1 00:00:15,396 --> 00:00:24,036 Speaker 1: Pushkin. Imagine there's a place in our world where the 2 00:00:24,116 --> 00:00:33,996 Speaker 1: known things go. Calculations, weather maps, old barometer readings, strange 3 00:00:33,996 --> 00:00:41,956 Speaker 1: weather lately right tragic weather, catastrophic weather, Snowmageddon, heat apocalypse. 4 00:00:42,876 --> 00:00:45,636 Speaker 1: It always makes me think of something attributed to Mark Twain. 5 00:00:46,236 --> 00:00:49,676 Speaker 1: Everybody talks about the weather, but nobody does anything about it. 6 00:00:51,116 --> 00:00:56,516 Speaker 1: Better check the forecast tonight a dangerous what your storm 7 00:00:56,596 --> 00:00:58,956 Speaker 1: is bearing down on the East Coast with blizzard warnings 8 00:00:58,956 --> 00:01:02,596 Speaker 1: issued for the New York City area and Boston? Would geez? 9 00:01:02,636 --> 00:01:04,676 Speaker 1: I hope people would be okay. I might as well 10 00:01:04,716 --> 00:01:06,916 Speaker 1: catch up on my reading. I've been going through old 11 00:01:06,956 --> 00:01:12,196 Speaker 1: issues of Poor Richard's Almanac. Let's see seventeen fifty three. 12 00:01:12,716 --> 00:01:16,036 Speaker 1: In the preface, Benjamin Franklin looks back at twenty years 13 00:01:16,036 --> 00:01:19,116 Speaker 1: of publishing his Poor Richard's Almanacs, and it makes this 14 00:01:19,196 --> 00:01:21,996 Speaker 1: pretty corny joke about how no matter what weather he 15 00:01:22,076 --> 00:01:25,716 Speaker 1: predicted day to day, year after year, his prediction was right. 16 00:01:26,436 --> 00:01:29,956 Speaker 1: At least he predicted the right weather. Somewhere in the world. 17 00:01:31,036 --> 00:01:33,556 Speaker 1: In the eighteenth century, no one could really predict the weather, 18 00:01:33,836 --> 00:01:36,796 Speaker 1: not like today. Tens of millions are in the path 19 00:01:37,036 --> 00:01:39,836 Speaker 1: of this nor easter, that could bring record snowfall and 20 00:01:40,116 --> 00:01:44,556 Speaker 1: coastal flooding. Time to Betten down the hatches and then 21 00:01:44,676 --> 00:01:48,356 Speaker 1: escape over the threshold to a radio booth in New 22 00:01:48,436 --> 00:01:53,676 Speaker 1: York during another terrible snowstorm more than half a century ago. 23 00:01:54,836 --> 00:01:56,676 Speaker 1: Ladies and gentlemen, A good morning to you. This is 24 00:01:56,756 --> 00:01:59,236 Speaker 1: John Cameron's ways in the NBC news room in New 25 00:01:59,316 --> 00:02:01,676 Speaker 1: York over to the deal of the storm area. Today, 26 00:02:01,756 --> 00:02:04,556 Speaker 1: the forecast is for better weather, which is encouraging news 27 00:02:04,596 --> 00:02:07,036 Speaker 1: to many. Thousands of people will have the tales of 28 00:02:07,076 --> 00:02:10,556 Speaker 1: this top subject during the broadcast. The Great Blizzard of 29 00:02:10,636 --> 00:02:13,996 Speaker 1: nineteen forty seven hit New York the day after Christmas. 30 00:02:14,596 --> 00:02:17,116 Speaker 1: If you were in its path, you likely lost power 31 00:02:17,636 --> 00:02:21,076 Speaker 1: and couldn't listen to the radio or watch television. Life 32 00:02:21,076 --> 00:02:25,196 Speaker 1: magazine printed photographs of people skiing through the streets. Movie 33 00:02:25,196 --> 00:02:28,276 Speaker 1: theaters ran news ural reports very much in the style 34 00:02:28,316 --> 00:02:31,316 Speaker 1: of the newsural reports from the Second World War, which 35 00:02:31,316 --> 00:02:35,676 Speaker 1: it only just ended. Friday, December twenty six, nineteen forty seven, 36 00:02:36,036 --> 00:02:38,636 Speaker 1: It's a blank white Friday in New York City. As 37 00:02:38,636 --> 00:02:42,036 Speaker 1: a snow plot burst, as it's officially called, dumps two 38 00:02:42,076 --> 00:02:45,676 Speaker 1: inches of snow an hour on the top. I've always 39 00:02:45,716 --> 00:02:48,516 Speaker 1: been fascinated by how much weather reporting has in common 40 00:02:48,556 --> 00:02:52,156 Speaker 1: with war reporting, as if the weather were an enemy 41 00:02:52,556 --> 00:02:56,516 Speaker 1: to be battled, but so formidable that the weather nearly 42 00:02:56,556 --> 00:03:00,636 Speaker 1: always wins. This time, the enemy had conducted a sneak attack. 43 00:03:01,236 --> 00:03:05,756 Speaker 1: New Yorkers were blindsided. As many as thirty thousand cars 44 00:03:05,756 --> 00:03:07,916 Speaker 1: had to be abandoned by their drivers. It was a 45 00:03:07,996 --> 00:03:11,356 Speaker 1: six million dollar object to make New York streets passable again. 46 00:03:11,436 --> 00:03:14,396 Speaker 1: The storm extended from the nation's capital to northern Maine, 47 00:03:14,436 --> 00:03:16,516 Speaker 1: but it was New York and its suburbs that or 48 00:03:16,636 --> 00:03:19,956 Speaker 1: the brunt of the fall. He officially recorded twenty six inches, 49 00:03:20,316 --> 00:03:25,396 Speaker 1: was five more inches than the historic blizzard. For most 50 00:03:25,436 --> 00:03:27,756 Speaker 1: of human history, people would wake up in the morning, 51 00:03:27,916 --> 00:03:30,116 Speaker 1: look up in the sky, have a good idea, a 52 00:03:30,156 --> 00:03:33,436 Speaker 1: reasonable idea about what the day might bring, but no 53 00:03:33,516 --> 00:03:37,436 Speaker 1: idea what tomorrow would bring. Today, I look on my phone. 54 00:03:37,796 --> 00:03:40,196 Speaker 1: I can see the weather anywhere in the world, hour 55 00:03:40,356 --> 00:03:43,556 Speaker 1: by hour, for the next week. I have an oracle 56 00:03:43,676 --> 00:03:46,916 Speaker 1: in my back pocket, a tiny god. It's a kind 57 00:03:46,956 --> 00:03:50,196 Speaker 1: of thing, a form of technology, a type of knowledge 58 00:03:50,636 --> 00:03:52,316 Speaker 1: that I tend to put in a category in my 59 00:03:52,316 --> 00:03:55,316 Speaker 1: head that says, brought to you by NASA or a 60 00:03:55,316 --> 00:03:58,716 Speaker 1: product of the space race, and partly that's true. The 61 00:03:58,796 --> 00:04:00,956 Speaker 1: weather app on my iPhone is a product of war, 62 00:04:01,556 --> 00:04:06,676 Speaker 1: of all the wars of the twentieth century. I'd like 63 00:04:06,756 --> 00:04:08,676 Speaker 1: to know what does it mean that I carry around 64 00:04:08,676 --> 00:04:11,956 Speaker 1: in my back pocket this little instrument of war. What 65 00:04:12,036 --> 00:04:14,596 Speaker 1: does it mean to have at my fingertips the knowledge 66 00:04:14,636 --> 00:04:17,756 Speaker 1: of what weather is going to happen next everywhere? How 67 00:04:17,756 --> 00:04:20,996 Speaker 1: has it changed the world to have this knowledge, to 68 00:04:21,076 --> 00:04:24,596 Speaker 1: take it for granted even and there was one statistic 69 00:04:24,676 --> 00:04:28,436 Speaker 1: that will probably stand ninety nine million tons of snow 70 00:04:28,636 --> 00:04:35,356 Speaker 1: fella New York in sixteen dollars. Welcome to the Last Archive. 71 00:04:35,676 --> 00:04:37,636 Speaker 1: The show about how we know what we know and 72 00:04:37,716 --> 00:04:39,796 Speaker 1: why it seems lately as if we don't know anything 73 00:04:39,836 --> 00:04:43,676 Speaker 1: at all. I'm Jill Lapour. This season is all about 74 00:04:43,836 --> 00:04:47,796 Speaker 1: common knowledge, what everyone knows or thinks they know, knowledge 75 00:04:47,836 --> 00:04:52,516 Speaker 1: people share in common. This episode the weather. Everyone's always 76 00:04:52,556 --> 00:04:55,276 Speaker 1: talking about it, but nobody ever does anything about it, 77 00:04:57,516 --> 00:05:01,996 Speaker 1: or do they. It's a big, messy, uncertain world, looking 78 00:05:02,076 --> 00:05:04,396 Speaker 1: up to the skies, to the heavens and trying to 79 00:05:04,436 --> 00:05:07,356 Speaker 1: read in the clouds signs of what might happen next. 80 00:05:07,636 --> 00:05:13,316 Speaker 1: Snow rain, a beautiful day it's an elemental curiosity. It's 81 00:05:13,316 --> 00:05:16,036 Speaker 1: also an urgent one. You can see why forecasting the 82 00:05:16,076 --> 00:05:19,556 Speaker 1: weather is a lynchpin of wartime planning. The weather can 83 00:05:19,596 --> 00:05:22,156 Speaker 1: determine if you live or die, whether your crops fail, 84 00:05:22,356 --> 00:05:25,236 Speaker 1: your boat sinks, you run out of water, you lose 85 00:05:25,276 --> 00:05:27,676 Speaker 1: your home in a flood. Then there are the more 86 00:05:27,756 --> 00:05:32,716 Speaker 1: ordinary matters Janet an umbrella today. I I love the 87 00:05:32,796 --> 00:05:36,716 Speaker 1: idea that I can know what's coming next. It's a comfort, 88 00:05:36,996 --> 00:05:40,276 Speaker 1: but it's also strange, as if we could find such 89 00:05:40,316 --> 00:05:45,396 Speaker 1: certainty in such an uncertain world. In the US, weather 90 00:05:45,476 --> 00:05:49,356 Speaker 1: records go pretty far back. For centuries, farmers, factory workers, 91 00:05:49,596 --> 00:05:53,116 Speaker 1: all sorts of ordinary people recorded the weather, little jottings 92 00:05:53,116 --> 00:05:57,316 Speaker 1: and diaries. Mostly people also consulted farmers almanacs to look 93 00:05:57,316 --> 00:06:01,116 Speaker 1: for weather predictions. There, something bigger started to happen, though, 94 00:06:01,316 --> 00:06:05,436 Speaker 1: in the eighteen forties, a national data collection project headed 95 00:06:05,516 --> 00:06:10,636 Speaker 1: up by a new national institution, the Smithsonian. I've got 96 00:06:10,636 --> 00:06:14,476 Speaker 1: a graduate student, Adelaide Mandeville, working on a history dissertation 97 00:06:14,516 --> 00:06:16,756 Speaker 1: about all of this, and I called her up and 98 00:06:16,836 --> 00:06:19,556 Speaker 1: she explained to me what the Smithsonian had been trying 99 00:06:19,556 --> 00:06:23,076 Speaker 1: to do and how it depended on the telegraph system. 100 00:06:23,716 --> 00:06:28,316 Speaker 1: Working with the telegraph companies, they enlist one hundred and 101 00:06:28,356 --> 00:06:32,396 Speaker 1: fifty volunteers in the first year to start sending in 102 00:06:32,796 --> 00:06:37,076 Speaker 1: their local weather observations, and then the Smithsonian takes all 103 00:06:37,116 --> 00:06:41,676 Speaker 1: of that and maps it, and then eighteen seventy I 104 00:06:41,716 --> 00:06:47,676 Speaker 1: think they make the first national weather agency. So that's 105 00:06:47,676 --> 00:06:51,636 Speaker 1: when it becomes a federal project. For a long time, 106 00:06:51,676 --> 00:06:55,316 Speaker 1: that project relied on hundreds, even thousands of volunteers who 107 00:06:55,356 --> 00:06:59,636 Speaker 1: sent in their local weather observations. And as one meteorologist 108 00:06:59,636 --> 00:07:03,276 Speaker 1: said in eighteen seventy nine, anyone could do it. There 109 00:07:03,356 --> 00:07:06,156 Speaker 1: is one science which is within the grasp of every mine, 110 00:07:06,236 --> 00:07:09,556 Speaker 1: and which to be successfully cultivated requires no pre operation, 111 00:07:10,476 --> 00:07:13,716 Speaker 1: the science of rain and fine weather, but which now 112 00:07:13,716 --> 00:07:18,916 Speaker 1: received the higher title of meteorology. By the end of 113 00:07:18,916 --> 00:07:23,636 Speaker 1: the nineteenth century, experts were taking over. Eventually, the work 114 00:07:23,636 --> 00:07:26,996 Speaker 1: of predicting the weather moved to the US Signal Service, 115 00:07:27,076 --> 00:07:31,676 Speaker 1: and then in eighteen ninety one Congress created the Weather Bureau. 116 00:07:31,836 --> 00:07:34,916 Speaker 1: It was a division of the Department of Agriculture. The 117 00:07:34,996 --> 00:07:37,716 Speaker 1: chief of this new Weather Bureau, he didn't just oversee 118 00:07:37,716 --> 00:07:40,676 Speaker 1: the collection of weather records. He was supposed to forecast 119 00:07:40,836 --> 00:07:44,916 Speaker 1: storms and droughts and floods, anything that would affect agriculture 120 00:07:45,116 --> 00:07:48,436 Speaker 1: or industry or commerce. The whole scheme had a kind 121 00:07:48,476 --> 00:07:51,756 Speaker 1: of citizen science quality to it. The Weather Bureau wanted 122 00:07:51,796 --> 00:07:55,596 Speaker 1: to make meteorology common knowledge, to teach people about the 123 00:07:55,676 --> 00:07:59,756 Speaker 1: latest instruments. It installed little weather kiosks in twenty nine 124 00:07:59,796 --> 00:08:03,276 Speaker 1: cities out their own city sidewalks. There were these boxes 125 00:08:03,316 --> 00:08:07,396 Speaker 1: with maps and charts, thermometers and barometers. What the Weather 126 00:08:07,396 --> 00:08:11,876 Speaker 1: beer really wanted was newspapers to print weather maps, but 127 00:08:11,996 --> 00:08:15,396 Speaker 1: before that happened, the weather report went out in a 128 00:08:15,436 --> 00:08:19,676 Speaker 1: different way. As Adelaide Manville explained to me, the post 129 00:08:19,796 --> 00:08:23,956 Speaker 1: office in the early twentieth century, they were responsible for 130 00:08:24,116 --> 00:08:28,276 Speaker 1: delivering weather forecasts with the mail, but there was an 131 00:08:28,316 --> 00:08:31,476 Speaker 1: issue because they would go out at seven am, that's 132 00:08:31,516 --> 00:08:34,596 Speaker 1: when the mail was delivered, and the forecast. Each day, 133 00:08:35,156 --> 00:08:37,196 Speaker 1: new information came in at ten am, so it was 134 00:08:37,236 --> 00:08:40,036 Speaker 1: always a little delayed, and the weather forecasters sort of 135 00:08:40,116 --> 00:08:43,436 Speaker 1: got a reputation for not being super accurate. But then 136 00:08:43,476 --> 00:08:46,516 Speaker 1: they had these, you know, really really helpful and important 137 00:08:46,596 --> 00:08:50,116 Speaker 1: forecasts where they warned towns that there was going to 138 00:08:50,156 --> 00:08:52,556 Speaker 1: be a huge flood or hurricane and people were able 139 00:08:52,596 --> 00:08:56,996 Speaker 1: to evacuate then once radio started in the nineteen twenties, 140 00:08:57,516 --> 00:09:01,836 Speaker 1: you could hear the weather forecast over the wireless. We'll 141 00:09:01,916 --> 00:09:14,636 Speaker 1: give you that everywhether we put forecasting had by now 142 00:09:14,756 --> 00:09:17,796 Speaker 1: gotten more accurate than it had ever been before. That's 143 00:09:17,836 --> 00:09:20,916 Speaker 1: because of advances made just before the First World War, 144 00:09:21,236 --> 00:09:25,476 Speaker 1: when a Norwegian meteorologist recorded the weather across Europe. Then 145 00:09:25,556 --> 00:09:29,276 Speaker 1: during the war, his son, working for the military, discovered 146 00:09:29,276 --> 00:09:31,676 Speaker 1: the nature of the movement of masses of cold and 147 00:09:31,756 --> 00:09:36,796 Speaker 1: warm air. He called these fronts like battlefronts, except the weather. 148 00:09:38,116 --> 00:09:41,636 Speaker 1: An English mathematician also involved in the war effort, used 149 00:09:41,676 --> 00:09:45,516 Speaker 1: their data and those ideas to devise a mathematical model 150 00:09:45,716 --> 00:09:50,476 Speaker 1: to predict the weather. Unfortunately it didn't work. Still, the 151 00:09:50,516 --> 00:09:52,916 Speaker 1: idea too cold, that there should be a model, and 152 00:09:52,956 --> 00:09:55,596 Speaker 1: that if only you could do the calculations fast enough, 153 00:09:55,996 --> 00:09:58,836 Speaker 1: you could predict the weather. So right, Doing that got 154 00:09:58,836 --> 00:10:03,076 Speaker 1: a lot easier after computers were invented, and here's the 155 00:10:03,116 --> 00:10:08,116 Speaker 1: latest weather report. Nothing advances science like war. During the 156 00:10:08,196 --> 00:10:12,036 Speaker 1: Second World War, those mathematical models got better and better, 157 00:10:12,436 --> 00:10:14,396 Speaker 1: and by the end of the war you could use 158 00:10:14,436 --> 00:10:18,396 Speaker 1: computers to run those calculations, so finally you could make 159 00:10:18,396 --> 00:10:21,396 Speaker 1: your predictions faster than the speed of weather. If you 160 00:10:21,436 --> 00:10:24,076 Speaker 1: could get ahead of the storm, you could get ahead 161 00:10:24,076 --> 00:10:31,196 Speaker 1: of the enemy. Weather forecasting becomes critical to military strategy 162 00:10:31,396 --> 00:10:34,756 Speaker 1: during the war, and they're developing these new technologies to 163 00:10:34,996 --> 00:10:38,156 Speaker 1: syst them in doing that, so like radar and these 164 00:10:38,196 --> 00:10:44,516 Speaker 1: aircraft controls and more extensive data collection systems and all 165 00:10:44,596 --> 00:10:48,796 Speaker 1: that does make them better at forecasting. By nineteen forty seven, 166 00:10:49,116 --> 00:10:52,556 Speaker 1: Americans had gotten used to the idea that, especially if 167 00:10:52,596 --> 00:10:55,556 Speaker 1: there were a really big storm coming, they'd know it 168 00:10:55,676 --> 00:10:59,716 Speaker 1: in advance. Nearly twenty six inchines have fallen a record 169 00:10:59,836 --> 00:11:02,956 Speaker 1: unequal in the analyst of the Weather Bureau. But really 170 00:11:03,036 --> 00:11:05,276 Speaker 1: it wasn't the scale of that storm that was the 171 00:11:05,396 --> 00:11:09,596 Speaker 1: strangest thing about it. The strangest thing about it was 172 00:11:09,636 --> 00:11:13,036 Speaker 1: that it was so unexpected. When you wake up in 173 00:11:13,116 --> 00:11:14,956 Speaker 1: the morning and you open up an eye, if you 174 00:11:15,036 --> 00:11:16,916 Speaker 1: turn on the mark and you look through the sky 175 00:11:17,116 --> 00:11:19,076 Speaker 1: and won the weather who he is a weather or 176 00:11:19,236 --> 00:11:23,436 Speaker 1: dry who knows the weather man? And here's the latest 177 00:11:23,436 --> 00:11:30,356 Speaker 1: weather report? Extreme cold temperature below zero. In the nineteen fifties, 178 00:11:30,556 --> 00:11:34,116 Speaker 1: when Americans started buying televisions and real numbers, they could 179 00:11:34,116 --> 00:11:37,956 Speaker 1: flip a switch and hear a forecast, sometimes a goofy one. 180 00:11:38,356 --> 00:11:41,116 Speaker 1: A lot of early TV forecasts came in the form 181 00:11:41,156 --> 00:11:45,916 Speaker 1: of cartoons. Some of them involved puppets. One was sponsored 182 00:11:45,956 --> 00:11:50,476 Speaker 1: by Botany Neckties and featured a little wooly lamb. No 183 00:11:50,636 --> 00:11:53,516 Speaker 1: recordings of the song exists, so we found the lyrics 184 00:11:53,796 --> 00:11:56,996 Speaker 1: and made our own. It's cold, it's rain, it's fair, 185 00:11:57,396 --> 00:12:02,116 Speaker 1: it's all mixed up together. But I, as Botany's little lamp, 186 00:12:02,516 --> 00:12:09,436 Speaker 1: predict tomorrow's weather. I love how silly these early weather 187 00:12:09,476 --> 00:12:13,556 Speaker 1: reports were. But this goofiness didn't last long. Pretty quickly, 188 00:12:13,556 --> 00:12:16,956 Speaker 1: in those post war years, television weather forecasting left lambs 189 00:12:16,996 --> 00:12:20,436 Speaker 1: behind and settled into the style we still have today. 190 00:12:22,236 --> 00:12:25,316 Speaker 1: Weather today, Montana in a real state of deep breeze, 191 00:12:25,316 --> 00:12:28,436 Speaker 1: about forty eight degrees near Helena, stormy along the Gulf 192 00:12:28,436 --> 00:12:31,796 Speaker 1: of Mexico and Texas, A sober looking fellow in a 193 00:12:31,876 --> 00:12:37,276 Speaker 1: suit and tie, part sportscaster, part scientist. Generally, however, here 194 00:12:37,276 --> 00:12:40,396 Speaker 1: in New York and alt in Chicago, something resembling springtime. 195 00:12:40,516 --> 00:12:43,636 Speaker 1: Fifty eighth degrees here in New York this afternoon. It's 196 00:12:43,876 --> 00:12:46,316 Speaker 1: really a pretty big country after all, lots of weather. 197 00:12:47,956 --> 00:12:51,356 Speaker 1: The buttoned up weatherman and his straight up forecast. This 198 00:12:51,436 --> 00:12:54,476 Speaker 1: was a wartime offshoot products of the Army in the Navy. 199 00:12:54,836 --> 00:12:58,316 Speaker 1: The earliest national television weather forecast was made by Fellow 200 00:12:58,356 --> 00:13:01,076 Speaker 1: who had had training in meteorology during the war. A 201 00:13:01,116 --> 00:13:03,876 Speaker 1: lot of soldiers and sailors had gotten that kind of training. 202 00:13:04,196 --> 00:13:06,916 Speaker 1: And when you look at it even today, a modern 203 00:13:06,916 --> 00:13:11,196 Speaker 1: weather report, the map, the pointer, the symbols, the presentation, 204 00:13:11,676 --> 00:13:15,236 Speaker 1: it's like a military briefing. Right, let me get the 205 00:13:15,356 --> 00:13:17,836 Speaker 1: weather Bureau here, we said to the brother James, are there. 206 00:13:18,636 --> 00:13:21,756 Speaker 1: In nineteen fifty two, NBC launched The Today Show. That's 207 00:13:21,756 --> 00:13:23,996 Speaker 1: weather forecast. Do you understand? Right in the Weather Bureau 208 00:13:24,076 --> 00:13:26,876 Speaker 1: where they make the stuff? And already for you. Go ahead, Jim, 209 00:13:26,876 --> 00:13:29,356 Speaker 1: I'll put it on a map. The Today Show's anchor, 210 00:13:29,516 --> 00:13:32,676 Speaker 1: Dave Garroway in suit and bow tie. He's on the 211 00:13:32,716 --> 00:13:35,036 Speaker 1: phone with a guy from the Weather Bureau. He's in 212 00:13:35,076 --> 00:13:37,436 Speaker 1: a studio kitted out with all kinds of Jim crackery, 213 00:13:37,596 --> 00:13:40,836 Speaker 1: a giant telephone, a microphone the size of a broomstick 214 00:13:40,916 --> 00:13:44,516 Speaker 1: hanging down his front, a bank of blinking television monitors, 215 00:13:44,916 --> 00:13:49,036 Speaker 1: very high tech, nineteen fifty style. But then the telephone 216 00:13:49,036 --> 00:13:51,036 Speaker 1: in one hand, he's got a piece of chalk in 217 00:13:51,116 --> 00:13:53,476 Speaker 1: his other hand, and he starts writing the weather on 218 00:13:53,516 --> 00:13:56,356 Speaker 1: a big chalkboard with a map of the country drawn 219 00:13:56,396 --> 00:14:02,876 Speaker 1: on it. Ar it turns to rain in Pennsylvania about 220 00:14:02,996 --> 00:14:08,356 Speaker 1: thirty two up here, crazing dribble. He's not God, this 221 00:14:08,436 --> 00:14:11,316 Speaker 1: guy here, he is every morning telling you what your 222 00:14:11,396 --> 00:14:13,836 Speaker 1: day will be like, and for the most part, earning 223 00:14:13,876 --> 00:14:17,316 Speaker 1: your trust. I think, having lived through some of this era, 224 00:14:17,836 --> 00:14:20,956 Speaker 1: there was also something so seemingly simple about it. You 225 00:14:20,996 --> 00:14:23,036 Speaker 1: get the weather report in the morning, you put on 226 00:14:23,076 --> 00:14:26,116 Speaker 1: your wind breaker, you had out expecting rain, You get 227 00:14:26,156 --> 00:14:28,756 Speaker 1: on with your day. There was a Cold War going on, 228 00:14:29,156 --> 00:14:31,796 Speaker 1: the world might end in a blink an atomic bomb, 229 00:14:31,876 --> 00:14:34,356 Speaker 1: the end of life on Earth. But hey, you knew 230 00:14:34,436 --> 00:14:36,556 Speaker 1: enough at least that you needed a wind breaker. Today. 231 00:14:37,156 --> 00:14:39,116 Speaker 1: I want to know your forecast is very good, because 232 00:14:39,116 --> 00:14:42,076 Speaker 1: it's raining right here in New York. All those long 233 00:14:42,156 --> 00:14:44,396 Speaker 1: years of the Cold War, though, the nineteen fifties, the 234 00:14:44,476 --> 00:14:48,516 Speaker 1: nineteen sixties, there was something else going on. For one thing, 235 00:14:48,836 --> 00:14:53,556 Speaker 1: the weather forecasting was pretty good, reliable, useful, but it 236 00:14:53,636 --> 00:14:58,196 Speaker 1: had stopped getting much better each war. The First World War, 237 00:14:58,356 --> 00:15:01,316 Speaker 1: the Second World War, the Cold War had advanced the 238 00:15:01,396 --> 00:15:07,076 Speaker 1: science of meteorology, but whether as folklore proverbs that goofiness 239 00:15:07,116 --> 00:15:10,116 Speaker 1: that started with poor Richard's Almanac went down to the 240 00:15:10,156 --> 00:15:13,036 Speaker 1: singing lamb that was still around two in a way. 241 00:15:13,396 --> 00:15:16,036 Speaker 1: You can see it. In one little town in America. 242 00:15:16,196 --> 00:15:21,476 Speaker 1: In nineteen seventy, the morning a long time once again 243 00:15:21,596 --> 00:15:26,676 Speaker 1: for the KRSBO got Report, the official for Rosebery. Yes 244 00:15:27,036 --> 00:15:30,876 Speaker 1: you heard that right, the Mount Nebo Goat Report. In 245 00:15:30,956 --> 00:15:34,836 Speaker 1: a city of Rosberg, Oregon. They went old school. The 246 00:15:34,916 --> 00:15:38,156 Speaker 1: local news started issuing forecasts by reporting on the position 247 00:15:38,196 --> 00:15:40,956 Speaker 1: of a herd of goats up on a mountain outside 248 00:15:40,996 --> 00:15:44,156 Speaker 1: town Mount Nebo. And I know this sounds crazy, but 249 00:15:44,356 --> 00:15:47,476 Speaker 1: you really can use sheep and goats to predict the weather. 250 00:15:47,996 --> 00:15:52,236 Speaker 1: They're pretty accurate. There's no end of proverbs about this phenomenon. 251 00:15:53,156 --> 00:15:56,556 Speaker 1: When sheep gather in a huddle, tomorrow will have a puddle. 252 00:15:57,356 --> 00:16:03,716 Speaker 1: That's true. And so the KRSB Mount Nebo Goat reports 253 00:16:03,756 --> 00:16:06,276 Speaker 1: game this morning at about six thirty am. Man at 254 00:16:06,276 --> 00:16:09,396 Speaker 1: the moment, we have someone scattered goats under an intenthi 255 00:16:09,676 --> 00:16:13,316 Speaker 1: go to pressure system. Goats arranging this morning about the 256 00:16:13,356 --> 00:16:16,876 Speaker 1: mid mountain three quarters of the way upound people. Thus 257 00:16:16,996 --> 00:16:19,436 Speaker 1: we will have a beautiful Juan morning. Once you get 258 00:16:21,356 --> 00:16:23,196 Speaker 1: what I think is going on here is a kind 259 00:16:23,236 --> 00:16:26,476 Speaker 1: of back to nature vibe. But there's something else here too, 260 00:16:26,716 --> 00:16:29,476 Speaker 1: an anti war vibe, the idea that maybe the weather 261 00:16:29,556 --> 00:16:32,236 Speaker 1: isn't brought to you by the military, Maybe the weather 262 00:16:32,356 --> 00:16:34,916 Speaker 1: isn't the enemy. Maybe the weather could also just be 263 00:16:34,996 --> 00:16:38,836 Speaker 1: goats up on a hill. Then too, there's a sense 264 00:16:38,876 --> 00:16:42,636 Speaker 1: here of the chaos of climate. By the nineteen seventies, 265 00:16:42,956 --> 00:16:46,516 Speaker 1: meteorologists we're talking about the butterfly effect, the idea that 266 00:16:46,596 --> 00:16:49,236 Speaker 1: a butterfly flapping its wings in one part of the 267 00:16:49,236 --> 00:16:52,436 Speaker 1: world could have an effect on a weather system on 268 00:16:52,476 --> 00:16:55,596 Speaker 1: the other side of the world. That wasn't really a 269 00:16:55,636 --> 00:16:58,276 Speaker 1: new idea in the nineteen seventies. It had first appeared 270 00:16:58,276 --> 00:17:01,996 Speaker 1: in a meteorology journal in nineteen eighteen during the First 271 00:17:02,036 --> 00:17:05,596 Speaker 1: World War, about a different insect, a grasshopper in Idaho, 272 00:17:05,716 --> 00:17:09,036 Speaker 1: might conceivably initiate a storm movement which would sweep across 273 00:17:09,196 --> 00:17:13,916 Speaker 1: the continent and destroy New York City. It was a 274 00:17:14,036 --> 00:17:17,196 Speaker 1: very scary thought. It got much scarier somehow in the 275 00:17:17,276 --> 00:17:20,916 Speaker 1: nineteen seventies, in the middle of the Vietnam War. The 276 00:17:20,996 --> 00:17:25,156 Speaker 1: weather is chaos. It's complicated, so formidably intricate. A set 277 00:17:25,156 --> 00:17:30,076 Speaker 1: of innumerable forces, intersecting and infinite ways. The system can 278 00:17:30,156 --> 00:17:34,556 Speaker 1: never be reduced to any mathematical model, not perfectly anyway. 279 00:17:35,356 --> 00:17:38,196 Speaker 1: But what if we didn't have to understand all that complexity. 280 00:17:38,556 --> 00:17:41,276 Speaker 1: What if instead of trying to model or predict the weather, 281 00:17:41,596 --> 00:17:47,996 Speaker 1: we could just control it. That story after the break. 282 00:17:57,796 --> 00:18:01,396 Speaker 1: This is an airport weather station here with our charts 283 00:18:01,436 --> 00:18:05,516 Speaker 1: and their instruments and trying to predict tomorrow's weather. Quite 284 00:18:05,556 --> 00:18:12,396 Speaker 1: often they succeed. In nineteen fifty eight, CBS News reported 285 00:18:12,516 --> 00:18:16,436 Speaker 1: on the latest research in the field of meteorology. The 286 00:18:16,476 --> 00:18:19,196 Speaker 1: fact is that we don't know very much about the 287 00:18:19,236 --> 00:18:22,476 Speaker 1: forces that create the weather. Therefore we can always predict 288 00:18:22,516 --> 00:18:26,396 Speaker 1: without proceed Consider some of the things we don't know. 289 00:18:28,076 --> 00:18:31,316 Speaker 1: Consider this cloud. The Cold War, the age of the 290 00:18:31,316 --> 00:18:35,556 Speaker 1: atomic bomb, had given rise to a revolution and atmospheric sciences, 291 00:18:36,116 --> 00:18:39,036 Speaker 1: and still no one really understood the workings of weather. 292 00:18:39,276 --> 00:18:43,916 Speaker 1: What exactly produces high winds, a hurricane, a tornado, a blizzard? 293 00:18:44,596 --> 00:18:46,716 Speaker 1: Was it a butterfly on the other side of the world? 294 00:18:47,636 --> 00:18:50,876 Speaker 1: What causes rain? How to clouds form? At the time, 295 00:18:51,156 --> 00:18:53,396 Speaker 1: the field was on the verge of a major breakthrough 296 00:18:53,836 --> 00:18:58,476 Speaker 1: in the work of a scientist named Joanne Malchus. CBS 297 00:18:58,516 --> 00:19:01,316 Speaker 1: featured her research in its look at the Latest goings 298 00:19:01,356 --> 00:19:05,956 Speaker 1: on in Meteorology. Doctor Maltho was studying a tiny but 299 00:19:06,236 --> 00:19:12,116 Speaker 1: very important part of weather, a cloud. Joanne Melchis, better 300 00:19:12,156 --> 00:19:15,956 Speaker 1: known by a later married name, Joanne Simpson, was the 301 00:19:15,996 --> 00:19:18,796 Speaker 1: first woman in the United States to earn a PhD 302 00:19:18,956 --> 00:19:22,116 Speaker 1: in meteorology. Her whole career came out of the Second 303 00:19:22,116 --> 00:19:27,436 Speaker 1: World War. She was always interested in flying and sailing 304 00:19:27,636 --> 00:19:30,436 Speaker 1: and math, but didn't really have an interest in science 305 00:19:30,516 --> 00:19:33,516 Speaker 1: until she went to University of Chicago. And then she 306 00:19:33,556 --> 00:19:36,676 Speaker 1: describes her interest in meteorology as an accident of World 307 00:19:36,756 --> 00:19:40,116 Speaker 1: War Two. And she starts college in nineteen forty and 308 00:19:40,196 --> 00:19:45,436 Speaker 1: then Pearl Harbor happens, and she says, her whole worlds 309 00:19:45,476 --> 00:19:48,276 Speaker 1: in flames, and she really wants to contribute to the 310 00:19:48,276 --> 00:19:52,436 Speaker 1: war effort. That's Adelaide Mandeville again. Simpson's father had been 311 00:19:52,436 --> 00:19:56,716 Speaker 1: a reporter covering aviation, her mother a birth control activist. 312 00:19:57,516 --> 00:20:01,756 Speaker 1: Her parents won't let her join the military and say, 313 00:20:01,796 --> 00:20:04,156 Speaker 1: you have to stay in college, and so she finds 314 00:20:04,196 --> 00:20:08,876 Speaker 1: this aviation training program World War two training program at 315 00:20:09,196 --> 00:20:14,836 Speaker 1: Verst of Chicago that was started by this meteorologist named 316 00:20:15,036 --> 00:20:20,596 Speaker 1: Carl Gustaf Rosby, who many people consider like the greatest 317 00:20:20,676 --> 00:20:24,396 Speaker 1: meteorologists of the twentieth century. If you've ever flown on 318 00:20:24,436 --> 00:20:27,996 Speaker 1: an airplane, you can think Carl Gustaf Rosby. He was 319 00:20:28,116 --> 00:20:31,516 Speaker 1: key in identifying the jet stream. He explained how atmospheric 320 00:20:31,596 --> 00:20:35,516 Speaker 1: circulation of the weather works like waves. He was Simpson's advisor. 321 00:20:35,956 --> 00:20:39,676 Speaker 1: He was a great meteorologist. Apparently he was not a 322 00:20:39,676 --> 00:20:43,676 Speaker 1: great person. He was really dismissive of her and her work. 323 00:20:43,756 --> 00:20:47,516 Speaker 1: He's like, clouds are completely insignificant. They just don't matter 324 00:20:47,836 --> 00:20:51,836 Speaker 1: you as a girl, and clouds, as passive and insignificant 325 00:20:51,916 --> 00:20:58,756 Speaker 1: are a perfect match. She's like, okay, sir, and moves 326 00:20:58,796 --> 00:21:00,876 Speaker 1: on to a new advisor and continues working on it. 327 00:21:01,356 --> 00:21:04,996 Speaker 1: In spite of that, Simpson persevered. She finished her dissertation 328 00:21:05,116 --> 00:21:09,076 Speaker 1: in nineteen forty nine. She saw something few other meteorologies 329 00:21:09,556 --> 00:21:13,876 Speaker 1: had seen. That clouds weren't insignificant, and that they were 330 00:21:13,876 --> 00:21:16,756 Speaker 1: important to whether in all kinds of ways, that they 331 00:21:16,796 --> 00:21:20,916 Speaker 1: were worth investigating. It's almost as though, as a person 332 00:21:20,956 --> 00:21:23,996 Speaker 1: whose own power had been invisible to a lot of people, 333 00:21:24,116 --> 00:21:28,116 Speaker 1: including her adviser, she could see the power and something 334 00:21:28,156 --> 00:21:34,756 Speaker 1: that looked like fluff. Here's Simpson in that nineteen fifty 335 00:21:34,756 --> 00:21:38,396 Speaker 1: eight CBS news story. We could understand what's happening in 336 00:21:38,436 --> 00:21:41,636 Speaker 1: this coffee cup. We could begin to learn about clouds. 337 00:21:42,556 --> 00:21:46,716 Speaker 1: There's heat and moisture in the coffee cup. Because Hattie arises, 338 00:21:46,796 --> 00:21:50,556 Speaker 1: we find motions. When I first watched this interview with Simpson, 339 00:21:50,916 --> 00:21:53,516 Speaker 1: it drove me crazy that this important scientist has to 340 00:21:53,556 --> 00:21:56,996 Speaker 1: introduce an idea using a coffee mug. I guess because 341 00:21:56,996 --> 00:21:59,396 Speaker 1: she's a woman. But then it turns out it's a 342 00:21:59,436 --> 00:22:02,916 Speaker 1: really good explanation. The steam coming up from the cup 343 00:22:02,996 --> 00:22:05,596 Speaker 1: is water vapor, which is being condensed out into a 344 00:22:05,676 --> 00:22:09,836 Speaker 1: lot of tiny, little liquid water droplets. Something very similar 345 00:22:09,836 --> 00:22:13,756 Speaker 1: to this is happening over the tropical ocean. Simpson spent 346 00:22:13,836 --> 00:22:16,436 Speaker 1: much of her career of flying through clouds and airplanes 347 00:22:16,476 --> 00:22:20,996 Speaker 1: with cameras strapped to the nose, recording movements and taking measurements. 348 00:22:22,796 --> 00:22:26,516 Speaker 1: There's the marine meteorologist. I began to wonder about clouds. 349 00:22:26,516 --> 00:22:29,756 Speaker 1: How to clouds grow? Where do they get the energy 350 00:22:29,756 --> 00:22:33,276 Speaker 1: to fade on? To find out, we have to go 351 00:22:33,316 --> 00:22:36,996 Speaker 1: to the places where the clouds are. We have to 352 00:22:37,076 --> 00:22:40,716 Speaker 1: chase after them in the sky. So she's up there 353 00:22:40,956 --> 00:22:46,076 Speaker 1: in airplanes, chasing clouds, making films, analyzing those films frame 354 00:22:46,156 --> 00:22:49,596 Speaker 1: by frame, and building a mathematical model of the behavior 355 00:22:49,596 --> 00:22:54,396 Speaker 1: of clouds. To do all those things she needs was 356 00:22:54,436 --> 00:22:57,716 Speaker 1: at the time really expensive technology, and the best way 357 00:22:57,716 --> 00:23:00,556 Speaker 1: to get access to that technology was through the military, 358 00:23:00,676 --> 00:23:03,636 Speaker 1: which had long had a huge interest in understanding and 359 00:23:03,756 --> 00:23:06,876 Speaker 1: predicting the weather. By the nineteen fifties, at the beginning 360 00:23:06,916 --> 00:23:09,676 Speaker 1: of the Cold War, what the US military would really 361 00:23:09,716 --> 00:23:12,316 Speaker 1: really like is to be able to control the weather. 362 00:23:12,996 --> 00:23:16,396 Speaker 1: This is what Adelaide Manville's research is all about. Earlier 363 00:23:16,436 --> 00:23:20,836 Speaker 1: scientists had wanted to understand things. Cold War era scientists 364 00:23:21,116 --> 00:23:25,796 Speaker 1: wanted to control things mind control, riot control, pain control, 365 00:23:26,316 --> 00:23:30,836 Speaker 1: weather control. We can fully harness nature, and so you know, 366 00:23:30,836 --> 00:23:36,396 Speaker 1: we're one step closer to being able to move clouds 367 00:23:36,516 --> 00:23:39,796 Speaker 1: and make it rain, and turn a hurricane in a 368 00:23:39,836 --> 00:23:44,716 Speaker 1: different direction, mitigate lightning so forest fires don't happen. They 369 00:23:44,716 --> 00:23:48,716 Speaker 1: start coming up with all these ideas turning deserts into gardens, 370 00:23:49,196 --> 00:23:52,116 Speaker 1: and you know why not, because meanwhile, a bunch of 371 00:23:52,156 --> 00:23:56,396 Speaker 1: other wartime technologies we're making it possible to control the weather. 372 00:23:56,796 --> 00:24:01,436 Speaker 1: Indoors mposures everywhere are today benefiting by weather made to 373 00:24:01,636 --> 00:24:05,276 Speaker 1: order by carrier. Instead of traveling away from business and 374 00:24:05,356 --> 00:24:08,156 Speaker 1: home to seek relief, you can obtain the same comfort 375 00:24:08,236 --> 00:24:11,156 Speaker 1: right in your own home moral office through air conditioning. 376 00:24:11,796 --> 00:24:14,476 Speaker 1: So we can control the weather inside. Wouldn't it be 377 00:24:14,556 --> 00:24:16,596 Speaker 1: wonderful if you could just touch a button and fill 378 00:24:16,636 --> 00:24:19,876 Speaker 1: your home with warm spring sunlight. Now you can have 379 00:24:19,996 --> 00:24:24,436 Speaker 1: electric heating, the next best thing to sunshine. Next we'll 380 00:24:24,436 --> 00:24:29,196 Speaker 1: control the weather outside air conditioning, electric heating indoor weather 381 00:24:29,236 --> 00:24:33,516 Speaker 1: control for the outdoors. The equivalent was a discovery made 382 00:24:33,516 --> 00:24:37,116 Speaker 1: in nineteen forty six by three scientists a general electric 383 00:24:37,636 --> 00:24:41,436 Speaker 1: They called it cloud seating, dropping dry ice from airplanes 384 00:24:41,436 --> 00:24:46,676 Speaker 1: onto clouds to make them rain weather to order. Cloud 385 00:24:46,716 --> 00:24:52,676 Speaker 1: seating men completely takes off and just becomes this national obsession. 386 00:24:53,276 --> 00:24:56,916 Speaker 1: A lot of veterans from the war who have learned 387 00:24:56,996 --> 00:25:00,196 Speaker 1: to fly and have a general sense of weather patterns. 388 00:25:00,596 --> 00:25:05,196 Speaker 1: They start doing it and selling their services to farmers 389 00:25:05,196 --> 00:25:10,356 Speaker 1: who are facing drought, to mayors who you need to 390 00:25:10,396 --> 00:25:16,876 Speaker 1: refill their public water supply, to Native American tribes who 391 00:25:16,996 --> 00:25:22,316 Speaker 1: have done their annual rainmaking ceremonies and didn't work that year, 392 00:25:22,356 --> 00:25:25,676 Speaker 1: and they hire these rainmakers. Then it tumbles into the 393 00:25:25,676 --> 00:25:31,076 Speaker 1: Cold War period and just explodes. Suddenly. The idea of 394 00:25:31,116 --> 00:25:34,996 Speaker 1: controlling the weather seems so promising. You can force clouds 395 00:25:35,036 --> 00:25:37,756 Speaker 1: to rain. You can't really control how much or what 396 00:25:37,836 --> 00:25:40,476 Speaker 1: the consequences will be, but in a crude way, it 397 00:25:40,516 --> 00:25:45,036 Speaker 1: does work. In nineteen fifty one, Congress debated the Weather 398 00:25:45,236 --> 00:25:51,476 Speaker 1: Modification Act, providing for equitable distribution of precipitation among the states. 399 00:25:52,236 --> 00:25:56,556 Speaker 1: Think about that for a minute. The confidence. We are 400 00:25:56,636 --> 00:26:02,956 Speaker 1: talking about drafting legislation to ensure equal rainfall between the states, 401 00:26:03,956 --> 00:26:08,276 Speaker 1: and you thought my tree branch idea was screwy. In 402 00:26:08,356 --> 00:26:13,436 Speaker 1: nineteen fifty three, Congress established a National Weather Modification Commission. 403 00:26:13,836 --> 00:26:16,636 Speaker 1: As if you could jump from cloud seating to setting 404 00:26:16,636 --> 00:26:18,996 Speaker 1: the temperature every day, like with a thermostat in your 405 00:26:19,036 --> 00:26:22,716 Speaker 1: living room. Meanwhile, the military is awfully interested in the 406 00:26:22,796 --> 00:26:26,756 Speaker 1: secret stuff weather as a weapon. Think of the advantages 407 00:26:26,836 --> 00:26:29,076 Speaker 1: that would have brought in a war if you could 408 00:26:29,076 --> 00:26:33,076 Speaker 1: control the weather in your enemy's territory. So it's just 409 00:26:33,156 --> 00:26:35,476 Speaker 1: at this point, in the middle of the nineteen fifties 410 00:26:35,716 --> 00:26:39,636 Speaker 1: that Joanne Simpson has started to revolutionize the study of clouds. 411 00:26:39,636 --> 00:26:43,276 Speaker 1: She's an experimental scientist doing basic research, but she sure 412 00:26:43,276 --> 00:26:46,196 Speaker 1: yourself can't do it alone. So she got funding any 413 00:26:46,236 --> 00:26:48,876 Speaker 1: way she could, from any branch of the military, And 414 00:26:48,956 --> 00:26:50,996 Speaker 1: if she had to say, oh, yeah, this has a 415 00:26:51,036 --> 00:26:54,756 Speaker 1: military application, she'd say it. Simpson is looking for projects 416 00:26:54,756 --> 00:26:56,876 Speaker 1: that will let her do cloud seatings that she can 417 00:26:56,916 --> 00:26:59,916 Speaker 1: test her models. But the way Simpson talks about her work, 418 00:26:59,916 --> 00:27:04,676 Speaker 1: at least in public, it's always about basic research. These 419 00:27:04,716 --> 00:27:08,156 Speaker 1: clouds were passing, have a very short flight, they're born, 420 00:27:08,396 --> 00:27:12,556 Speaker 1: they grow, may die. It's quite moving the way she 421 00:27:12,596 --> 00:27:15,996 Speaker 1: describes clouds. I find it moving. You're almost there with her, 422 00:27:16,556 --> 00:27:21,916 Speaker 1: chasing them in the sky like UFOs or aliens. Then 423 00:27:21,956 --> 00:27:26,956 Speaker 1: we get a monster runaway cloud. It tools started as 424 00:27:26,956 --> 00:27:30,196 Speaker 1: a small, tiny fleecy thing, or a group of tiny 425 00:27:30,236 --> 00:27:33,756 Speaker 1: fleecy things, but then something permitted it to build and 426 00:27:33,796 --> 00:27:38,956 Speaker 1: grow and defy its cool, dry surroundings. Once we find 427 00:27:38,956 --> 00:27:42,796 Speaker 1: out what that something is the tanks and breaks off 428 00:27:42,876 --> 00:27:46,116 Speaker 1: clouds and permits the runaway growth of large numbers of them, 429 00:27:47,236 --> 00:27:50,116 Speaker 1: well then perhaps we will have put in one more 430 00:27:50,236 --> 00:27:53,236 Speaker 1: link in the long chain of what forms and maintains 431 00:27:53,276 --> 00:27:57,916 Speaker 1: a hurricane. Ultimately, she develops the first ever cloud model 432 00:27:57,996 --> 00:28:01,316 Speaker 1: and the first ever hurricane model, so her work becomes 433 00:28:01,516 --> 00:28:06,116 Speaker 1: foundational to the next up until now sixty seventy years 434 00:28:06,436 --> 00:28:10,476 Speaker 1: of thomospheric sciences. But in the mid nineteen fifties she 435 00:28:10,516 --> 00:28:15,116 Speaker 1: starts working in weather control. But then the idea of 436 00:28:15,156 --> 00:28:19,116 Speaker 1: weather control had gone so entirely mainstream. Then even President 437 00:28:19,196 --> 00:28:26,956 Speaker 1: Lyndon B. Johnson was talking about it. He who controls 438 00:28:27,036 --> 00:28:31,836 Speaker 1: the weather will control the world LBJ, sounding like a 439 00:28:31,916 --> 00:28:35,276 Speaker 1: James Bond supervillain. It was such a good line that 440 00:28:35,356 --> 00:28:38,156 Speaker 1: a screenwriter stole it a couple of years later for 441 00:28:38,196 --> 00:28:40,516 Speaker 1: a film. There was a spoof of a Bond movie. 442 00:28:40,756 --> 00:28:43,516 Speaker 1: It's called Our Man Flint and I've got to play 443 00:28:43,516 --> 00:28:47,196 Speaker 1: something for you. In this scene, a US general complains 444 00:28:47,236 --> 00:28:53,396 Speaker 1: about the supervillain's evil plan in the desert put icebergs 445 00:28:53,396 --> 00:28:56,076 Speaker 1: in the Mediterranean. You control the weather, and you control 446 00:28:56,116 --> 00:28:59,436 Speaker 1: the world. If you could control the weather, you could 447 00:28:59,436 --> 00:29:03,316 Speaker 1: also do something seemingly incredibly useful. You could weaken hurricanes 448 00:29:03,436 --> 00:29:06,716 Speaker 1: before they hit land. In the mid nineteen fifties, or 449 00:29:06,756 --> 00:29:12,116 Speaker 1: a series of hurricanes that caused you mass amounts of damage, 450 00:29:12,156 --> 00:29:16,276 Speaker 1: hundreds of people die, and the government starts the National 451 00:29:16,356 --> 00:29:21,236 Speaker 1: Hurricane Research Project, and one of the methods they used 452 00:29:21,236 --> 00:29:25,996 Speaker 1: to research hurricanes is cloud seating. Joan Simpson served as 453 00:29:26,076 --> 00:29:30,676 Speaker 1: top advisor to what comes to be called Project storm Fury, 454 00:29:31,636 --> 00:29:36,516 Speaker 1: using cloud seating to modify a hurricane. But a hitch 455 00:29:36,716 --> 00:29:39,516 Speaker 1: with trying to modify a hurricane, as you first have 456 00:29:39,596 --> 00:29:42,756 Speaker 1: to wait for one to happen. So in the meantime, 457 00:29:43,156 --> 00:29:46,316 Speaker 1: Simpson and her team decided to run tests on promising 458 00:29:46,356 --> 00:29:50,436 Speaker 1: storm clouds. You're not summer of nineteen sixty three and 459 00:29:50,516 --> 00:29:54,476 Speaker 1: they're in Puerto Rico at a US naval base, and 460 00:29:54,796 --> 00:29:59,316 Speaker 1: they go up and she chooses ten clouds near San Juan, 461 00:29:59,836 --> 00:30:03,556 Speaker 1: and they seed them, and then they're waiting to see 462 00:30:03,596 --> 00:30:08,996 Speaker 1: what happens. And the first cloud, in Simpson's telling, just balloon. 463 00:30:09,516 --> 00:30:13,436 Speaker 1: It grows and grows. They think they're watching cloud seating work, 464 00:30:14,036 --> 00:30:16,756 Speaker 1: and they do end up seating a hurricane. That same year, 465 00:30:16,836 --> 00:30:19,076 Speaker 1: they publish a big paper about it. It gets a 466 00:30:19,076 --> 00:30:23,276 Speaker 1: lot of press attention. Then two years later, in nineteen 467 00:30:23,396 --> 00:30:27,196 Speaker 1: sixty five, when Simpson is serving as director of Storm Fury, 468 00:30:27,676 --> 00:30:31,236 Speaker 1: they decided to try to modify another hurricane named Betsy, 469 00:30:31,796 --> 00:30:34,596 Speaker 1: off the coast of Puerto Rico. They announced that plan 470 00:30:34,756 --> 00:30:39,356 Speaker 1: to the press dawn August twenty seven at Florida and 471 00:30:39,436 --> 00:30:42,716 Speaker 1: island bases, Navy, whether Bureau and Air Force planes are 472 00:30:42,716 --> 00:30:46,956 Speaker 1: warming up to their daily task, except at the last minute, 473 00:30:47,196 --> 00:30:51,796 Speaker 1: the hurricane changed course suddenly on Sunday night, Betsy runs 474 00:30:51,836 --> 00:30:54,476 Speaker 1: head on into a high pressure ridge, then it turns 475 00:30:54,516 --> 00:30:58,996 Speaker 1: towards the mainline. Hurricane flags are flying now from Key 476 00:30:59,036 --> 00:31:02,196 Speaker 1: West to Keep Canada. Because of the course change, the 477 00:31:02,276 --> 00:31:05,076 Speaker 1: Storm Fury scientists called off their plan to try to 478 00:31:05,116 --> 00:31:08,956 Speaker 1: modify the hurricane. And then when Betsy hit Florida and 479 00:31:09,116 --> 00:31:14,196 Speaker 1: Louisiana had killed eighty people. Mentality list is as follows. 480 00:31:14,556 --> 00:31:18,716 Speaker 1: Twenty five year old missus and Mayou. Her body was 481 00:31:18,796 --> 00:31:22,836 Speaker 1: found in the Franklin Avenue ditch. She was swept away 482 00:31:22,876 --> 00:31:28,596 Speaker 1: by flood water. Floridians were furious. A lot of them 483 00:31:28,636 --> 00:31:32,076 Speaker 1: blamed Project Storm Fury, thought the scientists had made the 484 00:31:32,156 --> 00:31:36,836 Speaker 1: hurricane so severe. In truth, Storm Fury wasn't responsible. The 485 00:31:36,876 --> 00:31:40,596 Speaker 1: scientists had already abandoned the project, but people still blamed them. 486 00:31:40,876 --> 00:31:44,796 Speaker 1: Simpson resigned. What really spelled the end of this kind 487 00:31:44,836 --> 00:31:48,036 Speaker 1: of weather modification though, we're experiments going on at the 488 00:31:48,076 --> 00:31:51,836 Speaker 1: same time but very far away. So they were using 489 00:31:51,876 --> 00:31:57,276 Speaker 1: cloud seeding to disrupt flight patterns or to try to 490 00:31:57,316 --> 00:32:00,916 Speaker 1: do this disrupt flight patterns to flood the Ho Chiman 491 00:32:01,036 --> 00:32:04,916 Speaker 1: trails that they couldn't get supplies where they needed to go. 492 00:32:05,676 --> 00:32:08,436 Speaker 1: During the Vietnam War, the US government spent more than 493 00:32:08,476 --> 00:32:12,516 Speaker 1: twenty million dollars on this project, with a few conclusive results. 494 00:32:13,276 --> 00:32:15,236 Speaker 1: Much of the story didn't come out until the Pentagon 495 00:32:15,316 --> 00:32:18,676 Speaker 1: papers were leaked in nineteen seventy one. They don't admit 496 00:32:18,756 --> 00:32:23,716 Speaker 1: to using it until nineteen seventy four. There's huge public backlash. 497 00:32:23,876 --> 00:32:27,236 Speaker 1: The backlash against weather control was because it was associated 498 00:32:27,276 --> 00:32:30,996 Speaker 1: with the many atrocities committed by scientists in Vietnam agent 499 00:32:31,116 --> 00:32:36,916 Speaker 1: orange napalm. Years later, Simpson talked about this in an interview. 500 00:32:37,756 --> 00:32:40,236 Speaker 1: I thought it was terrible. I mean, all my life, 501 00:32:40,236 --> 00:32:44,156 Speaker 1: I've tried to work for the betterment of the planet 502 00:32:44,196 --> 00:32:47,476 Speaker 1: and the people, even in a small way, and then 503 00:32:47,516 --> 00:32:52,196 Speaker 1: to use what I've done is some kind of military thing. 504 00:32:52,436 --> 00:32:57,876 Speaker 1: I obviously am very concerned and not happy about it. 505 00:32:58,916 --> 00:33:01,916 Speaker 1: Simpson had gotten involved in this research because of Pearl Harbor. 506 00:33:02,036 --> 00:33:04,276 Speaker 1: She'd gotten pretty much all her funding from the US 507 00:33:04,396 --> 00:33:08,516 Speaker 1: military during the Cold War and then after the Vietnam Wars. 508 00:33:08,556 --> 00:33:11,916 Speaker 1: Revealed have been a series of frauds and lies and atrocities. 509 00:33:12,516 --> 00:33:15,276 Speaker 1: She is shocked shocked to discover that her research has 510 00:33:15,276 --> 00:33:16,796 Speaker 1: been used to try to make it rain on the 511 00:33:16,836 --> 00:33:20,116 Speaker 1: ho Chi Min trail. Me I'm just not buying it. 512 00:33:22,796 --> 00:33:25,636 Speaker 1: I can't look inside Joe and Simpson's heart though, any 513 00:33:25,636 --> 00:33:28,436 Speaker 1: better than I can see into a cloud. But I 514 00:33:28,476 --> 00:33:32,196 Speaker 1: do know this. The revolution and atmospheric science that started 515 00:33:32,276 --> 00:33:34,956 Speaker 1: during the Second World War came crashing down in the 516 00:33:34,996 --> 00:33:39,276 Speaker 1: nineteen seventies in the aftermath of Vietnam. It wasn't only 517 00:33:39,356 --> 00:33:41,956 Speaker 1: Vietnam that led to this turning point, It was also 518 00:33:42,076 --> 00:33:47,476 Speaker 1: rising concern about another kind of weather modification, climate change. 519 00:33:48,036 --> 00:33:50,956 Speaker 1: It turned out people were not controlling the weather making 520 00:33:50,956 --> 00:33:54,396 Speaker 1: it better, making it easier for farmers to grow, averting 521 00:33:54,436 --> 00:33:58,676 Speaker 1: droughts and hurricanes and bad storms and heat waves. Instead, 522 00:33:59,276 --> 00:34:12,556 Speaker 1: people were making the weather worse. In nineteen eighty two, 523 00:34:12,996 --> 00:34:19,596 Speaker 1: the Weather Channel began broadcasting weather forecasts NonStop. Soon, private 524 00:34:19,636 --> 00:34:24,316 Speaker 1: weather forecasting became big business from Atlanta, Georgia, home of 525 00:34:24,356 --> 00:34:28,716 Speaker 1: the new Weather Channel network. This is the official inaugural 526 00:34:28,756 --> 00:34:32,836 Speaker 1: program of cable television's newest twenty four hour live network, 527 00:34:33,396 --> 00:34:38,516 Speaker 1: well Weather Channel. It wasn't only the Weather Channel. There 528 00:34:38,516 --> 00:34:42,516 Speaker 1: were dedicated weather reporting services you could subscribe to like 529 00:34:42,876 --> 00:34:46,716 Speaker 1: acue Weather, and in the nineteen nineties, once people were 530 00:34:46,716 --> 00:34:49,436 Speaker 1: able to use the Internet, they found new ways to 531 00:34:49,476 --> 00:34:52,236 Speaker 1: obsess about the weather, to make money off of it, 532 00:34:52,476 --> 00:34:55,636 Speaker 1: to seek out the latest, up to date forecast, minute 533 00:34:55,636 --> 00:34:59,916 Speaker 1: by minute accuracy promised. It was as if merely by 534 00:35:00,036 --> 00:35:03,156 Speaker 1: updating your weather report every second, you could imagine that 535 00:35:03,236 --> 00:35:08,756 Speaker 1: you were somehow in control, prevailing over the enemy. But 536 00:35:08,876 --> 00:35:12,316 Speaker 1: to sell a forecast as an illusion of control, you 537 00:35:12,396 --> 00:35:14,796 Speaker 1: have to sell people the idea that the weather is 538 00:35:14,916 --> 00:35:18,516 Speaker 1: out of control. TV weather reports, trying to compete with 539 00:35:18,596 --> 00:35:23,956 Speaker 1: online services, got zanier. The weatherman was no longer calm 540 00:35:24,036 --> 00:35:29,916 Speaker 1: and detached. The weatherman started panicking. I'm AccuWeather dot comedy 541 00:35:29,956 --> 00:35:38,276 Speaker 1: rologists Jim Kosik are paralyzing, crippling breaking storm CODs to day. 542 00:35:41,836 --> 00:35:45,556 Speaker 1: That was a forecast for a snowstorm in twenty ten, 543 00:35:46,156 --> 00:35:49,516 Speaker 1: like not the end of the world. A snowstorm. You 544 00:35:49,556 --> 00:35:52,316 Speaker 1: think you've heard the hypeest hype, and then along comes 545 00:35:52,436 --> 00:35:56,476 Speaker 1: hypeer hype. In nineteen ninety seven, meteorologists called a storm 546 00:35:56,956 --> 00:36:00,716 Speaker 1: the climate event of the century. Post nine to eleven 547 00:36:01,076 --> 00:36:03,876 Speaker 1: weather reports for the era of the Global War on Terror, 548 00:36:04,236 --> 00:36:08,956 Speaker 1: they had to start inventing new nouns. Some called it snowmake, 549 00:36:09,556 --> 00:36:13,316 Speaker 1: other snow apocalypse. It was a forecasting arms race for 550 00:36:13,356 --> 00:36:16,596 Speaker 1: the War on Terror, because, of course, it was also 551 00:36:16,636 --> 00:36:20,716 Speaker 1: a ratings race. In two thousand and six, the Weather Channel, 552 00:36:20,756 --> 00:36:24,316 Speaker 1: trying to keep up, launched a series called It Could 553 00:36:24,396 --> 00:36:31,436 Speaker 1: Happen Tomorrow, featuring imaginary disasters. One day the fog clears 554 00:36:32,036 --> 00:36:35,196 Speaker 1: and the city by the Bay has changed forever. One 555 00:36:35,276 --> 00:36:39,516 Speaker 1: day traffic stops, and the city that never sleep stands still. 556 00:36:40,116 --> 00:36:43,476 Speaker 1: It hasn't happened yet, but it could happen tomorrow Sunday 557 00:36:43,596 --> 00:36:46,076 Speaker 1: night on the Weather Channel to witness unbelievable acts of 558 00:36:46,156 --> 00:36:53,276 Speaker 1: nature that could devastate our Forecasting never lost its military posture, 559 00:36:53,756 --> 00:36:57,116 Speaker 1: its wartime element. With a weather app on your phone, 560 00:36:57,316 --> 00:36:59,596 Speaker 1: you carry around with you an instrument of war that 561 00:36:59,716 --> 00:37:05,796 Speaker 1: earlier generations could only dream of. War approaches. Soldier, you 562 00:37:05,836 --> 00:37:09,636 Speaker 1: are prepared, and still it seems the enemy is gaining. 563 00:37:10,116 --> 00:37:13,196 Speaker 1: In Pakistan, the government says floods across the country have 564 00:37:13,356 --> 00:37:16,556 Speaker 1: now killed more than thirteen hundred people. Written's hottest day 565 00:37:16,836 --> 00:37:20,436 Speaker 1: ever recorded, with high temperatures potentially reaching at least one 566 00:37:20,516 --> 00:37:23,516 Speaker 1: hundred and three degrees fahrenheit that's not just above normal, 567 00:37:23,596 --> 00:37:27,276 Speaker 1: that is thirty degrees above normally, a record breaking drought, 568 00:37:27,396 --> 00:37:30,636 Speaker 1: the longest and most severe drought in rescent history. China's 569 00:37:30,716 --> 00:37:34,516 Speaker 1: largest river, Yanze, has dried. You're getting a frightening look 570 00:37:34,596 --> 00:37:38,076 Speaker 1: at this image of Hurricane Ida as she bears down 571 00:37:38,196 --> 00:37:41,236 Speaker 1: on the Gulf coast, those outer bands whipping the area 572 00:37:41,316 --> 00:37:46,076 Speaker 1: for hours overnight. It's not just the weather, of course, 573 00:37:46,556 --> 00:37:50,076 Speaker 1: it's the climate. Climate is a pattern of weather, the 574 00:37:50,116 --> 00:37:53,156 Speaker 1: typical weather in a particular place. Like if we were 575 00:37:53,196 --> 00:37:55,956 Speaker 1: talking about a person, your mood on any given day 576 00:37:56,156 --> 00:37:59,196 Speaker 1: would be like the weather on Tuesday. You're sad, but 577 00:37:59,316 --> 00:38:03,316 Speaker 1: your temperament, your disposition, you're generally cheerful. That would be 578 00:38:03,356 --> 00:38:06,516 Speaker 1: like the climate. The weather is having many more bad 579 00:38:06,596 --> 00:38:11,116 Speaker 1: days because the climate is getting worse, more extreme. As 580 00:38:11,156 --> 00:38:15,756 Speaker 1: global temperatures warm, the weather's getting less predictable. As Stanford 581 00:38:15,796 --> 00:38:18,916 Speaker 1: study argues that the hotter the climate becomes, the less 582 00:38:18,956 --> 00:38:22,276 Speaker 1: predictable the weather will be. That sense that you could 583 00:38:22,276 --> 00:38:25,436 Speaker 1: know what's coming next that might soon become a thing 584 00:38:25,436 --> 00:38:30,876 Speaker 1: of the past. The weather situation remains extremely rugged. The 585 00:38:31,036 --> 00:38:34,516 Speaker 1: entire state declared under a state of emergency by Governor Duco. 586 00:38:35,316 --> 00:38:38,356 Speaker 1: When I was a kid eleven years old. New England 587 00:38:38,396 --> 00:38:40,836 Speaker 1: was hit with what everyone got to be calling the 588 00:38:40,836 --> 00:38:44,076 Speaker 1: Blizzard of nineteen seventy eight. It was the first time 589 00:38:44,116 --> 00:38:48,916 Speaker 1: the local television stations ran continuous weather coverage NonStop for days, 590 00:38:49,236 --> 00:38:51,596 Speaker 1: the kind of coverage that inspired the start of the 591 00:38:51,596 --> 00:38:55,356 Speaker 1: Weather Channel. You'd look out the window, the blizzard, you 592 00:38:55,476 --> 00:38:59,876 Speaker 1: turn on the TV, the blizzard. Snow battered. Boston is 593 00:38:59,916 --> 00:39:02,756 Speaker 1: in the middle of the worst winter storm it's probably 594 00:39:02,756 --> 00:39:05,476 Speaker 1: ever seen. And it's not over yet. The full fury 595 00:39:05,556 --> 00:39:07,556 Speaker 1: of the winter blast is still with us. It's going 596 00:39:07,636 --> 00:39:10,076 Speaker 1: to be all day to the latest word from the 597 00:39:10,196 --> 00:39:14,236 Speaker 1: United States Weatherville. I've never forgotten this storm. I went 598 00:39:14,276 --> 00:39:16,756 Speaker 1: to school that first day, a Monday, my parents went 599 00:39:16,796 --> 00:39:20,036 Speaker 1: to work. Weather forecasting in the nineteen seventies was already 600 00:39:20,036 --> 00:39:22,876 Speaker 1: so hyped up and hyperbolic that a lot of people 601 00:39:22,996 --> 00:39:26,916 Speaker 1: just ignored the forecast of a winter storm. Then everyone 602 00:39:26,956 --> 00:39:29,956 Speaker 1: got sent home. I remember riding on the school bus, 603 00:39:30,556 --> 00:39:33,956 Speaker 1: not certain we'd make it through the snow. We've asked 604 00:39:33,956 --> 00:39:37,556 Speaker 1: everyone to open their home so that if there are 605 00:39:37,556 --> 00:39:44,116 Speaker 1: any stranded aldous nearby, they have refused. The snow only 606 00:39:44,116 --> 00:39:46,876 Speaker 1: fell for two days, but people were trapped for a 607 00:39:46,876 --> 00:39:51,676 Speaker 1: lot longer winds, blue snow drifts fifteen feet high. Hundreds 608 00:39:51,676 --> 00:39:56,116 Speaker 1: of thousands of people lost power. In Massachusetts alone, eleven 609 00:39:56,276 --> 00:39:59,956 Speaker 1: thousand homes were destroyed. Coming in at the moment for 610 00:40:00,076 --> 00:40:03,876 Speaker 1: the word from Boston, Edison particularly, it's not good. Oh, 611 00:40:04,316 --> 00:40:07,556 Speaker 1: we were hoping from report we had earlier that we would. 612 00:40:10,036 --> 00:40:13,956 Speaker 1: People everywhere tried to help out, rescue workers, homemakers, anyone. 613 00:40:14,556 --> 00:40:17,516 Speaker 1: Movie theaters stayed open as shelters. Do they have to 614 00:40:17,516 --> 00:40:21,476 Speaker 1: pay to get in? No? Free and free admission? Now 615 00:40:21,476 --> 00:40:24,556 Speaker 1: these people were just people stranded in the area. Right right, 616 00:40:24,556 --> 00:40:31,436 Speaker 1: We're taking them all up there shelter farm. It can 617 00:40:31,476 --> 00:40:34,836 Speaker 1: be numbing talking about the weather and climate change, But 618 00:40:34,916 --> 00:40:37,036 Speaker 1: then I think about why I'm so haunted by the 619 00:40:37,076 --> 00:40:40,396 Speaker 1: blizzard of nineteen seventy eight. In a town nearby, a 620 00:40:40,436 --> 00:40:43,516 Speaker 1: boy about my age had gone missing. Every day the 621 00:40:43,676 --> 00:40:47,316 Speaker 1: radio gave updates on the search for him. That day 622 00:40:47,356 --> 00:40:49,796 Speaker 1: we'd got sent home from school, he'd gone out to 623 00:40:49,836 --> 00:40:52,516 Speaker 1: play in the snow, and he never came in. The 624 00:40:52,556 --> 00:40:55,316 Speaker 1: Whole neighborhood, half the town was out in the blizzard 625 00:40:55,316 --> 00:40:58,596 Speaker 1: for hours looking for this boy. They didn't find his 626 00:40:58,676 --> 00:41:01,596 Speaker 1: long dead body until well after it was all over 627 00:41:02,276 --> 00:41:06,876 Speaker 1: his mitten sticking up from the melting snow. He'd tried 628 00:41:06,916 --> 00:41:10,396 Speaker 1: to get back inside, fell over, just got buried under 629 00:41:10,436 --> 00:41:16,556 Speaker 1: it. It It was falling so fast. It's not some idle 630 00:41:16,596 --> 00:41:19,996 Speaker 1: interest wanting to predict the weather. It's life or death, 631 00:41:20,756 --> 00:41:25,036 Speaker 1: and it's not crazy wanting to control it. We are 632 00:41:25,076 --> 00:41:29,716 Speaker 1: bags of water and bone, vulnerable to every wind, drought, 633 00:41:29,836 --> 00:41:32,956 Speaker 1: heat wave and rain storm. But under the fury of 634 00:41:32,996 --> 00:41:37,236 Speaker 1: each snow apocalypse lies a certain salvation and bearing witness 635 00:41:37,276 --> 00:41:40,596 Speaker 1: to our common frailty, and in the helping, the rescuing, 636 00:41:40,796 --> 00:41:44,636 Speaker 1: the fortifying one another against the storm something the best 637 00:41:44,716 --> 00:41:48,476 Speaker 1: weather beaten newscasters now. At the height of the storm, 638 00:41:48,916 --> 00:41:53,156 Speaker 1: Massachusetts Governor Michael Ducoccus appeared on television, not in a 639 00:41:53,196 --> 00:41:57,116 Speaker 1: suit and tie, but in a sweater, looking strained and exhausted. 640 00:41:57,556 --> 00:42:00,716 Speaker 1: You see the weatherman too, shaking, shuddering with the knowledge 641 00:42:00,716 --> 00:42:06,636 Speaker 1: of it. Even as storms come to an end, all 642 00:42:06,676 --> 00:42:09,676 Speaker 1: our efforts to control our environment must inevitably four short. 643 00:42:10,196 --> 00:42:12,956 Speaker 1: We've learned that society is a pretty recent experiment. At 644 00:42:12,996 --> 00:42:15,516 Speaker 1: Commonwealth Avenue with five am on the morning of a 645 00:42:15,516 --> 00:42:18,596 Speaker 1: blizzard with a power blackout can be frightening, But we've 646 00:42:18,596 --> 00:42:21,076 Speaker 1: also learned that what we mostly do is help each 647 00:42:21,076 --> 00:42:23,996 Speaker 1: other out when on living quietly looking in on the 648 00:42:24,036 --> 00:42:27,276 Speaker 1: neighbor just in case. I think it was a good moment, 649 00:42:28,436 --> 00:42:32,556 Speaker 1: and I think that's something to remember till the next time. 650 00:42:33,836 --> 00:42:36,596 Speaker 1: And I do try to remember that, and I have 651 00:42:36,636 --> 00:42:40,636 Speaker 1: more occasion every year because the blizzards are getting worse 652 00:42:40,676 --> 00:42:45,276 Speaker 1: because the climate is changing. Nine of Boston's ten worst 653 00:42:45,356 --> 00:42:49,516 Speaker 1: on record snowstorms have happened since nineteen seventy eight, six 654 00:42:49,556 --> 00:42:52,076 Speaker 1: of them since two thousand and three twenty ten, with 655 00:42:52,116 --> 00:42:58,796 Speaker 1: Snowmageddon twenty sixteen, snow Zilla happening today somewhere near you. 656 00:42:59,396 --> 00:43:03,196 Speaker 1: We're all going through one big ongoing storm, hunkered down 657 00:43:03,876 --> 00:43:07,036 Speaker 1: but also poking out to see who needs help most. 658 00:43:08,676 --> 00:43:12,396 Speaker 1: And there's still time pulled together by our panic to 659 00:43:12,516 --> 00:43:20,836 Speaker 1: dig out from this storm. The Last Archive is written 660 00:43:20,876 --> 00:43:24,676 Speaker 1: and hosted by me Jill Lapour. It's produced by Sophie Crane, 661 00:43:24,996 --> 00:43:28,276 Speaker 1: Ben Natt of Hafrey and Lucy Sullivan. Our editors are 662 00:43:28,316 --> 00:43:31,436 Speaker 1: Julia Barton and Sophie Crane, and our executive producer is 663 00:43:31,476 --> 00:43:35,636 Speaker 1: Mia Lobell. Jake Gorsky is our engineer. Fact checking by 664 00:43:35,636 --> 00:43:40,156 Speaker 1: Amy Gaines. Original music by Matthias Boss and John Evans 665 00:43:40,236 --> 00:43:45,156 Speaker 1: of Stellwagen Symfinett. Our full proof player is Robert Ricotta. 666 00:43:45,516 --> 00:43:47,836 Speaker 1: Many of our sound effects are from Harry Janette Junior 667 00:43:47,876 --> 00:43:51,156 Speaker 1: and the Star Jennette Foundation. The Last Archive is a 668 00:43:51,156 --> 00:43:54,156 Speaker 1: production of Pushkin Industries. If you love this show, consider 669 00:43:54,196 --> 00:43:58,716 Speaker 1: subscribing to Pushkin Plus, offering bonus content like The Last Archivist, 670 00:43:58,996 --> 00:44:02,596 Speaker 1: a limited series just for subscribers, and add free listening 671 00:44:02,636 --> 00:44:05,956 Speaker 1: across our network for four ninety nine a month. Look 672 00:44:05,956 --> 00:44:09,036 Speaker 1: for the Pushkin Plus channel on Apple Podcasts or at 673 00:44:09,156 --> 00:44:12,676 Speaker 1: pushkin dot fm. If you like the show, please remember 674 00:44:12,676 --> 00:44:16,156 Speaker 1: to rate, share and review. To find more Pushkin podcasts, 675 00:44:16,436 --> 00:44:20,156 Speaker 1: listen on the iHeartRadio app, Apple Podcasts, or wherever you 676 00:44:20,196 --> 00:44:22,396 Speaker 1: get your podcasts. I'm Jill Lapoor.