1 00:00:05,000 --> 00:00:08,720 Speaker 1: P. T. Barnum knew how to spot someone special. Barnum's 2 00:00:08,760 --> 00:00:11,200 Speaker 1: career as a showman taught him that the public wanted 3 00:00:11,240 --> 00:00:14,400 Speaker 1: to be surprised. He knew the general public delighted in 4 00:00:14,520 --> 00:00:18,680 Speaker 1: novelty and horror and tales almost too fantastical to believe. 5 00:00:19,400 --> 00:00:23,520 Speaker 1: In Phineas Gauge, Barnum found all of those things. Barnum 6 00:00:23,600 --> 00:00:26,000 Speaker 1: drew up a contract for Phineas and hired him to 7 00:00:26,079 --> 00:00:30,000 Speaker 1: stand on stage at his Great American Museum alongside bearded 8 00:00:30,080 --> 00:00:33,360 Speaker 1: ladies and giant men. But while Phineas had become a 9 00:00:33,400 --> 00:00:37,440 Speaker 1: traveling celebrity, his origins were unremarkable. He had been a 10 00:00:37,479 --> 00:00:41,240 Speaker 1: foreman on a railroad construction team, responsible for laying tracks 11 00:00:41,240 --> 00:00:44,760 Speaker 1: across Vermont. He was humble and respected. He worked hard 12 00:00:44,920 --> 00:00:47,920 Speaker 1: and had a career ahead of him blasting away pathways 13 00:00:48,080 --> 00:00:51,120 Speaker 1: through the rugged landscape. But all of that changed in 14 00:00:51,159 --> 00:00:54,840 Speaker 1: an instant, or in a flash, if you will. Here's 15 00:00:54,840 --> 00:00:57,560 Speaker 1: what we know. While preparing to clear some rock for 16 00:00:57,600 --> 00:01:00,680 Speaker 1: the rail line, Phineas jammed his iron tab amping rod 17 00:01:00,720 --> 00:01:03,320 Speaker 1: down into a hole filled with gunpowder, just like he 18 00:01:03,360 --> 00:01:07,240 Speaker 1: had done a thousand times before, but this time inexplicably, 19 00:01:07,600 --> 00:01:11,039 Speaker 1: it exploded. The three foot long piece of metal shot 20 00:01:11,080 --> 00:01:13,840 Speaker 1: straight back through his cheek, tore through the top of 21 00:01:13,880 --> 00:01:16,640 Speaker 1: his head, and sailed through the air like a javelin. 22 00:01:16,920 --> 00:01:20,240 Speaker 1: It landed about one hundred feet away, reportedly slickened with 23 00:01:20,360 --> 00:01:24,200 Speaker 1: blood and bits of greasy brain matter. Phineas, if you 24 00:01:24,200 --> 00:01:28,840 Speaker 1: can believe it, never lost consciousness. Even more unbelievably still, 25 00:01:29,200 --> 00:01:32,679 Speaker 1: he was up walking and talking just a few minutes later. 26 00:01:33,080 --> 00:01:35,640 Speaker 1: Even though almost all of the front left side of 27 00:01:35,680 --> 00:01:38,839 Speaker 1: his brain had been obliterated, Phineas seemed to be doing 28 00:01:38,959 --> 00:01:41,880 Speaker 1: just fine, save for the massive hole in his head. 29 00:01:42,280 --> 00:01:44,280 Speaker 1: He told the attending doctors that he'd be back to 30 00:01:44,319 --> 00:01:48,000 Speaker 1: blasting rock in two days. But this didn't quite work 31 00:01:48,040 --> 00:01:50,400 Speaker 1: out the way that Phineas had hoped. You see, he 32 00:01:50,640 --> 00:01:54,120 Speaker 1: bled massively and contracted a fungal infection in his brain. 33 00:01:54,480 --> 00:01:57,680 Speaker 1: He slipped in and out of comas, but after emergency 34 00:01:57,720 --> 00:02:01,480 Speaker 1: surgery and subsequent recovery, Phineas was back home in a 35 00:02:01,480 --> 00:02:04,640 Speaker 1: few weeks. The iron rod now by his side and 36 00:02:04,800 --> 00:02:08,040 Speaker 1: a source of a great story. But Phineas wouldn't return 37 00:02:08,120 --> 00:02:10,680 Speaker 1: to work in the capacity he had hoped. It wasn't 38 00:02:10,680 --> 00:02:14,080 Speaker 1: because he lacked the fine motor skills or cognizance to 39 00:02:14,120 --> 00:02:18,320 Speaker 1: handle dangerous materials. It was because his personality had changed. 40 00:02:18,760 --> 00:02:21,399 Speaker 1: History tells us that he had turned from an affable 41 00:02:21,440 --> 00:02:25,519 Speaker 1: colleague into a rage filled liability. It was after leaving 42 00:02:25,560 --> 00:02:27,960 Speaker 1: his post that he found his way to P. T. Barnum, 43 00:02:28,240 --> 00:02:30,480 Speaker 1: who was more than happy to welcome him in with 44 00:02:30,600 --> 00:02:35,120 Speaker 1: his iron rod and almost unbelievable tale of survival. Doctors, 45 00:02:35,160 --> 00:02:38,040 Speaker 1: of course, were highly interested in his case in the 46 00:02:38,120 --> 00:02:41,080 Speaker 1: nineteenth century. The brain was a mystery. In some ways. 47 00:02:41,120 --> 00:02:43,720 Speaker 1: It felt like trying to explore the farthest reaches of 48 00:02:43,800 --> 00:02:46,760 Speaker 1: space or the depths of the sea. So beyond the 49 00:02:46,760 --> 00:02:50,240 Speaker 1: sheer fact of his survival, experts were interested in something else. 50 00:02:50,680 --> 00:02:53,560 Speaker 1: How the destruction of this particular part of his brain 51 00:02:54,000 --> 00:02:57,919 Speaker 1: caused his personality to change. It's been pointed out that 52 00:02:57,960 --> 00:03:01,320 Speaker 1: Phineas's story was the first case to suggest that damage 53 00:03:01,360 --> 00:03:05,200 Speaker 1: to specific parts of the brain may include other, correspondingly 54 00:03:05,240 --> 00:03:08,240 Speaker 1: significant changes to the person. He became something of a 55 00:03:08,320 --> 00:03:11,200 Speaker 1: legend in his own right, but what historians have also 56 00:03:11,240 --> 00:03:14,160 Speaker 1: come to discover is that his reputation, as it's been 57 00:03:14,240 --> 00:03:18,120 Speaker 1: understood to be influential in the development of psychosurgery, is 58 00:03:18,200 --> 00:03:22,320 Speaker 1: pretty ahistorical. While He has been credited with inspiring brain 59 00:03:22,360 --> 00:03:25,400 Speaker 1: surgeons around the world and encouraging scientists to find the 60 00:03:25,480 --> 00:03:29,320 Speaker 1: key to altering personalities. It simply can't be proven, but 61 00:03:29,400 --> 00:03:32,160 Speaker 1: it makes for a tidy history and a damn good story. 62 00:03:32,840 --> 00:03:36,000 Speaker 1: Phineas has become a kind of mythical figure cemented in 63 00:03:36,040 --> 00:03:39,040 Speaker 1: popular culture because of what he seems to represent to us, 64 00:03:39,320 --> 00:03:42,360 Speaker 1: a building block in a neat narrative about how we 65 00:03:42,440 --> 00:03:45,800 Speaker 1: have tried to understand and control our brains. We love 66 00:03:45,840 --> 00:03:48,120 Speaker 1: that he went on to live a seemingly normal life, 67 00:03:48,320 --> 00:03:51,440 Speaker 1: continued to work, and died at an older age. We 68 00:03:51,560 --> 00:03:54,280 Speaker 1: love what his story seems to show us is possible 69 00:03:54,680 --> 00:03:58,680 Speaker 1: in actuality, though Phineas's experience was far more complicated than that, 70 00:03:59,120 --> 00:04:02,320 Speaker 1: and the same is true for humans in general. Our 71 00:04:02,400 --> 00:04:04,880 Speaker 1: quest to understand the brain will take us to some 72 00:04:05,120 --> 00:04:08,520 Speaker 1: very complicated places, and sadly, we won't have to go 73 00:04:08,600 --> 00:04:11,880 Speaker 1: back very far in history to find stories that visit 74 00:04:12,200 --> 00:04:16,919 Speaker 1: the darker corners of the mind. I'm Aaron Manke, and 75 00:04:17,040 --> 00:04:30,480 Speaker 1: welcome to Bedside Manners. The audience was speechless. Gottlieb Bookhart 76 00:04:30,520 --> 00:04:33,520 Speaker 1: thought his peers would be excited about his report. Instead, 77 00:04:33,560 --> 00:04:36,760 Speaker 1: they were just stunned. An icy chill settled over the 78 00:04:36,839 --> 00:04:40,120 Speaker 1: room as the attendees of the eighteen ninety Berlin Medical 79 00:04:40,160 --> 00:04:43,360 Speaker 1: Congress considered what Gottlieb had done and what they in 80 00:04:43,400 --> 00:04:47,080 Speaker 1: turn needed to do about it. Gottlieb Bookheart ran a 81 00:04:47,080 --> 00:04:50,280 Speaker 1: small asylum in Switzerland in the moment when the fields 82 00:04:50,279 --> 00:04:54,120 Speaker 1: of psychology and psychoanalysis were in their infancy. Folks in 83 00:04:54,160 --> 00:04:56,800 Speaker 1: his position were poised to help patients overcome what was 84 00:04:56,880 --> 00:05:01,120 Speaker 1: known as mental alien nation, but as an alienists, as 85 00:05:01,120 --> 00:05:04,280 Speaker 1: folks in his profession were called. He wasn't a trained doctor, 86 00:05:04,520 --> 00:05:07,680 Speaker 1: let alone a trained surgeon. That didn't stop him, though, 87 00:05:07,680 --> 00:05:10,480 Speaker 1: from operating on the brains of six of his patients. 88 00:05:11,000 --> 00:05:13,120 Speaker 1: As he told it, he hoped that he could figure 89 00:05:13,120 --> 00:05:17,280 Speaker 1: out a way to turn violent, unmanageable asylum residents into 90 00:05:17,320 --> 00:05:20,440 Speaker 1: manageable ones. He believed that a simple cut between the 91 00:05:20,480 --> 00:05:24,400 Speaker 1: hemispheres of the brain could relieve his patients of their outbursts. 92 00:05:24,560 --> 00:05:27,640 Speaker 1: He targeted the location that he believed to control sensory 93 00:05:27,720 --> 00:05:32,040 Speaker 1: and motor function. These patients were his living experiments, their 94 00:05:32,080 --> 00:05:36,040 Speaker 1: brains the fodder for his trials. Now, humans have been 95 00:05:36,080 --> 00:05:38,799 Speaker 1: cutting into heads since the Late Stone or the early 96 00:05:38,839 --> 00:05:41,800 Speaker 1: Bronze Age. As we learned in our episode about surgery, 97 00:05:41,880 --> 00:05:46,000 Speaker 1: evidence of successful trepanations dates back almost thirty thousand years. 98 00:05:46,279 --> 00:05:49,279 Speaker 1: Scientists believe that even prehistoric humans had been attempting to 99 00:05:49,320 --> 00:05:53,080 Speaker 1: alleviate each other of demons of the mind. This practice 100 00:05:53,080 --> 00:05:55,599 Speaker 1: carried all the way through ancient Greece and Rome, through 101 00:05:55,640 --> 00:05:59,520 Speaker 1: the Medieval and Renaissance periods. Surviving cultural evolutions, as we 102 00:05:59,560 --> 00:06:02,160 Speaker 1: moved away away from blaming gods and spirits for our 103 00:06:02,200 --> 00:06:06,120 Speaker 1: ailments and into blaming other more worldly scapegoats, we have 104 00:06:06,279 --> 00:06:10,360 Speaker 1: long been trying to treat the things that we can't see. Historically, 105 00:06:10,480 --> 00:06:13,400 Speaker 1: people struggling with what we now understand as mental illness 106 00:06:13,440 --> 00:06:16,880 Speaker 1: have suffered mightily in communities and systems that weren't able 107 00:06:17,160 --> 00:06:20,880 Speaker 1: or weren't willing to support them. The earliest asylums can 108 00:06:20,920 --> 00:06:23,520 Speaker 1: be traced back to twelve forty seven in London, a 109 00:06:23,560 --> 00:06:26,479 Speaker 1: place that provided refuge to the sick. While the rich 110 00:06:26,520 --> 00:06:29,000 Speaker 1: could afford to take care of their relatives, the poor 111 00:06:29,200 --> 00:06:32,400 Speaker 1: often were sent to places that operated on a charitable basis. 112 00:06:32,800 --> 00:06:35,479 Speaker 1: These places had no means of diagnosis or treatment for 113 00:06:35,520 --> 00:06:38,239 Speaker 1: the folks in their care and conditions. There were often 114 00:06:38,240 --> 00:06:41,640 Speaker 1: deplorable and the blame for their condition often fell upon 115 00:06:41,680 --> 00:06:44,920 Speaker 1: the patients or their families. As the years went on, 116 00:06:45,080 --> 00:06:47,880 Speaker 1: we began to understand more about the brain. It was 117 00:06:47,920 --> 00:06:51,080 Speaker 1: discovered that our brain is electric, with different parts in 118 00:06:51,160 --> 00:06:55,080 Speaker 1: control of everything that makes us well us. The eighteenth 119 00:06:55,120 --> 00:06:57,960 Speaker 1: century brought with it a more complex understanding of this 120 00:06:58,160 --> 00:07:02,120 Speaker 1: organ and our central nervousness. Them reformers of the Victorian 121 00:07:02,120 --> 00:07:04,520 Speaker 1: era believed that the cure to mental illness could be 122 00:07:04,560 --> 00:07:09,000 Speaker 1: found in a person's physical surroundings. So they erected magnificent buildings, 123 00:07:09,240 --> 00:07:13,640 Speaker 1: built beautiful gardens, hired nurses, and opened asylums that endeavored 124 00:07:13,640 --> 00:07:16,400 Speaker 1: to welcome patients in with care. It was a bright 125 00:07:16,480 --> 00:07:19,640 Speaker 1: moment for some, filled with optimism that a cure was 126 00:07:19,640 --> 00:07:23,480 Speaker 1: at hand. Unfortunately, many of these places were victims of 127 00:07:23,520 --> 00:07:26,200 Speaker 1: their own success. They simply couldn't keep up with the 128 00:07:26,240 --> 00:07:30,600 Speaker 1: demand for services. More patients came, more facilities opened, and 129 00:07:30,680 --> 00:07:34,320 Speaker 1: many collective standards of care were nearly impossible to enforce. 130 00:07:34,760 --> 00:07:38,640 Speaker 1: Resources quickly dried up. Those who were chronically ill stayed, 131 00:07:38,680 --> 00:07:41,120 Speaker 1: and the buildings were soon filled with folks who needed 132 00:07:41,120 --> 00:07:44,600 Speaker 1: help but just couldn't or wouldn't receive it. Conditions grew 133 00:07:44,640 --> 00:07:49,640 Speaker 1: more dire abuse ran, rampant, bodies piled up, people were forgotten. 134 00:07:50,040 --> 00:07:53,600 Speaker 1: Despite their best efforts, the reformers soured on their movements. 135 00:07:53,960 --> 00:07:57,720 Speaker 1: It appeared to them that mental illness was incurable. If 136 00:07:57,760 --> 00:08:01,160 Speaker 1: mental illness couldn't be cured by the envire, then those 137 00:08:01,240 --> 00:08:03,400 Speaker 1: working on the business of the mind decided that they 138 00:08:03,440 --> 00:08:06,040 Speaker 1: were going to look inward in a very literal sense. 139 00:08:06,440 --> 00:08:10,000 Speaker 1: In his countryside asylum, Gottlieb Bookhart got to work. He 140 00:08:10,080 --> 00:08:11,640 Speaker 1: decided that he was going to be the man to 141 00:08:11,720 --> 00:08:14,640 Speaker 1: investigate and get to the bottom of the brain. He 142 00:08:14,720 --> 00:08:18,720 Speaker 1: knew that operations to remove brain tumors, a revolutionary procedure 143 00:08:18,760 --> 00:08:22,040 Speaker 1: at the time, had proven successful in alleviating the side 144 00:08:22,040 --> 00:08:25,040 Speaker 1: effects that the tumors had caused. Of the six patients 145 00:08:25,080 --> 00:08:28,520 Speaker 1: that he operated on, he deemed three or four, according 146 00:08:28,520 --> 00:08:31,360 Speaker 1: to some sources, as a success. But one of those 147 00:08:31,360 --> 00:08:35,040 Speaker 1: patients died, another drowned a month later, and another began 148 00:08:35,120 --> 00:08:39,480 Speaker 1: having seizures. He hoped to start a psychosurgery revolution to 149 00:08:39,559 --> 00:08:43,679 Speaker 1: provide overcrowded asylums a way to treat their chronically ill patients, 150 00:08:43,720 --> 00:08:47,920 Speaker 1: to cure them once and for all. Instead, our Swiss 151 00:08:47,920 --> 00:08:51,080 Speaker 1: innovator found himself standing in front of his silent, stunned 152 00:08:51,120 --> 00:08:55,200 Speaker 1: audience colleagues whose enthusiasm for his work had cooled in 153 00:08:55,240 --> 00:08:59,600 Speaker 1: a matter of minutes. Gottlieb's professional reputation wasn't one that 154 00:08:59,600 --> 00:09:02,440 Speaker 1: he had hoped for. It didn't even provoke debate. The 155 00:09:02,520 --> 00:09:05,280 Speaker 1: consensus was that it would be best to bury the work, 156 00:09:05,679 --> 00:09:09,840 Speaker 1: and Gottlieb stopped researching. But as it so often happens, 157 00:09:10,160 --> 00:09:12,960 Speaker 1: there were other people waiting in the wings to pick 158 00:09:13,040 --> 00:09:22,800 Speaker 1: up where he left off. Saint Elizabeth's Hospital in Washington, 159 00:09:22,880 --> 00:09:25,160 Speaker 1: d C. Was suffering a similar fate to that of 160 00:09:25,200 --> 00:09:28,439 Speaker 1: other hospitals of the early twentieth century. It had opened 161 00:09:28,440 --> 00:09:31,720 Speaker 1: in eighteen fifty five under the name Government Hospital for 162 00:09:31,760 --> 00:09:35,760 Speaker 1: the Insane. It was the first federally operated psychiatric hospital 163 00:09:35,800 --> 00:09:39,000 Speaker 1: in the United States and initially promised to intercept those 164 00:09:39,040 --> 00:09:41,920 Speaker 1: coming back from the Civil War, which it did and 165 00:09:42,240 --> 00:09:45,679 Speaker 1: quite well. But by the nineteen twenties the facility's population 166 00:09:45,960 --> 00:09:49,160 Speaker 1: was booming. It's here that a young doctor, Walter Freeman, 167 00:09:49,400 --> 00:09:52,280 Speaker 1: whose grandfather's claim to fame was being the first American 168 00:09:52,280 --> 00:09:55,680 Speaker 1: surgeon to remove a brain tumor, got his start. He 169 00:09:55,760 --> 00:09:57,640 Speaker 1: was twenty nine years old when he was charged with 170 00:09:57,679 --> 00:10:01,760 Speaker 1: heading up the Blackburn Laboratory, stopping place for many of 171 00:10:01,840 --> 00:10:05,200 Speaker 1: Saint Elizabeth's patients. It was at Blackburn that Walter used 172 00:10:05,200 --> 00:10:09,080 Speaker 1: the hospital's cadavers as research fodder. In one study, he 173 00:10:09,160 --> 00:10:12,160 Speaker 1: strung the bodies of schizophrenic patients up by their ears 174 00:10:12,200 --> 00:10:14,960 Speaker 1: in order to take their measurements against the wall. As 175 00:10:14,960 --> 00:10:17,520 Speaker 1: to what he was looking for exactly, we aren't quite sure. 176 00:10:18,040 --> 00:10:22,240 Speaker 1: He deemed that the study produced nothing conclusive. Like his father, 177 00:10:22,480 --> 00:10:25,600 Speaker 1: Walter was interested in brains and had more access to 178 00:10:25,679 --> 00:10:28,400 Speaker 1: them than most. He began teaching at the nearby George 179 00:10:28,440 --> 00:10:32,640 Speaker 1: Washington University and delighted in excavating brains from skulls for 180 00:10:32,679 --> 00:10:35,360 Speaker 1: an audience. He thought that they could potentially tell him 181 00:10:35,360 --> 00:10:38,920 Speaker 1: something about the lived experience of the hospital's residence. But 182 00:10:39,000 --> 00:10:41,679 Speaker 1: he also had designs on practicing on the living where 183 00:10:41,720 --> 00:10:44,280 Speaker 1: he could see the results of his studies manifest in 184 00:10:44,360 --> 00:10:47,560 Speaker 1: real time. And it's important to remember that this impulse 185 00:10:47,840 --> 00:10:51,080 Speaker 1: didn't come out of nowhere. With the rise of asylum care, 186 00:10:51,280 --> 00:10:54,720 Speaker 1: the number of folks institutionalized with serious mental illness was 187 00:10:54,760 --> 00:10:58,600 Speaker 1: reaching record proportions. As a result, the widespread use of 188 00:10:58,679 --> 00:11:01,880 Speaker 1: strait jackets and paddy cells began to come into play, 189 00:11:02,160 --> 00:11:05,040 Speaker 1: a move born out of the exhaustion and desperation of 190 00:11:05,080 --> 00:11:09,079 Speaker 1: workers at those facilities. An effective therapy model hadn't yet 191 00:11:09,120 --> 00:11:13,240 Speaker 1: been found. The suffering was immense. Walter, though, had come 192 00:11:13,280 --> 00:11:16,400 Speaker 1: across an idea which his mind compelled him to further pursue. 193 00:11:16,760 --> 00:11:19,480 Speaker 1: He was inspired by a report out of Portugal in 194 00:11:19,520 --> 00:11:23,559 Speaker 1: which two surgeons developed something called the frontal leucotomy, which 195 00:11:23,679 --> 00:11:27,880 Speaker 1: severed the connection between the brain's prefrontal cortex and the thalamus. 196 00:11:28,280 --> 00:11:30,680 Speaker 1: After recruiting a surgical student by the name of James 197 00:11:30,720 --> 00:11:33,840 Speaker 1: Watts and a patient by the name of Alice hood Hammett, 198 00:11:34,160 --> 00:11:37,920 Speaker 1: Walter would improve and I'm using massive air quotes there 199 00:11:38,240 --> 00:11:42,320 Speaker 1: upon the leucotomy, taking the surgery a step further. Alice 200 00:11:42,360 --> 00:11:46,760 Speaker 1: had long struggled with postpartum depression and suicidal thoughts. To Walter, 201 00:11:46,880 --> 00:11:49,600 Speaker 1: she seemed like the perfect candidate, which he noted in 202 00:11:49,640 --> 00:11:53,760 Speaker 1: his cruelly unchartable notes about her case. She was, he wrote, 203 00:11:54,080 --> 00:11:57,120 Speaker 1: a master of bitching and really led her husband a 204 00:11:57,200 --> 00:12:02,640 Speaker 1: dog's life. She was a typical insecure, rigid, emotional, claustrophobic 205 00:12:02,679 --> 00:12:06,760 Speaker 1: individual throughout her mature existence. The men decided that they 206 00:12:06,760 --> 00:12:10,080 Speaker 1: would completely sever the white frontal lobe of the thalamus 207 00:12:10,080 --> 00:12:13,600 Speaker 1: where Walter thought human emotion resided. It was the same 208 00:12:13,640 --> 00:12:15,480 Speaker 1: spot where he thought he could locate the cause of 209 00:12:15,520 --> 00:12:19,040 Speaker 1: mental illness. It would be dubbed the Freeman Watts procedure, 210 00:12:19,440 --> 00:12:23,840 Speaker 1: but would infamously become known as the prefrontal lobotomy. Basically, 211 00:12:23,880 --> 00:12:26,680 Speaker 1: he thought that he could carve the sickness right out, 212 00:12:27,520 --> 00:12:31,439 Speaker 1: So Walter drilled two holes into Alice's skull that coincided 213 00:12:31,480 --> 00:12:34,600 Speaker 1: with her left and right frontal lobes. Then he inserted 214 00:12:34,640 --> 00:12:37,800 Speaker 1: a narrow blade through the hole and into the exposed brain. 215 00:12:38,400 --> 00:12:41,320 Speaker 1: Alice awoke four hours after the procedure and went on 216 00:12:41,400 --> 00:12:44,560 Speaker 1: to live another five years. According to her husband, she 217 00:12:44,600 --> 00:12:47,840 Speaker 1: felt like her old self again. What isn't surprising given 218 00:12:47,880 --> 00:12:50,880 Speaker 1: this moment in history is that her voice is largely 219 00:12:50,920 --> 00:12:53,920 Speaker 1: missing from the historical record. But it does make you wonder. 220 00:12:54,679 --> 00:12:58,040 Speaker 1: Walter deaned the operation a success and pushed to make 221 00:12:58,120 --> 00:13:01,480 Speaker 1: said success well known. He was met with mixed reviews, 222 00:13:01,720 --> 00:13:05,839 Speaker 1: some outrage but some outright embrace. In the following months, 223 00:13:05,880 --> 00:13:09,880 Speaker 1: the team found twenty more lobotomy candidates and operated. They 224 00:13:09,880 --> 00:13:12,000 Speaker 1: became so confident in their work. In fact, that they 225 00:13:12,000 --> 00:13:15,839 Speaker 1: would sometimes conduct these operations in tandem the patients side 226 00:13:15,840 --> 00:13:18,959 Speaker 1: by side. Doctors across the world wondered if Walter had 227 00:13:19,040 --> 00:13:22,360 Speaker 1: unlocked the secret for solving mental illness. Some tried their 228 00:13:22,360 --> 00:13:25,040 Speaker 1: own hand of the operation. It's important to note here 229 00:13:25,240 --> 00:13:28,480 Speaker 1: that the majority of lobotomy patients for many years were women. 230 00:13:28,960 --> 00:13:31,200 Speaker 1: It's clear who had the power to deem a person 231 00:13:31,280 --> 00:13:35,000 Speaker 1: fodder for this experiment. As time went on, though, lobotomies 232 00:13:35,080 --> 00:13:38,720 Speaker 1: moved beyond experiments fraught with injustice and eventually came to 233 00:13:38,720 --> 00:13:42,000 Speaker 1: be considered a cutting edge science, one that was fit 234 00:13:42,240 --> 00:13:46,679 Speaker 1: for royalty, or at the very least America's own equivalent. 235 00:13:53,080 --> 00:13:56,320 Speaker 1: Rose Marie had gotten off to an unfortunate start. The 236 00:13:56,400 --> 00:13:59,120 Speaker 1: doctor that was supposed to attend her birth was running late. 237 00:13:59,440 --> 00:14:02,040 Speaker 1: The nurses encouraged the girl's mother to do everything she 238 00:14:02,080 --> 00:14:04,800 Speaker 1: could to delay delivery, and by the time the doctor 239 00:14:04,840 --> 00:14:07,400 Speaker 1: finally arrived, the baby had been forced to wait for 240 00:14:07,440 --> 00:14:10,719 Speaker 1: two hours in the birth canal. This was a mistake that, 241 00:14:10,880 --> 00:14:13,920 Speaker 1: although not uncommon at the time, would cause ripples through 242 00:14:13,960 --> 00:14:17,560 Speaker 1: the family for generations to come. In the meantime, baby 243 00:14:17,640 --> 00:14:21,240 Speaker 1: Rose had become critically deprived of oxygen. Her brain was 244 00:14:21,280 --> 00:14:26,000 Speaker 1: irrevocably shaped by her first breath or lack thereof. However, 245 00:14:26,080 --> 00:14:29,000 Speaker 1: her early days passed without alarm. It was only when 246 00:14:29,000 --> 00:14:32,440 Speaker 1: her younger siblings began to pass her developmentally that her 247 00:14:32,480 --> 00:14:35,640 Speaker 1: parents realized that something was amiss. They took her to 248 00:14:35,880 --> 00:14:38,400 Speaker 1: all of the best doctors and talked with her teachers, 249 00:14:38,560 --> 00:14:40,680 Speaker 1: and they all agreed that she just wasn't like her 250 00:14:40,720 --> 00:14:43,680 Speaker 1: other siblings. The feeling was that there was something amiss 251 00:14:43,720 --> 00:14:46,160 Speaker 1: with their daughter, and it cast a dark pall over 252 00:14:46,200 --> 00:14:49,160 Speaker 1: the family. It was something only to be whispered about 253 00:14:49,440 --> 00:14:53,160 Speaker 1: and spoken of only in private. In the early twentieth century, 254 00:14:53,240 --> 00:14:57,080 Speaker 1: many intellectuals were taken with the eugenics movement, an ideology 255 00:14:57,120 --> 00:15:00,480 Speaker 1: that suggests that certain kinds of people had di effective 256 00:15:00,520 --> 00:15:03,600 Speaker 1: genes and shouldn't be allowed to procreate. This was an 257 00:15:03,640 --> 00:15:06,680 Speaker 1: idea that ultimately caused millions of people to lose their lives. 258 00:15:07,200 --> 00:15:10,120 Speaker 1: By nineteen thirty eight, Rose was coming into her own. 259 00:15:10,320 --> 00:15:12,760 Speaker 1: By then, her father had accepted a job in Great Britain, 260 00:15:13,000 --> 00:15:15,800 Speaker 1: and Rose found the space to thrive. She was beautiful 261 00:15:15,880 --> 00:15:19,800 Speaker 1: and sweet, dazzling everyone she met. She busied herself training 262 00:15:19,800 --> 00:15:22,280 Speaker 1: to be a teacher's aide and took great pride in 263 00:15:22,320 --> 00:15:25,920 Speaker 1: her work. Her teachers loved her. They unequivocally sang her 264 00:15:25,920 --> 00:15:29,560 Speaker 1: praises and spoke of how much she was blossoming. Rose 265 00:15:30,000 --> 00:15:34,080 Speaker 1: was finally happy, but this warm moment wasn't meant to last. 266 00:15:35,040 --> 00:15:37,760 Speaker 1: With the outbreak of World War II, the family retreated 267 00:15:37,800 --> 00:15:40,360 Speaker 1: home to the United States. They took up residence in 268 00:15:40,440 --> 00:15:43,440 Speaker 1: New York, a move that would prove disastrous for Rose. 269 00:15:43,960 --> 00:15:46,200 Speaker 1: It was a complete disruption to the life that she 270 00:15:46,280 --> 00:15:49,800 Speaker 1: knew and loved. Her seizures returned, as did her patterns 271 00:15:49,800 --> 00:15:53,520 Speaker 1: of erratic behavior. She became more and more disregulated with 272 00:15:53,600 --> 00:15:56,000 Speaker 1: each passing week, and those around her were known to 273 00:15:56,040 --> 00:15:59,280 Speaker 1: bear the physical toll of her violent outbursts. Although she 274 00:15:59,400 --> 00:16:01,880 Speaker 1: was out of sight at boarding school in Washington, d c. 275 00:16:02,440 --> 00:16:05,400 Speaker 1: She wasn't out of mind. Her family worried about her 276 00:16:05,600 --> 00:16:09,160 Speaker 1: near constantly, about her escape attempts and her safety, and 277 00:16:09,200 --> 00:16:13,240 Speaker 1: how they believed that she compromised their reputation. Her family 278 00:16:13,520 --> 00:16:16,320 Speaker 1: was a high profile one and the stakes were high. 279 00:16:16,760 --> 00:16:19,400 Speaker 1: She refused to play by their rules, and her father 280 00:16:19,800 --> 00:16:22,920 Speaker 1: had just about t had enough. In nineteen forty one, 281 00:16:23,120 --> 00:16:26,320 Speaker 1: the doctors shared a potential solution with him. They pitched 282 00:16:26,360 --> 00:16:29,680 Speaker 1: a lobotomy as a way to quell her erratic behavior. So, 283 00:16:29,920 --> 00:16:32,600 Speaker 1: without the consent of his wife or twenty three year 284 00:16:32,640 --> 00:16:35,320 Speaker 1: old Rose herself, he took his daughter to none other 285 00:16:35,360 --> 00:16:38,840 Speaker 1: than Walter Freeman and James Watts for the procedure, one 286 00:16:38,880 --> 00:16:42,120 Speaker 1: that the men had been performing regularly now for several years. 287 00:16:42,520 --> 00:16:45,120 Speaker 1: They brought Rose into the operating room and gave her 288 00:16:45,120 --> 00:16:48,600 Speaker 1: a mild tranquilizer. They made two small incisions in her skull, 289 00:16:48,880 --> 00:16:53,080 Speaker 1: and James inserted his instrument, a slender domestic ice pick, 290 00:16:53,560 --> 00:16:57,640 Speaker 1: and then he began sign Meanwhile, Walter started talking with 291 00:16:57,680 --> 00:17:00,800 Speaker 1: their patient and asking her a series of questions. It 292 00:17:00,840 --> 00:17:04,040 Speaker 1: was a seemingly mild mannered and polite conversation, and they 293 00:17:04,080 --> 00:17:06,960 Speaker 1: made estimates on how much to cut depending on how 294 00:17:06,960 --> 00:17:11,160 Speaker 1: she responded, and cut they did until she became incoherent. 295 00:17:12,240 --> 00:17:14,199 Speaker 1: As to whether or not the doctors knew in that 296 00:17:14,320 --> 00:17:17,440 Speaker 1: moment that they had made a grave error, we don't know. 297 00:17:17,960 --> 00:17:21,760 Speaker 1: But what was immediately evident is that her coherence regressed 298 00:17:21,760 --> 00:17:24,240 Speaker 1: to that of a toddler. She lost her ability to 299 00:17:24,359 --> 00:17:27,280 Speaker 1: walk and to speak. The doctors told her father that 300 00:17:27,320 --> 00:17:30,800 Speaker 1: she suffered from depression, but not anything else. He would 301 00:17:30,840 --> 00:17:33,920 Speaker 1: go on to speak of his daughter as mentally retarded 302 00:17:33,960 --> 00:17:37,359 Speaker 1: and not mentally ill, for fear that the latter would 303 00:17:37,359 --> 00:17:40,800 Speaker 1: implicate him and the rest of his family in her condition. 304 00:17:41,600 --> 00:17:44,520 Speaker 1: To make sure that she couldn't, Joe sent his daughter away. 305 00:17:44,880 --> 00:17:47,399 Speaker 1: He first sent her to a psychiatric facility in New 306 00:17:47,520 --> 00:17:51,359 Speaker 1: York and then to an institution in Wisconsin. Joe didn't 307 00:17:51,359 --> 00:17:53,800 Speaker 1: tell the rest of his children where she went, and 308 00:17:53,880 --> 00:17:56,880 Speaker 1: he refused to visit her. He suggested to his wife 309 00:17:56,960 --> 00:17:59,240 Speaker 1: that she should do the same in order for Rose 310 00:17:59,280 --> 00:18:02,320 Speaker 1: to get properly accustomed to her new life. There, she 311 00:18:02,400 --> 00:18:05,960 Speaker 1: effectively disappeared from her family's story in an act so 312 00:18:06,200 --> 00:18:09,159 Speaker 1: cold and cruel that it still sends shivers through the 313 00:18:09,240 --> 00:18:13,159 Speaker 1: Kennedy family and the American public to this day. The 314 00:18:13,200 --> 00:18:16,720 Speaker 1: illustrious Kennedys had a reputation as a prominent family to 315 00:18:16,800 --> 00:18:21,439 Speaker 1: maintain and huge aspirations to protect. Their political star was 316 00:18:21,440 --> 00:18:25,400 Speaker 1: on the rise, and that hunger motivated every move they made. 317 00:18:25,440 --> 00:18:28,240 Speaker 1: If their larger social circles knew the truth about Rose 318 00:18:28,280 --> 00:18:32,000 Speaker 1: Marie's condition, their fitness for public office might have been 319 00:18:32,040 --> 00:18:35,600 Speaker 1: called into question. It's a tragic story that was sadly 320 00:18:35,680 --> 00:18:40,280 Speaker 1: not unique. Many folks of the time period were hidden before, during, 321 00:18:40,480 --> 00:18:44,800 Speaker 1: and after mental illness struggles, but few individuals were robbed 322 00:18:44,840 --> 00:18:47,760 Speaker 1: of so much potential for good or of such a 323 00:18:47,800 --> 00:18:57,680 Speaker 1: position of influence as Rose Kennedy. It would be years 324 00:18:57,720 --> 00:19:01,880 Speaker 1: before Rose Marie's grown siblings, include voting America's thirty fifth President, 325 00:19:02,040 --> 00:19:05,240 Speaker 1: John F. Kennedy, along with her nieces and nephews, would 326 00:19:05,240 --> 00:19:08,040 Speaker 1: finally learn about what happened to her. But when they 327 00:19:08,040 --> 00:19:11,040 Speaker 1: did find out the truth, they embraced her with open 328 00:19:11,200 --> 00:19:14,960 Speaker 1: arms and worked toward rectifying that grievous wrong in both 329 00:19:14,960 --> 00:19:18,639 Speaker 1: the private and public spaces. From this dark mark on 330 00:19:18,680 --> 00:19:22,280 Speaker 1: the Kennedy family came the inception of the Special Olympics, 331 00:19:22,640 --> 00:19:26,119 Speaker 1: Best Buddies International and the sponsoring of the Americans with 332 00:19:26,160 --> 00:19:29,679 Speaker 1: Disabilities Act. The case of Rose Marie Kennedy came at 333 00:19:29,680 --> 00:19:32,280 Speaker 1: a time when psychosurgery was thought to be the solution 334 00:19:32,440 --> 00:19:35,119 Speaker 1: to mental illness. It would be a few more years 335 00:19:35,160 --> 00:19:38,439 Speaker 1: before pharmaceutical therapies would be used on the brain. For 336 00:19:38,480 --> 00:19:41,399 Speaker 1: the folks who were taking care of the chronically institutionalized, 337 00:19:41,640 --> 00:19:45,520 Speaker 1: it seemed like a reasonable last resort. Walter Freeman would 338 00:19:45,520 --> 00:19:48,480 Speaker 1: go on to perform over seven thousand lobotomies over the 339 00:19:48,480 --> 00:19:51,840 Speaker 1: course of his career, charging roughly twenty five dollars for 340 00:19:51,880 --> 00:19:55,040 Speaker 1: each one. It's thought that during its peak of popularity, 341 00:19:55,240 --> 00:19:58,119 Speaker 1: the lobotomy was performed on more than forty thousand people 342 00:19:58,160 --> 00:20:02,240 Speaker 1: across the United States, far higher than any other nation 343 00:20:02,359 --> 00:20:05,320 Speaker 1: in the world. By the nineteen fifties, the procedure had 344 00:20:05,400 --> 00:20:08,720 Speaker 1: dramatically fallen out of favor. The terrible side effects that 345 00:20:08,720 --> 00:20:12,920 Speaker 1: came with the surgery, including sometimes death, were becoming increasingly 346 00:20:13,000 --> 00:20:16,800 Speaker 1: obvious as more people were so dramatically affected. To most, 347 00:20:17,119 --> 00:20:20,000 Speaker 1: the outcome of a lobotomy was far worse than the 348 00:20:20,040 --> 00:20:24,320 Speaker 1: diseases that the surgery purported to cure. Germany, Japan, and 349 00:20:24,400 --> 00:20:27,280 Speaker 1: even the Soviet Union banned the practice on the basis 350 00:20:27,280 --> 00:20:30,200 Speaker 1: of its inhumanity, but it might surprise you to hear 351 00:20:30,240 --> 00:20:33,000 Speaker 1: that they were still performing it in many European countries 352 00:20:33,280 --> 00:20:37,040 Speaker 1: and the United States well into the nineteen eighties. As 353 00:20:37,080 --> 00:20:39,320 Speaker 1: for Rose Marie, she lived out the rest of her 354 00:20:39,400 --> 00:20:42,080 Speaker 1: days in a private cottage built just for her at 355 00:20:42,080 --> 00:20:46,520 Speaker 1: her Wisconsin institution. She loved to swim and joyride, play 356 00:20:46,520 --> 00:20:49,200 Speaker 1: with her pets, and passed the time with her caregivers. 357 00:20:49,640 --> 00:20:51,680 Speaker 1: When she passed away at the age of eighty six, 358 00:20:52,080 --> 00:20:55,680 Speaker 1: She was surrounded by her sisters and her brother, one 359 00:20:55,760 --> 00:20:58,679 Speaker 1: last act of love directed towards a woman who had 360 00:20:58,680 --> 00:21:02,240 Speaker 1: been made to feel so deeply unlovable and invisible for 361 00:21:02,359 --> 00:21:11,040 Speaker 1: far too many years. The inner workings of the mind 362 00:21:11,240 --> 00:21:13,880 Speaker 1: have long been a mystery to us, and that great 363 00:21:13,960 --> 00:21:17,920 Speaker 1: unknown has led to far too many tragic misunderstandings. Our 364 00:21:18,000 --> 00:21:20,920 Speaker 1: journey through the history of lobotomy today is just one 365 00:21:21,000 --> 00:21:24,240 Speaker 1: of the many failures along the road to progress. But 366 00:21:24,320 --> 00:21:28,320 Speaker 1: even without the sharp instruments and invasive surgical procedures, there 367 00:21:28,359 --> 00:21:30,760 Speaker 1: is still a lot of room for error. And if 368 00:21:30,800 --> 00:21:33,680 Speaker 1: you stick around through this brief sponsor break, my teammate 369 00:21:33,800 --> 00:21:36,639 Speaker 1: Robin Miniter will share one more example with you. 370 00:21:42,680 --> 00:21:46,239 Speaker 2: Albert Hofmann was something of an architect. In truth, he 371 00:21:46,280 --> 00:21:49,560 Speaker 2: was a chemist, responsible for breaking things apart and finding 372 00:21:49,560 --> 00:21:52,320 Speaker 2: new ways to put them back together. This is exactly 373 00:21:52,359 --> 00:21:54,080 Speaker 2: what he was doing when he was assigned to a 374 00:21:54,119 --> 00:21:57,320 Speaker 2: program that worked with medicinal plans in nineteen thirty eight. 375 00:21:57,880 --> 00:22:00,320 Speaker 2: We've talked in the series about the importance of dose 376 00:22:00,400 --> 00:22:03,600 Speaker 2: and frequency when deploying therapeutics. A little bit of something 377 00:22:03,680 --> 00:22:05,520 Speaker 2: might be really good for you, and it might make 378 00:22:05,560 --> 00:22:08,360 Speaker 2: you better. A lot of this seemed something though, might 379 00:22:08,440 --> 00:22:11,920 Speaker 2: kill you. This was certainly true for ergot, a fungus 380 00:22:11,920 --> 00:22:14,360 Speaker 2: found and tainted rye. It had been used in folk 381 00:22:14,480 --> 00:22:17,320 Speaker 2: medicine for a really long time. In small doses, it 382 00:22:17,359 --> 00:22:20,359 Speaker 2: could quicken childbirth, and it could stop bleeding. It was 383 00:22:20,440 --> 00:22:24,280 Speaker 2: otherwise responsible, scholars believe for the deaths of hundreds of 384 00:22:24,280 --> 00:22:28,320 Speaker 2: thousands of people across the ages. Albert essentially wanted to 385 00:22:28,359 --> 00:22:31,320 Speaker 2: isolate the good properties of the substance and strip away 386 00:22:31,320 --> 00:22:34,879 Speaker 2: the bad, something like alchemy, if you remember from earlier 387 00:22:34,880 --> 00:22:38,320 Speaker 2: in our season. He was able to determine the biologically 388 00:22:38,359 --> 00:22:41,359 Speaker 2: active compounds of the ergot and figured out his chemical 389 00:22:41,400 --> 00:22:46,520 Speaker 2: starting point, something called lycurgic acid. Over forty percent of 390 00:22:46,520 --> 00:22:49,879 Speaker 2: our Western pharmaceutical drugs are derived from plant medicines and 391 00:22:49,920 --> 00:22:53,760 Speaker 2: indigenous traditions. For thousands of years, cultures across the world 392 00:22:53,800 --> 00:22:56,000 Speaker 2: had been working with their land to heal their bodies 393 00:22:56,040 --> 00:22:59,000 Speaker 2: and their spirits. It's true that with the invention of 394 00:22:59,040 --> 00:23:03,840 Speaker 2: globalization and pharmacology, this has all become a little more complicated. 395 00:23:04,080 --> 00:23:08,480 Speaker 2: In the fifteen hundreds, European bioprospectors knew that indigenous communities 396 00:23:08,480 --> 00:23:12,000 Speaker 2: were treasure troves of knowledge. They pillaged these peoples and 397 00:23:12,040 --> 00:23:15,760 Speaker 2: took from them their ethnomedical traditions. It might surprise you 398 00:23:15,840 --> 00:23:18,440 Speaker 2: to know that exports of tropical medicinal plants in the 399 00:23:18,480 --> 00:23:23,520 Speaker 2: sixteenth century were only slightly less valuable than another colonial favorite, sugar. 400 00:23:24,160 --> 00:23:27,679 Speaker 2: With the invention of pharmacology in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, 401 00:23:28,119 --> 00:23:31,840 Speaker 2: scientists began applying chemical analysis to all these different plants. 402 00:23:32,320 --> 00:23:35,199 Speaker 2: Think the poppy seed from which we derive morphine, or 403 00:23:35,240 --> 00:23:38,280 Speaker 2: the sanchona tree from which we get quinine. So while 404 00:23:38,359 --> 00:23:40,680 Speaker 2: the academic mines in the West were trying to wrest 405 00:23:40,680 --> 00:23:43,560 Speaker 2: control of these plants and extract from them their healing essence, 406 00:23:44,119 --> 00:23:48,439 Speaker 2: the propaganda machine got to work. Marginalized communities bore the 407 00:23:48,440 --> 00:23:51,639 Speaker 2: brunt of the ensuing criminalization of these plants, which turned 408 00:23:51,640 --> 00:23:55,159 Speaker 2: into a longtime war. This peaked with the official declaration 409 00:23:55,240 --> 00:23:58,440 Speaker 2: of America's War on drugs in the nineteen seventies. A 410 00:23:58,560 --> 00:24:02,600 Speaker 2: federally funded moral panic ensued. Over a short arc of time, 411 00:24:02,760 --> 00:24:05,919 Speaker 2: we had managed to take something so revered plant medicine, 412 00:24:06,080 --> 00:24:09,439 Speaker 2: and on a federal level, turn it into something so reviled. 413 00:24:10,119 --> 00:24:13,159 Speaker 2: To this day, perhaps some two billion people are largely 414 00:24:13,200 --> 00:24:16,280 Speaker 2: reliant on medicinal plants, and in the past ten years 415 00:24:16,400 --> 00:24:18,760 Speaker 2: or so we have seen them creeping back into our 416 00:24:18,760 --> 00:24:22,879 Speaker 2: embrace at a policy level. In twenty thirteen, Uruguay became 417 00:24:22,880 --> 00:24:25,800 Speaker 2: the first country in the world to legally regulate cannabis, 418 00:24:25,960 --> 00:24:29,520 Speaker 2: while Canada legalized it in twenty eighteen. In twenty twenty, 419 00:24:29,720 --> 00:24:33,840 Speaker 2: organ voters passed the nation's first all drug decriminalization measure, 420 00:24:34,240 --> 00:24:36,359 Speaker 2: and today some say that we are even at the 421 00:24:36,400 --> 00:24:40,440 Speaker 2: beginnings of a psychedelic renaissance, as Western therapeutic practices begin 422 00:24:40,560 --> 00:24:44,840 Speaker 2: to welcome hallucinogenic plant medicines back into mainstream use. These 423 00:24:44,880 --> 00:24:47,520 Speaker 2: consciousness altering plants have been known to treat a variety 424 00:24:47,560 --> 00:24:51,200 Speaker 2: of physical and psychological illnesses and had previously been used 425 00:24:51,200 --> 00:24:55,320 Speaker 2: peacefully for centuries. Without knowing it at the time, Albert 426 00:24:55,320 --> 00:24:58,200 Speaker 2: Hofmann's ingestion of two hundred and fifty millions of a 427 00:24:58,240 --> 00:25:02,719 Speaker 2: gramophysurgic acid compound derived from ergot would change the world. 428 00:25:03,320 --> 00:25:05,639 Speaker 2: It sent him on the world first LSD trip and 429 00:25:05,680 --> 00:25:09,280 Speaker 2: blew open the possibilities for treating the mind. It soon 430 00:25:09,359 --> 00:25:12,959 Speaker 2: became popular to use in conjunction with psychoanalysis, until it's 431 00:25:13,000 --> 00:25:17,359 Speaker 2: alignment with a counterculture scented underground. Today, the mainstream is 432 00:25:17,400 --> 00:25:19,359 Speaker 2: beginning to look more kindly upon the use of these 433 00:25:19,400 --> 00:25:22,919 Speaker 2: therapeutic ethogens, and the clinical research tells us that these 434 00:25:22,960 --> 00:25:26,880 Speaker 2: substances seem to be massively effective for treating debilitating issues 435 00:25:26,920 --> 00:25:30,119 Speaker 2: of the mind. It looks like a promising lead, but 436 00:25:30,200 --> 00:25:33,560 Speaker 2: of course, only time will tell exactly what kind of 437 00:25:33,600 --> 00:25:35,159 Speaker 2: trip this will take us on. 438 00:25:37,520 --> 00:25:41,680 Speaker 1: Grimm and Mild Presents Bedside Manners was executive produced by 439 00:25:41,720 --> 00:25:45,160 Speaker 1: Aaron Manke and narrated by Aaron Mankey and Robin Miniter. 440 00:25:45,720 --> 00:25:49,040 Speaker 1: Writing for this season was provided by Robin Miniter, with 441 00:25:49,200 --> 00:25:53,680 Speaker 1: research by Sam Alberty, Taylor, Haggridorn and Robin Miniter. Production 442 00:25:53,760 --> 00:25:58,160 Speaker 1: assistance was provided by Josh Thain, Jesse Funk, Alex Williams, 443 00:25:58,400 --> 00:26:01,800 Speaker 1: and Matt Frederick. Learn more about this show, the Grim 444 00:26:01,840 --> 00:26:04,280 Speaker 1: and Mild team, and all the other podcasts that we 445 00:26:04,359 --> 00:26:09,240 Speaker 1: make over at Grimandmild dot com, and, as always, thanks 446 00:26:09,240 --> 00:26:09,840 Speaker 1: for listening.