1 00:00:03,200 --> 00:00:06,559 Speaker 1: You're listening to Part Time Genius, the production of Kaleidoscope 2 00:00:06,720 --> 00:00:14,560 Speaker 1: and iHeartRadio. Guess what Will? What's that? Mango? I can't 3 00:00:14,600 --> 00:00:17,520 Speaker 1: believe it, but we are already halfway through our countdown 4 00:00:17,520 --> 00:00:20,439 Speaker 1: to the twenty five best science ideas from the past 5 00:00:20,520 --> 00:00:21,400 Speaker 1: twenty five years. 6 00:00:21,440 --> 00:00:22,080 Speaker 2: It's crazy. 7 00:00:22,120 --> 00:00:25,079 Speaker 1: So twelve and a half in exactly twelve and a 8 00:00:25,079 --> 00:00:27,400 Speaker 1: half in, and I don't know about you, but I 9 00:00:27,440 --> 00:00:29,240 Speaker 1: feel like these stories keep getting better and better. 10 00:00:29,520 --> 00:00:31,400 Speaker 2: I mean, that's kind of how it countdown works, but 11 00:00:31,480 --> 00:00:33,960 Speaker 2: I feel like you should tell people what is coming 12 00:00:34,040 --> 00:00:35,960 Speaker 2: up next, preview it well. 13 00:00:36,080 --> 00:00:40,280 Speaker 1: Today's episode has five stories, including what NASCAR does to 14 00:00:40,320 --> 00:00:43,000 Speaker 1: our brains, a clock that changed the way we think 15 00:00:43,000 --> 00:00:48,120 Speaker 1: about time, and our attempt to explain particle physics through music. 16 00:00:49,000 --> 00:00:49,919 Speaker 2: Is that even possible? 17 00:00:50,080 --> 00:01:14,280 Speaker 1: There's only one way to find out, so let's dive in. Hey, 18 00:01:14,319 --> 00:01:16,520 Speaker 1: their podcast listener is welcome to Part Time Genius. I'm 19 00:01:16,560 --> 00:01:19,959 Speaker 1: mungkish Heatikaur and as always I'm joined by my good 20 00:01:20,000 --> 00:01:24,160 Speaker 1: friend Will Pearson and our palam producer Dylan is over 21 00:01:24,160 --> 00:01:27,080 Speaker 1: there in the booth wearing his lucky sunglasses. So I 22 00:01:27,120 --> 00:01:30,280 Speaker 1: have a good feeling about today's episode. So in case 23 00:01:30,280 --> 00:01:33,760 Speaker 1: you're wondering. Yes, he does have unlucky sunglasses. We had 24 00:01:33,800 --> 00:01:36,199 Speaker 1: to ask him to stop wearing them during the show. 25 00:01:36,240 --> 00:01:39,720 Speaker 1: Only the lucky sunglasses. That's right, it was a whole thing. 26 00:01:40,080 --> 00:01:40,400 Speaker 3: It was. 27 00:01:40,640 --> 00:01:43,040 Speaker 1: Anyway, Before we get into the countdown, I just want 28 00:01:43,040 --> 00:01:45,360 Speaker 1: to remind you to subscribe to Part Time Genius on 29 00:01:45,440 --> 00:01:49,320 Speaker 1: your favorite podcast app, which should be iHeart the iHeart app. 30 00:01:49,600 --> 00:01:51,840 Speaker 1: And if you enjoy the show, which I hope you do, 31 00:01:51,960 --> 00:01:54,360 Speaker 1: please give us a nice rating and review. It really 32 00:01:54,400 --> 00:01:58,560 Speaker 1: helps us out. And also we actually read the comments. 33 00:01:58,560 --> 00:02:01,720 Speaker 1: Someone has to do a show on three D printing 34 00:02:01,800 --> 00:02:04,160 Speaker 1: and we're planning one in the works. And this week 35 00:02:04,360 --> 00:02:08,080 Speaker 1: someone named Elliott wrote the best podcast My name is Elliot? 36 00:02:08,320 --> 00:02:11,240 Speaker 2: Oh I like that, which is the greatest narrative. You know, 37 00:02:11,800 --> 00:02:14,400 Speaker 2: went from how he felt about the podcast to his name. 38 00:02:14,600 --> 00:02:16,120 Speaker 2: You know, it was good, good stuff. 39 00:02:16,240 --> 00:02:19,480 Speaker 1: Well, Elliott, if you're listening messages on our Instagram so 40 00:02:19,520 --> 00:02:22,280 Speaker 1: we can send you something fun. But let's get into 41 00:02:22,320 --> 00:02:22,680 Speaker 1: the show. 42 00:02:22,919 --> 00:02:25,720 Speaker 2: Actually, it just hit me Dylan is probably wearing those 43 00:02:25,720 --> 00:02:29,320 Speaker 2: glasses because you know what's next on our countown mango. 44 00:02:31,200 --> 00:02:34,160 Speaker 1: That Dylan is so clever. Okay, so the first thing 45 00:02:34,160 --> 00:02:37,799 Speaker 1: we're covering today is NASCAR now. Over the years, there 46 00:02:37,840 --> 00:02:40,520 Speaker 1: have been lots of studies on NASCAR to improve the 47 00:02:40,600 --> 00:02:43,239 Speaker 1: safety for drivers. There have been research papers on how 48 00:02:43,280 --> 00:02:47,400 Speaker 1: the car's bodies and safety measures affect injuries. NASCAR also 49 00:02:47,440 --> 00:02:50,400 Speaker 1: awarded a grant to Michigan State University to study everything 50 00:02:50,440 --> 00:02:54,280 Speaker 1: from heat exhaustion and drivers to figure out better exercises 51 00:02:54,320 --> 00:02:57,600 Speaker 1: and diet regimen for the athletes. And there have been 52 00:02:57,639 --> 00:03:02,000 Speaker 1: studies on why fatherhood affects driver is because NASCAR drivers 53 00:03:02,040 --> 00:03:05,480 Speaker 1: often drop one point six places on average the year 54 00:03:05,560 --> 00:03:06,640 Speaker 1: after having a kid. 55 00:03:06,760 --> 00:03:08,440 Speaker 2: Wow, it does kind of make you wonder like if 56 00:03:08,440 --> 00:03:10,880 Speaker 2: it's at all related to the fact that they're probably 57 00:03:10,960 --> 00:03:11,640 Speaker 2: sleeping less. 58 00:03:11,800 --> 00:03:14,480 Speaker 1: I think that's probably part of it. But scientists also 59 00:03:14,639 --> 00:03:17,080 Speaker 1: hypothesize that when you have a kid, you think about 60 00:03:17,120 --> 00:03:20,240 Speaker 1: your mortality. Mon Yeah, and so you might be less 61 00:03:20,280 --> 00:03:22,760 Speaker 1: prone to make risky moves on the course. That makes 62 00:03:22,800 --> 00:03:25,640 Speaker 1: sense anyway. The most interesting study I read about was 63 00:03:25,680 --> 00:03:30,880 Speaker 1: done by this psychologist, Guy Vidioloni from West Virginia University 64 00:03:30,960 --> 00:03:35,000 Speaker 1: Institute of Technology, and it's a four year study called 65 00:03:35,120 --> 00:03:39,080 Speaker 1: quote Driving under the Influence of Nascar. It isn't so 66 00:03:39,200 --> 00:03:41,400 Speaker 1: much about what happens on the track as it is 67 00:03:41,520 --> 00:03:45,240 Speaker 1: how the races influence people watching at home. So, according 68 00:03:45,280 --> 00:03:49,240 Speaker 1: to NPR, Vidilioni looked at all the traffic accidents that 69 00:03:49,280 --> 00:03:52,040 Speaker 1: took place in West Virginia and then whittled it down 70 00:03:52,080 --> 00:03:55,280 Speaker 1: to accidents that mimicked what happened on a racetrack. So 71 00:03:55,880 --> 00:03:58,760 Speaker 1: these were things like pile ups of multiple cars or 72 00:03:59,000 --> 00:04:03,320 Speaker 1: accidents where there was aggressive driving. And his conclusion was 73 00:04:03,360 --> 00:04:07,320 Speaker 1: that five days after major NASCAR races, there's a big 74 00:04:07,440 --> 00:04:11,680 Speaker 1: spike in traffic accidents. Now Villelioni actually put in a 75 00:04:11,720 --> 00:04:13,720 Speaker 1: whole bunch of controls to make sure he wasn't just 76 00:04:13,760 --> 00:04:16,760 Speaker 1: saying something wild. He wanted to be really conservative about 77 00:04:16,760 --> 00:04:20,040 Speaker 1: his conclusions. But he counted about six hundred and fifty 78 00:04:20,200 --> 00:04:23,400 Speaker 1: extra accidents on West Virginia roads in the days after 79 00:04:23,440 --> 00:04:27,760 Speaker 1: the races, essentially because people were quote acting out NASCAR 80 00:04:27,960 --> 00:04:30,560 Speaker 1: in their own driving this wild. 81 00:04:31,080 --> 00:04:33,359 Speaker 2: Although the thing that stands out to me, Mango is like, 82 00:04:33,440 --> 00:04:35,920 Speaker 2: why is this on the fifth day after a race 83 00:04:35,960 --> 00:04:38,440 Speaker 2: instead of like immediately after. I don't think he figured 84 00:04:38,440 --> 00:04:39,680 Speaker 2: that part out exactly. 85 00:04:39,720 --> 00:04:42,360 Speaker 1: Like he theorized that maybe it's because races tend to 86 00:04:42,360 --> 00:04:45,440 Speaker 1: take place on weekends and so a Thursday or Friday 87 00:04:45,520 --> 00:04:47,320 Speaker 1: after it tends to be the days that you let 88 00:04:47,360 --> 00:04:50,000 Speaker 1: loose after a rough week. But his study is really 89 00:04:50,000 --> 00:04:53,200 Speaker 1: pointing to the subtle ways that media affects behavior in 90 00:04:53,240 --> 00:04:56,720 Speaker 1: the real world. Now, NASCAR is just one example of this. 91 00:04:56,800 --> 00:05:00,520 Speaker 1: Another famous case is of the MTV show sixteen Pregnant, 92 00:05:00,760 --> 00:05:03,960 Speaker 1: where the reality show actually captured the difficulties for high 93 00:05:03,960 --> 00:05:07,200 Speaker 1: school students trying to raise kids, and people were really 94 00:05:07,240 --> 00:05:09,760 Speaker 1: affected by it. The show led to a five point 95 00:05:09,880 --> 00:05:14,240 Speaker 1: seven percent reduction in teen births, which apparently was a 96 00:05:14,279 --> 00:05:17,560 Speaker 1: third of the overall decline in teen berths in the country. 97 00:05:17,640 --> 00:05:18,680 Speaker 3: Oh wow. Yeah. 98 00:05:18,720 --> 00:05:21,400 Speaker 2: Academics actually sometimes refer to it as the you are 99 00:05:21,480 --> 00:05:24,159 Speaker 2: what you watch phenomenon, and it's pretty interesting to see, 100 00:05:24,360 --> 00:05:26,920 Speaker 2: sort of like how MLK talked about the interracial kiss 101 00:05:26,920 --> 00:05:29,400 Speaker 2: on the original Star Trek being one of the most 102 00:05:29,400 --> 00:05:33,320 Speaker 2: important moments on television, or how President Joe Biden credited 103 00:05:33,360 --> 00:05:36,320 Speaker 2: Will and Grace with changing America's perception of gays more 104 00:05:36,360 --> 00:05:37,599 Speaker 2: than just about anything else. 105 00:05:37,960 --> 00:05:40,680 Speaker 1: Yeah, that's right. So anyway, this whole NASCAR thing won't 106 00:05:40,720 --> 00:05:42,840 Speaker 1: be a problem ten to fifteen years from now, when 107 00:05:42,880 --> 00:05:45,400 Speaker 1: we're all taking way Mos everywhere and getting chow for 108 00:05:45,520 --> 00:05:49,080 Speaker 1: around and robotic cars. But until then, all you NASCAR 109 00:05:49,160 --> 00:05:53,320 Speaker 1: watchers out there, he doctor Vilioni's advice, and be a 110 00:05:53,360 --> 00:05:55,800 Speaker 1: little mindful of how you're driving the week after a 111 00:05:55,839 --> 00:05:57,680 Speaker 1: big race. We want to keep you safe. 112 00:05:57,800 --> 00:05:58,480 Speaker 2: Absolutely. 113 00:05:58,920 --> 00:05:59,520 Speaker 3: Wow. 114 00:06:00,000 --> 00:06:02,600 Speaker 2: All right, Mago. Let's say you are a clockmaker. I'm 115 00:06:02,600 --> 00:06:04,560 Speaker 2: just going to say that. Okay, Now you've built a 116 00:06:04,600 --> 00:06:07,800 Speaker 2: beautiful time piece that counts hours and minutes. But now 117 00:06:07,800 --> 00:06:10,159 Speaker 2: you've got a problem. You want your clock to count 118 00:06:10,160 --> 00:06:14,120 Speaker 2: each second with pinpoint accuracy. So how do you do it. 119 00:06:14,120 --> 00:06:16,440 Speaker 2: It turns out you need to crack open the periodic 120 00:06:16,600 --> 00:06:20,240 Speaker 2: table because according to the International System of Units, this 121 00:06:20,440 --> 00:06:23,800 Speaker 2: is how you measure a second. Quote. The second is 122 00:06:23,800 --> 00:06:27,839 Speaker 2: defined by taking the fixed numerical value of the cesium frequency, 123 00:06:28,120 --> 00:06:31,800 Speaker 2: the unperturbed ground state high per fine transition frequency of 124 00:06:31,839 --> 00:06:35,279 Speaker 2: the cesium one thirty three atom to be nine billion, 125 00:06:35,360 --> 00:06:37,640 Speaker 2: one hundred and ninety two million, six hundred and thirty 126 00:06:37,680 --> 00:06:41,160 Speaker 2: one thousand, seven hundred and seventy when expressed in the 127 00:06:41,279 --> 00:06:44,120 Speaker 2: unit hurts, which is equal to s the power of 128 00:06:44,200 --> 00:06:45,320 Speaker 2: negative one. You got it. 129 00:06:46,080 --> 00:06:48,600 Speaker 1: So that is the definition of a second. 130 00:06:48,720 --> 00:06:50,680 Speaker 2: Yeah, it's the definition of a second. I got lost 131 00:06:50,720 --> 00:06:53,040 Speaker 2: in the reading of it, but as you may have noticed, 132 00:06:53,040 --> 00:06:55,560 Speaker 2: it's a little bit complicated. So the only way to 133 00:06:55,600 --> 00:06:58,320 Speaker 2: measure it is with an atomic clock. And the way 134 00:06:58,360 --> 00:07:01,080 Speaker 2: this work sounds completely made out, but I promise it's 135 00:07:01,080 --> 00:07:04,760 Speaker 2: actually real. Basically, an atomic clock is a machine that 136 00:07:04,800 --> 00:07:08,599 Speaker 2: shoots laser beams at caesium ions, measures frequency at which 137 00:07:08,640 --> 00:07:11,920 Speaker 2: their electrons jump to different energy levels, and then sends 138 00:07:11,920 --> 00:07:14,640 Speaker 2: the readings to a place called the International Bureau of 139 00:07:14,720 --> 00:07:19,040 Speaker 2: Weights and Measures. So this is a real place. It's 140 00:07:19,080 --> 00:07:22,760 Speaker 2: a real inner governmental organization. Yeah, and it's actually based 141 00:07:22,760 --> 00:07:23,280 Speaker 2: in France. 142 00:07:23,840 --> 00:07:27,360 Speaker 1: So we've got laser clock sending data to friends. I 143 00:07:27,360 --> 00:07:28,600 Speaker 1: guess I'm with you that far. 144 00:07:28,760 --> 00:07:31,080 Speaker 2: Okay, I'm glad you're keeping up. So there are around 145 00:07:31,080 --> 00:07:34,320 Speaker 2: four hundred and fifty atomic clocks in the world, all 146 00:07:34,360 --> 00:07:37,600 Speaker 2: sending these readings. So timekeepers at the International Bureau of 147 00:07:37,600 --> 00:07:40,760 Speaker 2: Weights and Measures they crunch these numbers from the clocks 148 00:07:41,120 --> 00:07:44,440 Speaker 2: and then vote on the quote official time, which they 149 00:07:44,520 --> 00:07:48,920 Speaker 2: publish in a monthly publication that comes out monthly called 150 00:07:49,520 --> 00:07:50,480 Speaker 2: Circular Tea. 151 00:07:51,280 --> 00:07:54,200 Speaker 1: I never thought i'd say this about anything that involves caesium, 152 00:07:54,320 --> 00:07:57,360 Speaker 1: but uh, that is pretty adorably whimsical. 153 00:07:57,560 --> 00:08:00,640 Speaker 2: It is in a way, but it's all so pretty 154 00:08:00,680 --> 00:08:03,559 Speaker 2: serious stuff like this process is how we determine what's 155 00:08:03,600 --> 00:08:08,080 Speaker 2: called international atomic time. And a standard atomic clock made 156 00:08:08,120 --> 00:08:10,960 Speaker 2: with caesium is so accurate it can keep time for 157 00:08:11,000 --> 00:08:14,480 Speaker 2: about one hundred million years without skipping a beat. 158 00:08:14,640 --> 00:08:14,840 Speaker 1: Wow. 159 00:08:15,160 --> 00:08:17,840 Speaker 2: But starting in the mid ads, researchers at the National 160 00:08:17,840 --> 00:08:21,880 Speaker 2: Institute of Standards and Technology, or in IST, a federal 161 00:08:21,960 --> 00:08:25,000 Speaker 2: lab in Colorado, they began developing a new generation of 162 00:08:25,000 --> 00:08:28,240 Speaker 2: atomic clocks that could make caesium seem outdated. 163 00:08:28,320 --> 00:08:32,360 Speaker 1: Actually, so what makes these atomic clocks so special? 164 00:08:32,640 --> 00:08:35,880 Speaker 2: Well, they use aluminum instead of caesium, so basically a 165 00:08:35,960 --> 00:08:39,679 Speaker 2: positive aluminum twenty seven ion. In two thousand and eight, 166 00:08:39,800 --> 00:08:43,520 Speaker 2: NIST scientists built something they call the quantum logic clock. 167 00:08:43,920 --> 00:08:44,040 Speaker 3: Now. 168 00:08:44,040 --> 00:08:48,120 Speaker 2: It contains a single aluminum ion cooled to nearly absolute zero, 169 00:08:48,640 --> 00:08:52,600 Speaker 2: shot with an ultraviolet laser, and the aluminum ion acts 170 00:08:52,679 --> 00:08:55,439 Speaker 2: like the second hand on a clock, so it ticks 171 00:08:55,480 --> 00:08:58,520 Speaker 2: by jumping up and down between energy levels. But instead 172 00:08:58,520 --> 00:09:01,920 Speaker 2: of ticking once for every secondecond, it takes a quadrillion 173 00:09:02,040 --> 00:09:05,120 Speaker 2: times per second. That is a big number, man, And 174 00:09:05,160 --> 00:09:09,119 Speaker 2: it's so accurate it won't lose a second for thirty 175 00:09:09,120 --> 00:09:12,720 Speaker 2: three billion years. That's almost triple the age of the 176 00:09:12,800 --> 00:09:14,040 Speaker 2: observable universe. 177 00:09:14,480 --> 00:09:17,600 Speaker 1: That is really hard to imagine, yeah, or hard to 178 00:09:17,640 --> 00:09:18,760 Speaker 1: put to the test, I think. 179 00:09:20,360 --> 00:09:22,839 Speaker 2: And this aluminum clock does more than just tell time. 180 00:09:22,960 --> 00:09:26,319 Speaker 2: It's even changing our understanding of space time because researchers 181 00:09:26,320 --> 00:09:29,680 Speaker 2: have used it to test Einstein's theory of relativity. According 182 00:09:29,720 --> 00:09:33,040 Speaker 2: to Einstein's theory, gravity affects the passage of time, So 183 00:09:33,080 --> 00:09:35,760 Speaker 2: the stronger the pull of gravity, the slower the time. 184 00:09:36,160 --> 00:09:38,040 Speaker 2: And as a result of this, somebody who lives in 185 00:09:38,080 --> 00:09:41,520 Speaker 2: the mountains of Colorado, where gravity's pull is slightly lower, 186 00:09:41,760 --> 00:09:45,440 Speaker 2: they'll age faster than somebody who lives at sea level. Now, 187 00:09:45,520 --> 00:09:48,800 Speaker 2: the quantum logic clock is so sensitive it actually proved 188 00:09:48,800 --> 00:09:51,199 Speaker 2: that a person's standing at the top of a staircase 189 00:09:51,640 --> 00:09:55,440 Speaker 2: or someone standing on a stool experienced a faster passage 190 00:09:55,480 --> 00:09:58,560 Speaker 2: of time. It showed that each additional foot of height 191 00:09:58,640 --> 00:10:02,439 Speaker 2: adds about ninety bills adience of a second to your lifetime. 192 00:10:02,679 --> 00:10:07,400 Speaker 1: So NBA players would live longer than jockeys as well. 193 00:10:09,400 --> 00:10:12,320 Speaker 1: I have a dumb question to ask, why do we 194 00:10:12,440 --> 00:10:14,000 Speaker 1: need clocks to be this accurate. 195 00:10:14,440 --> 00:10:17,960 Speaker 2: It's a fair question, but take GPS for example. GPS 196 00:10:18,000 --> 00:10:21,160 Speaker 2: isn't just a location tracking technology. It's also a type 197 00:10:21,200 --> 00:10:23,520 Speaker 2: of clock. So if you're driving down the highway and 198 00:10:23,559 --> 00:10:26,120 Speaker 2: the GPS is five seconds late telling you to take 199 00:10:26,120 --> 00:10:27,960 Speaker 2: an exit, you'd be pretty mad about this. 200 00:10:28,080 --> 00:10:28,280 Speaker 4: Right. 201 00:10:28,880 --> 00:10:31,240 Speaker 2: For the GPS to be useful, it needs to show 202 00:10:31,280 --> 00:10:34,880 Speaker 2: both an accurate location and an accurate time. It needs 203 00:10:34,920 --> 00:10:38,240 Speaker 2: that time to be precise down to the second. And 204 00:10:38,320 --> 00:10:40,240 Speaker 2: it turns out that's true for a lot of other 205 00:10:40,280 --> 00:10:46,240 Speaker 2: technologies as well. Take telecommunications, satellite networks, radio signals, lots 206 00:10:46,280 --> 00:10:48,840 Speaker 2: more things like this. Anyway, it's hard to overstate the 207 00:10:48,880 --> 00:10:51,640 Speaker 2: importance of this quantum logic clock in the nerdy and 208 00:10:51,760 --> 00:10:55,360 Speaker 2: wonderful world of timekeeping. Those caesium clocks that impressed you 209 00:10:55,360 --> 00:10:57,720 Speaker 2: at the start of this segment will eventually end up 210 00:10:57,760 --> 00:11:01,720 Speaker 2: being obsolete. And while experiments with other elements are ongoing 211 00:11:01,880 --> 00:11:04,520 Speaker 2: right now, aluminum is the leading contender to become the 212 00:11:04,640 --> 00:11:06,840 Speaker 2: ticking heart of what we call a second. 213 00:11:07,960 --> 00:11:10,360 Speaker 1: Hey, listeners, do not go anywhere. We've got to pause 214 00:11:10,400 --> 00:11:12,800 Speaker 1: for a quick break. But there is so much weird 215 00:11:12,840 --> 00:11:31,079 Speaker 1: science right after Welcome back to part time Genius. When 216 00:11:31,120 --> 00:11:33,480 Speaker 1: we're talking the twenty five greatest science ideas of the 217 00:11:33,559 --> 00:11:38,480 Speaker 1: last twenty five years, and we're up to number. So 218 00:11:38,520 --> 00:11:40,800 Speaker 1: it probably won't surprise you to learn that water is 219 00:11:40,840 --> 00:11:43,880 Speaker 1: the most consumed material on Earth. But can you guess 220 00:11:43,880 --> 00:11:46,960 Speaker 1: what comes in second m I'm gonna go with coffee. 221 00:11:47,240 --> 00:11:49,200 Speaker 1: You know, I might have guessed that too, but know 222 00:11:49,400 --> 00:11:51,359 Speaker 1: the answer is concrete. 223 00:11:51,600 --> 00:11:52,160 Speaker 2: Oh really? 224 00:11:52,240 --> 00:11:55,959 Speaker 1: Since the Industrial Revolution, humans have poured nearly nine hundred 225 00:11:56,040 --> 00:11:59,640 Speaker 1: billion tons of concrete, and nowadays we're pouring the stuff 226 00:11:59,679 --> 00:12:03,880 Speaker 1: at a breakneck speed, especially in the developing world. For example, 227 00:12:04,000 --> 00:12:07,920 Speaker 1: in the time period between twenty eleven and twenty thirteen, 228 00:12:08,640 --> 00:12:12,200 Speaker 1: China poured more cement than the US did during the 229 00:12:12,440 --> 00:12:16,079 Speaker 1: entire twentieth century. Oh wow, isn't that incredible? But all 230 00:12:16,120 --> 00:12:19,280 Speaker 1: that concrete has a big downside. It's responsible for eight 231 00:12:19,320 --> 00:12:22,400 Speaker 1: to nine percent of global carbon dioxide emissions. 232 00:12:23,280 --> 00:12:25,480 Speaker 2: I never thought of concrete as being such a big 233 00:12:25,520 --> 00:12:27,440 Speaker 2: pollution problem. I know, it's not a great thing. I 234 00:12:27,480 --> 00:12:30,040 Speaker 2: think of, you know, the sidewalks and things that cars 235 00:12:30,120 --> 00:12:31,840 Speaker 2: drive on, but I didn't think of it in that way. 236 00:12:32,320 --> 00:12:35,520 Speaker 1: Yeah, I didn't realize it either. But apparently making concrete 237 00:12:35,640 --> 00:12:38,960 Speaker 1: is an energy intensive process. So it starts by taking 238 00:12:39,040 --> 00:12:42,320 Speaker 1: limestone and baking it to temperatures over twenty six hundred 239 00:12:42,320 --> 00:12:46,640 Speaker 1: degrees fahrenheit. That kind of heat requires powerful kilns fired 240 00:12:46,640 --> 00:12:49,320 Speaker 1: by fossil fuels, and that's just to make cement. To 241 00:12:49,440 --> 00:12:53,160 Speaker 1: turn cement into concrete, you have to add aggregates like sand, 242 00:12:53,240 --> 00:12:56,560 Speaker 1: and really lots of it. As a result, sand mining 243 00:12:56,679 --> 00:12:58,760 Speaker 1: is a big business around the world. We've actually talked 244 00:12:58,760 --> 00:13:02,640 Speaker 1: about this before. There's even a burgeoning black market for sand, 245 00:13:02,800 --> 00:13:06,880 Speaker 1: backed by a so called sand mafias. Anyway, this dangerous 246 00:13:06,920 --> 00:13:10,680 Speaker 1: mix of pollution, mining and mafias got scientists wondering how 247 00:13:10,679 --> 00:13:13,880 Speaker 1: to make concrete production more green, Like what if we 248 00:13:13,920 --> 00:13:17,880 Speaker 1: supplemented sand with something else, something more sustainable, something that 249 00:13:17,920 --> 00:13:22,080 Speaker 1: could reduce concrete carbon footprint. And it's something that you 250 00:13:22,160 --> 00:13:24,600 Speaker 1: mentioned just a few minutes ago. Wait, coffee, Yeah, I 251 00:13:24,600 --> 00:13:28,480 Speaker 1: so coffee nic Every day humans drank two billion cups 252 00:13:28,480 --> 00:13:30,960 Speaker 1: of coffee and most of the coffee grinds just end 253 00:13:31,040 --> 00:13:34,600 Speaker 1: up in a landfill. But in twenty twenty three, Australian 254 00:13:34,640 --> 00:13:38,160 Speaker 1: engineering researchers had an idea, what if we used those 255 00:13:38,160 --> 00:13:42,080 Speaker 1: ground up beans to make concrete. So that's what they did. 256 00:13:42,120 --> 00:13:45,880 Speaker 1: They scorched coffee grounds to about six hundred degrees, which 257 00:13:45,880 --> 00:13:49,120 Speaker 1: made the grounds break down into a substance called biochar, 258 00:13:49,440 --> 00:13:52,920 Speaker 1: which is basically charcoal, and when they began testing, they 259 00:13:52,960 --> 00:13:55,720 Speaker 1: discovered that if you replaced just fifteen percent of the 260 00:13:55,760 --> 00:13:59,920 Speaker 1: sand in concrete with coffee fueled biochar, the concrete becomes 261 00:14:00,160 --> 00:14:01,760 Speaker 1: thirty percent stronger. 262 00:14:02,200 --> 00:14:03,720 Speaker 2: And how does that actually work. 263 00:14:04,160 --> 00:14:06,960 Speaker 1: It turns out the biochart retains water better than sand, 264 00:14:07,120 --> 00:14:10,160 Speaker 1: and as a result, the concrete dries slower than usual, 265 00:14:10,640 --> 00:14:14,160 Speaker 1: which reduces the risk of shrinking and cracking, helping it 266 00:14:14,200 --> 00:14:18,280 Speaker 1: maintain its strength. There are actually two benefits to this discovery. One, 267 00:14:18,400 --> 00:14:21,480 Speaker 1: by using spent coffee, it reduces the demand for sand, 268 00:14:21,960 --> 00:14:25,520 Speaker 1: and two, by making concrete stronger, it reduces the amount 269 00:14:25,520 --> 00:14:28,800 Speaker 1: of cement required for each bag, and with less cement 270 00:14:28,960 --> 00:14:32,000 Speaker 1: and sand required, the total carbon footprint of each bag 271 00:14:32,040 --> 00:14:35,600 Speaker 1: of concrete could drop significantly. As it happens, a major 272 00:14:35,720 --> 00:14:39,280 Speaker 1: industry group called the Global Cement and Concrete Association has 273 00:14:39,360 --> 00:14:43,080 Speaker 1: pledged to go carbon neutral by twenty fifty and thanks 274 00:14:43,120 --> 00:14:47,000 Speaker 1: to those coffee loving Aussies, they've got a really strong 275 00:14:47,080 --> 00:14:48,240 Speaker 1: foundation to work with. 276 00:14:49,400 --> 00:14:53,160 Speaker 2: It's an incredible discovery and asoso pun mego, I'll take 277 00:14:53,200 --> 00:14:56,440 Speaker 2: it all right now, mego. We happen to be living 278 00:14:56,480 --> 00:14:59,520 Speaker 2: through one of the most polarizing moments in recent history 279 00:15:00,160 --> 00:15:02,680 Speaker 2: if you've noticed this, But I think one thing we 280 00:15:02,720 --> 00:15:06,040 Speaker 2: can all agree on is that dinosaurs are really really cool. 281 00:15:06,040 --> 00:15:07,960 Speaker 2: It feels like this should be the thing that brings 282 00:15:08,000 --> 00:15:10,000 Speaker 2: us together. In fact, that might be some of the 283 00:15:10,040 --> 00:15:12,560 Speaker 2: firmest common ground we have left at this point. What 284 00:15:12,600 --> 00:15:13,040 Speaker 2: do you think. 285 00:15:13,600 --> 00:15:15,640 Speaker 1: Yeah, I mean, I'd like to think a little more 286 00:15:15,680 --> 00:15:19,000 Speaker 1: positively than that, but in general, yeah, I mean, everyone 287 00:15:19,040 --> 00:15:20,560 Speaker 1: loves dinosaurs exactly. 288 00:15:20,600 --> 00:15:23,120 Speaker 2: And it's always struck me that, even though we're dealing 289 00:15:23,160 --> 00:15:26,000 Speaker 2: with creatures that are over one hundred million years old 290 00:15:26,040 --> 00:15:29,160 Speaker 2: in some cases, to this day, we are still finding 291 00:15:29,200 --> 00:15:31,680 Speaker 2: new things out about them. In the last quarter century 292 00:15:31,720 --> 00:15:35,600 Speaker 2: has been particularly generous. We've onearthed so many new fossils 293 00:15:35,640 --> 00:15:39,200 Speaker 2: and developed so many breakthrough research techniques that some scientists 294 00:15:39,240 --> 00:15:42,480 Speaker 2: are now calling this the Golden Age of paleontology. 295 00:15:42,560 --> 00:15:42,680 Speaker 1: Huh. 296 00:15:43,240 --> 00:15:45,560 Speaker 2: There are way too many of these dino revelations for 297 00:15:45,640 --> 00:15:48,880 Speaker 2: us to cover today, but singling out just one didn't 298 00:15:48,920 --> 00:15:51,520 Speaker 2: seem right either, So instead I thought I would walk 299 00:15:51,600 --> 00:15:53,800 Speaker 2: us through some of my favorite highlights and they can 300 00:15:53,920 --> 00:15:56,040 Speaker 2: kind of all share this spot together. What do you think. 301 00:15:56,200 --> 00:15:59,239 Speaker 1: I love it like a big heap of Dino discoveries 302 00:15:59,320 --> 00:16:01,880 Speaker 1: is exactly what this science series needs. 303 00:16:01,920 --> 00:16:05,840 Speaker 2: I'd absolutely I thought you'd approve of this. So what 304 00:16:05,960 --> 00:16:07,960 Speaker 2: stuck out to me most is all this research that 305 00:16:08,040 --> 00:16:10,920 Speaker 2: sort of challenges what we thought we knew about dinosaurs, 306 00:16:10,960 --> 00:16:12,960 Speaker 2: which for most of us is just what we saw 307 00:16:12,960 --> 00:16:15,440 Speaker 2: in the Jurassic Park movie. For instance, in one of 308 00:16:15,480 --> 00:16:18,240 Speaker 2: the most famous scenes of the original movie, we see 309 00:16:18,240 --> 00:16:21,240 Speaker 2: a t rex chasing after a speed jeep and nearly 310 00:16:21,320 --> 00:16:23,440 Speaker 2: catching up to it. So that didn't happen in real life. 311 00:16:23,480 --> 00:16:26,360 Speaker 2: That was the movie, Yeah, exactly. In fact, she was 312 00:16:26,440 --> 00:16:28,880 Speaker 2: even closer than she appeared to remember because of that 313 00:16:28,920 --> 00:16:29,600 Speaker 2: whole mirror. 314 00:16:29,800 --> 00:16:31,640 Speaker 1: Yeah, I think we all remember that. 315 00:16:31,640 --> 00:16:35,080 Speaker 2: That scene was considered plausible for nearly a decade after 316 00:16:35,160 --> 00:16:39,040 Speaker 2: the film's release, with many paleontologists speculating that a real 317 00:16:39,120 --> 00:16:41,760 Speaker 2: t rex could run as fast as forty five miles 318 00:16:41,800 --> 00:16:45,200 Speaker 2: an hour. But in two thousand and two, researchers John 319 00:16:45,280 --> 00:16:48,920 Speaker 2: Hutchinson and Mariano Garcia used some clever math to show 320 00:16:48,960 --> 00:16:51,960 Speaker 2: that the res likely had a much slower role than 321 00:16:52,000 --> 00:16:56,440 Speaker 2: we previously thought, so, using biomechanical data from the dinosaur's 322 00:16:56,440 --> 00:17:00,600 Speaker 2: closest living relatives, those would be birds, Now was able 323 00:17:00,600 --> 00:17:03,440 Speaker 2: to extrapolate just how much muscle mass it would take 324 00:17:03,480 --> 00:17:05,840 Speaker 2: for an animal the size of a t rex to 325 00:17:05,960 --> 00:17:08,840 Speaker 2: actually be able to run. As a general rule, no 326 00:17:08,920 --> 00:17:11,399 Speaker 2: more than fifty percent of an animal's body mass is 327 00:17:11,400 --> 00:17:14,480 Speaker 2: composed of muscle, and only a fraction of that muscle 328 00:17:14,560 --> 00:17:17,480 Speaker 2: is allocated to the legs. But for a t rex 329 00:17:17,520 --> 00:17:20,480 Speaker 2: to run forty five miles an hour, its leg muscles 330 00:17:20,520 --> 00:17:23,080 Speaker 2: would need to account for eighty six percent of its 331 00:17:23,119 --> 00:17:25,080 Speaker 2: total body Some real. 332 00:17:24,920 --> 00:17:28,560 Speaker 1: Masks, those are monster legs. It feels like the leg 333 00:17:28,640 --> 00:17:31,760 Speaker 1: muscles would be up to its eyeballs. But uh, you know, 334 00:17:31,920 --> 00:17:33,480 Speaker 1: in that case, there's no room for anything else. 335 00:17:33,680 --> 00:17:36,240 Speaker 2: Yeah, it doesn't add up there. So even though the 336 00:17:36,280 --> 00:17:38,960 Speaker 2: researchers had poked a giant hole in one of Jurassic 337 00:17:38,960 --> 00:17:42,480 Speaker 2: Park's best scenes, the filmmakers didn't hold it against them. 338 00:17:42,640 --> 00:17:45,159 Speaker 2: In fact, Hutchinson was even hired to consult on one 339 00:17:45,200 --> 00:17:47,600 Speaker 2: of the Jurassic Parks sequels based on the strength of 340 00:17:47,640 --> 00:17:48,320 Speaker 2: this breakthrough. 341 00:17:48,600 --> 00:17:51,520 Speaker 1: That's pretty awesome, But I'm curious, do we know what 342 00:17:51,600 --> 00:17:53,239 Speaker 1: a t rex's top speed would be? 343 00:17:53,920 --> 00:17:56,040 Speaker 2: Well, the two thousand and two study concluded that t 344 00:17:56,200 --> 00:17:58,760 Speaker 2: rex would have had a hard time topping twenty five 345 00:17:58,840 --> 00:18:02,040 Speaker 2: miles an hour. According to a twenty seventeen study from 346 00:18:02,040 --> 00:18:05,320 Speaker 2: the University of Manchester, they probably can only reach speeds 347 00:18:05,320 --> 00:18:08,440 Speaker 2: of around twelve miles a mile, so any faster and 348 00:18:08,480 --> 00:18:11,640 Speaker 2: the seven ton predators would risk shattering their bones. 349 00:18:11,680 --> 00:18:14,440 Speaker 1: Actually wow, so it's almost like at speeds that a 350 00:18:14,520 --> 00:18:16,160 Speaker 1: human could outrun. At this pace. 351 00:18:16,320 --> 00:18:19,040 Speaker 2: Yeah, and remember that's the top speed. The t Rex 352 00:18:19,119 --> 00:18:22,760 Speaker 2: was even slower when walking. Exactly how slow remained a 353 00:18:22,840 --> 00:18:26,639 Speaker 2: mystery until twenty twenty one, when Dutch researchers built on 354 00:18:26,760 --> 00:18:30,159 Speaker 2: those earlier findings and used computer modeling to prove that 355 00:18:30,240 --> 00:18:32,879 Speaker 2: Rex walked at a leisurely pace of between two and 356 00:18:32,960 --> 00:18:35,959 Speaker 2: three miles an hour. Now, another point of departure from 357 00:18:36,000 --> 00:18:39,680 Speaker 2: the Jurassic movies is that the predatory dinosaurs, including t Rex, 358 00:18:40,080 --> 00:18:44,000 Speaker 2: did not have permanently exposed teeth. Researchers and artists have 359 00:18:44,119 --> 00:18:47,959 Speaker 2: long believed that bipedal carnivores have lipless mouths where their 360 00:18:48,040 --> 00:18:50,879 Speaker 2: upper teeth would hang over their lower jaws, not unlike 361 00:18:51,200 --> 00:18:53,160 Speaker 2: you know, maybe like a crocodile or something like that. 362 00:18:53,200 --> 00:18:55,639 Speaker 2: But according to a twenty twenty three study from the 363 00:18:55,720 --> 00:18:59,760 Speaker 2: University of Portsmouth, the dinos actually kept their choppers, this 364 00:19:00,040 --> 00:19:04,000 Speaker 2: greatly covered with a pair of thick lizard lips. Isn't 365 00:19:04,000 --> 00:19:06,760 Speaker 2: that kind of funny to imagine? So the researchers found 366 00:19:06,800 --> 00:19:10,760 Speaker 2: that toothwaar and lipless reptile groups was much different from 367 00:19:10,760 --> 00:19:14,480 Speaker 2: that of carnivorous dinosaurs, and based on computer modeling, it 368 00:19:14,520 --> 00:19:17,080 Speaker 2: would have been impossible for a lipless t rex to 369 00:19:17,160 --> 00:19:20,560 Speaker 2: close its mouth without the lower jaw actually crushing the 370 00:19:20,680 --> 00:19:22,159 Speaker 2: very bones that supported it. 371 00:19:22,600 --> 00:19:26,199 Speaker 1: That is really interesting, and you know, I feel like 372 00:19:26,280 --> 00:19:30,560 Speaker 1: with all these breakthroughs, they've kind of defanged this idea 373 00:19:30,840 --> 00:19:34,840 Speaker 1: of a really frightening t rex right like suddenly they're 374 00:19:34,880 --> 00:19:38,640 Speaker 1: like only strolling around at two miles per hour. They're 375 00:19:38,920 --> 00:19:42,520 Speaker 1: like they don't have those goofy grins anymore, right, you know, 376 00:19:42,640 --> 00:19:46,600 Speaker 1: bearing their teeth and a dinosaurs supposed to have feathers, 377 00:19:46,680 --> 00:19:48,880 Speaker 1: right like on top of everything else, they're fluffy. 378 00:19:49,400 --> 00:19:51,520 Speaker 2: Actually, I've got some good news on that front because 379 00:19:51,520 --> 00:19:54,640 Speaker 2: while many dinosaurs are now believed to have sported feathers, 380 00:19:54,960 --> 00:19:57,800 Speaker 2: including raptors and a few of the t rex's cousins, 381 00:19:58,200 --> 00:20:01,160 Speaker 2: the rex itself is thought to have had smooth, more 382 00:20:01,200 --> 00:20:04,760 Speaker 2: scaly skin. The exception would have been juvenile t rexes, 383 00:20:04,760 --> 00:20:08,080 Speaker 2: whose small bodies may have needed feathers for thermal insulation. 384 00:20:08,840 --> 00:20:11,280 Speaker 2: By the time they reach adulthood, though their forty foot 385 00:20:11,320 --> 00:20:13,960 Speaker 2: long bodies were so good at retaining heat that they 386 00:20:14,000 --> 00:20:16,960 Speaker 2: no longer needed those downy coats. So, if anything, an 387 00:20:17,000 --> 00:20:19,400 Speaker 2: adult t rex may have had a stripe of bristles 388 00:20:19,400 --> 00:20:21,719 Speaker 2: on its back and shoulders, but those would have been 389 00:20:21,800 --> 00:20:24,080 Speaker 2: used to attract a mate rather than to keep warm. 390 00:20:24,160 --> 00:20:26,560 Speaker 1: All right, so that's at least one thing the movies 391 00:20:26,600 --> 00:20:27,600 Speaker 1: seem to have gotten right. 392 00:20:27,720 --> 00:20:30,359 Speaker 2: Yeah, and there's still room for improvement on that front too, 393 00:20:30,520 --> 00:20:33,960 Speaker 2: because while the t rex was scally, they likely weren't 394 00:20:34,000 --> 00:20:36,840 Speaker 2: the drab uniform color they're often depicted as. You know, 395 00:20:36,880 --> 00:20:40,720 Speaker 2: you always picture that exact same colors. Recent analysis of 396 00:20:40,760 --> 00:20:43,600 Speaker 2: t rex fossils have turned up evidence of melanin, the 397 00:20:43,640 --> 00:20:46,919 Speaker 2: same pigment found in human skin and bird feathers, and 398 00:20:46,960 --> 00:20:49,800 Speaker 2: that suggests that the rex's skin may have had patches 399 00:20:49,800 --> 00:20:53,679 Speaker 2: of several different colors, possibly even like a camouflage pattern, 400 00:20:53,720 --> 00:20:56,280 Speaker 2: which makes sense you think about the stripes and spots 401 00:20:56,280 --> 00:20:57,440 Speaker 2: of modern predators. 402 00:20:57,880 --> 00:21:01,440 Speaker 1: That is crazy, you know. I imagine like being given 403 00:21:01,520 --> 00:21:03,439 Speaker 1: like a t rex as a kid and told to 404 00:21:03,440 --> 00:21:06,439 Speaker 1: color it, and like, you know, you pinted with fancy colors, 405 00:21:06,440 --> 00:21:10,040 Speaker 1: and that seems completely wrong, right. I also had no 406 00:21:10,080 --> 00:21:12,440 Speaker 1: idea that melanin could fossilize. 407 00:21:12,680 --> 00:21:16,359 Speaker 2: Well, paleontologists didn't either until two thousand and eight, and 408 00:21:16,440 --> 00:21:18,880 Speaker 2: since then discovery has led to all kinds of new 409 00:21:18,920 --> 00:21:22,639 Speaker 2: insights about the appearance of dinosaurs, including some pretty solid 410 00:21:22,640 --> 00:21:25,760 Speaker 2: guesses about the exact colors of their skin and feathers. 411 00:21:26,240 --> 00:21:29,200 Speaker 2: Now More than anything, though, all the advances we've talked 412 00:21:29,240 --> 00:21:32,560 Speaker 2: about show us that the dinosaurs weren't the straightforward terrors 413 00:21:32,560 --> 00:21:35,919 Speaker 2: that we often see in pop culture. Like any other animal, 414 00:21:35,960 --> 00:21:39,120 Speaker 2: they live full lives. That included some quieter moments as well. 415 00:21:40,119 --> 00:21:42,840 Speaker 1: I like how you're trying to make it seem like 416 00:21:42,840 --> 00:21:45,640 Speaker 1: we should all be adopting them from shelters that feel 417 00:21:45,640 --> 00:21:47,680 Speaker 1: like it's the right thing to do. I would still 418 00:21:47,680 --> 00:21:49,920 Speaker 1: be terrified one, Oh totally mean you know me, I'm 419 00:21:49,960 --> 00:21:53,920 Speaker 1: terrified when I see a cat can imagine dinosaur? All right, Well, 420 00:21:53,960 --> 00:21:57,479 Speaker 1: because dinosaurs are so cool, we decided today on our 421 00:21:57,520 --> 00:22:01,560 Speaker 1: Instagram we're going to give away some super special, scientifically 422 00:22:01,600 --> 00:22:04,760 Speaker 1: accurate dinosaur action figures. It is important to call them 423 00:22:04,760 --> 00:22:08,280 Speaker 1: action figures. I called it adults earlier. Gabe got very 424 00:22:08,400 --> 00:22:10,240 Speaker 1: does not like that. I didn't like it. 425 00:22:10,320 --> 00:22:12,080 Speaker 2: He is our resident toy expert, so I'm going to 426 00:22:12,160 --> 00:22:14,119 Speaker 2: have to lean on that, and I will agree to 427 00:22:14,119 --> 00:22:16,240 Speaker 2: call it an action figure. So head over to our 428 00:22:16,240 --> 00:22:19,000 Speaker 2: instagram at part Time Genius and find out how you 429 00:22:19,080 --> 00:22:19,440 Speaker 2: can win. 430 00:22:19,840 --> 00:22:21,639 Speaker 1: Okay, listeners, you've got to pay for the show with 431 00:22:21,720 --> 00:22:24,359 Speaker 1: some ads. But uh, we'll be right back after this 432 00:22:24,440 --> 00:22:42,080 Speaker 1: quick break. Welcome back to part Time Genius, where we're 433 00:22:42,080 --> 00:22:44,680 Speaker 1: listing out the best ideas in science at the last 434 00:22:44,680 --> 00:22:49,480 Speaker 1: twenty five years. Nay, okay, Well, so how much do 435 00:22:49,520 --> 00:22:52,320 Speaker 1: you know about sub atomic particles? 436 00:22:52,800 --> 00:22:56,320 Speaker 2: All right, Well, my knowledge of subatomic particles would, if 437 00:22:56,359 --> 00:22:59,280 Speaker 2: I'm being honest, probably fit inside a subatomic particle. 438 00:22:59,359 --> 00:23:02,080 Speaker 1: Yeah, that's why I thought. So here's a quick overview 439 00:23:02,160 --> 00:23:05,480 Speaker 1: that will help you understand our next great science discovery. 440 00:23:05,680 --> 00:23:09,159 Speaker 1: So let's start with protons. These tiny particles hang out 441 00:23:09,200 --> 00:23:12,040 Speaker 1: in the nucleus of every atom, and they're made up 442 00:23:12,160 --> 00:23:16,440 Speaker 1: of even tinier particles called quirks, which in turn are 443 00:23:16,480 --> 00:23:21,280 Speaker 1: held together with even tinier particles called gluons. Now, gluons 444 00:23:21,280 --> 00:23:24,359 Speaker 1: have no mass, but they do carry energy, specifically something 445 00:23:24,480 --> 00:23:27,640 Speaker 1: called the strong force, and in terms of nuclear physics, 446 00:23:27,680 --> 00:23:31,760 Speaker 1: it basically means it holds stuff together. Now stay with me, 447 00:23:31,840 --> 00:23:34,240 Speaker 1: because I'm sure you know that deep in a tunnel 448 00:23:34,240 --> 00:23:38,480 Speaker 1: near Geneva there's something called the large Hadron particle collider, 449 00:23:39,080 --> 00:23:42,680 Speaker 1: and a hadron is any clump of two or three quirks. 450 00:23:42,760 --> 00:23:46,320 Speaker 1: And what this thing does is it blasts particles like 451 00:23:46,359 --> 00:23:50,359 Speaker 1: protons at each other at insane speeds, so scientists can 452 00:23:50,359 --> 00:23:53,200 Speaker 1: find out what happens when they crash into each other. 453 00:23:53,520 --> 00:23:56,440 Speaker 1: And even before this technology existed, scientists have been thinking 454 00:23:56,480 --> 00:24:00,480 Speaker 1: about the outcomes of proton collisions. So one hypothesis they 455 00:24:00,520 --> 00:24:03,720 Speaker 1: came up with was that protons might exchange a couple 456 00:24:03,760 --> 00:24:07,560 Speaker 1: of the gluons that hold them together, creating a super weird, 457 00:24:07,760 --> 00:24:12,000 Speaker 1: massless little particle made up of only gluons, which they 458 00:24:12,080 --> 00:24:14,800 Speaker 1: called And this is true a glue ball. 459 00:24:14,920 --> 00:24:18,479 Speaker 2: A glugall. Is that the actual scientific time, though it 460 00:24:18,560 --> 00:24:19,680 Speaker 2: is so woh way. 461 00:24:19,880 --> 00:24:23,840 Speaker 1: In nineteen seventy three researchers put forward a very specific 462 00:24:23,920 --> 00:24:26,360 Speaker 1: version of this theory. They said that it was possible 463 00:24:26,400 --> 00:24:30,600 Speaker 1: for three gluons to briefly stick together after a collision. Now, 464 00:24:30,680 --> 00:24:32,600 Speaker 1: at the time, there was no actual proof of this 465 00:24:32,720 --> 00:24:35,760 Speaker 1: it was just an idea, and they called this hypothetical 466 00:24:35,840 --> 00:24:37,400 Speaker 1: particle the oderon. 467 00:24:38,160 --> 00:24:39,679 Speaker 2: All right, so I want to make sure I understand. 468 00:24:39,720 --> 00:24:43,719 Speaker 2: So an oduron is what like a triple glue ball. Yeah, yeah, 469 00:24:43,760 --> 00:24:45,600 Speaker 2: you know, it's weird. I had never thought of particle 470 00:24:45,600 --> 00:24:48,320 Speaker 2: physics involving this much fun vocabulary. I feel like I 471 00:24:48,400 --> 00:24:50,359 Speaker 2: might have majored in it if I had known all this. 472 00:24:50,480 --> 00:24:51,920 Speaker 2: But all right, so are you going to tell me 473 00:24:51,960 --> 00:24:54,920 Speaker 2: that someone finally proved this odoron thing is real? 474 00:24:55,520 --> 00:24:58,440 Speaker 1: So in twenty twenty one, a group of scientists using 475 00:24:58,520 --> 00:25:03,040 Speaker 1: the Large Hadron Collider in fact find evidence of odon. So, yes, 476 00:25:03,400 --> 00:25:06,040 Speaker 1: when protons collide in this thing, about three quarters of 477 00:25:06,040 --> 00:25:08,680 Speaker 1: the time they get smashed apart, but about twenty five 478 00:25:08,720 --> 00:25:11,840 Speaker 1: percent of the time the protons survive intact. They just 479 00:25:11,960 --> 00:25:14,960 Speaker 1: kind of balance off each other. And that's because at 480 00:25:14,960 --> 00:25:19,160 Speaker 1: the point of impact they exchange gluons, sometimes two, sometimes three, 481 00:25:19,240 --> 00:25:22,320 Speaker 1: and those gluons keep them together. So are you still 482 00:25:22,320 --> 00:25:22,760 Speaker 1: with me here? 483 00:25:23,359 --> 00:25:23,919 Speaker 2: I think so? 484 00:25:24,400 --> 00:25:27,280 Speaker 1: Right. So, quirks carry a charge kind of like a 485 00:25:27,320 --> 00:25:30,159 Speaker 1: positive or negative electric charge, but this is expressed in 486 00:25:30,240 --> 00:25:33,760 Speaker 1: terms of color, so they can be red, green, or blue. 487 00:25:34,280 --> 00:25:36,399 Speaker 1: And when you have all three of those stuck together. 488 00:25:36,560 --> 00:25:39,399 Speaker 1: The charge is said to be white or balanced. But 489 00:25:39,440 --> 00:25:42,639 Speaker 1: there's also something called an anti color, which is the 490 00:25:42,680 --> 00:25:47,080 Speaker 1: property of anti quarks. Is this like antimatter, Yeah, so 491 00:25:47,119 --> 00:25:50,600 Speaker 1: the antiquirk is the antimatter evil twin of the quirk, 492 00:25:50,720 --> 00:25:54,480 Speaker 1: and it's either anti red, anti green, or anti blue. 493 00:25:54,880 --> 00:25:58,880 Speaker 1: But what's interesting is gluons have both colors and anti colors, 494 00:25:59,000 --> 00:26:01,679 Speaker 1: So you could have a gluon that carries red and 495 00:26:01,760 --> 00:26:04,840 Speaker 1: anti green, which sounds like a very strange Christmas ornament. 496 00:26:05,080 --> 00:26:09,320 Speaker 1: A spokesperson for the Oderon experiment told Gizmoto that the 497 00:26:09,359 --> 00:26:12,800 Speaker 1: math of Vaultier is quote too hard to explain, but 498 00:26:12,920 --> 00:26:17,040 Speaker 1: suffice it to say, researchers observe frequency differences in proton 499 00:26:17,119 --> 00:26:21,760 Speaker 1: proton collisions versus proton anti proton collisions, and they realized 500 00:26:21,800 --> 00:26:24,440 Speaker 1: the difference had to do with changing color balances that 501 00:26:24,480 --> 00:26:27,360 Speaker 1: could only be explained by the existence of a triple 502 00:26:27,440 --> 00:26:29,480 Speaker 1: gluon clump the otter on. 503 00:26:29,880 --> 00:26:32,560 Speaker 2: I'm trying real hard here, Mango, but I gotta be honest. 504 00:26:32,600 --> 00:26:34,320 Speaker 2: This is making my head heard a little bit. 505 00:26:34,520 --> 00:26:38,320 Speaker 1: I know it is complicated stuff, but it's also an 506 00:26:38,320 --> 00:26:41,880 Speaker 1: incredible discovery. But to make the story a little more personal. 507 00:26:42,240 --> 00:26:45,480 Speaker 1: We asked our pal David Nagler, who is an incredibly 508 00:26:45,520 --> 00:26:49,160 Speaker 1: talented musician and composer, to write a song about it. 509 00:27:00,080 --> 00:27:15,840 Speaker 3: Yeah, I was hiding in plain sight. 510 00:27:17,240 --> 00:27:20,720 Speaker 4: Now I'm in the light light because of a proton 511 00:27:20,800 --> 00:27:23,360 Speaker 4: proton and a proton anti proton condition. 512 00:27:25,720 --> 00:27:29,600 Speaker 3: I was the difference between the two three glue on 513 00:27:29,760 --> 00:27:30,879 Speaker 3: stuff like glue. 514 00:27:31,640 --> 00:27:35,400 Speaker 4: Thanks to the particle physicists for clearing up being decision. 515 00:27:37,640 --> 00:27:44,520 Speaker 3: I'm an out, but I'm not that odd and out 516 00:27:44,560 --> 00:28:03,440 Speaker 3: a roun. I'm a real hot rod. It's not monochromatic light. 517 00:28:04,640 --> 00:28:08,480 Speaker 3: I'm red, green and blue making white. It may seem 518 00:28:08,520 --> 00:28:14,040 Speaker 3: like a fax, it's only quantum chromo dynamics. Folks deepen 519 00:28:14,119 --> 00:28:15,320 Speaker 3: the particle. 520 00:28:14,880 --> 00:28:18,959 Speaker 4: Exceleerator, keeping proton longevity greater. 521 00:28:20,040 --> 00:28:22,800 Speaker 3: So how can the green The force is strong in 522 00:28:22,920 --> 00:28:30,200 Speaker 3: me strong. I'm an autoba, but I'm not that ard 523 00:28:31,600 --> 00:28:36,200 Speaker 3: and auta. I've got a real hot bond. 524 00:29:18,840 --> 00:29:24,040 Speaker 4: And it's squaw. 525 00:29:28,040 --> 00:29:28,280 Speaker 3: Wow. 526 00:29:28,280 --> 00:29:30,400 Speaker 2: It seems so complicated, but you know what, Mengo, it 527 00:29:30,440 --> 00:29:31,640 Speaker 2: also makes me want to dance. 528 00:29:32,040 --> 00:29:34,280 Speaker 1: Yeah, the song or the science that you know, all 529 00:29:34,360 --> 00:29:34,520 Speaker 1: of it. 530 00:29:34,560 --> 00:29:35,880 Speaker 2: I'm just feeling good after this. 531 00:29:36,800 --> 00:29:39,959 Speaker 1: I couldn't agree more. And big thanks to David Nagler 532 00:29:40,080 --> 00:29:42,040 Speaker 1: for helping us out with this. We'll put a link 533 00:29:42,080 --> 00:29:44,080 Speaker 1: to his website in the show notes so that you 534 00:29:44,120 --> 00:29:48,280 Speaker 1: can check out his music. It's not usually about physics. Okay, 535 00:29:48,320 --> 00:29:51,040 Speaker 1: that's it for today's episode, but be sure to tune 536 00:29:51,040 --> 00:29:54,400 Speaker 1: in tomorrow when our countdown continues with a scientific secret, 537 00:29:54,520 --> 00:29:58,959 Speaker 1: lurking and home depot, some lively molecules, and a medical 538 00:29:59,000 --> 00:30:02,880 Speaker 1: treatment that began in a really, really gross place. You 539 00:30:02,960 --> 00:30:05,280 Speaker 1: won't want to miss it, And if you'd like to 540 00:30:05,320 --> 00:30:08,520 Speaker 1: win that realistic dinosaur action figure, head on over to 541 00:30:08,560 --> 00:30:11,520 Speaker 1: our instagram at part Time Genius to check out today's 542 00:30:11,560 --> 00:30:16,520 Speaker 1: giveaway contest. As always from Will, Gabe, Mary and Dylan, 543 00:30:17,080 --> 00:30:18,479 Speaker 1: thank you so much for listening.