12,560 Speaker 1: papal bull that had been issued by Pope Nicholas the 75 00:04:12,600 --> 00:04:15,960 Speaker 1: Fifth in fourteen fifty two. Eventually, though, that became part 76 00:04:16,040 --> 00:04:20,839 Speaker 1: of international law. Whatever European power quote discovered a non 77 00:04:20,920 --> 00:04:24,000 Speaker 1: Christian land had the right to claim that land and 78 00:04:24,040 --> 00:04:26,839 Speaker 1: to colonize it. A lot of this was about land 79 00:04:26,960 --> 00:04:30,000 Speaker 1: and resources, but a lot of the European nations involved 80 00:04:30,080 --> 00:04:33,719 Speaker 1: also wanted to convert the native population to Christianity, and 81 00:04:33,720 --> 00:04:36,920 Speaker 1: then once a European power had claimed territory, a lot 82 00:04:36,920 --> 00:04:40,200 Speaker 1: of times it formalized that claim through a treaty with 83 00:04:40,279 --> 00:04:43,320 Speaker 1: the native nation that was already living there. This may 84 00:04:43,320 --> 00:04:46,680 Speaker 1: seem basic, but a treaty is a formal agreement between 85 00:04:46,680 --> 00:04:50,920 Speaker 1: two sovereign nations. These treaties were not necessarily fair toward 86 00:04:50,960 --> 00:04:54,320 Speaker 1: the native people, and the process of negotiation was often 87 00:04:54,440 --> 00:04:58,800 Speaker 1: coercive at best. But by ratifying these treaties during the 88 00:04:58,839 --> 00:05:03,479 Speaker 1: colonial period, European governments were acknowledging that North America's Native 89 00:05:03,520 --> 00:05:06,599 Speaker 1: people's were sovereign nations with the right to self govern 90 00:05:06,800 --> 00:05:09,640 Speaker 1: This was not a right that the Europeans bestowed on 91 00:05:09,720 --> 00:05:12,320 Speaker 1: the native people. It was a right that the native 92 00:05:12,440 --> 00:05:16,360 Speaker 1: nations already had, which they had been exercising among themselves 93 00:05:16,400 --> 00:05:19,359 Speaker 1: and observing with their neighbors for thousands of years before 94 00:05:19,360 --> 00:05:22,799 Speaker 1: Europeans arrived. The years between eighteen twenty eight and eighteen 95 00:05:22,800 --> 00:05:26,799 Speaker 1: eighty seven are described as the Removal, reservation and Treaty period. 96 00:05:27,480 --> 00:05:30,080 Speaker 1: This is when the United States government started pressuring and 97 00:05:30,120 --> 00:05:34,360 Speaker 1: then forcing Native nations in the east to move west again. 98 00:05:34,520 --> 00:05:38,800 Speaker 1: Using treaties, the United States established reservations for the relocated people. 99 00:05:39,560 --> 00:05:42,560 Speaker 1: A lot of this removal and relocation was accomplished through 100 00:05:42,600 --> 00:05:46,039 Speaker 1: warfare and other violence. Some of our prior episodes from 101 00:05:46,040 --> 00:05:49,560 Speaker 1: this period include the Georgia gold Rush, the Tows Revolt, 102 00:05:49,640 --> 00:05:52,400 Speaker 1: and the Dakota War of eighteen sixty two and the 103 00:05:52,440 --> 00:05:55,160 Speaker 1: white Stone Hill Massacre, and those last bits are all 104 00:05:55,200 --> 00:05:58,560 Speaker 1: together in one episode and at least in theory. The 105 00:05:58,560 --> 00:06:00,880 Speaker 1: treaties that were signed in the mid to late nineteenth 106 00:06:00,960 --> 00:06:05,320 Speaker 1: century still recognize that the Native nations were sovereign nations. 107 00:06:05,400 --> 00:06:07,800 Speaker 1: I mean you have to be to sign a treaty. 108 00:06:08,000 --> 00:06:11,400 Speaker 1: They mostly specified that the United States and the Native 109 00:06:11,480 --> 00:06:14,520 Speaker 1: Nation would stop fighting and the Native Nation would see 110 00:06:14,760 --> 00:06:18,280 Speaker 1: land to the United States. In exchange, the United States 111 00:06:18,320 --> 00:06:21,840 Speaker 1: would establish a reservation for the Native people and usually 112 00:06:21,880 --> 00:06:25,599 Speaker 1: also provide some services like education or healthcare. But the 113 00:06:25,680 --> 00:06:28,440 Speaker 1: United States never really treated the Native people as though 114 00:06:28,480 --> 00:06:31,239 Speaker 1: they were part of a sovereign nation. In the words 115 00:06:31,240 --> 00:06:33,960 Speaker 1: of U. S. Supreme Court Justice John Marshall in eighteen 116 00:06:34,000 --> 00:06:39,359 Speaker 1: thirty one, native societies were quote domestic dependent nations. He 117 00:06:39,480 --> 00:06:42,599 Speaker 1: categorized their relationship to the US as the Native Nation 118 00:06:42,680 --> 00:06:46,840 Speaker 1: being award and the United States being a guardian. U S. 119 00:06:46,920 --> 00:06:49,800 Speaker 1: Native Policy tended to exist on a spectrum that went 120 00:06:49,839 --> 00:06:54,200 Speaker 1: from paternalistic to actively destructive, with increasingly strict laws and 121 00:06:54,279 --> 00:06:58,520 Speaker 1: policies that attempted to strict Native people of their governments, languages, 122 00:06:58,600 --> 00:07:02,039 Speaker 1: and cultures. In an eight seven, the policy shifted again 123 00:07:02,160 --> 00:07:05,800 Speaker 1: so one of allotment and assimilation. So rather than a 124 00:07:05,880 --> 00:07:10,080 Speaker 1: Native nation collectively holding its reservation land, the United States 125 00:07:10,160 --> 00:07:14,720 Speaker 1: government started allotting that land to individual tribal members. The 126 00:07:14,720 --> 00:07:17,400 Speaker 1: biggest law related to this that was passed during this 127 00:07:17,440 --> 00:07:20,640 Speaker 1: period was the General Allotment Act of eighteen eighty seven, 128 00:07:20,800 --> 00:07:23,680 Speaker 1: also called the DAWs Act, and we talked more about 129 00:07:23,720 --> 00:07:26,840 Speaker 1: allotment and its destructive effects in our episode on Susan 130 00:07:26,920 --> 00:07:29,960 Speaker 1: La flesh Picott. Although the US government stance was that 131 00:07:30,040 --> 00:07:33,120 Speaker 1: the allotment process was going to make Native people self sufficient, 132 00:07:33,800 --> 00:07:36,080 Speaker 1: in reality, it was another attempt to try to force 133 00:07:36,160 --> 00:07:39,160 Speaker 1: Native people to assimilate with white culture and to get 134 00:07:39,200 --> 00:07:42,160 Speaker 1: access to land that had previously been set aside for 135 00:07:42,400 --> 00:07:47,040 Speaker 1: Native nations, and this policy was incredibly damaging. Huge numbers 136 00:07:47,040 --> 00:07:50,119 Speaker 1: of people who were allotted land wound up losing that land, 137 00:07:50,520 --> 00:07:54,120 Speaker 1: so Native nations progressively lost what little territory they had 138 00:07:54,160 --> 00:07:57,400 Speaker 1: had as part of their reservations. During this period, the 139 00:07:57,480 --> 00:08:00,640 Speaker 1: United States government was also pressuring, or were saying, Native 140 00:08:00,640 --> 00:08:03,360 Speaker 1: people to send their children to boarding schools, where they 141 00:08:03,360 --> 00:08:06,120 Speaker 1: were forbidden to speak their own language or observe their 142 00:08:06,160 --> 00:08:09,760 Speaker 1: own cultural or religious practices. We talked about these schools 143 00:08:09,760 --> 00:08:11,760 Speaker 1: and their effects in our two parterre on the Fort 144 00:08:11,760 --> 00:08:15,600 Speaker 1: Shaw Indian schoolgirls basketball team. Although the United States was 145 00:08:15,640 --> 00:08:19,040 Speaker 1: no longer pursuing these ends through military conquest and it 146 00:08:19,080 --> 00:08:21,640 Speaker 1: wasn't as much about physical violence at this point, the 147 00:08:21,680 --> 00:08:25,240 Speaker 1: allotment process and the boarding schools were still efforts to 148 00:08:25,320 --> 00:08:29,200 Speaker 1: eradicate the Native population. And while there were certainly people 149 00:08:29,240 --> 00:08:31,440 Speaker 1: who thought that what they were doing was for the best, 150 00:08:31,800 --> 00:08:34,760 Speaker 1: that really does not matter because those intentions were still 151 00:08:34,840 --> 00:08:38,160 Speaker 1: rooted in white supremacy and the results were still deeply 152 00:08:38,240 --> 00:08:42,360 Speaker 1: damaging and destructive. We mentioned earlier that millions of Native 153 00:08:42,360 --> 00:08:45,719 Speaker 1: people lived in North America in fourteen ninety two. By 154 00:08:45,760 --> 00:08:48,400 Speaker 1: nineteen ten, that number in the United States was less 155 00:08:48,400 --> 00:08:51,880 Speaker 1: than two hundred fifty thousand, not just because of warfare 156 00:08:51,880 --> 00:08:55,679 Speaker 1: and introduced diseases, but also because of these government policies. 157 00:08:56,080 --> 00:08:58,960 Speaker 1: The years between nineteen thirty four and nineteen forty five 158 00:08:59,000 --> 00:09:03,000 Speaker 1: are known as the Reordization period, the US government ended 159 00:09:03,040 --> 00:09:05,880 Speaker 1: the policy of allotment and started taking some steps toward 160 00:09:05,920 --> 00:09:09,680 Speaker 1: actually recognizing the Native nations right to self govern This 161 00:09:09,880 --> 00:09:13,080 Speaker 1: shift in policy was largely influenced by World War One. 162 00:09:13,520 --> 00:09:16,200 Speaker 1: Huge numbers of Native people had served in the war, 163 00:09:16,360 --> 00:09:19,040 Speaker 1: and in response, on just as a gesture of thanks, 164 00:09:19,400 --> 00:09:23,320 Speaker 1: Congress authorized a survey into the conditions on reservations with 165 00:09:23,360 --> 00:09:26,679 Speaker 1: an intent to improve those conditions. The result was a 166 00:09:26,720 --> 00:09:30,640 Speaker 1: report called the Problem of Indian Administration, also known as 167 00:09:30,679 --> 00:09:34,880 Speaker 1: the Miriam Report, which was issued in n It was scathing. 168 00:09:35,120 --> 00:09:38,800 Speaker 1: It noted enormous problems with US policy toward Native Americans 169 00:09:38,880 --> 00:09:43,000 Speaker 1: dating back decades, and it called for sweeping, massive reforms. 170 00:09:43,559 --> 00:09:46,600 Speaker 1: Aside from some biographies of Native people who were alive 171 00:09:46,679 --> 00:09:48,680 Speaker 1: during these years, this is not a time that we 172 00:09:48,720 --> 00:09:51,120 Speaker 1: have talked about much on the show before, so that's 173 00:09:51,120 --> 00:09:54,480 Speaker 1: something for us to correct in the future. The Miriam Report, though, 174 00:09:54,600 --> 00:09:57,280 Speaker 1: set the stage for the United States to start pursuing 175 00:09:57,280 --> 00:10:01,120 Speaker 1: policies toward Native Americans that stressed self to termination and 176 00:10:01,160 --> 00:10:04,720 Speaker 1: self governance, and which were based on actual data rather 177 00:10:04,800 --> 00:10:09,200 Speaker 1: than things like conversion to Christianity, assimilation, or desire for land. 178 00:10:09,679 --> 00:10:13,280 Speaker 1: Especially compared to the entire rest of US history. So far, 179 00:10:13,400 --> 00:10:16,959 Speaker 1: the reorganization period was actually kind of promising. The federal 180 00:10:17,000 --> 00:10:21,280 Speaker 1: government repealed restrictive laws that had targeted Native people. Tribes 181 00:10:21,320 --> 00:10:23,800 Speaker 1: were still allowed to allot land if they chose to, 182 00:10:23,920 --> 00:10:26,679 Speaker 1: but this general policy of allotment that had caused so 183 00:10:26,760 --> 00:10:30,240 Speaker 1: much damage was abolished. The US government also adopted a 184 00:10:30,280 --> 00:10:34,160 Speaker 1: policy of returning surplus federal land to the tribes rather 185 00:10:34,240 --> 00:10:38,440 Speaker 1: than setting it aside for mostly white homesteaders. Native nations 186 00:10:38,440 --> 00:10:41,520 Speaker 1: were also encouraged to set up their own systems of government, 187 00:10:41,520 --> 00:10:44,280 Speaker 1: and then the federal government set aside funds to assist 188 00:10:44,360 --> 00:10:47,440 Speaker 1: them in this process. Some aspects of all of this 189 00:10:47,600 --> 00:10:51,960 Speaker 1: could still be assimilationist, and the federal government's prevailing opinion 190 00:10:52,160 --> 00:10:54,199 Speaker 1: was still that it would be better for Native people 191 00:10:54,240 --> 00:10:56,880 Speaker 1: to assimilate than it was for them to continue to 192 00:10:56,920 --> 00:11:00,520 Speaker 1: be part of a native nation. In In the lead 193 00:11:00,600 --> 00:11:03,000 Speaker 1: up to this period of reform, the Snyder Act had 194 00:11:03,040 --> 00:11:06,880 Speaker 1: granted citizenship and voting rights to Native Americans, something that 195 00:11:06,960 --> 00:11:10,360 Speaker 1: may have been intended to encourage assimilation, but also gave 196 00:11:10,440 --> 00:11:13,720 Speaker 1: Native people a political voice that they had previously been denied. 197 00:11:14,160 --> 00:11:18,040 Speaker 1: This reorganization process also encouraged Native nations to set up 198 00:11:18,080 --> 00:11:20,640 Speaker 1: governments and social systems that were a lot like the 199 00:11:20,720 --> 00:11:24,000 Speaker 1: US government rather than something that might more accurately reflect 200 00:11:24,000 --> 00:11:27,840 Speaker 1: their own traditional structure. Although to be clear, Native governments 201 00:11:27,840 --> 00:11:31,000 Speaker 1: and confederations had also influenced the creation of the U. 202 00:11:31,080 --> 00:11:33,880 Speaker 1: S Government back during the colonial period, so it's kind 203 00:11:33,920 --> 00:11:37,640 Speaker 1: of there was some mutual influence there. But you can 204 00:11:37,679 --> 00:11:40,920 Speaker 1: definitely look at the structures that were set up the 205 00:11:40,960 --> 00:11:42,920 Speaker 1: way the US government was encouraging people to set up 206 00:11:42,920 --> 00:11:46,679 Speaker 1: as like sort of templated after what we're doing. Yeah, 207 00:11:47,080 --> 00:11:49,240 Speaker 1: I don't think the Native people's were ever like, you 208 00:11:49,240 --> 00:11:52,720 Speaker 1: should do it this way, we know better than whereas 209 00:11:52,760 --> 00:11:55,640 Speaker 1: that does seem to be the flip on the the 210 00:11:55,679 --> 00:11:58,520 Speaker 1: other side of that coin. This period was also in 211 00:11:58,520 --> 00:12:01,440 Speaker 1: the federal government released arted relying on the idea of 212 00:12:01,480 --> 00:12:04,960 Speaker 1: blood quantum to determine who was and was not eligible 213 00:12:05,000 --> 00:12:08,480 Speaker 1: for support and services. This wasn't a totally new idea, 214 00:12:08,559 --> 00:12:12,360 Speaker 1: but it became a bigger part of federal law and policy. Basically, 215 00:12:12,440 --> 00:12:15,200 Speaker 1: you had to have enough so called Indian blood to 216 00:12:15,240 --> 00:12:19,560 Speaker 1: be eligible. But this idea of blood quantum wasn't part 217 00:12:19,600 --> 00:12:21,960 Speaker 1: of how a lot of Native nations were defining their 218 00:12:22,000 --> 00:12:25,880 Speaker 1: own citizenship at all. As sovereign nations, they have the 219 00:12:25,960 --> 00:12:28,320 Speaker 1: right to decide for themselves who does or does not 220 00:12:28,480 --> 00:12:32,160 Speaker 1: qualify as a citizen, But the federal government's reliance on 221 00:12:32,280 --> 00:12:37,200 Speaker 1: blood quantum wound up influencing tribal law and citizenship requirements 222 00:12:37,240 --> 00:12:40,080 Speaker 1: for a lot of nations based on this concept that 223 00:12:40,200 --> 00:12:43,800 Speaker 1: was both arbitrary and not actually part of how they 224 00:12:43,800 --> 00:12:48,440 Speaker 1: were necessarily defining themselves before. This is a really complicated 225 00:12:48,559 --> 00:12:52,360 Speaker 1: and incredibly personal issue, and it has huge ongoing effects 226 00:12:52,360 --> 00:12:54,840 Speaker 1: into the lives of Native people from a lot of 227 00:12:54,960 --> 00:12:57,520 Speaker 1: nations today. If you want to learn more about it, 228 00:12:57,559 --> 00:13:00,720 Speaker 1: we recommend the NPR Code Switch podcast episode So what 229 00:13:00,800 --> 00:13:05,880 Speaker 1: exactly is Blood Quantum? That originally aired on February nine. So, 230 00:13:05,960 --> 00:13:09,160 Speaker 1: just to recap this period of federal policy toward Native 231 00:13:09,160 --> 00:13:12,079 Speaker 1: people had some problematic aspects, a lot of which were 232 00:13:12,120 --> 00:13:14,560 Speaker 1: still rooted in white supremacy, but at the same time, 233 00:13:15,040 --> 00:13:17,560 Speaker 1: overall it was a big step forward, so much so 234 00:13:17,600 --> 00:13:21,120 Speaker 1: that various legislation related to Native people from these years 235 00:13:21,200 --> 00:13:24,160 Speaker 1: was nicknamed the Indian New Deal. At the same time, 236 00:13:24,600 --> 00:13:27,840 Speaker 1: it did not magically spontaneously fix all of the issues 237 00:13:27,880 --> 00:13:31,000 Speaker 1: that had arisen from centuries of damage brought on by 238 00:13:31,080 --> 00:13:35,200 Speaker 1: US policy toward Native Americans. Since the removal period, the 239 00:13:35,280 --> 00:13:38,080 Speaker 1: United States had essentially forced Native people to live on 240 00:13:38,120 --> 00:13:41,360 Speaker 1: reservations and to be dependent on the US government for 241 00:13:41,480 --> 00:13:45,320 Speaker 1: all kinds of support and services. Then the government managed 242 00:13:45,320 --> 00:13:50,800 Speaker 1: the services terribly through corruption, in competence, racism, and intentional neglect. 243 00:13:51,320 --> 00:13:55,000 Speaker 1: In ninety three, almost a decade into the reorganization period, 244 00:13:55,120 --> 00:13:58,240 Speaker 1: Congress commissioned a survey of conditions on the reservations and 245 00:13:58,240 --> 00:14:00,840 Speaker 1: found them to still be appalling. Something that we're going 246 00:14:00,880 --> 00:14:03,000 Speaker 1: to talk about again in just a moment. So this 247 00:14:03,240 --> 00:14:06,960 Speaker 1: brief period of generally less destructive policy did not last 248 00:14:06,960 --> 00:14:08,880 Speaker 1: for very long. And we'll get to that next shift, 249 00:14:09,040 --> 00:14:11,280 Speaker 1: which is what led to the occupation of Alcatraz after 250 00:14:11,280 --> 00:14:22,160 Speaker 1: a sponsor break. Even as the United States was encouraging 251 00:14:22,240 --> 00:14:24,920 Speaker 1: Native nations to establish their own governments, which the U 252 00:14:25,040 --> 00:14:27,960 Speaker 1: s would then recognize the sovereign entities, it was also 253 00:14:28,040 --> 00:14:31,600 Speaker 1: still trying to encourage Native people to assimilate into white society. 254 00:14:32,240 --> 00:14:36,320 Speaker 1: In n the Bureau of Indian Affairs established a relocation 255 00:14:36,440 --> 00:14:40,320 Speaker 1: program to encourage Native people, especially young Native people, to 256 00:14:40,480 --> 00:14:44,320 Speaker 1: leave their mostly rural reservations and start new lives in cities. 257 00:14:44,840 --> 00:14:47,120 Speaker 1: This was something that evolved over the next few years 258 00:14:47,160 --> 00:14:50,960 Speaker 1: before being formalized under the Indian Relocation Act of nineteen 259 00:14:51,000 --> 00:14:54,000 Speaker 1: fifty six. Here is how in theory this would work. 260 00:14:54,600 --> 00:14:58,960 Speaker 1: The United States established several cities as relocation centers. You 261 00:14:59,000 --> 00:15:01,840 Speaker 1: will find slightly to rent lists depending on exactly when 262 00:15:01,880 --> 00:15:05,240 Speaker 1: a source is talking about, but they included Los Angeles, 263 00:15:05,320 --> 00:15:12,359 Speaker 1: San Francisco, San Jose, and Oakland, California, along with Chicago, Illinois, Detroit, Michigan, Denver, Colorado, 264 00:15:12,480 --> 00:15:16,040 Speaker 1: and others. Native people were offered a one way bus 265 00:15:16,120 --> 00:15:19,880 Speaker 1: ticket to one of these relocation centers. Once they got there, 266 00:15:19,960 --> 00:15:23,600 Speaker 1: in theory, the government would give them financial and housing assistance, 267 00:15:24,000 --> 00:15:27,600 Speaker 1: vocational training, and support in finding a job. While this 268 00:15:27,760 --> 00:15:31,160 Speaker 1: program was going on, the government printed brochures that really 269 00:15:31,200 --> 00:15:33,920 Speaker 1: remind me of what non native people were seeing during 270 00:15:33,960 --> 00:15:37,040 Speaker 1: the period of westward expansion in the US. Now that 271 00:15:37,040 --> 00:15:39,360 Speaker 1: you were trying to entice Native people to move into 272 00:15:39,360 --> 00:15:41,160 Speaker 1: a city to start a new life. So they said 273 00:15:41,200 --> 00:15:43,960 Speaker 1: things like come to Denver, the chance of a lifetime, 274 00:15:44,040 --> 00:15:49,360 Speaker 1: good jobs, happy homes, training, beautiful Colorado or Chicagoland. Indians 275 00:15:49,400 --> 00:15:54,520 Speaker 1: get good jobs, jobs recently obtained, offer opportunity, security, reservations 276 00:15:54,520 --> 00:15:57,640 Speaker 1: tended to struggle with poverty and job shortages, so to 277 00:15:57,760 --> 00:15:59,920 Speaker 1: a lot of people, this program seemed like a real 278 00:16:00,120 --> 00:16:03,360 Speaker 1: good opportunity. Many who took it planned to move to 279 00:16:03,400 --> 00:16:06,680 Speaker 1: a city, go through their vocational training, make some money, 280 00:16:06,840 --> 00:16:09,040 Speaker 1: and then move back home better off than they had 281 00:16:09,040 --> 00:16:11,680 Speaker 1: been when they left. But this program did not work 282 00:16:11,720 --> 00:16:14,840 Speaker 1: out as it was intended, both from the government's point 283 00:16:14,840 --> 00:16:18,720 Speaker 1: of view and the relocates. Some of these cities already 284 00:16:18,720 --> 00:16:22,240 Speaker 1: did have a small Native population. More than forty thousand 285 00:16:22,320 --> 00:16:25,120 Speaker 1: Native Americans served in World War Two. Some of them 286 00:16:25,200 --> 00:16:27,600 Speaker 1: chose to stay in cities where they were after they 287 00:16:27,600 --> 00:16:31,680 Speaker 1: were discharged from the military. Obviously, there had been various 288 00:16:31,720 --> 00:16:34,160 Speaker 1: people that had moved into cities for other reasons at 289 00:16:34,200 --> 00:16:36,440 Speaker 1: some point. Some of these same cities, though, where a 290 00:16:36,440 --> 00:16:38,440 Speaker 1: lot of people stayed after getting out of the military, 291 00:16:38,560 --> 00:16:41,960 Speaker 1: were also relocation centers. But because the point was to 292 00:16:42,120 --> 00:16:46,120 Speaker 1: encourage assimilation with white society, the Bureau of Indian Affairs 293 00:16:46,200 --> 00:16:48,720 Speaker 1: made no effort to connect the people who were moving 294 00:16:48,720 --> 00:16:53,040 Speaker 1: through the relocation program with those existing Native residents. It 295 00:16:53,120 --> 00:16:56,000 Speaker 1: also made no effort to house people who are relocating 296 00:16:56,040 --> 00:16:59,480 Speaker 1: near other people from their same nation, or even near 297 00:16:59,520 --> 00:17:03,160 Speaker 1: other native of people of any nation. So other minorities 298 00:17:03,280 --> 00:17:07,120 Speaker 1: often had social and political organizations in cities that offered 299 00:17:07,280 --> 00:17:11,720 Speaker 1: assistance and support to new arrivals, but the native relocatees 300 00:17:11,920 --> 00:17:15,560 Speaker 1: were intentionally so isolated from each other that it really 301 00:17:15,600 --> 00:17:19,240 Speaker 1: took years for these kinds of organizations to really develop. Also, 302 00:17:19,359 --> 00:17:22,479 Speaker 1: the quality of services and support that the relocatees were 303 00:17:22,480 --> 00:17:27,399 Speaker 1: supposed to be receiving was poor. Housing was substandard. People 304 00:17:27,480 --> 00:17:30,800 Speaker 1: who were expecting weeks or months of vocational training often 305 00:17:30,880 --> 00:17:33,800 Speaker 1: only got a few days, and that help finding a 306 00:17:33,920 --> 00:17:36,879 Speaker 1: job tended to be minimal, and the financial assistance that 307 00:17:36,920 --> 00:17:39,480 Speaker 1: was supposed to keep them afloat while they were being 308 00:17:39,520 --> 00:17:42,520 Speaker 1: trained usually ran out before they actually had a job. 309 00:17:43,200 --> 00:17:45,680 Speaker 1: There were people who got training and a job or 310 00:17:45,720 --> 00:17:48,639 Speaker 1: who started college, but many did not. And then on 311 00:17:48,720 --> 00:17:51,399 Speaker 1: top of that, the people who were relocating tended to 312 00:17:51,400 --> 00:17:55,399 Speaker 1: face a lot of disorientation, isolation, and culture shock. A 313 00:17:55,400 --> 00:17:58,080 Speaker 1: lot of the people who relocated had been educated in 314 00:17:58,160 --> 00:18:02,119 Speaker 1: government boarding schools and were relatively inexperienced out in the world. 315 00:18:02,480 --> 00:18:05,360 Speaker 1: A lot we're moving from rural areas into cities where 316 00:18:05,359 --> 00:18:07,639 Speaker 1: they didn't know anybody, They didn't have any kind of 317 00:18:07,680 --> 00:18:10,680 Speaker 1: network of more experienced people who could help them navigate 318 00:18:10,720 --> 00:18:13,080 Speaker 1: the city itself for day to day life, and they 319 00:18:13,119 --> 00:18:16,840 Speaker 1: also faced ongoing racism and discrimination from the non native 320 00:18:16,880 --> 00:18:20,400 Speaker 1: community there. According to the Bureau of Indian Affairs, two 321 00:18:20,480 --> 00:18:25,320 Speaker 1: hundred thousand Native people were relocated under this policy. By comparison, 322 00:18:25,480 --> 00:18:28,280 Speaker 1: eighty nine thousand were forced to relocate under the Indian 323 00:18:28,320 --> 00:18:32,280 Speaker 1: Removal Act of eighteen thirty. The government didn't keep clear 324 00:18:32,320 --> 00:18:34,639 Speaker 1: records of how many people stayed in the cities, and 325 00:18:34,720 --> 00:18:38,040 Speaker 1: some people moved back and forth between a relocation center 326 00:18:38,160 --> 00:18:41,840 Speaker 1: and their reservation multiple times, but it's estimated that as 327 00:18:41,840 --> 00:18:46,040 Speaker 1: many as half eventually returned to their reservations permanently, not 328 00:18:46,240 --> 00:18:49,399 Speaker 1: necessarily better off when they got there. So when it 329 00:18:49,480 --> 00:18:52,800 Speaker 1: came to offering Native people job training and relocation assistance, 330 00:18:52,880 --> 00:18:56,240 Speaker 1: this government effort wasn't all that successful, and it also 331 00:18:56,400 --> 00:18:59,600 Speaker 1: failed at encouraging Native people to assimilate with white culture. 332 00:19:00,320 --> 00:19:03,360 Speaker 1: Although it did take a while for Native run organizations 333 00:19:03,400 --> 00:19:06,280 Speaker 1: to develop in these relocation centers, once they did, they 334 00:19:06,320 --> 00:19:10,080 Speaker 1: really flourished. By the mid nineteen sixties, the relocation centers 335 00:19:10,119 --> 00:19:13,480 Speaker 1: were home to organizations for people from specific Native nations, 336 00:19:13,800 --> 00:19:16,680 Speaker 1: as well as social clubs that brought people together from 337 00:19:16,760 --> 00:19:20,800 Speaker 1: different nations who had common interests. A pan tribal movement 338 00:19:20,960 --> 00:19:23,800 Speaker 1: was evolving, one in which people from different nations, some 339 00:19:23,920 --> 00:19:27,640 Speaker 1: of which had historically been enemies, came together through clubs, 340 00:19:27,760 --> 00:19:32,240 Speaker 1: political organizations, social movement organizations, and events like pow wows. 341 00:19:32,840 --> 00:19:36,640 Speaker 1: This movement was also politically active and tried to influence local, state, 342 00:19:36,680 --> 00:19:40,000 Speaker 1: and federal policy and generally to make life better for 343 00:19:40,119 --> 00:19:43,600 Speaker 1: Native people. So instead of being a tool for assimilation, 344 00:19:44,040 --> 00:19:46,879 Speaker 1: this program wound up encouraging a renewed sense of Native 345 00:19:46,920 --> 00:19:51,200 Speaker 1: identity and the creation of more connections among different Native nations. 346 00:19:51,560 --> 00:19:54,160 Speaker 1: Will return to that idea because it's really a huge 347 00:19:54,160 --> 00:19:56,439 Speaker 1: part of the occupation of Alcatraz, But first we need 348 00:19:56,480 --> 00:19:59,840 Speaker 1: to talk about another federal policy that was happening at 349 00:20:00,080 --> 00:20:03,440 Speaker 1: same time. That was the policy of termination that two 350 00:20:03,760 --> 00:20:07,159 Speaker 1: thousand people relocating the Holly mentioned earlier, like that was 351 00:20:07,240 --> 00:20:10,040 Speaker 1: also part of this termination policy. In addition to the 352 00:20:10,040 --> 00:20:14,280 Speaker 1: formal relocation efforts. In the nineteen fifties, the US government 353 00:20:14,320 --> 00:20:17,159 Speaker 1: wanted to quote get out of the Indian business. In 354 00:20:17,160 --> 00:20:20,240 Speaker 1: other words, the US wanted to simply end its treaty 355 00:20:20,280 --> 00:20:23,679 Speaker 1: obligations towards the Native nations along with the other obligations 356 00:20:23,720 --> 00:20:27,440 Speaker 1: that existed through various federal laws. So, rather than addressing 357 00:20:27,480 --> 00:20:30,280 Speaker 1: the real problems that existed on the reservations, and those 358 00:20:30,280 --> 00:20:33,440 Speaker 1: were problems that the US had actively contributed to through 359 00:20:33,440 --> 00:20:36,639 Speaker 1: its own policies, the federal government decided it would just 360 00:20:36,680 --> 00:20:39,800 Speaker 1: abolish the tribes. The tribes assets and lands would be 361 00:20:39,880 --> 00:20:42,920 Speaker 1: sold off, with the proceeds distributed to their tribal members, 362 00:20:42,960 --> 00:20:46,240 Speaker 1: and the federal government would no longer recognize tribal sovereignty. 363 00:20:46,920 --> 00:20:50,320 Speaker 1: This attitude was formalized in nineteen fifty three through House 364 00:20:50,359 --> 00:20:54,359 Speaker 1: Concurrent Resolution one oh eight, which began quote, Whereas it 365 00:20:54,440 --> 00:20:57,320 Speaker 1: is the policy of Congress, as rapidly as possible, to 366 00:20:57,440 --> 00:20:59,960 Speaker 1: make the Indians within the territorial limits of the unit 367 00:21:00,040 --> 00:21:03,119 Speaker 1: United States subject to the same laws and entitled to 368 00:21:03,160 --> 00:21:06,600 Speaker 1: the same privileges and responsibilities as are applicable to other 369 00:21:06,640 --> 00:21:09,680 Speaker 1: citizens of the United States, to end their status as 370 00:21:09,720 --> 00:21:12,080 Speaker 1: wards of the United States, and to grant them all 371 00:21:12,119 --> 00:21:16,159 Speaker 1: of the rights and prerogatives pertaining to American citizenship. And 372 00:21:16,200 --> 00:21:19,200 Speaker 1: whereas the Indians within the territorial limits of the United 373 00:21:19,240 --> 00:21:24,280 Speaker 1: States should assume their full responsibilities as American citizens. From there, 374 00:21:24,280 --> 00:21:26,960 Speaker 1: it went on to resolve that quote at the earliest 375 00:21:27,040 --> 00:21:30,600 Speaker 1: possible time. All of the Indian tribes and the individual 376 00:21:30,640 --> 00:21:34,800 Speaker 1: members thereof located within the states of California, Florida, New York, 377 00:21:34,800 --> 00:21:37,959 Speaker 1: and Texas, and all of the following named Indian tribes 378 00:21:37,960 --> 00:21:41,440 Speaker 1: and individual members thereof, should be freed from federal supervision 379 00:21:41,440 --> 00:21:45,399 Speaker 1: and control and from all disabilities and limitations specially applicable 380 00:21:45,440 --> 00:21:49,040 Speaker 1: to Indians, the Flathead Tribe of Montana, the Klamath Tribe 381 00:21:49,040 --> 00:21:52,600 Speaker 1: of Oregon, the Menominee Tribe of Wisconsin, the Potawatamie Tribe 382 00:21:52,640 --> 00:21:55,320 Speaker 1: of Kansas and Nebraska, and those members of the Chippewa 383 00:21:55,400 --> 00:21:58,120 Speaker 1: Tribe who are on the Turtle Mountain Reservation, North Dakota. 384 00:21:58,960 --> 00:22:01,280 Speaker 1: It is further declared to be the sense of Congress 385 00:22:01,359 --> 00:22:04,240 Speaker 1: that upon the release of such tribes and individual members 386 00:22:04,280 --> 00:22:07,760 Speaker 1: thereof from such disabilities and limitations, all offices of the 387 00:22:07,800 --> 00:22:10,679 Speaker 1: Bureau of Indian Affairs and the States of California, Florida, 388 00:22:10,720 --> 00:22:13,480 Speaker 1: New York, in Texas, and all other offices of the 389 00:22:13,520 --> 00:22:16,440 Speaker 1: Bureau of Indian Affairs whose primary purpose was to serve 390 00:22:16,480 --> 00:22:20,320 Speaker 1: any Indian tribe or individual Indian freed from federal supervision, 391 00:22:20,400 --> 00:22:23,240 Speaker 1: should be abolished It is further declared to be the 392 00:22:23,280 --> 00:22:26,000 Speaker 1: sense of Congress that the Secretary of the Interior should 393 00:22:26,000 --> 00:22:29,639 Speaker 1: examine all existing legislation dealing with such Indians and the 394 00:22:29,680 --> 00:22:32,560 Speaker 1: treaties between the Government of the United States and each tribe, 395 00:22:32,840 --> 00:22:35,480 Speaker 1: and report to Congress at the earliest practicable date, but 396 00:22:35,560 --> 00:22:39,320 Speaker 1: not later than January first, nineteen fifty four, his recommendations 397 00:22:39,359 --> 00:22:43,359 Speaker 1: for such legislation, as in his judgment, may be necessary 398 00:22:43,400 --> 00:22:47,159 Speaker 1: to accomplish the purposes of this resolution passed August one, 399 00:22:47,440 --> 00:22:51,280 Speaker 1: ninety three. Only some Native nations and U. S States 400 00:22:51,280 --> 00:22:54,240 Speaker 1: are mentioned in this legislation, but that does not mean 401 00:22:54,280 --> 00:22:57,400 Speaker 1: that other nations were being left alone. The government had 402 00:22:57,440 --> 00:23:02,000 Speaker 1: just targeted some for immediate termination and others for eventual termination. 403 00:23:02,760 --> 00:23:04,960 Speaker 1: The plan was that at some point there would be 404 00:23:05,040 --> 00:23:09,480 Speaker 1: no more recognized Native nations and no more reservations anywhere. 405 00:23:10,240 --> 00:23:11,920 Speaker 1: For the most part, the nations on the list for 406 00:23:11,960 --> 00:23:14,840 Speaker 1: the earliest termination were the ones whose lands included the 407 00:23:14,880 --> 00:23:18,440 Speaker 1: most natural resources that the government was eager to get 408 00:23:18,480 --> 00:23:21,760 Speaker 1: access to. In Congress, the advocates of this policy framed 409 00:23:21,760 --> 00:23:24,720 Speaker 1: it as comparable to the abolition of slavery. Was going 410 00:23:24,760 --> 00:23:27,520 Speaker 1: to undo the idea that the Native nations were subordinate 411 00:23:27,560 --> 00:23:29,160 Speaker 1: to the United States, and it was going to put 412 00:23:29,280 --> 00:23:32,719 Speaker 1: Native American people on equal footing with their non Native peers. 413 00:23:33,160 --> 00:23:37,160 Speaker 1: Critics pointed out the potential problems with ending federal support 414 00:23:37,280 --> 00:23:40,080 Speaker 1: for people who had been relying on it, especially since, 415 00:23:40,119 --> 00:23:42,919 Speaker 1: based on that nineteen forty three survey that we mentioned earlier, 416 00:23:43,000 --> 00:23:45,159 Speaker 1: the conditions they were already living in were likely to 417 00:23:45,200 --> 00:23:48,600 Speaker 1: be poor. But even critics generally agreed that this was 418 00:23:48,640 --> 00:23:51,199 Speaker 1: a sign that the reservation should be abolished, rather than 419 00:23:51,240 --> 00:23:54,199 Speaker 1: a sign that the government should address these issues on 420 00:23:54,280 --> 00:23:57,040 Speaker 1: the reservations. There really wasn't a lot of debate about 421 00:23:57,040 --> 00:24:00,359 Speaker 1: this in Congress. This policy went beyond the text of 422 00:24:00,400 --> 00:24:03,240 Speaker 1: this one law. In nineteen fifty three, Public Law to 423 00:24:03,480 --> 00:24:07,840 Speaker 1: eighty gave the governments of California, Nebraska, Oregon, Wisconsin, and 424 00:24:07,880 --> 00:24:11,639 Speaker 1: the Territory of Alaska civil and criminal jurisdiction over the 425 00:24:11,720 --> 00:24:15,320 Speaker 1: nations in their borders. In nineteen fifty four, the Transfer 426 00:24:15,320 --> 00:24:19,639 Speaker 1: Act transferred responsibility for hospital and health facilities for Native 427 00:24:19,680 --> 00:24:22,560 Speaker 1: people from the Department of the Interior to what was 428 00:24:22,640 --> 00:24:25,480 Speaker 1: then known as the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. 429 00:24:25,840 --> 00:24:29,840 Speaker 1: An Indian Claims Commission had been established in nineteen forty six. 430 00:24:30,320 --> 00:24:32,920 Speaker 1: At that time, it was viewed as being a step forward. 431 00:24:33,640 --> 00:24:36,600 Speaker 1: It gave Native people a formal process for filing claims 432 00:24:36,640 --> 00:24:40,160 Speaker 1: for stolen land, but the commission wasn't actually returning land 433 00:24:40,200 --> 00:24:43,400 Speaker 1: to anyone. It was instead offering financial compensation. So as 434 00:24:43,400 --> 00:24:45,760 Speaker 1: people realized that there was a lot more criticism about 435 00:24:46,200 --> 00:24:49,560 Speaker 1: what it was there for. Eventually, this commission would only 436 00:24:49,600 --> 00:24:52,280 Speaker 1: consider claims if the tribe involved was also working on 437 00:24:52,320 --> 00:24:57,240 Speaker 1: a termination plan. Authorities refused to issue building permits on reservations, 438 00:24:57,320 --> 00:25:00,840 Speaker 1: even for essential facilities like schools and hospitals, because of 439 00:25:00,840 --> 00:25:02,880 Speaker 1: the fear that people would be more reluctant to leave 440 00:25:02,880 --> 00:25:06,400 Speaker 1: a reservation that had new facilities. While the United States 441 00:25:06,480 --> 00:25:09,719 Speaker 1: was pursuing this policy, more than one hundred tribes and 442 00:25:09,760 --> 00:25:13,440 Speaker 1: bands were terminated, with their members losing the federal assistance 443 00:25:13,480 --> 00:25:18,040 Speaker 1: they had previously been entitled to. The tribal governments were dismantled, 444 00:25:18,359 --> 00:25:21,840 Speaker 1: the tribes no longer existed as sovereign entities, and their 445 00:25:21,880 --> 00:25:25,959 Speaker 1: members also lost their tribal affiliations. This affected more than 446 00:25:26,000 --> 00:25:28,720 Speaker 1: eleven thousand, four hundred people and led to the sale 447 00:25:28,840 --> 00:25:31,840 Speaker 1: of more than one point three million acres of land. 448 00:25:32,200 --> 00:25:35,879 Speaker 1: This is so messed up to me. Yeah, like the 449 00:25:36,200 --> 00:25:38,879 Speaker 1: just the the idea that one government could be like, 450 00:25:38,920 --> 00:25:42,640 Speaker 1: we're just not going to have these other governments anymore. Yeah. Well, 451 00:25:42,680 --> 00:25:47,200 Speaker 1: it's interesting because we talk about even even in this 452 00:25:47,280 --> 00:25:49,960 Speaker 1: is poor wording, but more enlightened modern discourse, where we 453 00:25:50,000 --> 00:25:53,720 Speaker 1: talked about how things happened, for example, during the Trail 454 00:25:53,760 --> 00:25:56,800 Speaker 1: of Tears, where land was taken and it was reappropriated 455 00:25:56,800 --> 00:25:59,679 Speaker 1: to other people. That sort of seems a little farther 456 00:25:59,760 --> 00:26:03,640 Speaker 1: back historically. No, in the nineteen fifties, we essentially did 457 00:26:03,680 --> 00:26:08,159 Speaker 1: a very similar thing with a lot more congressional involvement, 458 00:26:08,480 --> 00:26:12,200 Speaker 1: and it's like it's still not over, it's still ongoing today. Um, 459 00:26:12,240 --> 00:26:14,479 Speaker 1: there were a small number of Native people who were 460 00:26:14,520 --> 00:26:17,240 Speaker 1: actually in favor of termination. They were mostly people who 461 00:26:17,280 --> 00:26:19,960 Speaker 1: had already moved away from the reservations and had become 462 00:26:20,000 --> 00:26:24,880 Speaker 1: financially self sufficient or had started to assimilate into white society. 463 00:26:24,920 --> 00:26:28,000 Speaker 1: So for people who weren't still connected to a reservation 464 00:26:28,160 --> 00:26:30,600 Speaker 1: and who didn't think of their tribal affiliation as a 465 00:26:30,600 --> 00:26:33,520 Speaker 1: core part of their identity, that idea of getting proceeds 466 00:26:33,520 --> 00:26:35,919 Speaker 1: from the sale of land could sound appealing. But for 467 00:26:35,960 --> 00:26:38,639 Speaker 1: a lot of people living on reservations or people who 468 00:26:38,720 --> 00:26:42,360 Speaker 1: had relocated but still had close connections there. The prospect 469 00:26:42,359 --> 00:26:46,560 Speaker 1: of termination was naturally terrifying. This was especially true for 470 00:26:46,600 --> 00:26:49,960 Speaker 1: people who didn't have enough resources to begin with. People 471 00:26:50,000 --> 00:26:52,359 Speaker 1: thought they were going to lose support and the services 472 00:26:52,400 --> 00:26:55,920 Speaker 1: that they needed with nothing available to replace them. People 473 00:26:55,960 --> 00:26:58,359 Speaker 1: were so fearful of the idea of termination that it 474 00:26:58,440 --> 00:27:02,040 Speaker 1: affected their interpretation of pretty much any other decision that 475 00:27:02,119 --> 00:27:05,280 Speaker 1: the government made, something that came to be described as 476 00:27:05,400 --> 00:27:09,520 Speaker 1: termination psychosis. So we haven't really talked in this episode 477 00:27:09,600 --> 00:27:12,320 Speaker 1: about the Native response to any of this history. And 478 00:27:12,359 --> 00:27:15,439 Speaker 1: we cannot stress this enough, whether we're talking about the 479 00:27:15,440 --> 00:27:19,720 Speaker 1: colonial period or the termination period or now, or any 480 00:27:19,720 --> 00:27:22,840 Speaker 1: period of history in between. Native people and the nations 481 00:27:22,880 --> 00:27:25,840 Speaker 1: that they're part of have never just been passively accepting 482 00:27:25,880 --> 00:27:28,000 Speaker 1: all these laws and policies and actions on the part 483 00:27:28,040 --> 00:27:31,000 Speaker 1: of the federal government. Native people have been advocating for 484 00:27:31,040 --> 00:27:33,680 Speaker 1: their own rights and trying to influence federal policy since 485 00:27:33,720 --> 00:27:35,720 Speaker 1: the beginning, and we're going to get to some of 486 00:27:35,760 --> 00:27:42,680 Speaker 1: that and to Alcatraz after we first take another sponsor break. 487 00:27:47,800 --> 00:27:51,879 Speaker 1: The occupation of Alcatraz took place during a long discussion 488 00:27:52,040 --> 00:27:54,840 Speaker 1: of what to do with the island an eighteen fifty, 489 00:27:54,880 --> 00:27:57,520 Speaker 1: President Millard Fillmore had set it aside for federal use. 490 00:27:58,000 --> 00:28:00,760 Speaker 1: It became home to the West Coasts First Lighthouse in 491 00:28:00,800 --> 00:28:03,480 Speaker 1: eighteen fifty four, and then the U. S. Army occupied 492 00:28:03,480 --> 00:28:06,560 Speaker 1: at in eighteen fifty nine. It was under military administration 493 00:28:06,600 --> 00:28:10,399 Speaker 1: for the next seventy seven years. The military facilities on 494 00:28:10,440 --> 00:28:14,240 Speaker 1: the island included a prison that housed incarcerated military personnel 495 00:28:14,520 --> 00:28:18,200 Speaker 1: and prisoners of war, and of course, from nineteen thirty four, 496 00:28:18,240 --> 00:28:22,480 Speaker 1: Alcatraz became a maximum security federal prison, which housed infamous 497 00:28:22,480 --> 00:28:26,000 Speaker 1: people such as al Capone, Machine Gun Kelly, and Whitey Bulger. 498 00:28:26,359 --> 00:28:29,719 Speaker 1: In a way, Alcatraz was an ideal location for a prison, 499 00:28:30,000 --> 00:28:33,000 Speaker 1: at least in theory. The steep, rocky coast and distance 500 00:28:33,080 --> 00:28:35,800 Speaker 1: to the mainland made it harder to escape. There weren't 501 00:28:35,800 --> 00:28:38,040 Speaker 1: even many places on the island where a boat could 502 00:28:38,080 --> 00:28:41,000 Speaker 1: safely dock. But this location also made it a lot 503 00:28:41,080 --> 00:28:45,400 Speaker 1: more expensive to operate and maintain. Everything necessary to keep 504 00:28:45,440 --> 00:28:48,160 Speaker 1: the prison running had to be transported out to the island, 505 00:28:48,200 --> 00:28:52,040 Speaker 1: including food, freshwater, and electricity. In nineteen sixty one, the 506 00:28:52,080 --> 00:28:55,479 Speaker 1: federal government learned that the prison on Alcatraz needed an 507 00:28:55,600 --> 00:28:59,320 Speaker 1: estimated five million dollars worth of repairs in addition to 508 00:28:59,360 --> 00:29:03,400 Speaker 1: the already expensive costs just to keep it running. Soon after, 509 00:29:03,600 --> 00:29:06,440 Speaker 1: U S Attorney General Robert Kennedy announced that the prison 510 00:29:06,480 --> 00:29:10,120 Speaker 1: would close. The last people being housed there were transferred 511 00:29:10,160 --> 00:29:13,440 Speaker 1: to other facilities on March twenty one, nineteen sixty three. 512 00:29:13,680 --> 00:29:16,360 Speaker 1: That left the federal government in possession of this rocky, 513 00:29:16,400 --> 00:29:21,040 Speaker 1: inaccessible island that contained an abandoned prison. After polling governmental 514 00:29:21,080 --> 00:29:24,520 Speaker 1: departments to see if anybody else wanted it, Alctaz was 515 00:29:24,520 --> 00:29:28,440 Speaker 1: classified as surplus federal property, except for the lighthouse and 516 00:29:28,560 --> 00:29:31,200 Speaker 1: fog horn that were part of the navigation system for 517 00:29:31,240 --> 00:29:34,840 Speaker 1: San Francisco Bay. The facilities were shut down. The island 518 00:29:34,920 --> 00:29:38,240 Speaker 1: became the responsibility of the General Services Administration, or g 519 00:29:38,480 --> 00:29:42,560 Speaker 1: s A on April twelve, ninety For the next few months, 520 00:29:42,720 --> 00:29:45,440 Speaker 1: various proposals were bandied about for what to do with 521 00:29:45,520 --> 00:29:50,120 Speaker 1: the island. Eventually, Congress passed legislation to establish a President's 522 00:29:50,120 --> 00:29:53,800 Speaker 1: Commission on the Disposition of Alcatraz Island, which would receive 523 00:29:53,880 --> 00:29:57,520 Speaker 1: and evaluate proposals. They planned to have a meeting on 524 00:29:57,560 --> 00:30:01,240 Speaker 1: the island on March nine, sixty or but before that 525 00:30:01,280 --> 00:30:03,960 Speaker 1: could happen on March eight, a group of native men 526 00:30:04,160 --> 00:30:07,240 Speaker 1: occupied the island, so to back up for just a moment, 527 00:30:07,760 --> 00:30:11,200 Speaker 1: before the arrival of European colonists from Spain and Portugal, 528 00:30:11,400 --> 00:30:14,160 Speaker 1: the San Francisco Bay area was home to several native 529 00:30:14,240 --> 00:30:17,320 Speaker 1: nations who used the island now known as Alcatraz for 530 00:30:17,400 --> 00:30:21,000 Speaker 1: various purposes. Some of the specifics are unclear because the 531 00:30:21,080 --> 00:30:23,760 Speaker 1: oral histories involving the island have been lost or distorted 532 00:30:23,920 --> 00:30:26,440 Speaker 1: through all that stuff we were talking about earlier. The 533 00:30:26,560 --> 00:30:29,880 Speaker 1: Oloney people may have used it to isolate or ostracized 534 00:30:29,880 --> 00:30:33,040 Speaker 1: people who had violated some kind of tribal law or taboo. 535 00:30:33,640 --> 00:30:36,920 Speaker 1: Other people's in the area considered its sacred, or use 536 00:30:37,000 --> 00:30:39,880 Speaker 1: it as a navigational marker, or as a place to 537 00:30:39,920 --> 00:30:44,360 Speaker 1: gather food, especially bird eggs. The name Alcatraz is not 538 00:30:44,440 --> 00:30:46,920 Speaker 1: for many of these peoples that it's from the Spanish 539 00:30:46,920 --> 00:30:50,520 Speaker 1: word for Pelican. Once the island became a prison, Native 540 00:30:50,520 --> 00:30:54,560 Speaker 1: Americans were among the people incarcerated there. The first was 541 00:30:54,600 --> 00:30:58,840 Speaker 1: known as Piute Tom. He arrived on June fifth, eighteen 542 00:30:58,920 --> 00:31:02,080 Speaker 1: seventy three, while it was still an army facility. It 543 00:31:02,200 --> 00:31:04,440 Speaker 1: is not clear why he was sent there, but he 544 00:31:04,480 --> 00:31:07,040 Speaker 1: was shot and killed by a guard two days later. 545 00:31:07,400 --> 00:31:10,560 Speaker 1: Other Native men followed. Among the other people who were 546 00:31:10,720 --> 00:31:14,480 Speaker 1: incarcerated at Alcatraz, the largest group of Native people who 547 00:31:14,480 --> 00:31:17,280 Speaker 1: were imprisoned there during this period where nineteen Hopie men 548 00:31:17,480 --> 00:31:22,320 Speaker 1: who arrived in January. They were imprisoned for refusing to 549 00:31:22,360 --> 00:31:25,160 Speaker 1: follow US government policies that required them to give up 550 00:31:25,160 --> 00:31:28,080 Speaker 1: their native languages and to send their children to government schools. 551 00:31:28,680 --> 00:31:31,520 Speaker 1: Although the occupation of Alcatraz that took place in March 552 00:31:31,560 --> 00:31:33,920 Speaker 1: of nineteen sixty four was carried out by five men, 553 00:31:34,120 --> 00:31:37,440 Speaker 1: it was planned by a woman, Belva Cottier or Cartier. 554 00:31:37,520 --> 00:31:41,920 Speaker 1: We didn't find a definitive pronunciation on her name, who 555 00:31:42,040 --> 00:31:44,680 Speaker 1: also did most of the legal and historical research that 556 00:31:44,760 --> 00:31:47,560 Speaker 1: led up to that occupation, and the research for it 557 00:31:47,800 --> 00:31:50,920 Speaker 1: traced back to the Treaty of Fort Laramie. The Treaty 558 00:31:50,920 --> 00:31:53,440 Speaker 1: of Fort Laramie is between the United States and the 559 00:31:53,480 --> 00:31:56,800 Speaker 1: Great stu Nation, also called the Acchetti chaqueline O late 560 00:31:57,200 --> 00:31:59,840 Speaker 1: where the people of the Seven Council fires. It was 561 00:32:00,080 --> 00:32:04,120 Speaker 1: signed on April eight. This was the treaty that designated 562 00:32:04,160 --> 00:32:07,360 Speaker 1: the Black Hills as part of the Great Sioux Reservation. However, 563 00:32:07,440 --> 00:32:10,760 Speaker 1: after Gold was discovered in the Black Hills, white prospectors 564 00:32:10,800 --> 00:32:13,600 Speaker 1: moved into that area anyway. This ultimately went before the 565 00:32:13,680 --> 00:32:16,960 Speaker 1: Supreme Court in the United States versus Nation of Indians. 566 00:32:17,440 --> 00:32:20,240 Speaker 1: Although the court ruled that the nation was entitled to 567 00:32:20,320 --> 00:32:24,000 Speaker 1: financial compensation, the nation has refused payment, insisting that it 568 00:32:24,040 --> 00:32:26,600 Speaker 1: should have the land that was specified in that treaty. 569 00:32:26,920 --> 00:32:29,360 Speaker 1: So that's another thing that's still going on today. The 570 00:32:29,440 --> 00:32:32,719 Speaker 1: Treaty of Fort Laramie also contained this language in section 571 00:32:32,880 --> 00:32:36,400 Speaker 1: six quote. And it is further stipulated that any male 572 00:32:36,520 --> 00:32:39,560 Speaker 1: Indians over eighteen years of age, of any band or 573 00:32:39,680 --> 00:32:42,240 Speaker 1: tribe that is or shall hereafter become a party to 574 00:32:42,320 --> 00:32:46,160 Speaker 1: this treaty, who now is, or who shall hereafter become 575 00:32:46,200 --> 00:32:49,680 Speaker 1: a resident or occupant of any reservation or territory not 576 00:32:49,920 --> 00:32:53,320 Speaker 1: included in the tract of country designated and described in 577 00:32:53,360 --> 00:32:55,800 Speaker 1: this Treaty for the permanent home of the Indians, which 578 00:32:55,880 --> 00:32:59,200 Speaker 1: is not mineral land, nor reserved by the United States 579 00:32:59,280 --> 00:33:02,479 Speaker 1: for special purpose US other than Indian occupation, and who 580 00:33:02,560 --> 00:33:05,360 Speaker 1: shall have made improvements thereon of the value of two 581 00:33:05,480 --> 00:33:09,239 Speaker 1: hundred dollars or more, and continuously occupied the same as 582 00:33:09,280 --> 00:33:11,920 Speaker 1: a homestead for the term of three years, shall be 583 00:33:12,160 --> 00:33:15,080 Speaker 1: entitled to receive from the United States a patent for 584 00:33:15,240 --> 00:33:19,200 Speaker 1: one hundred and sixty acres of land, including his set improvements. 585 00:33:19,600 --> 00:33:21,400 Speaker 1: The same to be in the form of the legal 586 00:33:21,480 --> 00:33:24,920 Speaker 1: subdivisions of the surveys of the public lands. So this 587 00:33:25,200 --> 00:33:27,600 Speaker 1: passage of the Treaty of Fort Laramie could be read 588 00:33:27,640 --> 00:33:30,880 Speaker 1: to mean that surplus land like the island of Alcatraz 589 00:33:31,160 --> 00:33:33,560 Speaker 1: could be granted to Native men over the age of 590 00:33:33,600 --> 00:33:36,640 Speaker 1: eighteen who belonged to the Great Sto Nation. So that's 591 00:33:36,720 --> 00:33:40,800 Speaker 1: why Richard Mackenzie, Martin fire Thunder, Martinez Garfield, Spotted Elk, 592 00:33:40,920 --> 00:33:44,080 Speaker 1: Walter Means, and an Alcott Here who was Belvi's husband, 593 00:33:44,320 --> 00:33:47,680 Speaker 1: were the ones chosen to occupy this island. I also 594 00:33:47,720 --> 00:33:50,880 Speaker 1: find found slightly different lists of names of who was 595 00:33:50,960 --> 00:33:53,000 Speaker 1: involved with us, but this was the one that was 596 00:33:53,080 --> 00:33:55,200 Speaker 1: repeated most often in the sources that seemed to be 597 00:33:55,320 --> 00:33:59,280 Speaker 1: most detailed. They had all moved to the Bay Area 598 00:33:59,400 --> 00:34:02,720 Speaker 1: from else where, some of them through that federal relocation 599 00:34:02,800 --> 00:34:05,400 Speaker 1: program we talked about earlier. They were all citizens of 600 00:34:05,440 --> 00:34:07,520 Speaker 1: one of the tribes that make up the Great Sioux Nation. 601 00:34:08,040 --> 00:34:11,640 Speaker 1: These five men went to Alcatraz by boat. In accounts 602 00:34:11,680 --> 00:34:13,600 Speaker 1: of the day from people who were involved. They are 603 00:34:13,680 --> 00:34:17,239 Speaker 1: described either as being in traditional dress or as being 604 00:34:17,320 --> 00:34:20,680 Speaker 1: in costume. Once they got to the island, they pounded 605 00:34:20,760 --> 00:34:24,480 Speaker 1: sticks into the soil to market as claimed. They cited 606 00:34:24,560 --> 00:34:27,160 Speaker 1: the Treaty of Fort Laramie as granting them the rights 607 00:34:27,239 --> 00:34:29,439 Speaker 1: to the island, and they offered to pay a price 608 00:34:29,600 --> 00:34:32,480 Speaker 1: of forty seven cents an acre. They came up with 609 00:34:32,600 --> 00:34:35,000 Speaker 1: that number by calculating the price per acre that was 610 00:34:35,080 --> 00:34:38,319 Speaker 1: being offered to the California Nations whose reservations were being 611 00:34:38,400 --> 00:34:42,839 Speaker 1: dissolved under the federal government's termination policy. Although they were 612 00:34:42,920 --> 00:34:46,320 Speaker 1: all making individual homestead claims, they also had plans for 613 00:34:46,400 --> 00:34:50,040 Speaker 1: an education and cultural center on the island. After arriving 614 00:34:50,160 --> 00:34:53,680 Speaker 1: on Alcatraz, these men were met by caretaker Al Alworth. 615 00:34:54,200 --> 00:34:57,759 Speaker 1: Prison administrator Richard Willard arrived from the mainland by boat 616 00:34:57,880 --> 00:34:59,759 Speaker 1: not long afterward and told the men that they should 617 00:34:59,800 --> 00:35:03,640 Speaker 1: take this matter through formal channels. The men left shortly thereafter, 618 00:35:03,960 --> 00:35:06,640 Speaker 1: having been on the island for about four hours. The 619 00:35:06,760 --> 00:35:10,840 Speaker 1: news coverage of this occupation was pretty dismissive, with headlines 620 00:35:10,960 --> 00:35:15,279 Speaker 1: like quote wacky Indian raid Alcatraz invaded, which ran in 621 00:35:15,360 --> 00:35:19,600 Speaker 1: the San Francisco Examiner. But as had been suggested, they 622 00:35:19,719 --> 00:35:22,719 Speaker 1: did take the matter through formal channels. On April tenth, 623 00:35:22,880 --> 00:35:25,840 Speaker 1: nineteen sixty four, an attorney filed a petition with the 624 00:35:25,920 --> 00:35:29,440 Speaker 1: General Services Administration on behalf of the men, citing the 625 00:35:29,520 --> 00:35:33,080 Speaker 1: Treaty of Fort Laramie and federal laws as justification for 626 00:35:33,280 --> 00:35:36,640 Speaker 1: turning Alcatraz over to them. As became one of many 627 00:35:36,840 --> 00:35:40,080 Speaker 1: proposals for what to do with Alcatraz, which we're still ongoing. 628 00:35:40,239 --> 00:35:43,040 Speaker 1: In nineteen sixty nine, when the larger occupation of the 629 00:35:43,080 --> 00:35:46,040 Speaker 1: island happened, and we will get to that in part two. 630 00:35:46,640 --> 00:35:48,719 Speaker 1: Do you a little bit of listener mail, Tracy, I do. 631 00:35:48,920 --> 00:35:54,000 Speaker 1: This listener mail is from Jason. Jason is the first 632 00:35:54,520 --> 00:35:59,279 Speaker 1: of approximately fifty people not inflating that number, that's the 633 00:35:59,360 --> 00:36:02,839 Speaker 1: real number who have written to us about this. Uh. 634 00:36:02,960 --> 00:36:06,880 Speaker 1: The subject line of this email is update Niagara Falls 635 00:36:06,920 --> 00:36:10,800 Speaker 1: scow has moved. Jason sends a link to a CBC 636 00:36:11,040 --> 00:36:14,000 Speaker 1: article and then says, I recently heard the listener mail 637 00:36:14,080 --> 00:36:16,640 Speaker 1: about the scow stuck at the top of Niagara Falls. 638 00:36:17,080 --> 00:36:18,759 Speaker 1: I grew up in the area and knew the story 639 00:36:18,840 --> 00:36:22,040 Speaker 1: from my earliest trips to the falls. Overnight on October thirty, 640 00:36:22,120 --> 00:36:25,480 Speaker 1: one Halloween, we had a big windstorm and heavy rain. 641 00:36:25,760 --> 00:36:28,800 Speaker 1: This weather caused the scow to move about a hundred 642 00:36:28,840 --> 00:36:30,800 Speaker 1: and sixty feet closer to the brink of the falls, 643 00:36:31,120 --> 00:36:33,160 Speaker 1: and I think now that it is dislodged, it may 644 00:36:33,239 --> 00:36:36,040 Speaker 1: not be long until the scal goes over the edge. 645 00:36:36,080 --> 00:36:38,439 Speaker 1: It seems to be sitting more exposed to the force 646 00:36:38,480 --> 00:36:41,600 Speaker 1: of the Niagara River. Anyway, just a timely update to 647 00:36:41,680 --> 00:36:45,399 Speaker 1: a recent story I heard on your podcast. I really 648 00:36:45,480 --> 00:36:47,440 Speaker 1: enjoy listening to your podcast on my ride to and 649 00:36:47,520 --> 00:36:49,920 Speaker 1: from work every day. Many topics you've talked about come 650 00:36:49,960 --> 00:36:52,520 Speaker 1: up in conversations, and I always attribute my knowledge to 651 00:36:52,640 --> 00:36:54,880 Speaker 1: your show. My son did a short essay in school 652 00:36:55,280 --> 00:36:57,640 Speaker 1: on the Triangle Shirt factory fire, which led into a 653 00:36:57,680 --> 00:37:00,640 Speaker 1: discussion about the Radium Girls and working cans in the past. 654 00:37:00,680 --> 00:37:03,000 Speaker 1: Thanks for all you do, Jason, Thank you Jason, and 655 00:37:03,120 --> 00:37:07,160 Speaker 1: to the like fifty other people who have emailed for 656 00:37:07,280 --> 00:37:09,360 Speaker 1: posted on our Facebook page, or tweeted at us about 657 00:37:09,360 --> 00:37:13,479 Speaker 1: the story. Yes, by total weird coincidence. We talked about 658 00:37:13,520 --> 00:37:16,560 Speaker 1: this in the listener mail of our episode on the 659 00:37:16,760 --> 00:37:21,000 Speaker 1: Paris Catacombs, and then mere days later this storm happened 660 00:37:21,120 --> 00:37:24,680 Speaker 1: and caused the thing to shift, so it is incredibly 661 00:37:24,719 --> 00:37:28,880 Speaker 1: easy to find a link to this story. Um, we 662 00:37:28,960 --> 00:37:30,520 Speaker 1: can also put it in the show notes, but if 663 00:37:30,600 --> 00:37:34,360 Speaker 1: you just google Niagarah like Niagara Scallet, it's all over everywhere. 664 00:37:34,640 --> 00:37:36,840 Speaker 1: So anyway, thanks again to everybody who has sent this 665 00:37:36,960 --> 00:37:39,919 Speaker 1: to us. I have not replied individually to everyone because 666 00:37:40,040 --> 00:37:43,200 Speaker 1: it was kind of an overwhelming volume of of messages. 667 00:37:43,360 --> 00:37:45,239 Speaker 1: So anyway, if you would like to write to us 668 00:37:45,239 --> 00:37:47,680 Speaker 1: about this or any other podcast, or if the Niagaras 669 00:37:47,719 --> 00:37:50,600 Speaker 1: galphoves again, it might go over the falls at some point, UH, 670 00:37:50,760 --> 00:37:52,839 Speaker 1: send us an email. Where a history podcast at how 671 00:37:52,880 --> 00:37:54,720 Speaker 1: stuff Works dot com and then we're all over social 672 00:37:54,760 --> 00:37:58,200 Speaker 1: media as Missed in History. That's where you'll find our Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest, 673 00:37:58,440 --> 00:38:01,080 Speaker 1: and Instagram. You also come to our website, which is 674 00:38:01,120 --> 00:38:02,919 Speaker 1: Missed in History dot com and find the show notes 675 00:38:02,960 --> 00:38:04,799 Speaker 1: for all the episodes Holly and I have worked on together, 676 00:38:04,920 --> 00:38:07,839 Speaker 1: and a searchable archive of all of our previous episodes ever, 677 00:38:08,520 --> 00:38:11,080 Speaker 1: and you can subscribe to our show and Apple podcasts, 678 00:38:11,120 --> 00:38:13,359 Speaker 1: the I heart Radio app, and anywhere else you can 679 00:38:13,400 --> 00:38:20,600 Speaker 1: get a podcast. Stuff you Missed in History Class is 680 00:38:20,640 --> 00:38:23,320 Speaker 1: a production of I Heart Radio's How Stuff Works. For 681 00:38:23,440 --> 00:38:25,960 Speaker 1: more podcasts for my heart Radio, visit the i heart 682 00:38:26,040 --> 00:38:29,000 Speaker 1: Radio app, Apple podcasts, or wherever you listen to your 683 00:38:29,040 --> 00:38:29,720 Speaker 1: favorite shows.