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Speaker 1: Yeah, orgey, do you know what today is? Is it

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Speaker 1: a special day today? Oh my god, I can't believe

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Speaker 1: your forgot? Is it your birthday? Try again? Is it

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Speaker 1: the anniversary of the Higgs Boson closer? It's actually our anniversary.

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Speaker 1: Today is our two hundredth episode of Daniel and Jorge

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Speaker 1: Explain the Universe. Two hundred episodes. Oh my gosh, it's

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Speaker 1: a lot of physics and a lot of banana jots.

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Speaker 1: It's a whole universe of banana physics. Hi am orhand

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Speaker 1: my cartoonists and the creator of PhD comment. Hi. I'm Daniel.

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Speaker 1: I'm a particle physicist, and I know at least two

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Speaker 1: hundred things about physics, and I know at least two

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Speaker 1: hundred bad jokes about physics. I've made ten to the

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Speaker 1: two hundred bad jokes about physics, but our editor has

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Speaker 1: removed most. And Welcome to our podcast, Daniel and Jorge

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Speaker 1: Explained the Universe, a production of I Heart Radio, a

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Speaker 1: project we started to explain to you all the amazing

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Speaker 1: and crazy things out there in the universe, all the

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Speaker 1: things we do know, the facts we've learned about the universe,

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Speaker 1: the secret truth that we've revealed, and also the incredible questions,

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Speaker 1: the things that science still has to figure out, the

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Speaker 1: questions that scientists are asking, and the questions that you

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Speaker 1: are asking, the deep mysteries of the universe around us.

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Speaker 1: Because it turns out that there are more than two

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Speaker 1: hundred questions you can ask about the universe and more

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Speaker 1: than two hundred amazing facts to learn and to discover

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Speaker 1: about how this crazy cosmos works. At least that's what

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Speaker 1: we've discovered in doing this podcast. We had no idea

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Speaker 1: how long we could keep going on. Yeah, today is

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Speaker 1: a very special episode. It's our two hundred episode. What

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Speaker 1: does that make it anial? Is it like a birthday,

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Speaker 1: a broadcast day at pot day? I don't know, but

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Speaker 1: you know, if you look up anniversaries, like you know,

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Speaker 1: the fifth anniversaries paper, and the tenth anniversary is silver

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Speaker 1: or whatever, the fiftieth anniversary is diamond. There is no

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Speaker 1: culturally acceptable gift for two hundredth anniversary because he's ever

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Speaker 1: lasted that long. I think they give you a Nobel

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Speaker 1: price if you somehow managed to celebrate two hundredth anniversary,

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Speaker 1: Maybe you should be the fossil anniversary something, because you've

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Speaker 1: become fossilized. But congratulations Daniel, two hundred episodes. Did you

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Speaker 1: ever think we would get to two hundred episodes? No?

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Speaker 1: I thought you get sick of talking to me about

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Speaker 1: physics after about ten or twenty. No, congratulations to you. Also,

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Speaker 1: it's been a really fun ride. And thank you to

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Speaker 1: all of our listeners who have listened to us talking

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Speaker 1: about science and joking about bananas and shared your goofy

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Speaker 1: curiosity with us. That's really what's powered us forward. So

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Speaker 1: thanks for listening, and thanks for all the feedback and support. Well,

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Speaker 1: I have definitely not gotten tired of listening to amazing

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Speaker 1: physics and to listen to you explain rated. Um, I

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Speaker 1: feel like I could go another two hundred episodes. Let's

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Speaker 1: do it. Well. In honor of our two hundredth episode,

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Speaker 1: I put out a tweet asking folks what we should

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Speaker 1: do to celebrate our two hundredth episode, and as usual,

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Speaker 1: I put out some silly suggestions and we did a

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Speaker 1: little Twitter poll. Yeah, and so Daniel asked what should

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Speaker 1: we do for a two hundred episode? And the options

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Speaker 1: were one, eat two hundred bananas, to answer two hundred questions,

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Speaker 1: three to two hundred different accents, and number four just

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Speaker 1: shut up. And explain. That's right, and clearly I was

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Speaker 1: going to do the explaining, but I was hoping that

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Speaker 1: you would do the bananas in the accents seems a

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Speaker 1: little lopsided. Daniel, Well, you're the creative one, right. How

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Speaker 1: can I eat bananas and accents at the same time?

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Speaker 1: Those count as different accents, you know, like Scottish or

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Speaker 1: Scottish with the banana in your mouth sound very different.

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Speaker 1: It was a close pole. It was a close poll, yes,

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Speaker 1: exactly what it was. It dramatic like as you saw

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Speaker 1: the numbers come in. Um, well, bananas was racing to

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Speaker 1: the lead in the beginning, but eventually people voted for

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Speaker 1: Answer two hundred questions got about thirty five Eat two

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Speaker 1: hundred bananas in second place, and you know in last

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Speaker 1: place was due two hundred accidents, which I was sort

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Speaker 1: of hoping for. I think we have to trust the

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Speaker 1: wisdom of the crowd here and not offend two hundred

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Speaker 1: countries we can. There aren't two hundred countries to offend,

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Speaker 1: so that would be pretty impressive if we could offend

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Speaker 1: non existing countries. Yeah. So the top option was Answer

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Speaker 1: two hundred questions, which when Daniel told me, I said

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Speaker 1: it was a little impractical for a fifty minute podcast,

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Speaker 1: that's right. They have to be like true or false questions,

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Speaker 1: or you know, yes or no, or something which wouldn't

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Speaker 1: be too satisfied, right. I started to think, if we

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Speaker 1: take five minutes to answer each question, that's a thousand

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Speaker 1: minute episode. That's basically the next two hundred episodes. Basically,

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Speaker 1: we'd be done. We could celebrate our four hundred anniversary

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Speaker 1: next week. Then, well, this podcast is really accelerating the

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Speaker 1: logarithmic scales. We'll be doing our four thousand one in

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Speaker 1: a month, that's right. And I started looking through the

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Speaker 1: list of questions we've answered over email, because I answered

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Speaker 1: hundreds of questions a week from listeners, and there's a

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Speaker 1: lot of common things in there. But then or I

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Speaker 1: had a better idea something else we could do to

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Speaker 1: celebrate our two hundredth episode. Yeah, so it's be on

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Speaker 1: the podcast. We'll be asking two hundred questions, but not

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Speaker 1: two hundred number of questions, but a couple of questions

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Speaker 1: about the number two hundred. That's right, because while the

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Speaker 1: number ten and the number one hundred, and therefore the

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Speaker 1: number two hundred are really just artifacts of the number

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Speaker 1: of fingers we have in the way the human mind works.

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Speaker 1: It's also an interesting way to ask questions about the universe,

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Speaker 1: to think about like how far away are things or

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Speaker 1: what happened in certain moments of time in the universe.

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Speaker 1: It gives you like a fixed window to examine the universe.

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Speaker 1: We'll be asking coincidentally to two hundred questions here in

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Speaker 1: the podcast, and the first question has to do with

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Speaker 1: what happened at the beginning of the universe. So the

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Speaker 1: question is what happened in the first two hundred micro

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Speaker 1: seconds of the universe. And then later on we'll tackle

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Speaker 1: the another question about with the number two hundred, which

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Speaker 1: is what can we find within two hundred light years

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Speaker 1: of Earth? So a little bit of time and a

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Speaker 1: little bit of space, a little bit of space time, Daniel,

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Speaker 1: that's right. What can you find within two hundred light

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Speaker 1: years of Earth? Makes me think like, are you looking

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Speaker 1: for your keys? Are they somewhere out there in space?

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Speaker 1: I do lose my keys a lot, even even in

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Speaker 1: a pandemic where you don't go anywhere. Somehow I managed

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Speaker 1: to lose my keys like every day. Well, we'll see

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Speaker 1: if we can find them, all right, we'll tackle this

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Speaker 1: first question first, which is what happened in the first

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Speaker 1: two hundred micro seconds of the universe. Now, two hundred microseconds,

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Speaker 1: that's like, boy, that's like point to milliseconds. It's not

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Speaker 1: a lot of time. But it turns out a whole

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Speaker 1: lot of stuff happened in the first two hundred microseconds

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Speaker 1: to the universe. Basically everything's been boring ever since. Well,

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Speaker 1: two d micro seconds. That's that's shorter than a blink, right,

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Speaker 1: Like a blink is maybe a couple of microseconds, a

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Speaker 1: couple of milliseconds. It's a very small amount of time. Absolutely, Yeah,

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Speaker 1: So a lot happened in those first microseconds. A lot happened.

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Speaker 1: And one of the most interesting questions really is how

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Speaker 1: you even define like moment zero. If you're gonna say,

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Speaker 1: let's take a window of time from the very beginning

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Speaker 1: of the universe to two d microseconds afterwards, it's interesting

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Speaker 1: to think about, like how the universe expands and cools,

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Speaker 1: and we'll get into all of that. But then you

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Speaker 1: have to wonder, like where does T equal zero? How

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Speaker 1: do you define that moment? Do we even know that

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Speaker 1: there was a T equal zero? So already like anchoring

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Speaker 1: the left side, the early side of that window is very,

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Speaker 1: very difficult. It makes me think, like was there a

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Speaker 1: T minus one or like a countdown to the universe.

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Speaker 1: Nobody really knows, And the problem is that we don't

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Speaker 1: think about the history of the universe in that sort

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Speaker 1: of forward way because we don't really have anything to

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Speaker 1: build on. We don't know what was in the beginning

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Speaker 1: or when the beginning was. Usually we think about it

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Speaker 1: sort of in the reverse. We look at the universe now,

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Speaker 1: and we look backwards in time as we look further

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Speaker 1: further out into space, right, because remember the further out

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Speaker 1: in space, you look older the universe is. So we

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Speaker 1: can see how the universe looked a hundred years ago,

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Speaker 1: a thousand years ago, a million years ago, a billion

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Speaker 1: years ago, etcetera. And we can project backwards in time.

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Speaker 1: So we tend to think of the history of the

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Speaker 1: universe sort of from now and running the clock backwards,

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Speaker 1: and we can do it pretty well, you know, back

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Speaker 1: about thirteen billion years or so, But then it gets

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Speaker 1: pretty murky and we have trouble extrapolating back. We don't

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Speaker 1: know if there was a T equal zero, if there

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Speaker 1: was like a T equals question mark, or who knows

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Speaker 1: what was happening at the very beginning. That's interesting. Now,

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Speaker 1: why does the picture he get fuzzy beyond if you

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Speaker 1: rewind back to more than a few hundred thousand years

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Speaker 1: from what what might be the beginning of time? Like

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Speaker 1: what what? What actually marks up? Well, the reason is

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Speaker 1: that things change, Things get really hot and dense. Right,

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Speaker 1: the overall history of the universe is cooling and expanding,

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Speaker 1: and so if you run that backwards from now we

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Speaker 1: have a cold, large universe. You run that backwards, things

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Speaker 1: get hotter and denser. And of course you could just

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Speaker 1: do that naively, like assume that the laws of physics

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Speaker 1: we have learned today from our cold universe still work

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Speaker 1: back then, and just run the clock backwards and you

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Speaker 1: get infinite density and you call that T equal zero.

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Speaker 1: You could do that, but we don't think that's right.

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Speaker 1: We don't think the laws we have work anymore as

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Speaker 1: things get that hot and dense, just like you know,

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Speaker 1: the physics of gases is different from the physics of

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Speaker 1: liquids and the physics of solids, and so things change

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Speaker 1: as you get hotter and denser, and then it becomes

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Speaker 1: difficult to extrapolate because we're reaching into regions that we

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Speaker 1: can't see anymore and we have no experience of because

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Speaker 1: there's a moment in the early universe when the universe cooled.

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Speaker 1: It was a hot, dense, nastiness, will talk about it,

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Speaker 1: and it cooled to a place where light could fly through.

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Speaker 1: It became transparent, And that's the last moment in the

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Speaker 1: early universe that we can actually see. Beyond that, we're

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Speaker 1: just really sort of guessing and extrapolating and using models,

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Speaker 1: but those models are very uncertain. We really don't know

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Speaker 1: what we're talking about. So a lot of the details

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Speaker 1: we'll talk through today in this episode are really speculative.

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Speaker 1: They're like, maybe it was this, and maybe it was that,

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Speaker 1: and under various assumptions which seemed reasonable but could be

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Speaker 1: totally wrong. You know, maybe this happened, But it's really guesswork.

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Speaker 1: Is it guesswork because we don't know, like our simulations

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Speaker 1: don't aren't very definitive, or like the physics of the

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Speaker 1: universe might actually change it in those kind of conditions.

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Speaker 1: We don't know how the physics of the universe operates

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Speaker 1: in those very hot and dense environments. You know, we've

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Speaker 1: only experienced it when it's pretty cold and separated, and

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Speaker 1: so we're extrapolating back. We think we have ideas or

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Speaker 1: how it might work, and we can simulate various ones

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Speaker 1: of them, but we can't necessarily like tell the difference

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Speaker 1: between if it's like this or if it's like that,

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Speaker 1: and so we just we're extrapolating into the unknown, and

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Speaker 1: and that's always very dangerous and delicate. Now, even the

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Speaker 1: concept of time equals zero is weird, right, because I've

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Speaker 1: heard people say that, you know, like it's it's almost

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Speaker 1: like asking what is more north than the north Pole?

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Speaker 1: Because once you get to the north pole, there's no

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Speaker 1: more north? And is it the same? Also that you know,

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Speaker 1: maybe time started at T equal zero and there was

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Speaker 1: no time before that. It sounds bonkers to say that, right,

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Speaker 1: like there was no time before that, because it's before

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Speaker 1: mean if there was no time, right, It's it's confusing.

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Speaker 1: It's hard to really get these ideas into your head.

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Speaker 1: But it's true that some theories of the universe say

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Speaker 1: that space and time were created at some moment and

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Speaker 1: things have expanded and cooled since then, and before that point,

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Speaker 1: there was no time, There was no space, there was

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Speaker 1: no before that point. That's really hard to grasp your

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Speaker 1: mind around because your mind lives in that space in

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Speaker 1: that time. It's all you've experienced, and so it's all

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Speaker 1: you can really imagine how you organize your thinking. It's

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Speaker 1: how we think about causality and logic, and a it happens,

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Speaker 1: then be happens, then see happens. But it doesn't mean

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Speaker 1: it's the only way the universe can be. And so

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Speaker 1: it's extraordinarily difficult to sort of extrapolate your brain and

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Speaker 1: you're thinking into something completely unfamiliar, right, And so what

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Speaker 1: we do is we have these frameworks like general relativity

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Speaker 1: and quantum mechanics that try to tell us about what

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Speaker 1: might have happened, But those aren't very conclusive either. I

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Speaker 1: guess the North Pole analogy kind of works also in that,

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Speaker 1: you know, like here where we are. You know, if

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Speaker 1: you have like a compass, it's pretty clear how to

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Speaker 1: use it, Like, you know, it tells you north and

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Speaker 1: right and south and east and west, and you can

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Speaker 1: walk around pretty easy blue. But if you are like

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Speaker 1: near the North Pole, it might be a little tricky

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Speaker 1: to use a compass, right, Yeah, if you're at the

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Speaker 1: North Pole, you'd be a little disoriented. Yeah, if you're

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Speaker 1: at the north pole. There is no more north to go, right,

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Speaker 1: you can't go any north eier than that. But we

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Speaker 1: don't know if time works that way. It could be

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Speaker 1: that there was stuff for you know, these early moments,

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Speaker 1: these singularities. There was a whole other universe perhaps which

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Speaker 1: came down into a big crunch or something else totally different,

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Speaker 1: some sort of other weird kind of thing which gave

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Speaker 1: birth two hours space and time. You know, our entire universe,

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Speaker 1: Our space and time could be a bubble of that

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Speaker 1: other pre universe stuff like decaying into a universe. There

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Speaker 1: could be a whole spectrum of other universes also that

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Speaker 1: were created in the same moment, or the could that

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Speaker 1: are still being created now. There could be like you know,

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Speaker 1: moments of creation happening right now, really far away in

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Speaker 1: this other meta space. It sounds like bonker speculation because

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Speaker 1: it is mostly because we're so clueless. You mean, like now,

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Speaker 1: like as we speak, there could be some time equal

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Speaker 1: zero moments right now for other universes in this universe. Yeah.

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Speaker 1: One idea of how our universe got started is that

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Speaker 1: there was some sort of like pre universe stuff some

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Speaker 1: Inflaton fields, and that our universe is essentially some random

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Speaker 1: spontaneous decay of at and that's when our universe began,

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Speaker 1: and that influence on Field is just like expanding and

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Speaker 1: creating and eternally inflating. But all the time it's parts

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Speaker 1: of it are decaying and starting whole new universes, their

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Speaker 1: universes that haven't even gotten started yet, in universes that

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Speaker 1: are trillions of years old. And none of this is

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Speaker 1: anything we know. It's just like it's a crazy idea,

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Speaker 1: and in a thousand years people will read about these

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Speaker 1: ideas the way we think about, you know, the Greek's

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Speaker 1: ideas about air, water, fire, and earth. We're like, well,

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Speaker 1: that's cute, you know, and it could have been true.

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Speaker 1: I suppose, yeah, it's it's well meaning, carefully thought out,

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Speaker 1: totally wrong, And that could be the way we describe

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Speaker 1: all of our current ideas about what happened to T

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Speaker 1: equal zero and whether T equal zero even makes sense.

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Speaker 1: It could be like cute to future busicists, exactly lessly

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Speaker 1: cute to a future five year olds. Man, five year olds,

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Speaker 1: and a thousand years will laugh at our ideas that

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Speaker 1: were like, oh, you're ridiculous, that's silly, oh man, well,

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Speaker 1: five year olds already laugh at me, Daniel, so that

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Speaker 1: that's going to be We'll pretend that's on purpose though,

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Speaker 1: all right, so it seems like, okay, so we can't

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Speaker 1: see that well beyond a few hundred thousand years into

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Speaker 1: the universe. So really asking like what happened in the

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Speaker 1: first twohundred microseconds is really speculative, then that's right. All

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Speaker 1: you can do is say, like, you know, extrapolate backwards

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Speaker 1: from where we are it gets hotter and denser, hotter

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Speaker 1: and denser, and pretend that you know how to extrapolate

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Speaker 1: back to some point like general relativity says you can

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Speaker 1: extrapolate all the way back to a point of infinite

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Speaker 1: density and temperature. But you know, we know that general

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Speaker 1: relativity is probably wrong when it talks about singularities and

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Speaker 1: stuff like that, because it ignores important things like quantum mechanics,

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Speaker 1: which tells us that you can't have an infinite amount

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Speaker 1: of stuff in a tiny zero volume point and know

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Speaker 1: all about it. So definitely something wonky happens. But you know,

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Speaker 1: you can extrapolate sort of naively and say we'll call

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Speaker 1: this t equal zero and we'll move forward from there.

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Speaker 1: I see, I see so we're gonna plant the flow.

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Speaker 1: I can say this is tequals zero, and then we're

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Speaker 1: going to see what can the universe do to get

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Speaker 1: us to where we are today? Kind of yeah, exactly.

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Speaker 1: All right, well let's get into that and to the

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Speaker 1: question of what is within two hundred light years of Earth?

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Speaker 1: But first let's take a quick break. All right, Daniel,

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Speaker 1: we're celebrating our two birthday. Does that mean that I'm

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Speaker 1: two years old and you're two hundred years old, or

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Speaker 1: we're each a hundred years old? It means we should

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Speaker 1: have retired a hundred and thirty years ago. I feel

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Speaker 1: like this podcast has aged me two years. I feel

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Speaker 1: like I'm two hundred light years from where I started. There,

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Speaker 1: you go, all right, well, so we're talking about the

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Speaker 1: first two hundred microseconds of the universe, and so we'll

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Speaker 1: start with time equals zero. What what happened at times zero? Daniel?

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Speaker 1: We don't know, but one idea is that there was

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Speaker 1: a singularity that you know, the universe was super hot

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Speaker 1: and super dense. And I think a lot of people

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Speaker 1: imagine this as a single point. They hear singularity to

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Speaker 1: think a single point. They think one hot, dense spot

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Speaker 1: like the entire energy and all the matter of the

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Speaker 1: universe was in a really tiny dot. But it's better

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Speaker 1: not to think about it as one place, but more

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Speaker 1: to think about it as the density. Because we don't

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Speaker 1: know if the universe is finite or infinite. Possible that

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Speaker 1: when the universe started it was already infinite, and that

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Speaker 1: this singularity we're talking about was everywhere like multiple singularity, yes, yes, precisely,

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Speaker 1: like a non singular singularity. Yes. Like the singularity refers

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Speaker 1: not to how many of them there were, but the

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Speaker 1: fact that the density becomes infinite singularity refers to what

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Speaker 1: happens to the equations, that the equations get infinities in them,

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Speaker 1: because the density becomes infinite, not the size of it.

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Speaker 1: And there's a i think a very common misconception that

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Speaker 1: the Big Bang or pre Big Bang starts with a dot,

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Speaker 1: and a dots small than an adam becomes the entire universe.

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Speaker 1: And because we don't know how big the universe is,

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Speaker 1: it could have been a little blob, it could have

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Speaker 1: been an infinite extent. It's better to think about it

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Speaker 1: in terms of infinite density, or like an infinite number

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Speaker 1: of dots, an infinite number of dots. Yeah, The thing

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Speaker 1: we do know is that the universe was denser and

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Speaker 1: harder back then. We don't know how much of it

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Speaker 1: there was, could have been infinite, could be finite, and

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Speaker 1: loop all around on itself. That's a whole other episode

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Speaker 1: about the size and shape of the universe, which is fascinating.

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Speaker 1: But to think through the history of the universe is

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Speaker 1: mostly to think about the density changing da days that

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Speaker 1: you know, there's no real reason for this to exist,

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Speaker 1: just somehow the universe what we know was really dance,

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Speaker 1: almost like infinitely dance. Yeah, there must have been a

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Speaker 1: reason for it to exist, because it does. And we

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Speaker 1: think the universe follows reasons and laws. We just don't

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Speaker 1: know what they are and we can't argue for it.

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Speaker 1: We don't know why there was something instead of nothing,

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Speaker 1: and why there was this, and could there have been

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Speaker 1: other things, and you know, just really shockingly basic questions

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Speaker 1: that we have really no clue about. Okay, so we

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Speaker 1: had to super dance state almost infinitely dense, maybe everywhere,

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Speaker 1: maybe just one dot, and then what's next thing that

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Speaker 1: happened and what happened in the first tend to the

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Speaker 1: minus you know, forty three seconds, so The picture you

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Speaker 1: should have in your mind is that we have space,

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Speaker 1: and space is really really hot, like there's a huge

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Speaker 1: amount of energy. Right. The density we're really talking about

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Speaker 1: there is energy density. And if you've been following the podcast,

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Speaker 1: you know that we like to think about space in

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Speaker 1: terms of quantum fields. Every point in space has fields

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Speaker 1: in it, the electron fields of cork fields, the photon fields, etcetera.

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Speaker 1: And particles that we think about today are little blobs

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Speaker 1: of excitations of those fields. Today, most of those fields

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Speaker 1: are very very low energy. Most of space is empty

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Speaker 1: in those fields are zero. But back then, infinite density

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Speaker 1: really means all those fields are going nuts. They're going crazy,

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Speaker 1: they're oscillating, they're just full of energy. And so instead

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Speaker 1: of thinking about individual particles, it's like having an ocean, right,

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Speaker 1: you don't think about a drop of water. When you

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Speaker 1: have an ocean. You can just think about the entire crazy,

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Speaker 1: turbulent blob and it's doing all sorts of stuff. So

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Speaker 1: the first ten to the minus forty three seconds of

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Speaker 1: the universe we called this the plant epoch. Everything was

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Speaker 1: hot and dense in these fields were just going crazy.

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Speaker 1: Now I have a question, though, somebody's talk about that.

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Speaker 1: It's not just like stuff that was crammed in together

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Speaker 1: really tightly. It's also that space itself was smaller, much smaller.

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Speaker 1: So it's like it's both those things. It's like everything

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Speaker 1: was crowned in together and also space was smaller. That's right.

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Speaker 1: There's two kinds of expansion we're gonna talk about later.

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Speaker 1: One is the expansion of stuff through space as things

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Speaker 1: spread out into existing space. The other is the expansion

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Speaker 1: of space that you create more space, and new space

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Speaker 1: itself is created. Because remember that space is not just

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Speaker 1: like a backdrop on which things happen. There's a dynamical

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Speaker 1: connection between space and energy. Space curves and bends and

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Speaker 1: expands in response to the mass and energy that's in it,

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Speaker 1: and then it shapes the motion of that mass and energy.

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Speaker 1: So space and mass and energy are two things that

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Speaker 1: are very tightly coupled and respond to each other. Okay,

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Speaker 1: so in the first you know point zero zero zero

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Speaker 1: zero down to forty zeros one seconds, you said, that's

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Speaker 1: called the planet. Yeah, and back there we had a

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Speaker 1: bunch of really hot fields. And the thing to think

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Speaker 1: about here is that there are no particles. What it's

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Speaker 1: it's like too hot for particles like particles just kind

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Speaker 1: of everything is just crazy. That's right. There are no

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Speaker 1: isolated particles because everything is just too hot and too intense.

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Speaker 1: It's all just energy in these fields. It's slashing around.

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Speaker 1: You know, later on things will cool down enough for

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Speaker 1: particles to form. But particles are like you know, when

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Speaker 1: you have a few little isolated blobs of energy in

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Speaker 1: the field. Here we have like an incredible turbulent ocean.

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Speaker 1: So it makes no sense to think about in terms

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Speaker 1: of particles. I mean, technically you could, you could say

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Speaker 1: this field is ten ca jillion particles in it, but

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Speaker 1: it doesn't really make any sense. It's really just energies,

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Speaker 1: not discrete packets being around through space. It's just a

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Speaker 1: huge blob of energy slashing around in the field. I see.

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Speaker 1: There's no moment where you're like, oh, there's an electron.

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Speaker 1: It's just that the whole field is just sit on fire. Yeah, precisely.

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Speaker 1: You can't follow a drop of water in the ocean, right.

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Speaker 1: And the other thing to think about is that the

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Speaker 1: fields here behave differently, just like the way materials on

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Speaker 1: Earth have phases as you cool them or or heat

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Speaker 1: them up. The physics of them changes completely, right, The

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Speaker 1: same thing happens for fields. They tend to act in

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Speaker 1: different ways at different temperatures and different energy densities. And

427
00:22:32,000 --> 00:22:34,440
Speaker 1: this is not like the laws of physics changing. It's

428
00:22:34,480 --> 00:22:36,560
Speaker 1: just like how you can think about it, how you

429
00:22:36,560 --> 00:22:40,000
Speaker 1: can describe it. The effective the emergent results of it

430
00:22:40,160 --> 00:22:42,960
Speaker 1: are very different at different temperatures, just the same way

431
00:22:43,000 --> 00:22:45,000
Speaker 1: they are for solid But can we still use the

432
00:22:45,000 --> 00:22:47,840
Speaker 1: same equations we have, Like do our equations still work?

433
00:22:48,000 --> 00:22:50,480
Speaker 1: We don't think they do. We think the equations that

434
00:22:50,520 --> 00:22:54,480
Speaker 1: we have now only describe physics sort of at lower temperatures,

435
00:22:54,760 --> 00:22:57,240
Speaker 1: that they're sort of like the falling at the effective

436
00:22:57,280 --> 00:23:00,720
Speaker 1: equations for what happens when things are old. We don't

437
00:23:00,760 --> 00:23:04,200
Speaker 1: think we have like the fundamental equations. Our equations should

438
00:23:04,280 --> 00:23:07,919
Speaker 1: be like the low temperature limit of the true equations,

439
00:23:07,920 --> 00:23:10,760
Speaker 1: which we haven't found yet. But for example, and we

440
00:23:10,800 --> 00:23:13,040
Speaker 1: think that a very hot temperature is the early moments,

441
00:23:13,359 --> 00:23:18,439
Speaker 1: all of the forces acted like one gravity, electromagnetism, the

442
00:23:18,480 --> 00:23:20,919
Speaker 1: weak force, and the strong force. We think they're probably

443
00:23:20,960 --> 00:23:23,679
Speaker 1: all just one force that acted together. What do you

444
00:23:23,680 --> 00:23:26,439
Speaker 1: mean of force? Don't forces depend on particles to no?

445
00:23:26,600 --> 00:23:29,520
Speaker 1: Forces are also just fields? Right, But we think that

446
00:23:29,560 --> 00:23:33,120
Speaker 1: there was a single field that represents all those forces

447
00:23:33,119 --> 00:23:35,399
Speaker 1: but combined into one. And we think when it was

448
00:23:35,440 --> 00:23:38,040
Speaker 1: really hot and dense, that they acted together. They all

449
00:23:38,080 --> 00:23:40,399
Speaker 1: had the same strength, and there were all just different

450
00:23:40,440 --> 00:23:44,520
Speaker 1: components of one mega force which exists in the universe. Well,

451
00:23:44,520 --> 00:23:46,840
Speaker 1: I think you just coined the term right there at

452
00:23:46,840 --> 00:23:50,320
Speaker 1: the megaphorce. This is like to call it the grand

453
00:23:50,440 --> 00:23:55,160
Speaker 1: unified theory. I like megaphorce better megaforce. It is, then,

454
00:23:56,359 --> 00:23:58,439
Speaker 1: all right, so those are the first ten to the

455
00:23:58,480 --> 00:24:01,120
Speaker 1: minus forty three second. Is then what happened? And things

456
00:24:01,160 --> 00:24:03,920
Speaker 1: start to cool, things start to expand a little bit,

457
00:24:04,200 --> 00:24:08,200
Speaker 1: and the first breaking happens. Here the force splits into two.

458
00:24:08,520 --> 00:24:11,199
Speaker 1: You have gravity on one side, and then all the

459
00:24:11,320 --> 00:24:14,920
Speaker 1: other forces electromagnetism, the weak force, and the strong force

460
00:24:15,119 --> 00:24:18,719
Speaker 1: combined still into one single force, which we call electro strong.

461
00:24:19,560 --> 00:24:22,080
Speaker 1: And so here the temperature has dropped enough that the

462
00:24:22,080 --> 00:24:25,080
Speaker 1: force has split. It's like cracked. You know how. Sometimes

463
00:24:25,080 --> 00:24:28,439
Speaker 1: when you cool something, you can freeze, or it can crack,

464
00:24:28,560 --> 00:24:31,160
Speaker 1: or it can end them as some weird configuration. As

465
00:24:31,200 --> 00:24:33,879
Speaker 1: the universe cooled, gravity sort of like froze and split

466
00:24:33,960 --> 00:24:37,600
Speaker 1: off from the other forces. Interesting like inevitably or is

467
00:24:37,600 --> 00:24:39,640
Speaker 1: it like a random you know, like an ice when

468
00:24:39,640 --> 00:24:42,320
Speaker 1: you freeze eyes, you you sometimes get crystals here or

469
00:24:42,359 --> 00:24:44,320
Speaker 1: crystals there. Is it random like that or is it

470
00:24:44,359 --> 00:24:47,000
Speaker 1: like inevitable? Do you think that the equations were like

471
00:24:47,160 --> 00:24:49,080
Speaker 1: we were always going to get gravity and these other

472
00:24:49,119 --> 00:24:52,879
Speaker 1: forces we don't know. We call it spontaneous symmetry breaking

473
00:24:52,880 --> 00:24:55,680
Speaker 1: because we think there's a random element in it and

474
00:24:55,720 --> 00:24:57,920
Speaker 1: all the forces you'll see as we go through time,

475
00:24:57,960 --> 00:25:00,119
Speaker 1: all the forces split off, and we think that those

476
00:25:00,119 --> 00:25:04,040
Speaker 1: splittings are spontaneous, that they're essentially the result of one

477
00:25:04,080 --> 00:25:07,480
Speaker 1: little quantum fluctuation which then gets propagated through the universe.

478
00:25:07,800 --> 00:25:10,560
Speaker 1: You know, like when everybody sits down at a dinner table,

479
00:25:10,840 --> 00:25:12,560
Speaker 1: do you drink from the glass to your left to

480
00:25:12,600 --> 00:25:15,480
Speaker 1: your right? Well, if one person chooses left, then you know,

481
00:25:15,560 --> 00:25:17,879
Speaker 1: everybody around them starts to choose left and it spreads

482
00:25:17,880 --> 00:25:20,760
Speaker 1: across the whole dinner table. Right, they could have chosen

483
00:25:20,800 --> 00:25:22,320
Speaker 1: to drink from the one to their right and then

484
00:25:22,359 --> 00:25:25,600
Speaker 1: everyone would use that one. So one little fluctuation like

485
00:25:25,640 --> 00:25:29,000
Speaker 1: that can propagate itself through the whole universe. And we

486
00:25:29,040 --> 00:25:33,320
Speaker 1: don't know if gravity splitting off was inevitable or at

487
00:25:33,359 --> 00:25:36,080
Speaker 1: what temperature it should have split off? We just don't know.

488
00:25:36,160 --> 00:25:39,480
Speaker 1: We think gravity split off first because it's the weakest force,

489
00:25:39,880 --> 00:25:42,159
Speaker 1: and so we think it would take the hottest temperature

490
00:25:42,400 --> 00:25:45,720
Speaker 1: to combine all the forces. And then fourteen billion years later,

491
00:25:45,760 --> 00:25:49,800
Speaker 1: everyone's like, is this my glasses? Is your glass? Did

492
00:25:49,800 --> 00:25:51,440
Speaker 1: you drink from mine? Because I thought I had more

493
00:25:51,440 --> 00:25:55,720
Speaker 1: wine left over? And then people are spitting up what

494
00:25:57,560 --> 00:25:59,720
Speaker 1: And then it's it's like back to the big bank,

495
00:26:00,119 --> 00:26:02,720
Speaker 1: all right, So things start to split off and cool down,

496
00:26:02,760 --> 00:26:06,520
Speaker 1: and then we start to get more forces defined. Uh,

497
00:26:06,640 --> 00:26:08,880
Speaker 1: and then what happens next? And then the next thing

498
00:26:08,920 --> 00:26:12,359
Speaker 1: to split off is the strong force. So gravity split off,

499
00:26:12,440 --> 00:26:14,560
Speaker 1: and then the strong force splits off. So now we

500
00:26:14,600 --> 00:26:16,720
Speaker 1: have gravity, we have the strong force, and we have

501
00:26:16,800 --> 00:26:20,000
Speaker 1: the electro weak force electro week being the combination of

502
00:26:20,000 --> 00:26:24,080
Speaker 1: electromagnetism and the weak force. Remember still we have no particles,

503
00:26:24,080 --> 00:26:26,479
Speaker 1: so these things aren't like forces that we think of

504
00:26:26,520 --> 00:26:29,560
Speaker 1: today that are balancing particles around. It's just the fields

505
00:26:29,640 --> 00:26:34,000
Speaker 1: now have different properties. They operate differently, they contain energy differently,

506
00:26:34,240 --> 00:26:36,960
Speaker 1: they have different strengths. As the universe is coolest, so

507
00:26:37,000 --> 00:26:39,679
Speaker 1: gravity split off, but it's not like bringing anything together

508
00:26:39,720 --> 00:26:42,000
Speaker 1: because there is no thing. Well, gravity is doing what

509
00:26:42,080 --> 00:26:44,520
Speaker 1: gravity does. It's you know, the bending of space. But

510
00:26:44,960 --> 00:26:48,040
Speaker 1: you know, even talking about merging gravity with these other

511
00:26:48,080 --> 00:26:51,200
Speaker 1: forces requires a conceptual leap that we haven't made yet,

512
00:26:51,359 --> 00:26:54,440
Speaker 1: which is thinking about gravity as a quantum field, which

513
00:26:54,480 --> 00:26:57,400
Speaker 1: we don't know how to do, especially in the early universe.

514
00:26:57,640 --> 00:27:00,119
Speaker 1: So we are really out on very thin ice, or

515
00:27:00,160 --> 00:27:04,199
Speaker 1: conceptually would like maybe if gravity can be unified with

516
00:27:04,200 --> 00:27:06,720
Speaker 1: the other forces, then it was the first thing to

517
00:27:06,720 --> 00:27:09,200
Speaker 1: split off of some mega force which might exist. And

518
00:27:09,359 --> 00:27:14,200
Speaker 1: I can't emphasize enough how much respeculating cluelessly here, Okay, right, right,

519
00:27:14,280 --> 00:27:16,639
Speaker 1: if gravity is a quantum field, this is kind of

520
00:27:16,640 --> 00:27:19,840
Speaker 1: what we might expect. Yeah, yeah, exactly. But it's not

521
00:27:19,880 --> 00:27:21,760
Speaker 1: like we have a firm prediction that we can like

522
00:27:21,960 --> 00:27:25,760
Speaker 1: interrogate and explore. It's just like, hopefully somebody clever comes

523
00:27:25,760 --> 00:27:28,119
Speaker 1: along and figures out how to make gravity quantum field

524
00:27:28,240 --> 00:27:30,159
Speaker 1: and maybe it would work like this. All right, So

525
00:27:30,200 --> 00:27:32,399
Speaker 1: now that and we split off the strong force, now

526
00:27:32,440 --> 00:27:35,880
Speaker 1: we have more forces, and then something dramatic happens at

527
00:27:35,880 --> 00:27:39,160
Speaker 1: around ten to the minus thirty two seconds. Right, Yeah,

528
00:27:39,359 --> 00:27:42,240
Speaker 1: here's where the excitement really happens, and we don't know why,

529
00:27:42,560 --> 00:27:45,240
Speaker 1: but we think at this point, for some reason, the

530
00:27:45,359 --> 00:27:50,640
Speaker 1: universe started to expand extraordinarily rapidly, like space itself expanded,

531
00:27:50,720 --> 00:27:54,040
Speaker 1: not just stuff flying through space slashing around, but space

532
00:27:54,080 --> 00:27:58,320
Speaker 1: itself got stretched. Remember that space can expand based on

533
00:27:58,359 --> 00:28:00,720
Speaker 1: the mass that's in it, Like we know the space

534
00:28:00,800 --> 00:28:03,840
Speaker 1: is expanding right now. In their current universe is something

535
00:28:03,880 --> 00:28:06,919
Speaker 1: called dark energy, which is creating new space, not just

536
00:28:07,280 --> 00:28:10,840
Speaker 1: pulling on space, not pushing things further apart through space,

537
00:28:10,840 --> 00:28:14,400
Speaker 1: but actually like adding new bits of space between galaxies.

538
00:28:15,000 --> 00:28:17,680
Speaker 1: So that can definitely happen, and we know that it

539
00:28:17,720 --> 00:28:20,639
Speaker 1: did happen in the very early which were created more space.

540
00:28:21,040 --> 00:28:24,040
Speaker 1: The universe just started just creating at a crazy rate. Right.

541
00:28:24,240 --> 00:28:25,960
Speaker 1: It's the kind of this kind of the bang in

542
00:28:26,000 --> 00:28:27,800
Speaker 1: the Big Bang theory. Yeah, this is sort of the

543
00:28:28,200 --> 00:28:30,359
Speaker 1: bang and the Big Bang theory. I mean, originally people

544
00:28:30,400 --> 00:28:32,359
Speaker 1: thought of the Big Bang is like a dot and

545
00:28:32,400 --> 00:28:35,800
Speaker 1: things explode through space. These days, we have this period

546
00:28:36,000 --> 00:28:38,520
Speaker 1: we're talking about now, which we call inflation, and then

547
00:28:38,560 --> 00:28:40,720
Speaker 1: we think of the hot Big Bang is basically at

548
00:28:40,720 --> 00:28:43,320
Speaker 1: the very end of inflation. But you know, the terms

549
00:28:43,360 --> 00:28:46,160
Speaker 1: are a little fuzzy, but essentially here you have the

550
00:28:46,160 --> 00:28:50,440
Speaker 1: biggest bang. I mean, the universe expands by a ridiculous amount.

551
00:28:50,440 --> 00:28:55,840
Speaker 1: It's ten to the seventy eight ten ten to zero.

552
00:28:55,960 --> 00:28:58,320
Speaker 1: So you take a piece of space that's like a

553
00:28:58,440 --> 00:29:02,160
Speaker 1: nanometer across, very very quickly, in like ten to the

554
00:29:02,160 --> 00:29:07,280
Speaker 1: minus thirty two seconds, you expanded to a hundred trillion kilometers. Crazy.

555
00:29:07,520 --> 00:29:10,560
Speaker 1: So in ten to the minus thirty two point zero

556
00:29:10,640 --> 00:29:16,080
Speaker 1: zero zeros one seconds, the universe for some reason just

557
00:29:16,600 --> 00:29:19,760
Speaker 1: was like come out of here. Yeah, exactly, And and

558
00:29:19,800 --> 00:29:22,600
Speaker 1: we don't know why. We we have, like you know,

559
00:29:22,800 --> 00:29:25,480
Speaker 1: given fancy names to this theory to make it sound

560
00:29:25,520 --> 00:29:27,360
Speaker 1: like it's a thing we know how to deal with.

561
00:29:27,760 --> 00:29:30,000
Speaker 1: We call the inflation theory. We think maybe it was

562
00:29:30,040 --> 00:29:34,080
Speaker 1: generated by the inflaton field, but that's really just like saying, oh,

563
00:29:34,160 --> 00:29:38,160
Speaker 1: you know, the answer is a fluctuation in my cluelessness field,

564
00:29:38,240 --> 00:29:41,120
Speaker 1: like I really just don't know. For this into the

565
00:29:41,160 --> 00:29:45,960
Speaker 1: framework of ideas, so it sounds clever, so they're like, oh,

566
00:29:46,240 --> 00:29:49,760
Speaker 1: they blew up. And it could be, you know, that

567
00:29:49,800 --> 00:29:53,680
Speaker 1: it's triggered by the electroweak breaking that like maybe breaking

568
00:29:53,680 --> 00:29:56,760
Speaker 1: off the strong force from the electroweak force created the

569
00:29:56,800 --> 00:29:59,920
Speaker 1: infloton field or settled the infloton field into a way

570
00:30:00,040 --> 00:30:03,040
Speaker 1: that made it do this crazy expansion. But this is

571
00:30:03,080 --> 00:30:07,440
Speaker 1: guessing upon guess. We are very confident that inflation happened.

572
00:30:07,720 --> 00:30:10,160
Speaker 1: I mean the things that it predicts are very specific

573
00:30:10,480 --> 00:30:14,880
Speaker 1: and very concrete. You know, like before inflation, the universe

574
00:30:14,960 --> 00:30:18,080
Speaker 1: is very hot and dense, but not totally uniform because

575
00:30:18,080 --> 00:30:20,840
Speaker 1: it's quantum mechanical, and so you get subspots that have

576
00:30:20,960 --> 00:30:23,840
Speaker 1: like little quantum fluctuations of a little bit more density

577
00:30:23,880 --> 00:30:26,400
Speaker 1: and quantum fluctuation is a little bit less density, really

578
00:30:26,400 --> 00:30:30,920
Speaker 1: really tiny variations. But then this inflation is stretching, turns

579
00:30:31,000 --> 00:30:35,200
Speaker 1: those little seeds of over densities into big structures which

580
00:30:35,240 --> 00:30:37,280
Speaker 1: then form the structure of the universe. And we can

581
00:30:37,600 --> 00:30:40,520
Speaker 1: do all those simulations and it describes very well what

582
00:30:40,560 --> 00:30:43,400
Speaker 1: we see today is thing. And I guess one question

583
00:30:43,480 --> 00:30:45,880
Speaker 1: is where did all the space come from? Like when

584
00:30:45,920 --> 00:30:48,800
Speaker 1: you make space, does it require energy? Yeah, we don't

585
00:30:48,800 --> 00:30:51,200
Speaker 1: really know. I mean, we know that the universe is

586
00:30:51,200 --> 00:30:55,000
Speaker 1: not closed, and so an energy conservation is not required

587
00:30:55,080 --> 00:30:59,000
Speaker 1: by general relativity to make space, you don't need energy. Maybe, well,

588
00:30:59,040 --> 00:31:02,080
Speaker 1: you know space is energy, like space has energy in it.

589
00:31:02,200 --> 00:31:04,480
Speaker 1: When you create space, it has all these fields, and

590
00:31:04,520 --> 00:31:07,120
Speaker 1: those fields have energy in them, and so when you

591
00:31:07,200 --> 00:31:10,200
Speaker 1: create space, it's like creating energy. So it's not something

592
00:31:10,240 --> 00:31:12,640
Speaker 1: that we understand. It's not something we know how to do,

593
00:31:13,160 --> 00:31:15,600
Speaker 1: or that we understand the rules about. We see it

594
00:31:15,680 --> 00:31:18,680
Speaker 1: happening in our current universe. We don't understand the mechanism

595
00:31:18,680 --> 00:31:20,960
Speaker 1: behind it. We call it dark energy because we're clueless.

596
00:31:21,320 --> 00:31:23,440
Speaker 1: We know that it happened in the very early universe.

597
00:31:23,840 --> 00:31:27,320
Speaker 1: Maybe it's the same mechanism, maybe it's something totally different.

598
00:31:27,440 --> 00:31:29,320
Speaker 1: We really just don't know, all right, So now we're

599
00:31:29,320 --> 00:31:33,080
Speaker 1: getting almost to the two microsecond mark, So let's finish

600
00:31:33,080 --> 00:31:35,880
Speaker 1: off what happens in the first two microseconds, and then

601
00:31:35,920 --> 00:31:38,520
Speaker 1: we'll go on to our next question. But first let's

602
00:31:38,560 --> 00:31:53,560
Speaker 1: to get quick break, all right, Daniel, we just exploded

603
00:31:53,600 --> 00:31:57,440
Speaker 1: the universe. We just went through inflation. In the first

604
00:31:57,480 --> 00:32:01,160
Speaker 1: tent of the minus thirty two seconds, one ter became

605
00:32:01,280 --> 00:32:06,440
Speaker 1: a hundred trillion kilometers. Now things are expanding like crazy.

606
00:32:06,760 --> 00:32:10,320
Speaker 1: Quantum fluctuations make a huge difference. Now what happens now

607
00:32:10,360 --> 00:32:14,200
Speaker 1: we finally get particles. Things have cooled down enough that

608
00:32:14,320 --> 00:32:17,880
Speaker 1: the energy that's in the field is distinct and discretized,

609
00:32:17,920 --> 00:32:20,000
Speaker 1: and you can follow it around. You can say, oh,

610
00:32:20,160 --> 00:32:23,080
Speaker 1: this little blob of energy in the electron field is

611
00:32:23,160 --> 00:32:26,080
Speaker 1: moving through space in a coherent way. You can call

612
00:32:26,160 --> 00:32:29,040
Speaker 1: this an electron and the same for the other fields.

613
00:32:29,240 --> 00:32:32,200
Speaker 1: And so you start to get particles made, and you

614
00:32:32,240 --> 00:32:34,720
Speaker 1: get the last moment of breaking that we're aware of

615
00:32:35,120 --> 00:32:37,800
Speaker 1: the electro weak force, which at the time was just

616
00:32:37,960 --> 00:32:40,840
Speaker 1: one force. You know, there wasn't like a separate photon

617
00:32:41,000 --> 00:32:44,040
Speaker 1: and W n z bosons acting separately. It was a

618
00:32:44,080 --> 00:32:47,760
Speaker 1: single force with four of its own bosons. This field

619
00:32:47,760 --> 00:32:51,840
Speaker 1: now breaks, and it breaks into electromagnetism and the weak force.

620
00:32:51,920 --> 00:32:54,479
Speaker 1: It becomes two forces. It becomes two forces that are

621
00:32:54,480 --> 00:32:57,600
Speaker 1: still closely connected. I mean, they're two broken pieces of

622
00:32:57,600 --> 00:32:59,600
Speaker 1: a larger force. You can sort of like fit them

623
00:32:59,600 --> 00:33:02,560
Speaker 1: together roughly the way you can fit continents together, you know,

624
00:33:02,600 --> 00:33:05,040
Speaker 1: like you can think of the mega continent breaks into

625
00:33:05,080 --> 00:33:07,360
Speaker 1: little continents and now they're a little different, but the

626
00:33:07,400 --> 00:33:09,800
Speaker 1: contours sort of match, and so you can think about

627
00:33:09,840 --> 00:33:13,760
Speaker 1: their history. Right, And this is another example spontaneous symmetry.

628
00:33:13,760 --> 00:33:17,440
Speaker 1: Breaking the Higgs field gives the photon no mass, and

629
00:33:17,480 --> 00:33:19,720
Speaker 1: it gives the ws and z s a lot of mass,

630
00:33:20,040 --> 00:33:23,160
Speaker 1: So all of a sudden, the weak force becomes really

631
00:33:23,160 --> 00:33:26,640
Speaker 1: really weak. Interesting, and so then that's what kind of

632
00:33:26,800 --> 00:33:29,320
Speaker 1: gives rise to the Higgs field, which is the one

633
00:33:29,360 --> 00:33:32,080
Speaker 1: that gives mass to everything. Yeah, so the Higgs field,

634
00:33:32,160 --> 00:33:34,719
Speaker 1: like all the other field started out really hot. It

635
00:33:34,800 --> 00:33:37,280
Speaker 1: was cooling down and cooling down, and most of the

636
00:33:37,280 --> 00:33:39,640
Speaker 1: other fields they like settled down to zero, but the

637
00:33:39,720 --> 00:33:42,680
Speaker 1: Higgs field got stuck, got stuck at a certain point

638
00:33:42,680 --> 00:33:44,680
Speaker 1: where it couldn't go any lower because it has a

639
00:33:44,720 --> 00:33:46,560
Speaker 1: really weird shape to It's like you know, on the

640
00:33:46,680 --> 00:33:49,040
Speaker 1: edge of a canyon wall. It's got a little like

641
00:33:49,400 --> 00:33:51,240
Speaker 1: dip in it, so you can get stuck in a

642
00:33:51,240 --> 00:33:54,240
Speaker 1: little like on the precipice, like a little buzz right,

643
00:33:54,720 --> 00:33:57,120
Speaker 1: And it got stuck there. And because it got stuck

644
00:33:57,160 --> 00:34:00,040
Speaker 1: there and not somewhere else, it gave mass to the

645
00:34:00,240 --> 00:34:02,680
Speaker 1: ws and disease, but not the photon and also to

646
00:34:02,760 --> 00:34:05,360
Speaker 1: the other part of it. So all the other particles

647
00:34:05,520 --> 00:34:08,160
Speaker 1: their mass then gets fixed because the Higgs field got

648
00:34:08,160 --> 00:34:10,719
Speaker 1: stuck at this value. And before so before that we

649
00:34:10,760 --> 00:34:13,640
Speaker 1: didn't have mass, or we just didn't have like consistent mass,

650
00:34:13,760 --> 00:34:16,080
Speaker 1: or you can't even talk about mass. It's harder to

651
00:34:16,120 --> 00:34:18,880
Speaker 1: talk about mass before. The particles really are like separate,

652
00:34:18,920 --> 00:34:22,120
Speaker 1: identifiable spots. But the mass of the particles depends on

653
00:34:22,160 --> 00:34:24,520
Speaker 1: the energy of the Higgs field. So as the universe

654
00:34:24,600 --> 00:34:26,600
Speaker 1: is cooling down and the Higgs field is cooling down,

655
00:34:26,680 --> 00:34:28,719
Speaker 1: you can think of it as like the masses of

656
00:34:28,719 --> 00:34:31,800
Speaker 1: the particles are decreasing because the Higgs field is cooling down.

657
00:34:32,880 --> 00:34:35,760
Speaker 1: All right, So now all of our forces are in motion.

658
00:34:35,800 --> 00:34:39,719
Speaker 1: Now they're in play, and particles now exist, which is

659
00:34:39,760 --> 00:34:43,680
Speaker 1: crazy to think about that. We didn't have particles before. Yeah,

660
00:34:43,800 --> 00:34:45,880
Speaker 1: and now they have mass or they interact with the

661
00:34:45,920 --> 00:34:49,120
Speaker 1: Higgs field, and and so is that then? Kind of

662
00:34:49,360 --> 00:34:51,640
Speaker 1: is that it like is it a straight line from

663
00:34:51,680 --> 00:34:54,040
Speaker 1: there to here? Or are there there still things we

664
00:34:54,080 --> 00:34:55,960
Speaker 1: don't know. There's a lot of things we don't know,

665
00:34:56,040 --> 00:34:57,840
Speaker 1: but it's basically a straight line. I mean, now you

666
00:34:57,840 --> 00:35:00,440
Speaker 1: have particles, and the interactions in play are the ones

667
00:35:00,480 --> 00:35:03,880
Speaker 1: we're familiar with. There's electromagnetic fields, the weak force, the

668
00:35:03,960 --> 00:35:06,720
Speaker 1: strong force, there's gravity. But you know, it's still pretty

669
00:35:06,760 --> 00:35:09,719
Speaker 1: hard to understand, Like it's a hot, dense and nasty mess.

670
00:35:09,719 --> 00:35:13,000
Speaker 1: Like it's mostly quarks and leftons, but they are too

671
00:35:13,040 --> 00:35:15,160
Speaker 1: hot to form any larger particles, Like you don't have

672
00:35:15,400 --> 00:35:18,400
Speaker 1: protons and neutrons and stuff like that, which are bound

673
00:35:18,440 --> 00:35:23,799
Speaker 1: states books just quarks quarks and flying around annihilating each other,

674
00:35:23,840 --> 00:35:27,479
Speaker 1: constantly turning into photons, turning back into particles. It's still

675
00:35:27,600 --> 00:35:30,359
Speaker 1: hot and dense, and then things are cooling off, so

676
00:35:30,480 --> 00:35:33,839
Speaker 1: like you know about after one micro second you get

677
00:35:33,840 --> 00:35:36,560
Speaker 1: this cork glue on plasma. Things start to cool off,

678
00:35:36,600 --> 00:35:39,240
Speaker 1: and then you get things like protons and neutrons and whatever.

679
00:35:39,640 --> 00:35:42,400
Speaker 1: And there's a really interesting mystery there about like what

680
00:35:42,600 --> 00:35:46,360
Speaker 1: happened to all the anti matter. If everything was symmetric,

681
00:35:46,400 --> 00:35:48,399
Speaker 1: you would expect the fields to create like as much

682
00:35:48,440 --> 00:35:51,640
Speaker 1: matter and antimatter should all annihilate into a universe filled

683
00:35:51,680 --> 00:35:54,719
Speaker 1: with light. But instead there was some asymmetry there. We

684
00:35:54,800 --> 00:35:57,719
Speaker 1: ended up with like a little bit more matter than antimatter.

685
00:35:57,840 --> 00:35:59,759
Speaker 1: Most of it is gone, but a little bit of

686
00:35:59,760 --> 00:36:01,960
Speaker 1: matter or was left, and that's what led in a

687
00:36:02,000 --> 00:36:04,560
Speaker 1: straight line to where we are today. I think the

688
00:36:04,640 --> 00:36:06,560
Speaker 1: lesson here is a lot happened in the first two

689
00:36:06,600 --> 00:36:10,959
Speaker 1: hundred microseconds. We missed the big party. I just feel

690
00:36:11,000 --> 00:36:14,200
Speaker 1: like we went through an hour of just to cover

691
00:36:14,200 --> 00:36:17,440
Speaker 1: a two d microseconds. That's amazing, So a lot happened, right,

692
00:36:17,520 --> 00:36:19,920
Speaker 1: and a lot could have happened. Yeah, the history of

693
00:36:19,920 --> 00:36:23,080
Speaker 1: the universe has been pretty boring ever since. You know,

694
00:36:23,160 --> 00:36:25,440
Speaker 1: like most of the excitement was in the first few

695
00:36:25,560 --> 00:36:29,440
Speaker 1: tiny slices of time, and ever since then it's been

696
00:36:29,440 --> 00:36:32,120
Speaker 1: pretty slow. But you know, think about it, like on

697
00:36:32,200 --> 00:36:36,160
Speaker 1: the cosmic time scale, like trillions and quadrillions of years,

698
00:36:36,640 --> 00:36:41,280
Speaker 1: it could be that, you know, intelligent species in septillion years.

699
00:36:41,560 --> 00:36:44,040
Speaker 1: Think about the first few billion years of the universe

700
00:36:44,120 --> 00:36:47,360
Speaker 1: as like, you know, the first moments, because you know,

701
00:36:47,440 --> 00:36:49,600
Speaker 1: it could be that the universe is very different in

702
00:36:49,600 --> 00:36:52,480
Speaker 1: a trillion years, that it's all just black holes separated

703
00:36:52,520 --> 00:36:55,759
Speaker 1: by vast distances or something else forms. You know, there's

704
00:36:55,760 --> 00:37:00,000
Speaker 1: so many fascinating emergent phenomena they're really hard to anticipate,

705
00:37:00,600 --> 00:37:03,719
Speaker 1: and so you know, maybe this will seem exciting to

706
00:37:03,760 --> 00:37:06,560
Speaker 1: people who come much much later. Yeah, I'm sure they'll say, like,

707
00:37:06,640 --> 00:37:08,680
Speaker 1: you know, that day where they post the two hundred

708
00:37:08,719 --> 00:37:11,320
Speaker 1: episode of Daniel and Horge Explained the Universe, that's the

709
00:37:11,480 --> 00:37:15,400
Speaker 1: equal zero to us. That's when that's when the party

710
00:37:15,440 --> 00:37:19,440
Speaker 1: really started. Before then, it's not even really worth there,

711
00:37:21,320 --> 00:37:23,560
Speaker 1: all right, Well, I think the answer is a lot

712
00:37:23,600 --> 00:37:26,680
Speaker 1: happened in the first two hundred microseconds of the universe,

713
00:37:26,920 --> 00:37:29,680
Speaker 1: which is amazing. All right, we have one more question here.

714
00:37:30,080 --> 00:37:32,320
Speaker 1: I think we might have to talk about it in

715
00:37:32,360 --> 00:37:36,360
Speaker 1: two hundred microseconds, Daniel. But the question is pretty interesting.

716
00:37:36,640 --> 00:37:39,680
Speaker 1: It's something I thought about as we try to brainstorm

717
00:37:39,719 --> 00:37:42,520
Speaker 1: ideas for this episode. But the question is what can

718
00:37:42,600 --> 00:37:46,319
Speaker 1: we find within two hundred light years of Earth? So

719
00:37:47,239 --> 00:37:48,960
Speaker 1: I guess, first of all, how much is two hundred

720
00:37:49,000 --> 00:37:52,359
Speaker 1: light years? Like a few Brazilian kilometers? Yeah, a light

721
00:37:52,440 --> 00:37:55,160
Speaker 1: year is really far. So a light year is like

722
00:37:55,440 --> 00:37:59,919
Speaker 1: nine point five times ten to the twelve kilometers. That's

723
00:38:00,000 --> 00:38:02,400
Speaker 1: why we use light years, because the distances in the

724
00:38:02,480 --> 00:38:05,920
Speaker 1: universe are so vast the kilometers become an absurd unity.

725
00:38:06,000 --> 00:38:09,040
Speaker 1: So it's like two hundred million million kilometers. So if

726
00:38:09,040 --> 00:38:11,120
Speaker 1: you could hop in a spaceship and go two hundred

727
00:38:11,160 --> 00:38:14,920
Speaker 1: million million kilometers, where could we go visit? Yeah? So

728
00:38:15,360 --> 00:38:17,560
Speaker 1: mostly the universe is empty. You know, you pick our

729
00:38:17,640 --> 00:38:21,200
Speaker 1: random spot outside the Solar system and you go in

730
00:38:21,280 --> 00:38:24,360
Speaker 1: a straight line, you'll see nothing for two hundred light years. Like,

731
00:38:24,560 --> 00:38:27,040
Speaker 1: it's just not much there. The universe is not very

732
00:38:27,120 --> 00:38:30,359
Speaker 1: dense anymore. And you know, I read these science fiction

733
00:38:30,400 --> 00:38:33,319
Speaker 1: novels about people flying through space and like hitting asteroid

734
00:38:33,360 --> 00:38:36,120
Speaker 1: fields and bumping into stars, and I'm like, it's just

735
00:38:36,160 --> 00:38:39,120
Speaker 1: not that much stuff out there. Likely, No, It's like

736
00:38:39,160 --> 00:38:42,000
Speaker 1: swimming in the ocean. How often do you really encounter

737
00:38:42,120 --> 00:38:45,399
Speaker 1: a desert island? Like? Really not that often? Oh, I see,

738
00:38:45,400 --> 00:38:47,080
Speaker 1: that's a good analogy. Like if you were in the

739
00:38:47,080 --> 00:38:50,640
Speaker 1: middle of the ocean and you went a few hundred kilometers,

740
00:38:51,040 --> 00:38:53,040
Speaker 1: you know, what are the chances that you'll hit another island?

741
00:38:53,040 --> 00:38:56,239
Speaker 1: Pretty small? Yeah, pretty small. It's mostly just ocean out there.

742
00:38:56,719 --> 00:38:58,960
Speaker 1: But there are things out there, and mostly within two

743
00:38:59,040 --> 00:39:01,240
Speaker 1: hundred light years of Earth. There are a bunch of stars,

744
00:39:01,560 --> 00:39:04,400
Speaker 1: but you know, not that close. Like the closest star really,

745
00:39:04,520 --> 00:39:07,239
Speaker 1: once you leave our Solar system, the closest thing that

746
00:39:07,320 --> 00:39:09,879
Speaker 1: you can find to our Solar system is a star

747
00:39:09,960 --> 00:39:13,560
Speaker 1: called Proximus Centauri. It's about four point two light years away.

748
00:39:13,840 --> 00:39:16,799
Speaker 1: It's done the name of an Avengers villain. I feel

749
00:39:16,840 --> 00:39:19,279
Speaker 1: like I've heard that name before. Are you auditioning to

750
00:39:19,360 --> 00:39:21,239
Speaker 1: be in the next Marvel movie? That's what happening here?

751
00:39:22,239 --> 00:39:24,920
Speaker 1: To be the voiceover? I think Proximate can Centauri, the

752
00:39:24,960 --> 00:39:27,319
Speaker 1: Marvel villain can do two hundred accents. So if you

753
00:39:27,360 --> 00:39:30,879
Speaker 1: really want to audition, then we've got to hear some accents. Yeah,

754
00:39:30,920 --> 00:39:33,080
Speaker 1: all right, so that's the nearest star. I guess how

755
00:39:33,120 --> 00:39:35,359
Speaker 1: how many stars can we find within two hundred light years?

756
00:39:35,440 --> 00:39:38,200
Speaker 1: You know, surprisingly, you can find a lot of stars. Now,

757
00:39:38,400 --> 00:39:41,080
Speaker 1: on one hand, stars are not very dense. I mean,

758
00:39:41,320 --> 00:39:44,920
Speaker 1: in our galactic neighborhood, there's about one star per two

759
00:39:45,080 --> 00:39:49,880
Speaker 1: hundred and fifty cubic light years. But as the radius

760
00:39:49,920 --> 00:39:52,640
Speaker 1: of your sphere grows, the volume of it goes up

761
00:39:52,719 --> 00:39:56,000
Speaker 1: very quickly, goes up with radius cubed. So a sphere

762
00:39:56,080 --> 00:39:59,400
Speaker 1: with radius two hundred light years has a lot of

763
00:39:59,520 --> 00:40:03,080
Speaker 1: cubic light years, like thirty million. If you go at

764
00:40:03,080 --> 00:40:05,319
Speaker 1: about two hundred light years, there's something like, you know,

765
00:40:05,480 --> 00:40:08,960
Speaker 1: tens of thousands or maybe a hundred thousand stars in

766
00:40:09,040 --> 00:40:12,440
Speaker 1: that volume. Really, yeah, I could visit a hundred thousand

767
00:40:12,520 --> 00:40:15,239
Speaker 1: stars within two hundred light years. Yes, But you know,

768
00:40:15,280 --> 00:40:17,719
Speaker 1: if you travel in a straight line two hundred years,

769
00:40:17,760 --> 00:40:20,200
Speaker 1: you would probably find very small number of stars. If

770
00:40:20,239 --> 00:40:25,120
Speaker 1: you completely visited a spear with radius two hundred light years,

771
00:40:25,280 --> 00:40:27,120
Speaker 1: would be a hundred thousand stars there. But you know,

772
00:40:27,200 --> 00:40:30,520
Speaker 1: like the list of destinations I can go. Is it's

773
00:40:30,600 --> 00:40:33,360
Speaker 1: like a hundred thousand stars. Yeah, there's a lot of options.

774
00:40:33,360 --> 00:40:35,760
Speaker 1: I mean, if you like decisions and you like choices,

775
00:40:36,000 --> 00:40:37,840
Speaker 1: then there's a lot of options. Most of them are

776
00:40:37,840 --> 00:40:40,200
Speaker 1: pretty far away. I mean, the vast majority of those

777
00:40:40,280 --> 00:40:43,800
Speaker 1: hundred thousand are on a thin shell on the outside

778
00:40:43,840 --> 00:40:46,040
Speaker 1: of that sphere, mostly because that's where most of the

779
00:40:46,120 --> 00:40:48,799
Speaker 1: volume is. But they say that, you know, about one

780
00:40:48,800 --> 00:40:51,640
Speaker 1: in five star has an Earth like planet, So we're

781
00:40:51,680 --> 00:40:55,480
Speaker 1: talking about like there's twenty thousand earthlike planets I could visit. Yeah,

782
00:40:55,480 --> 00:40:57,319
Speaker 1: there are definitely a lot of Earth like planets, and

783
00:40:57,320 --> 00:41:00,520
Speaker 1: we think that most of those solar systems have planets

784
00:41:00,520 --> 00:41:03,400
Speaker 1: like multiple planets, which is fascinating. We don't know a

785
00:41:03,400 --> 00:41:05,880
Speaker 1: lot about like what those solar systems look like, and

786
00:41:05,880 --> 00:41:08,360
Speaker 1: how often do you get big gas giants and rocky

787
00:41:08,400 --> 00:41:11,680
Speaker 1: inner worlds, And is our solar system unusual or totally typical.

788
00:41:12,120 --> 00:41:14,640
Speaker 1: Something that is unusual about our solar system that you'll

789
00:41:14,680 --> 00:41:18,000
Speaker 1: discover as you look around in the solar system is

790
00:41:18,000 --> 00:41:21,720
Speaker 1: how many solar systems have multiple stars. Like in the

791
00:41:21,760 --> 00:41:25,800
Speaker 1: closest fifteen light years is like fifty something stars, and

792
00:41:25,840 --> 00:41:28,080
Speaker 1: about half of them are single stars, just like a

793
00:41:28,120 --> 00:41:30,880
Speaker 1: star with planets around it. But there's like ten of

794
00:41:30,920 --> 00:41:34,200
Speaker 1: them that are binary systems, like two stars orbiting each

795
00:41:34,200 --> 00:41:37,800
Speaker 1: other and then planets around the wo that's common. That's common.

796
00:41:37,880 --> 00:41:41,640
Speaker 1: And even within fifteen light years there are four systems

797
00:41:41,640 --> 00:41:45,439
Speaker 1: that are trinary systems that have three stars in orbit

798
00:41:45,560 --> 00:41:48,280
Speaker 1: around each other. That's pretty cool. So in Star Wars

799
00:41:48,280 --> 00:41:50,160
Speaker 1: when Luke is looking out at the two suns on

800
00:41:50,239 --> 00:41:53,600
Speaker 1: the horizon, that's like maybe more common than you think.

801
00:41:53,800 --> 00:41:55,960
Speaker 1: That's not rare. It's a lot more common than you think.

802
00:41:56,000 --> 00:41:58,359
Speaker 1: And if you think about how things form, you start

803
00:41:58,400 --> 00:42:00,799
Speaker 1: from a big cloud and things cold less, and so

804
00:42:00,880 --> 00:42:04,120
Speaker 1: it's not necessary for its all coalesceent to one really

805
00:42:04,239 --> 00:42:06,799
Speaker 1: big blob in the center of a solar system. If

806
00:42:06,800 --> 00:42:08,360
Speaker 1: you have like a little bit of density here, in

807
00:42:08,360 --> 00:42:10,600
Speaker 1: a little bit of density there, it can form two.

808
00:42:10,960 --> 00:42:13,200
Speaker 1: Or if two stars form close enough to each other,

809
00:42:13,480 --> 00:42:16,480
Speaker 1: they'll pull on each other and form one of these systems.

810
00:42:16,960 --> 00:42:19,719
Speaker 1: Some listeners send me an awesome question recently. He said,

811
00:42:19,760 --> 00:42:22,239
Speaker 1: are there any stars out there that have sort of

812
00:42:22,320 --> 00:42:26,600
Speaker 1: two planetary disks, Like one planetary disc aligned in one

813
00:42:26,600 --> 00:42:28,560
Speaker 1: way and then the second one aligned you know, at

814
00:42:28,600 --> 00:42:31,880
Speaker 1: an angle to it like two hula hoops. Yeah, like

815
00:42:31,920 --> 00:42:34,600
Speaker 1: two hula hoops. And I don't know if one, but

816
00:42:34,680 --> 00:42:36,960
Speaker 1: there's no reason to think there couldn't be. Like if

817
00:42:37,000 --> 00:42:39,520
Speaker 1: you had two solar systems that sort of merged and

818
00:42:39,600 --> 00:42:41,800
Speaker 1: the stars combined in the center, or you get a

819
00:42:41,800 --> 00:42:44,600
Speaker 1: binary star system in the center, they could keep each

820
00:42:44,600 --> 00:42:47,799
Speaker 1: of their planetary disks and it would be at different angles,

821
00:42:47,880 --> 00:42:49,960
Speaker 1: and so that could totally happen. I think that would

822
00:42:50,000 --> 00:42:52,279
Speaker 1: be an awesome setting for a science fiction right, but

823
00:42:52,480 --> 00:42:54,160
Speaker 1: every year you go around the Sun, you'll be like,

824
00:42:54,280 --> 00:42:56,560
Speaker 1: watch out for those other this other planet is would

825
00:42:56,560 --> 00:43:00,160
Speaker 1: be a drama every year. It would have to work

826
00:43:00,239 --> 00:43:02,839
Speaker 1: like clockwork, but it might make for some pretty cool

827
00:43:02,960 --> 00:43:05,840
Speaker 1: nighttime observations. All right, cool, So there's about a hundred

828
00:43:05,880 --> 00:43:08,239
Speaker 1: thousand stars within two hundred light years. What else can

829
00:43:08,239 --> 00:43:11,719
Speaker 1: we find in this bubble? Well, it's mostly it. I

830
00:43:11,760 --> 00:43:14,799
Speaker 1: mean in the galaxy we have stars. Of course, we

831
00:43:14,880 --> 00:43:18,520
Speaker 1: have gas clouds, which are the birthplace of stars, but

832
00:43:18,560 --> 00:43:20,800
Speaker 1: there aren't any of those within two hundred light years.

833
00:43:20,800 --> 00:43:23,320
Speaker 1: Like the closest one is about four hundred and something

834
00:43:23,400 --> 00:43:26,800
Speaker 1: light years away. It's called Taurus, and it's where stars

835
00:43:26,840 --> 00:43:28,680
Speaker 1: are being born. There are stars in there. They're like

836
00:43:28,800 --> 00:43:31,560
Speaker 1: one or two million years old, But we don't have

837
00:43:31,600 --> 00:43:34,680
Speaker 1: any of those big blobs inside our like two hundred

838
00:43:34,760 --> 00:43:39,680
Speaker 1: light year windows, because like a cluster itself is pretty big.

839
00:43:39,840 --> 00:43:42,000
Speaker 1: It's almost as big as two hundred light years. Yeah,

840
00:43:42,080 --> 00:43:44,200
Speaker 1: some of these gas clouds are are hundreds of light

841
00:43:44,280 --> 00:43:47,760
Speaker 1: years across. They're really vast. There's like the birthing regions

842
00:43:47,760 --> 00:43:51,080
Speaker 1: of stars. But there is a cluster of stars. Like

843
00:43:51,080 --> 00:43:53,320
Speaker 1: there's a big major cluster of stars. It's called the

844
00:43:53,360 --> 00:43:56,759
Speaker 1: Hyades cluster, and it's about a hundred and fifty light

845
00:43:56,800 --> 00:43:59,640
Speaker 1: years away. It's like six hundred something million years old,

846
00:44:00,080 --> 00:44:02,279
Speaker 1: and it's just like a big blob of stars that

847
00:44:02,280 --> 00:44:05,320
Speaker 1: are all together. It's probably comes from a really dense

848
00:44:05,360 --> 00:44:09,160
Speaker 1: region of of gas and molecules that got formed early on,

849
00:44:09,680 --> 00:44:11,920
Speaker 1: and so that's like a big blob of stars. So

850
00:44:12,040 --> 00:44:14,400
Speaker 1: I see, oh wow, that must be pretty amazing to

851
00:44:14,480 --> 00:44:16,800
Speaker 1: go near or to visit there. Yeah, And you know,

852
00:44:16,840 --> 00:44:18,279
Speaker 1: if you're looking to visit a lot of stars and a

853
00:44:18,239 --> 00:44:20,759
Speaker 1: a lot of planets at once, it's probably a good destination.

854
00:44:20,960 --> 00:44:22,880
Speaker 1: On the other hand, it's a hundred and fifty light

855
00:44:22,960 --> 00:44:25,160
Speaker 1: years away, so it's to take you a while to

856
00:44:25,239 --> 00:44:27,200
Speaker 1: get there. Well, I think this kind of tells you

857
00:44:27,239 --> 00:44:30,000
Speaker 1: how big the universe is, you know, two hundred light years,

858
00:44:30,040 --> 00:44:34,239
Speaker 1: Like that's even like if we prolong human life and

859
00:44:34,360 --> 00:44:36,600
Speaker 1: double it and was able to go at the speed

860
00:44:36,640 --> 00:44:38,720
Speaker 1: of light, that's as far as like any one person

861
00:44:38,760 --> 00:44:42,759
Speaker 1: could probably go without any kind of special awards beat

862
00:44:42,840 --> 00:44:45,680
Speaker 1: or wormhole, right. Yeah, And you know the thing that's

863
00:44:45,760 --> 00:44:48,640
Speaker 1: furthest away, the human device that's furthest away from the

864
00:44:48,719 --> 00:44:52,400
Speaker 1: Solar system right now is voyage or one. It's traveling

865
00:44:52,400 --> 00:44:56,080
Speaker 1: at sixty one thousand kilometers per hour, and if it

866
00:44:56,160 --> 00:44:59,520
Speaker 1: kept going, it would take another seventy thousand years to

867
00:44:59,600 --> 00:45:04,200
Speaker 1: reach the nearest star. Like, these distances are just incredible,

868
00:45:05,360 --> 00:45:09,279
Speaker 1: and it's already eighteen billion kilometers away from us, but

869
00:45:09,400 --> 00:45:12,000
Speaker 1: that's just like a tiny fraction of the distance to

870
00:45:12,000 --> 00:45:16,120
Speaker 1: approximates centauri. I see, seventy thousand years, that's like what

871
00:45:16,360 --> 00:45:21,600
Speaker 1: three thousand more episodes, Daniel, I got all those ideas. Yeah,

872
00:45:21,719 --> 00:45:24,840
Speaker 1: I've sketched them out already. You would really like to

873
00:45:24,840 --> 00:45:28,040
Speaker 1: work ahead. Yeah, And you know, if you think about

874
00:45:28,040 --> 00:45:31,520
Speaker 1: the larger context you know of our galaxy. Our galaxy

875
00:45:31,560 --> 00:45:33,760
Speaker 1: is a hundred thousand light years across. So a bubble

876
00:45:33,880 --> 00:45:37,360
Speaker 1: two hundred light years is really a tiny neighborhood. You know,

877
00:45:37,400 --> 00:45:40,640
Speaker 1: the Sun itself is just like is twenty something thousand

878
00:45:40,760 --> 00:45:43,800
Speaker 1: light years from the center of the galaxy. So even

879
00:45:43,840 --> 00:45:46,760
Speaker 1: like the most we might right now could imagine traveling

880
00:45:46,800 --> 00:45:49,719
Speaker 1: to for a single human is is a drop in

881
00:45:49,719 --> 00:45:52,279
Speaker 1: the bucket of the size of our galaxy. Yeah, if

882
00:45:52,320 --> 00:45:54,080
Speaker 1: you were looking at a map of the galaxy, you

883
00:45:54,080 --> 00:45:58,560
Speaker 1: wouldn't even notice that distance, right, Wow, alright, Well, I

884
00:45:58,560 --> 00:46:00,719
Speaker 1: feel like we covered a lot in the first two

885
00:46:01,440 --> 00:46:05,920
Speaker 1: seconds this podcast. And uh, we also got this kind

886
00:46:05,960 --> 00:46:09,440
Speaker 1: of amazing view of how big the galaxy is and

887
00:46:09,600 --> 00:46:12,320
Speaker 1: spaces and how empty it is. It's incredible how dense

888
00:46:12,320 --> 00:46:14,800
Speaker 1: and hot the universe used to be and how big

889
00:46:14,840 --> 00:46:17,800
Speaker 1: and cold it is today, and yet it's still filled

890
00:46:17,840 --> 00:46:20,839
Speaker 1: with mystery and our whole concept of the universe, where

891
00:46:20,880 --> 00:46:23,680
Speaker 1: it came from, how it began, what it looks like now,

892
00:46:23,760 --> 00:46:27,080
Speaker 1: what's out there could be totally rocked by discoveries that

893
00:46:27,120 --> 00:46:30,600
Speaker 1: are coming, discoveries made by scientists working today, over by

894
00:46:30,640 --> 00:46:34,320
Speaker 1: somebody out there listening to this podcast right now that's thinking, Hey,

895
00:46:34,320 --> 00:46:37,160
Speaker 1: maybe I could crack one of the biggest questions in

896
00:46:37,200 --> 00:46:39,799
Speaker 1: the universe because you know you could. Yeah, yeah, and

897
00:46:39,840 --> 00:46:44,440
Speaker 1: then we'll cover it here in our episode. That's right,

898
00:46:44,760 --> 00:46:46,360
Speaker 1: And so I want to say a personal thank you

899
00:46:46,400 --> 00:46:48,920
Speaker 1: to all the fans and listeners for tuning into all

900
00:46:48,920 --> 00:46:51,880
Speaker 1: these episodes, for sending us supportive messages, for letting us

901
00:46:51,920 --> 00:46:54,680
Speaker 1: know that you're enjoying what you're hearing, and for sharing

902
00:46:54,680 --> 00:46:57,440
Speaker 1: with us all of your wonder and your curiosity, and

903
00:46:57,480 --> 00:47:00,319
Speaker 1: for going on this crazy journey with us. Absolutely believe

904
00:47:00,360 --> 00:47:03,120
Speaker 1: we wouldn't be doing this without you. And thanks also

905
00:47:03,239 --> 00:47:05,440
Speaker 1: for letting all your friends know and all your context

906
00:47:05,520 --> 00:47:08,040
Speaker 1: note because the more people that are listening, the more

907
00:47:08,080 --> 00:47:11,719
Speaker 1: episodes we can make. All right, well, thanks again for

908
00:47:11,760 --> 00:47:14,680
Speaker 1: helping us celebrate our two hundred episode. We hope you

909
00:47:14,760 --> 00:47:25,279
Speaker 1: enjoyed that. See you next time. Thanks for listening, and

910
00:47:25,320 --> 00:47:28,040
Speaker 1: remember that Daniel and Jorge Explain the Universe is a

911
00:47:28,120 --> 00:47:31,560
Speaker 1: production of I Heart Radio. For more podcast For my

912
00:47:31,640 --> 00:47:35,239
Speaker 1: Heart Radio, visit the I Heart Radio app, Apple Podcasts,

913
00:47:35,360 --> 00:47:37,720
Speaker 1: or wherever you listen to your favorite shows