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Speaker 1: Welcome to host toff Works Now. I'm your host, Lauren Vogelbaum,

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Speaker 1: a researcher and writer. Here at host Works eight. Every

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Speaker 1: week I'm bringing you three stories from our team about

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Speaker 1: the weird and wonders advances we've seen in science, technology,

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Speaker 1: and culture. This week, new research into squid brains shows

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Speaker 1: how different cephalopods really are from humans and explains how

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Speaker 1: they pull off some of their most amazing feats and unrelated,

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Speaker 1: we answer one of those burning questions, why does hot

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Speaker 1: food seems so much more satisfying than cold food? But first,

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Speaker 1: staff editor Christopher Hassiotis and our freelance writer Laurie L.

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Speaker 1: Dove explores a strange bit of food history. Ancient armies

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Speaker 1: sometimes waged war using hallucinogenic honey. In two thousand eight,

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Speaker 1: a middle aged couple decided to improve their sex life,

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Speaker 1: so they spent a week eating raw honey gathered from

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Speaker 1: near Turkey's Black Sea. But then they ended up in

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Speaker 1: a hospital with symptoms that mimiced heart attacks. The culprit

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Speaker 1: mad honey poisoning a little known destroyer that has brought

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Speaker 1: down ancient armies and in modern times been rumored to

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Speaker 1: have a hallucinatory effect that increases sexual performance. Mad honey

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Speaker 1: is produced by bees that ingest the nectar of Rhododendron

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Speaker 1: ponticum and other poisonous plants that grow in Japan, Nepal, Brazil,

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Speaker 1: parts of North America and Europe, and the Eastern Black

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Speaker 1: Sea region of Turkey. The naturally toxic syrup reportedly tastes

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Speaker 1: more bitter than normal honey, and the toxicity is stronger

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Speaker 1: and fresh honey gathered in the springtime, when rhododendrons are

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Speaker 1: among the first plants to bloom. Mad honey can go

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Speaker 1: from intoxicating to lethal in just a few tablespoons, and

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Speaker 1: because potency varies from hive to hive, there's really no

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Speaker 1: surer way to tell when enough is enough. In the

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Speaker 1: case of the couple who wound up in the emergency room,

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Speaker 1: increasingly large doses of the toxically tinged honey caused acute

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Speaker 1: inferior myocardial infarctions, adding to the dizziness, hypotension, and loss

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Speaker 1: of consciousness they may already have experienced from their first taste.

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Speaker 1: The honey is so potent that ancient armies used it

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Speaker 1: as a weapon, and quite effectively too. According to Adrian Mayer,

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Speaker 1: a research scholar in classics and a historian specializing in

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Speaker 1: ancient biological and chemical warfare. This goes back awhile the

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Speaker 1: ancient Greek commander Xenophon led an army of ten thousand

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Speaker 1: soldiers from Persia back to Greece in the year four

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Speaker 1: o one b CE. He prided himself on choosing healthy

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Speaker 1: and safe campsites for his soldiers while in hostile territory,

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Speaker 1: and set up shop in Pontus on the Black Sea

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Speaker 1: coast in northeast Turkey. He noted nothing unusual, but did

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Speaker 1: make note of an extraordinary number of swarming bees, and

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Speaker 1: so that his men soon discovered the hives and gorged

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Speaker 1: themselves on the sweet treat of wild honey. Xenophon recorded

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Speaker 1: his thoughts for posterity and was quote appalled when his

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Speaker 1: soldiers suddenly behaved like crazed madmen and collapsed en mass.

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Speaker 1: His entire army was paralyzed and incapacitated for days, totally

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Speaker 1: vulnerable to possible enemy attack. Although Xenophon's army recovered before

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Speaker 1: they were discovered and slam sane, the Roman general Pompey

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Speaker 1: was not so lucky. According to Mayor in the year

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Speaker 1: sixty five b c E. During a war against King

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Speaker 1: Mithradates of Pontus, Pompey and his troops traveled through the

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Speaker 1: exact same area where Xenophan's army had eaten that mad honey.

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Speaker 1: His soldiers dined on honeycombs, unaware they were actually trapped

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Speaker 1: set by their enemies along the route. One thousand Roman

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Speaker 1: soldiers were ambushed and killed after being rendered inert by

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Speaker 1: the toxic honey. In addition to being a trap, there

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Speaker 1: are also instances of mad honey being used in mead

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Speaker 1: as a way of stalling encroaching forces. Mead or honey wine,

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Speaker 1: is made by fermenting honey with water and then flavoring

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Speaker 1: the mixture with fruits and spices. Two notable occurrences of

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Speaker 1: mead made with mad honey took place in the same

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Speaker 1: region where the armies of Xenophon and Pompey once stalled.

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Speaker 1: In the year ninety six, the Russian foes of Olga

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Speaker 1: of Kiev fell to a similar ruse when they accepted

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Speaker 1: several tons of mead to drink from Olga's allies. All

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Speaker 1: five thousand Russian soldiers were massacred where they collapsed wheeling

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Speaker 1: and delirious, and in fourteen eighty nine in the same region,

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Speaker 1: a Russian army slaughtered ten thousand Tatars who had drunk

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Speaker 1: many casks of mead the Russians had deliberately left behind

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Speaker 1: in their abandoned camp. So that was then, But what

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Speaker 1: about now? Mad honey still poses a threat to outsiders

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Speaker 1: unfamiliar with its potency, though it's treated differently by locals

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Speaker 1: who use it medicinally. In Turkish culture, mad honey is

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Speaker 1: seen as a type of medicine known as deli bal,

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Speaker 1: and is used in small amounts to treat hypertension, diabetes, mellotists,

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Speaker 1: and stomach diseases. In Nepal, the indigenous Guruon community uses

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Speaker 1: mad honey not only for medicinal purposes, but also for

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Speaker 1: its hallucinogenic properties as well in ritual. The curious and

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Speaker 1: determined have purchased mad honey from Internet sites or from

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Speaker 1: shopkeepers and eight piaries who surreptitiously sell the substance in

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Speaker 1: regions where it's produced. Mad honey these days reportedly cost

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Speaker 1: nearly a hundred and seventy dollars per pound, made more

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Speaker 1: expensive both by its active ingredient grayanotoxin, which causes paralysis

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Speaker 1: and breathing stoppage, and by the difficulty of obtaining it.

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Speaker 1: In Nepal, for instance, this hallucinatory honey is harvested by

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Speaker 1: people who repel down craggy cliffs while chanting calming words

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Speaker 1: to keep away swarms of bees. Although honey and meat

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Speaker 1: were among the only natural sweets and antiquity as irresistible

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Speaker 1: as candy, today's soldiers are presumably well supplied with candy

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Speaker 1: bars and able to forego the temptation of found hives.

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Speaker 1: But then again, it's easy to envision a scenario where

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Speaker 1: soldiers might accept gifts of food or drink from seemingly

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Speaker 1: friendly hosts secretly allied with enemies waiting in ambush. Sounds

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Speaker 1: like a delicious but deadly trojan horse. Uh, make that

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Speaker 1: trojan bee. Next up, our audio producer Dylan Fagin, along

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Speaker 1: with freelance writer jescely and Shields, explain how physiology and

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Speaker 1: nostalgic combine to make hot food seem more cravable than

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Speaker 1: cold food. You know that ravenously hungry feeling you get

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Speaker 1: after going swimming. It feels like you could go to

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Speaker 1: an all you can eat buffet and make them rethink

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Speaker 1: their business strategy. Even though a salad, granola bar, or

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Speaker 1: even in a nice smoothie would probably satisfy you, a

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Speaker 1: voice echoing out of the deepest recesses of your brain

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Speaker 1: commands you defeat. It's something hot, the entire large pizza,

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Speaker 1: perhaps a whole side of rose hog, thirteen plates of

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Speaker 1: spaghetti covered in butter and parmesan cheese. There could be

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Speaker 1: a lot of reasons we create warm foods when we're

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Speaker 1: especially hungry, but one of them probably has to do

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Speaker 1: with the link between smell and taste. We talked with

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Speaker 1: doctor Stephen Secor, an associate professor in the University of

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Speaker 1: Alabama Department of Biological Sciences who studies the physiological design

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Speaker 1: of digestive systems. He pointed out that hot foods give

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Speaker 1: off far more airborne particles than cold foods, and because

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Speaker 1: our sense of taste actually involves a lot of input

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Speaker 1: from smell, hot foods give us more to love than

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Speaker 1: cold foods. Do. Just consider how quickly the smell of

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Speaker 1: meat or vegetables cooking on the barbecue can make you

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Speaker 1: feel hungry. You might have not been ready for lunch before,

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Speaker 1: but now you shure us that cold gaspacho simply doesn't

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Speaker 1: stimulate the senses like a warm minestrone. So even though

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Speaker 1: we intellectually know that cold soup is going to be

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Speaker 1: tasting and fill us up, our factory apparatus hasn't yet

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Speaker 1: been apprised of the situation that makes it hard to

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Speaker 1: get all the parts of our brain on the gaspacho

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Speaker 1: Bandwagon smell may not be the only reason we create

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Speaker 1: a hot meal more than a cold one. Heating food

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Speaker 1: unlocks calories and nutrients that we wouldn't be able to

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Speaker 1: get eating the food raw, and our big old brains

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Speaker 1: are very calorie needy. Our preference for hot meals might

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Speaker 1: have something to do with our brains steering us towards

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Speaker 1: the most potential calories possible in the moment of hunger.

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Speaker 1: According to Richard Ringham, a biological anthropologist at Harvard an

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Speaker 1: author of Catching Fire, How Cooking Made Us Human, the

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Speaker 1: important comparison is between foods that are cooked and differ

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Speaker 1: only in temperature. Ringham says that hot food very likely

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Speaker 1: gields more energy gain than cold food, partly because of

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Speaker 1: the changes in digestibility. One example is that starch becomes

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Speaker 1: increasingly refractory after hot bread cools, which could be one

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Speaker 1: reason why we like hot toast. In the case of

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Speaker 1: lipid rich foods, the closer of fat is to its

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Speaker 1: melting point when eaten probably the easier it is digested.

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Speaker 1: According to Sea corps Well, it's possible we crave a

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Speaker 1: warm meal because it makes it easier to digest and

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Speaker 1: get the calories more quickly. He doesn't necessarily agree that

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Speaker 1: we crave hot food because it's more nutritious, he said,

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Speaker 1: a cooked hamburger that is cold or hot would probably

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Speaker 1: provide an equal amount of calories and take the same

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Speaker 1: amount of effort to digest. So while there might be

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Speaker 1: some selected drive hidden in our behavior to crave cooked

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Speaker 1: food for nutritional gains, the craving is very likely driven

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Speaker 1: by a nice memory of the taste and smell of

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Speaker 1: burger right off the grill, or your mom's macaroni and cheeks. Finally,

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Speaker 1: this week, Managing editor Alison louder Milk and MS. Jescelyn

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Speaker 1: Shields dive into new research into one of my favorite topics,

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Speaker 1: the eld rich and evasive inner workings of squid and

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Speaker 1: other cephalopods. Cal Tech physicist Richard Feynman once said, if

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Speaker 1: you think you understand quantum mechanics, you don't understand quantum mechanics.

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Speaker 1: The same could be said about cephalopods, those invertebrates that

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Speaker 1: include octopuses, squid, and cuttlefish. The last ancestor we shared

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Speaker 1: with one of these animated jello salads was probably a

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Speaker 1: worm of some kind. So our DNA is basically nothing

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Speaker 1: like their's, not that they care. They didn't really do

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Speaker 1: evolution the same way we did, but nevertheless managed to

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Speaker 1: independently evolve into uncannily clever camouflage artists with large, complex brains,

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Speaker 1: close circulatory systems, and camera style eyes just like ours,

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Speaker 1: well not just like ours. The thing about cephalopods is

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Speaker 1: they've had five dred million years of independent evolution to

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Speaker 1: figure out how to do things their own way. Any

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Speaker 1: test you can create to measure something in a human intelligence, say,

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Speaker 1: isn't gonna work for an octopus, which is why neurobiologists

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Speaker 1: studying cephalopods are kind of like electricians figuring out the

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Speaker 1: electrical grid on an alien planet. Here's evolutionary biologists. Dr

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Speaker 1: Sabrina Panky on cephalopods. We've known for fifty years that

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Speaker 1: the cephalopod brain is easily the most complex among invertebrates,

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Speaker 1: and also that there dazzingly intricate body patterning behavior is

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Speaker 1: controlled by motor centers in the brain. Figuring out the

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Speaker 1: neural bases of complex behaviors is inherently difficult in any animal,

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Speaker 1: but trying to figure out how a squid can completely

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Speaker 1: change its body patterning in a matter of milliseconds is

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Speaker 1: a sticky wicket. One hypothesis has been that body coloration

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Speaker 1: is organized in the cephalopod brain somatotropically. That means one

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Speaker 1: specific part of the central nervous system is solely responsible

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Speaker 1: for controlling the patterning in a distinct patch of skin.

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Speaker 1: After all, that's how it works in our mammalian cortex.

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Speaker 1: But a news study published in the Journal of Neuroscience

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Speaker 1: shows again cephalopods aren't like us, very not like us.

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Speaker 1: The research team proposes that the oval squid, also known

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Speaker 1: as the big fin reef squid, achieves its skin patterning

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Speaker 1: through mosaic organization. That the squid actually use multiple motor

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Speaker 1: centers within the optic lib of their brain to pretty

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Speaker 1: a single skin pattern like stripes, bands, or spots. The

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Speaker 1: fact that several parts of the brain work together at

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Speaker 1: once to create a single display allows for greater complexity

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Speaker 1: and the resulting pattern. It'd be like using multiple keyboards

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Speaker 1: to write the same document all at the same time.

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Speaker 1: We vertebrates just don't do things that way. Researches at

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Speaker 1: Taiwan's National Chingwa University think that because several different areas

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Speaker 1: of the optic lobe can be used to display a

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Speaker 1: single skin pattern in a specific body part, a dark

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Speaker 1: mantle stripe, the tentacles poke it up fins. The squid

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Speaker 1: are able to flash up to about fourteen distinct patterns

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Speaker 1: in the blink of an eye. Fourteen distinct patterns. We

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Speaker 1: tend to think of redundancy as inefficient, but cephalopods have

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Speaker 1: overlapping parts of their brains to create specific patterns on

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Speaker 1: specific body parts, meaning if one part of their brain

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Speaker 1: is busy, they can still flash information onto their bodies

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Speaker 1: with awe inspiring quickness. Just think if you had a

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Speaker 1: bunch of different parts of your brain in charge of

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Speaker 1: remembering a single word, your word recall skills would be amazing.

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Speaker 1: Dr Chow, one of the lead researchers involved in the

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Speaker 1: squid study, told us the squid's ability to quickly switch

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Speaker 1: different body patterns and visual communication a sort of like

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Speaker 1: an alphabet visual language. The researchers think the color patterns

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Speaker 1: displayed by the squid are not only used as a

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Speaker 1: communication signal to the same species, but also used to

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Speaker 1: hide or warn off other potential predators a prey. This

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Speaker 1: research also highlights the fact that though we vertebrates tend

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Speaker 1: to think we've got the best systems for doing everything,

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Speaker 1: cephalopods might be onto something, at least when it comes

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Speaker 1: to efficient communication. That's our show for this week. Thank

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Speaker 1: you so much for tuning in. Further thanks to our

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Speaker 1: audio producer Dylan Fagin and our editorial liaison Alison louder Milk.

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