1 00:00:15,436 --> 00:00:24,556 Speaker 1: Pushkin. The science of happiness is progressing all the time. 2 00:00:25,156 --> 00:00:28,076 Speaker 1: Hardly a week goes by without some fascinating new wellbeing 3 00:00:28,156 --> 00:00:31,476 Speaker 1: finding hitting the news, and today's researchers have been able 4 00:00:31,516 --> 00:00:34,916 Speaker 1: to harness so many amazing new technologies, from complex MRI 5 00:00:35,076 --> 00:00:38,356 Speaker 1: scanners to new medical treatments, all to help unlock the 6 00:00:38,396 --> 00:00:41,956 Speaker 1: secret of how our minds work. But in spite of 7 00:00:41,956 --> 00:00:44,516 Speaker 1: all these new insights, it's important to remember that the 8 00:00:44,596 --> 00:00:47,276 Speaker 1: quest to feel better is much older than these modern 9 00:00:47,316 --> 00:00:50,756 Speaker 1: scientific tools. The pursuit of happiness is a challenge that's 10 00:00:50,756 --> 00:00:54,196 Speaker 1: occupied our species for a long time. In fact, many 11 00:00:54,276 --> 00:00:57,556 Speaker 1: long dead philosophers, thinkers, and spiritual leaders have had some 12 00:00:57,596 --> 00:01:01,116 Speaker 1: powerful ideas for improving our well being, strategies that are 13 00:01:01,156 --> 00:01:03,956 Speaker 1: just as relevant today in the age of the podcast 14 00:01:04,436 --> 00:01:06,476 Speaker 1: as they were back in the time of Caesar or 15 00:01:06,516 --> 00:01:10,196 Speaker 1: the Pharaohs. If you've listened to others for the Happiness Lab, 16 00:01:10,316 --> 00:01:12,436 Speaker 1: you probably know that I get a lot of inspiration 17 00:01:12,596 --> 00:01:15,276 Speaker 1: from ancient lives and insights, and that I love to 18 00:01:15,316 --> 00:01:18,316 Speaker 1: share all those old school tips with you. But our 19 00:01:18,316 --> 00:01:21,316 Speaker 1: past episodes have only just scratched the surface on all 20 00:01:21,316 --> 00:01:24,676 Speaker 1: the strategies that ancient wisdom can teach us, So get 21 00:01:24,676 --> 00:01:27,476 Speaker 1: ready to go old school and welcome back to Happiness 22 00:01:27,556 --> 00:01:35,876 Speaker 1: Lessons of the Agents with me, Doctor Laurie Sanders. In 23 00:01:35,916 --> 00:01:38,516 Speaker 1: today's episode, I want to share the happiness insights of 24 00:01:38,556 --> 00:01:41,636 Speaker 1: a towering figure in the history of Western thought. He's 25 00:01:41,676 --> 00:01:46,276 Speaker 1: the og disruptor, a philosopher who challenged everything, but someone 26 00:01:46,276 --> 00:01:48,276 Speaker 1: who is never so vain as to think that he 27 00:01:48,316 --> 00:01:51,836 Speaker 1: knew it all. He's a scholar who's beloved worldwide by 28 00:01:51,876 --> 00:01:55,516 Speaker 1: some of the most brilliant philosophers and academics around. A 29 00:01:55,636 --> 00:01:58,276 Speaker 1: thinker that I personally was lucky to be exposed to 30 00:01:58,476 --> 00:02:01,276 Speaker 1: all the way back in the nineteen eighties, but not 31 00:02:01,396 --> 00:02:04,596 Speaker 1: because I read his student, Plato's famous account of his teachings. 32 00:02:05,196 --> 00:02:08,276 Speaker 1: Now I learned of this famous scholars work from Bill 33 00:02:08,316 --> 00:02:13,516 Speaker 1: and Ted's X Adventures. The only true wisdom consists in 34 00:02:13,636 --> 00:02:18,556 Speaker 1: knowing that you know nothing. That's us, dude. Oh yeah. 35 00:02:18,596 --> 00:02:22,156 Speaker 1: For those uninitiated in adi cinema culture, Bill and Ted's 36 00:02:22,196 --> 00:02:25,436 Speaker 1: Excellent Adventure is a movie about Bill S. Preston Esquire 37 00:02:25,476 --> 00:02:29,316 Speaker 1: and Theodore Logan aka Bill and Ted. They're two san 38 00:02:29,356 --> 00:02:32,036 Speaker 1: Dimas high school students who, in an attempt not to 39 00:02:32,036 --> 00:02:34,836 Speaker 1: flunk their history exam head back in time to meet 40 00:02:34,836 --> 00:02:37,676 Speaker 1: the great thinkers of the past. Bill and Ted were 41 00:02:37,676 --> 00:02:40,916 Speaker 1: the first to expose me to the central doctrines of Socrates, 42 00:02:41,516 --> 00:02:44,196 Speaker 1: or as I would later get to know him, Socrates. 43 00:02:45,276 --> 00:02:48,516 Speaker 1: Socrates's famous idea, which very much appealed to Bill and Ted, 44 00:02:49,036 --> 00:02:51,596 Speaker 1: is that we know far less than we often think. 45 00:02:52,196 --> 00:02:54,596 Speaker 1: It may sound like a simple concept or a joke 46 00:02:54,676 --> 00:02:57,356 Speaker 1: out of some classic high school movie, but it's also 47 00:02:57,396 --> 00:03:00,316 Speaker 1: a hugely important insight, especially if you want to live 48 00:03:00,356 --> 00:03:04,596 Speaker 1: a happier life. There are rors in history where Socrates 49 00:03:04,836 --> 00:03:10,956 Speaker 1: was considered a figure alongside Jeez. This is my dear friend, 50 00:03:10,996 --> 00:03:15,356 Speaker 1: the Yale philosopher and cognitive scientist Tomar Gendler. Benjamin Franklin, 51 00:03:15,436 --> 00:03:19,036 Speaker 1: who has this wonderful autobiography which is full of really 52 00:03:19,116 --> 00:03:27,396 Speaker 1: good advice about happiness, wrote Humility, Imitate, Jesus, and Socrates. 53 00:03:27,956 --> 00:03:31,116 Speaker 1: Tomorrow teaches a popular class at Yale known as Philosophy 54 00:03:31,196 --> 00:03:33,676 Speaker 1: in the Science of Human Nature. You can check it 55 00:03:33,716 --> 00:03:36,196 Speaker 1: out for free on the Open Yale Course Network. The 56 00:03:36,276 --> 00:03:39,196 Speaker 1: class looks to ancient scholars for insights into the problems 57 00:03:39,196 --> 00:03:42,516 Speaker 1: we all face today, and Tomorrow agrees with Ben Franklin 58 00:03:42,636 --> 00:03:46,156 Speaker 1: that Socrates is a perfect model of intellectual humility, and 59 00:03:46,196 --> 00:03:48,716 Speaker 1: that his example, if we can follow it, will bring 60 00:03:48,756 --> 00:03:52,356 Speaker 1: lots of benefits to our daily lives. Socrates is a 61 00:03:52,436 --> 00:03:56,716 Speaker 1: fascinating figure. He lived about twenty five hundred years ago 62 00:03:57,036 --> 00:04:01,436 Speaker 1: in ancient Athens. He was born some time around for 63 00:04:01,796 --> 00:04:05,396 Speaker 1: seventy before the Common era, and though we don't know 64 00:04:05,476 --> 00:04:08,996 Speaker 1: his exact birth date, we do know his exact death dache, 65 00:04:09,316 --> 00:04:12,516 Speaker 1: because he was put to death in a very famous 66 00:04:12,916 --> 00:04:18,636 Speaker 1: public trial in Athens in three ninety nine BC, which 67 00:04:19,036 --> 00:04:24,996 Speaker 1: was recorded by his student, a man named Plato, who 68 00:04:25,156 --> 00:04:32,476 Speaker 1: described socrates intellectual integrity and bravery in his willingness to 69 00:04:32,556 --> 00:04:36,996 Speaker 1: be put to death for what he believed. What Socrates 70 00:04:37,476 --> 00:04:43,596 Speaker 1: was known for is sitting out in the public square 71 00:04:43,796 --> 00:04:50,356 Speaker 1: of Athens and drawing people into conversations about fundamental questions, 72 00:04:50,556 --> 00:04:54,956 Speaker 1: questions like what's the nature of truth, What's the nature 73 00:04:54,996 --> 00:05:00,436 Speaker 1: of justice? What is it for a society to be fair? 74 00:05:01,036 --> 00:05:05,916 Speaker 1: What should our attitudes be towards the gods? What should 75 00:05:05,916 --> 00:05:10,716 Speaker 1: our attitudes be towards religious rituals? What should our attitudes 76 00:05:10,876 --> 00:05:15,556 Speaker 1: be towards prisoners that we captured from other countries? And 77 00:05:15,676 --> 00:05:22,156 Speaker 1: because Socrates was willing to question everything, he was accused 78 00:05:22,356 --> 00:05:26,476 Speaker 1: of being a corruptor of the youth, and when he 79 00:05:26,596 --> 00:05:29,996 Speaker 1: was put on trial, he was put on trial for 80 00:05:30,236 --> 00:05:35,956 Speaker 1: corrupting youth by causing them to question the received wisdom 81 00:05:36,356 --> 00:05:39,156 Speaker 1: of their culture. So, like, what was his background? How 82 00:05:39,156 --> 00:05:40,956 Speaker 1: did he become the kind of guy that was questioning 83 00:05:40,996 --> 00:05:45,276 Speaker 1: all these things. Here's what we know about Socrates. We 84 00:05:45,396 --> 00:05:49,596 Speaker 1: know that his father was a stone worker and his 85 00:05:49,716 --> 00:05:53,556 Speaker 1: mother was a midwife, and those are roughly middle class 86 00:05:53,676 --> 00:05:57,516 Speaker 1: professions in ancient Athens. So he wasn't a super elite guy, 87 00:05:57,836 --> 00:06:02,156 Speaker 1: but he was born into a social class that gave 88 00:06:02,276 --> 00:06:07,356 Speaker 1: him access to the elite, so he didn't have many 89 00:06:07,436 --> 00:06:11,716 Speaker 1: financial concerns. He heerted his father's estate. That is, he 90 00:06:11,756 --> 00:06:15,236 Speaker 1: came from the part of society that had inherited wealth, 91 00:06:15,476 --> 00:06:19,316 Speaker 1: which allows a certain kind of security and stability, and 92 00:06:19,476 --> 00:06:25,036 Speaker 1: as a result, he was free to pursue ideas that 93 00:06:25,436 --> 00:06:28,276 Speaker 1: intrigued him. And he had been trained up in the 94 00:06:28,316 --> 00:06:32,036 Speaker 1: way that most middle class opinions of his time were. 95 00:06:32,116 --> 00:06:34,356 Speaker 1: He knew how to read and how to write, and 96 00:06:34,436 --> 00:06:38,716 Speaker 1: he knew a little bit about poetry and music. But 97 00:06:38,756 --> 00:06:40,676 Speaker 1: even though he was kind of this middle class dude 98 00:06:40,676 --> 00:06:43,956 Speaker 1: with some inherited wealth, he also kind of wasn't into 99 00:06:43,956 --> 00:06:46,476 Speaker 1: that wealth himself, right, Like, he kind of just didn't 100 00:06:46,596 --> 00:06:49,836 Speaker 1: dress as awesomely as other Athenian dudes and things. Yeah, 101 00:06:49,876 --> 00:06:52,676 Speaker 1: I would say one of the striking things about Socrates 102 00:06:52,836 --> 00:06:56,796 Speaker 1: is that he was a pretty idiosyncratic guy. He was 103 00:06:56,996 --> 00:07:02,196 Speaker 1: not conventionally attractive by the norm of his time. He 104 00:07:02,356 --> 00:07:07,036 Speaker 1: was being bellied and snub nosed, and he, let us say, 105 00:07:07,876 --> 00:07:14,436 Speaker 1: eschewed class to marry bathing practices. So he was kind 106 00:07:14,476 --> 00:07:19,516 Speaker 1: of a guy on the corner who engaged passers by 107 00:07:19,836 --> 00:07:23,316 Speaker 1: in conversation. He was a funny guy. So you can 108 00:07:23,356 --> 00:07:27,876 Speaker 1: imagine him as sort of an owner of a Brooklyn 109 00:07:28,076 --> 00:07:33,516 Speaker 1: corner store who just engages all of the people who 110 00:07:33,516 --> 00:07:37,796 Speaker 1: pass him by in really really really interesting conversation. But 111 00:07:37,876 --> 00:07:40,796 Speaker 1: instead of being about the Yankees or the Mets or 112 00:07:40,836 --> 00:07:45,116 Speaker 1: the lottery, his conversation is about the nature of mathematics 113 00:07:45,716 --> 00:07:49,956 Speaker 1: or the value of justice. But really what he is 114 00:07:49,956 --> 00:07:54,516 Speaker 1: is a guy at the corner store who's engaging everyone 115 00:07:54,636 --> 00:08:00,916 Speaker 1: going by in his quirky, idiosyncratic, individualistic way. And he 116 00:08:00,956 --> 00:08:02,916 Speaker 1: wound up being the corner store guy that got a 117 00:08:02,916 --> 00:08:06,596 Speaker 1: lot of followers, including some like really famous ancient philosophers, 118 00:08:06,676 --> 00:08:12,636 Speaker 1: right Socrates was the person who was the teacher of Plato. 119 00:08:13,236 --> 00:08:16,476 Speaker 1: Plato is the person who was the teacher of Aristotle, 120 00:08:16,556 --> 00:08:20,596 Speaker 1: and Aristotle taught Alexander the Great, So in his intellectual 121 00:08:20,716 --> 00:08:27,156 Speaker 1: legacy is all of ancient Greek history. But he was 122 00:08:27,236 --> 00:08:31,636 Speaker 1: really famous even at the time where he lived. If 123 00:08:31,716 --> 00:08:37,156 Speaker 1: you have heard of any of the ancient playwrights, they 124 00:08:37,156 --> 00:08:41,516 Speaker 1: wrote plays about Socrates in which he appears as a 125 00:08:41,596 --> 00:08:45,956 Speaker 1: character a gad fly or a funny guy on the corners. 126 00:08:45,956 --> 00:08:50,116 Speaker 1: So there are famous comic play about him by a 127 00:08:50,156 --> 00:08:56,356 Speaker 1: Greek dramatist called Aristophanes. He's also written about in historical works. 128 00:08:56,436 --> 00:09:01,516 Speaker 1: For example, the ancient historian Xenophon writes about him. So 129 00:09:01,876 --> 00:09:07,156 Speaker 1: he was, in some sense the person whom all of 130 00:09:07,516 --> 00:09:11,916 Speaker 1: the rich, cool kid of Athens hung out with a 131 00:09:12,036 --> 00:09:16,036 Speaker 1: contrary to their parents' desires. So imagine your Plato's parents. 132 00:09:16,396 --> 00:09:18,676 Speaker 1: You want him to go on to live a normal 133 00:09:18,916 --> 00:09:22,236 Speaker 1: Athenian life where he makes money and has a position 134 00:09:22,276 --> 00:09:25,916 Speaker 1: of honor, and instead he's hanging out on the corner 135 00:09:26,436 --> 00:09:31,116 Speaker 1: with this funny looking guy who is wearing ratty robes 136 00:09:31,196 --> 00:09:36,316 Speaker 1: and has a messy demeanor about him, who's asking him 137 00:09:36,356 --> 00:09:39,596 Speaker 1: to think about fundamental questions. And it's not just Plato, 138 00:09:40,036 --> 00:09:43,756 Speaker 1: it's all the fancy youth of Athens who are down 139 00:09:43,796 --> 00:09:48,076 Speaker 1: there hanging out with this dude, Stocrates. But the parents 140 00:09:48,076 --> 00:09:50,116 Speaker 1: didn't really like the fact that their kids were hanging 141 00:09:50,116 --> 00:09:52,236 Speaker 1: out on the corner with the slovenly guy, and that 142 00:09:52,356 --> 00:09:54,076 Speaker 1: was one of the reasons that his life played out 143 00:09:54,076 --> 00:09:56,196 Speaker 1: in a sort of unfortunate way and the end. Yeah, 144 00:09:56,276 --> 00:09:59,356 Speaker 1: so the parents really didn't like the fact that their 145 00:09:59,436 --> 00:10:01,836 Speaker 1: kids were hanging out on the corner with this slovenly guy. 146 00:10:02,156 --> 00:10:08,436 Speaker 1: And the stity of Athens decided to put Socrates on trial, 147 00:10:08,556 --> 00:10:11,756 Speaker 1: and they made three charges against him. The first was 148 00:10:11,836 --> 00:10:15,716 Speaker 1: that he was corrupting the youth, the second was that 149 00:10:15,796 --> 00:10:19,796 Speaker 1: he was worshiping false gods, and the third was that 150 00:10:19,836 --> 00:10:24,876 Speaker 1: he was defying the state religion. And the trial of 151 00:10:25,156 --> 00:10:32,236 Speaker 1: Socrates is documented in a dialogue written by his student Plato, 152 00:10:32,636 --> 00:10:39,076 Speaker 1: in which Plato allows the world to hear what happened 153 00:10:39,076 --> 00:10:43,476 Speaker 1: at the trial and what happened when Socrates accepted the 154 00:10:43,516 --> 00:10:49,476 Speaker 1: outcome of the trial. So famously, Socrates was condemned to death, 155 00:10:50,276 --> 00:10:54,716 Speaker 1: and the death was to take the form of drinking 156 00:10:54,836 --> 00:11:00,876 Speaker 1: poison hemlock. Socrates students offered him the opportunity to escape 157 00:11:01,196 --> 00:11:05,156 Speaker 1: Athens so that he could avoid what they viewed to 158 00:11:05,236 --> 00:11:10,556 Speaker 1: be an unjust penalty, and Socrates instead said, I have 159 00:11:10,836 --> 00:11:14,836 Speaker 1: lived within the city of Athens. I have thrived because 160 00:11:14,876 --> 00:11:19,036 Speaker 1: of its laws and culture, and therefore I am compelled 161 00:11:19,316 --> 00:11:23,076 Speaker 1: to take the penalty which is given to me, whether 162 00:11:23,356 --> 00:11:27,436 Speaker 1: or not it is the penalty I think appropriate. So 163 00:11:27,476 --> 00:11:32,316 Speaker 1: he spent his last day surrounded by his students and 164 00:11:32,356 --> 00:11:38,276 Speaker 1: then voluntarily took upon himself the penalty which had been imposed. 165 00:11:38,436 --> 00:11:40,316 Speaker 1: So one of the reasons Socrates is famous is for 166 00:11:40,356 --> 00:11:42,956 Speaker 1: this kind of drinking the hemlock corrupting the youth story. 167 00:11:43,236 --> 00:11:46,716 Speaker 1: But one of his main philosophical legacies is the way 168 00:11:46,796 --> 00:11:49,156 Speaker 1: that he went about his argument. And so this is 169 00:11:49,156 --> 00:11:51,556 Speaker 1: what's known as the Socratic method. What is the Socratic 170 00:11:51,596 --> 00:11:53,796 Speaker 1: method and why was it so kind of novel and important? 171 00:11:54,436 --> 00:11:58,996 Speaker 1: So the Socratic method is the method of asking questions 172 00:11:59,156 --> 00:12:04,116 Speaker 1: rather than giving answers, as a way of causing people 173 00:12:04,156 --> 00:12:09,316 Speaker 1: to think through their own commitments and allowing them to 174 00:12:09,396 --> 00:12:15,996 Speaker 1: bring them into some sort of equilibrium or harmony. So 175 00:12:16,916 --> 00:12:21,716 Speaker 1: there's a famous example in one of Plato's dialogues about Socrates, 176 00:12:21,756 --> 00:12:26,556 Speaker 1: which is a dialogue called the Mino, where Socrates encounters 177 00:12:26,596 --> 00:12:32,036 Speaker 1: a young, uneducated boy and he teaches that boy the 178 00:12:32,116 --> 00:12:36,116 Speaker 1: Pythagorean theorem. You may remember, that's the theorem from geometry 179 00:12:36,196 --> 00:12:39,996 Speaker 1: about a right angle in a triangle and the relation 180 00:12:40,076 --> 00:12:43,396 Speaker 1: between the sides of the triangle. And the way that 181 00:12:43,476 --> 00:12:49,236 Speaker 1: Socrates teaches this young boy about the Pythagorean theorem is 182 00:12:49,276 --> 00:12:53,076 Speaker 1: by asking him, the young boy, a series of questions 183 00:12:53,156 --> 00:12:57,916 Speaker 1: that cause the young boy to realize explicitly something which 184 00:12:57,916 --> 00:13:02,716 Speaker 1: he had already realized implicitly, which are certain facts about 185 00:13:02,996 --> 00:13:07,436 Speaker 1: geometrical relations. So you can see how that works in 186 00:13:07,636 --> 00:13:11,356 Speaker 1: the case of geometry, and we can think of our 187 00:13:11,436 --> 00:13:15,836 Speaker 1: own examples of teaching children basic facts of arithmetic. You 188 00:13:16,036 --> 00:13:18,316 Speaker 1: cause them to come to reason. If I have one 189 00:13:18,316 --> 00:13:21,516 Speaker 1: apple and I put one other apple on the table, 190 00:13:21,836 --> 00:13:26,636 Speaker 1: how many apples would we have. That's Socratic method. It's 191 00:13:26,676 --> 00:13:31,956 Speaker 1: eliciting from somebody a fact about the world or a 192 00:13:32,076 --> 00:13:34,996 Speaker 1: view about the world, which they held, but they didn't 193 00:13:35,116 --> 00:13:39,236 Speaker 1: realize they held. So what Socrates does is he uses 194 00:13:39,276 --> 00:13:43,996 Speaker 1: the method that you might use in arithmetic or geometry 195 00:13:44,636 --> 00:13:48,676 Speaker 1: about the sorts of things that matter most. So he 196 00:13:48,836 --> 00:13:55,316 Speaker 1: might ask you a question, why does truth matter, and 197 00:13:55,676 --> 00:13:59,876 Speaker 1: you might say truth matters because truth is a good 198 00:14:00,076 --> 00:14:03,876 Speaker 1: guide to the world. And then he would say, but 199 00:14:04,116 --> 00:14:08,236 Speaker 1: what if there were something untruthful that were an equally 200 00:14:08,276 --> 00:14:11,116 Speaker 1: good guide to the world. Would that matter to you 201 00:14:11,156 --> 00:14:14,156 Speaker 1: as much as truth? And you would engage in a 202 00:14:14,236 --> 00:14:18,156 Speaker 1: back and forth about it until you yourself come to 203 00:14:18,196 --> 00:14:24,476 Speaker 1: recognize either that you don't fully understand something, or that 204 00:14:24,556 --> 00:14:29,916 Speaker 1: your previous view about it was just based on assumptions 205 00:14:30,236 --> 00:14:33,796 Speaker 1: for which you don't have real justification. And the cool 206 00:14:33,796 --> 00:14:36,276 Speaker 1: thing about the syncratic method is that Socrates didn't just 207 00:14:36,356 --> 00:14:39,316 Speaker 1: ask these kinds of questions of other people. He also 208 00:14:39,356 --> 00:14:42,516 Speaker 1: applied the same method to what he himself knew, to 209 00:14:42,596 --> 00:14:45,356 Speaker 1: his own sets of knowledge. Right, that's right. So there 210 00:14:45,476 --> 00:14:50,036 Speaker 1: is a famous story about this, And to tell you 211 00:14:50,116 --> 00:14:52,236 Speaker 1: the story, I'm going to need could give you just 212 00:14:52,276 --> 00:14:56,876 Speaker 1: a little bit of background about ancient Greek religion and culture. 213 00:14:57,476 --> 00:15:00,476 Speaker 1: So one of the things the ancient Greeks believed is 214 00:15:00,516 --> 00:15:03,916 Speaker 1: that the gods could speak to human beings through what 215 00:15:03,956 --> 00:15:11,196 Speaker 1: we're called oracles. Oracles were basically mystical priest who interpreted 216 00:15:11,316 --> 00:15:13,156 Speaker 1: the words of the gods. And there was a very, 217 00:15:13,276 --> 00:15:17,836 Speaker 1: very famous oracle at a place called Delphi in Greece, 218 00:15:18,076 --> 00:15:22,276 Speaker 1: in the Temple of Apollo, and during the time this 219 00:15:22,356 --> 00:15:29,036 Speaker 1: is reported in Plato's Apology. During the time of socrates trial, 220 00:15:29,716 --> 00:15:33,676 Speaker 1: a young man named Hiraphon went to visit the oracle 221 00:15:33,716 --> 00:15:38,356 Speaker 1: at Delphi, and Kirafond said to the oracle oracle, who 222 00:15:38,636 --> 00:15:45,156 Speaker 1: is the wisest person? And the oracle answered Kairafon by saying, 223 00:15:45,476 --> 00:15:52,436 Speaker 1: very specifically, no one is wiser than Socrates. The Kiraphon 224 00:15:52,556 --> 00:15:55,796 Speaker 1: comes back and he says to Socrates, hey, I went 225 00:15:55,876 --> 00:15:59,196 Speaker 1: to see the oracle at Delphi, and it said that 226 00:15:59,316 --> 00:16:05,116 Speaker 1: no one is wiser than you. And Socrates responds as follows, 227 00:16:05,116 --> 00:16:08,596 Speaker 1: and I'm now giving you the exact words as transcribed 228 00:16:08,636 --> 00:16:13,316 Speaker 1: Into's Apology that are translated into English. When I heard this, 229 00:16:13,556 --> 00:16:17,036 Speaker 1: says Socrates, I said to myself, what can the oracle 230 00:16:17,156 --> 00:16:20,076 Speaker 1: mean when it says that no one is wiser than 231 00:16:20,116 --> 00:16:23,396 Speaker 1: I am? For I know that I have no wisdom, 232 00:16:23,916 --> 00:16:27,876 Speaker 1: small or great. And then Socrates continues, So I went 233 00:16:28,036 --> 00:16:31,196 Speaker 1: to one who had the reputation of wisdom, and I 234 00:16:31,236 --> 00:16:33,716 Speaker 1: began to talk with him, and I could not help 235 00:16:33,796 --> 00:16:37,036 Speaker 1: thinking that he was not really wise, although he was 236 00:16:37,076 --> 00:16:41,156 Speaker 1: thought wise by many and wiser still by himself. So 237 00:16:41,156 --> 00:16:44,876 Speaker 1: Socrates continues, So I left him, saying to myself as 238 00:16:44,916 --> 00:16:48,716 Speaker 1: I went away, although I don't suppose that either of 239 00:16:48,796 --> 00:16:53,316 Speaker 1: us knows anything really beautiful and good, I am better 240 00:16:53,436 --> 00:16:58,556 Speaker 1: off than he is, for he knows nothing and thinks 241 00:16:58,636 --> 00:17:04,236 Speaker 1: that he knows, whereas I neither know nor think that 242 00:17:04,396 --> 00:17:08,876 Speaker 1: I know. So what Socrates saying here, he's saying, most 243 00:17:09,156 --> 00:17:12,796 Speaker 1: people who have a reputation for being wise and knowing 244 00:17:12,836 --> 00:17:17,116 Speaker 1: a lot of things have a mistaken degree of self confidence. 245 00:17:17,636 --> 00:17:21,476 Speaker 1: They not only act to the world as if they 246 00:17:21,556 --> 00:17:27,236 Speaker 1: know things, they are in their own minds more certain 247 00:17:27,516 --> 00:17:29,796 Speaker 1: than they ought to be. And so this is what's 248 00:17:29,796 --> 00:17:32,756 Speaker 1: been called the paradox of self knowledge, or the paradox 249 00:17:32,796 --> 00:17:37,996 Speaker 1: of Socratic knowledge. What is that the paradox of Socratic 250 00:17:38,076 --> 00:17:44,436 Speaker 1: knowledge is that the knowledge involves the recognition that Socrates 251 00:17:44,636 --> 00:17:49,236 Speaker 1: himself is unsure. So think back to what the oracle 252 00:17:49,796 --> 00:17:54,396 Speaker 1: said to Chirafon. The oracle didn't say in response to 253 00:17:54,436 --> 00:17:58,516 Speaker 1: the question who is the wisest person? Socrates is the 254 00:17:58,556 --> 00:18:02,036 Speaker 1: wisest person, the oracle said. One asked who is the 255 00:18:02,076 --> 00:18:07,156 Speaker 1: wisest person, No one is wiser than Socrates. And in 256 00:18:07,356 --> 00:18:11,396 Speaker 1: saying that, it emphasize that the way in which Socrates 257 00:18:11,556 --> 00:18:15,996 Speaker 1: is wise is that he knows just how much he 258 00:18:16,076 --> 00:18:18,396 Speaker 1: does not know. So this is cool. I mean, it's 259 00:18:18,396 --> 00:18:21,196 Speaker 1: really setting up this idea that to know ourselves is 260 00:18:21,236 --> 00:18:24,796 Speaker 1: to know that we don't know ourselves. Yeah, that's a 261 00:18:24,836 --> 00:18:29,836 Speaker 1: beautiful way of putting the paradox. To know ourselves is 262 00:18:29,836 --> 00:18:33,196 Speaker 1: to know that we do not know ourselves. It is 263 00:18:33,276 --> 00:18:38,036 Speaker 1: to know that, in many ways, we do not have 264 00:18:38,676 --> 00:18:44,596 Speaker 1: direct access to our motivations. We don't have direct access 265 00:18:44,756 --> 00:18:48,596 Speaker 1: to what it is that we are actually responding to 266 00:18:48,716 --> 00:18:53,156 Speaker 1: when we do something. And it's an endless process of 267 00:18:53,476 --> 00:18:58,036 Speaker 1: engaging in Socratic self question. So there's a way in 268 00:18:58,116 --> 00:19:03,956 Speaker 1: which each of us can give ourselves an inner Socrates 269 00:19:03,996 --> 00:19:07,556 Speaker 1: who says, why do you think that? Is it possible 270 00:19:07,596 --> 00:19:09,796 Speaker 1: that you think that for a different reason. Is it 271 00:19:09,836 --> 00:19:13,756 Speaker 1: possible that, even though you assume you value that, actually 272 00:19:13,916 --> 00:19:17,596 Speaker 1: that's just an old habit that you haven't questioned. Is 273 00:19:17,636 --> 00:19:21,956 Speaker 1: it possible that you think you're responding to a person 274 00:19:22,436 --> 00:19:26,036 Speaker 1: and in fact you're responding to a stereotype about people 275 00:19:26,276 --> 00:19:29,636 Speaker 1: of that kind. Those are the kinds of questions that 276 00:19:29,716 --> 00:19:34,076 Speaker 1: your inner Socrates tend to ask you. Harnessing your inner 277 00:19:34,116 --> 00:19:38,476 Speaker 1: Socrates isn't always comfortable. It involves intentionally questioning why you 278 00:19:38,556 --> 00:19:41,756 Speaker 1: think certain things and why you take certain actions. It 279 00:19:41,796 --> 00:19:44,756 Speaker 1: also involves admitting that you probably aren't as smart as 280 00:19:44,756 --> 00:19:47,836 Speaker 1: you think you are. But the science hints that channeling 281 00:19:47,876 --> 00:19:50,316 Speaker 1: this ancient thinker a bit more can be an important 282 00:19:50,316 --> 00:19:53,876 Speaker 1: step to becoming happier. The problem, as will explore when 283 00:19:53,876 --> 00:19:56,316 Speaker 1: the Happiness Lab returns from the break, is that our 284 00:19:56,356 --> 00:19:59,516 Speaker 1: brains don't always make that an easy task. The Happiness 285 00:19:59,596 --> 00:20:10,476 Speaker 1: Lab will be right back socrates is great insight is 286 00:20:10,476 --> 00:20:13,356 Speaker 1: that we don't really understand ourselves as well as we think. 287 00:20:14,076 --> 00:20:16,436 Speaker 1: It's an idea so radical that it got the great 288 00:20:16,476 --> 00:20:19,756 Speaker 1: thinker condemned to death. But you know, Professor to Mar 289 00:20:19,796 --> 00:20:22,636 Speaker 1: Gendler argues the Socrates might have been on to something. 290 00:20:23,476 --> 00:20:26,356 Speaker 1: Modern scientific studies show that there are real limits when 291 00:20:26,396 --> 00:20:29,636 Speaker 1: it comes to our self knowledge. In fact, some classic 292 00:20:29,676 --> 00:20:31,996 Speaker 1: experiments have found that we don't even know why we 293 00:20:32,036 --> 00:20:35,876 Speaker 1: feel the way we do. There's a fantastic study gun 294 00:20:35,916 --> 00:20:39,356 Speaker 1: in the nineteen seventies that was trying to figure out 295 00:20:39,396 --> 00:20:43,796 Speaker 1: whether people sometimes mistake what is going on around them 296 00:20:43,916 --> 00:20:46,956 Speaker 1: or what is going on inside them. And so here's 297 00:20:46,996 --> 00:20:51,676 Speaker 1: the study The study involved putting two people on a 298 00:20:51,756 --> 00:20:55,556 Speaker 1: bridge and the bridge was either a really solid bridge 299 00:20:55,716 --> 00:21:02,236 Speaker 1: and unthreatening, or it was a suspension bridge, and afterwards 300 00:21:02,636 --> 00:21:06,316 Speaker 1: they looked to see how likely the two people were 301 00:21:06,756 --> 00:21:11,436 Speaker 1: to think that they had physical attraction to one another, 302 00:21:11,516 --> 00:21:13,836 Speaker 1: That is, how likely they were to call the other 303 00:21:13,836 --> 00:21:17,996 Speaker 1: one and ask for a date. People were almost twice 304 00:21:18,356 --> 00:21:20,876 Speaker 1: as likely to ask the other person for a date 305 00:21:21,076 --> 00:21:24,836 Speaker 1: when they had been standing on an unstable bridge than 306 00:21:24,916 --> 00:21:28,596 Speaker 1: when they had been standing in a stable place. That 307 00:21:28,676 --> 00:21:33,236 Speaker 1: seems wild, right, that's a major major effect. Why are 308 00:21:33,276 --> 00:21:36,356 Speaker 1: people twice as likely to think they were attracted to 309 00:21:36,436 --> 00:21:39,716 Speaker 1: somebody if they met them on a bridge that was 310 00:21:39,836 --> 00:21:41,756 Speaker 1: unstable then if they met them in a place that 311 00:21:41,876 --> 00:21:46,196 Speaker 1: was stable. Think about what happens when you're on a 312 00:21:46,236 --> 00:21:51,116 Speaker 1: shaky bridge. Your heartbeats a little faster, Your breath gets 313 00:21:51,116 --> 00:21:54,516 Speaker 1: a little shallower, You notice a little bit of trembling. 314 00:21:55,556 --> 00:21:57,836 Speaker 1: What happens when you fall in love with somebody and 315 00:21:57,916 --> 00:22:01,956 Speaker 1: find them physically attractive. Your heartbeats a little faster, your 316 00:22:01,996 --> 00:22:05,396 Speaker 1: breath gets a little shallower, you notice your hands trembling. 317 00:22:05,956 --> 00:22:10,876 Speaker 1: That is, people can't distinguish whether the reason their heart 318 00:22:10,956 --> 00:22:14,236 Speaker 1: is beating fast is because they're on a shaky bridge, 319 00:22:14,796 --> 00:22:19,276 Speaker 1: or because they're attracted to a person. And that fact 320 00:22:19,396 --> 00:22:24,356 Speaker 1: about people that we cannot tell what's causing us to 321 00:22:24,436 --> 00:22:27,516 Speaker 1: respond in the way we do became the basis for 322 00:22:27,676 --> 00:22:33,036 Speaker 1: almost fifty years of psychological studies that looked at exactly 323 00:22:33,076 --> 00:22:36,476 Speaker 1: this question. And this is basically really falling prey to 324 00:22:36,516 --> 00:22:38,916 Speaker 1: the thing that Socrates was worried about that even in 325 00:22:38,996 --> 00:22:41,276 Speaker 1: the domain is fundamental is whether or not you're falling 326 00:22:41,316 --> 00:22:44,116 Speaker 1: in love with somebody. We just don't have access to 327 00:22:44,196 --> 00:22:46,396 Speaker 1: what it is. We really prefer what it is, We 328 00:22:46,436 --> 00:22:49,116 Speaker 1: really believe what it is, we really think and why Yeah, 329 00:22:49,236 --> 00:22:52,236 Speaker 1: imagine having an inner Socrates with you on the bridge, right, 330 00:22:52,316 --> 00:22:54,956 Speaker 1: So there you are and you're thinking, ooh, this person 331 00:22:54,996 --> 00:22:59,716 Speaker 1: across from me is really hot, and your inner Socrates says, hey, 332 00:22:59,916 --> 00:23:02,956 Speaker 1: why do you think they're really hot? And you say, well, 333 00:23:03,276 --> 00:23:07,596 Speaker 1: my palms are sweaty, and your inner Socrates says, is 334 00:23:07,596 --> 00:23:10,596 Speaker 1: there any other explanation for why your palms might be sweaty? 335 00:23:10,836 --> 00:23:13,636 Speaker 1: Did you notice you're standing on a bridge and all 336 00:23:13,636 --> 00:23:16,396 Speaker 1: of a sudden, the fact that you are willing to 337 00:23:16,596 --> 00:23:21,236 Speaker 1: doubt that you know yourself allows you to know yourself 338 00:23:21,276 --> 00:23:23,996 Speaker 1: better and our inability to know this stuff doesn't just 339 00:23:24,036 --> 00:23:26,236 Speaker 1: happen in these domains where you know, our heart is 340 00:23:26,316 --> 00:23:29,516 Speaker 1: racing and it's this big physiological effect. Sometimes it's really 341 00:23:29,556 --> 00:23:32,116 Speaker 1: just cognitive too. So tell me about these sort of 342 00:23:32,156 --> 00:23:36,156 Speaker 1: choice blindness studies. So here's a fabulous choice blend in study. 343 00:23:36,276 --> 00:23:40,276 Speaker 1: So you show people a pair of pictures and ask 344 00:23:40,356 --> 00:23:43,876 Speaker 1: them to judge which picture they think is more attractive. 345 00:23:44,356 --> 00:23:47,436 Speaker 1: So suppose they say the second picture is more attractive 346 00:23:47,476 --> 00:23:51,676 Speaker 1: to them than the first picture. A minute later, when 347 00:23:51,836 --> 00:23:56,116 Speaker 1: they show the pictures next, they've swapped them. You show 348 00:23:56,156 --> 00:23:59,876 Speaker 1: them the first picture, not the one they chose the 349 00:23:59,956 --> 00:24:02,796 Speaker 1: first picture, and you say to them, why did you 350 00:24:02,836 --> 00:24:07,436 Speaker 1: think this one is more attractive? And they offer a 351 00:24:07,556 --> 00:24:11,356 Speaker 1: rationalization where they say, oh, I thought picture one was 352 00:24:11,396 --> 00:24:15,636 Speaker 1: more attractive than picture two because I like the color 353 00:24:15,716 --> 00:24:18,116 Speaker 1: of the shirt, or I really like the shape of 354 00:24:18,156 --> 00:24:22,316 Speaker 1: the eyebrows. But notice they didn't think that picture one 355 00:24:22,436 --> 00:24:25,516 Speaker 1: was more attractive than picture two a minute ago they 356 00:24:25,556 --> 00:24:29,556 Speaker 1: had selected the second picture. So not only do people 357 00:24:29,796 --> 00:24:32,516 Speaker 1: have a really bad sense of why they make the 358 00:24:32,596 --> 00:24:35,996 Speaker 1: choices that they do, they may not even be in 359 00:24:36,036 --> 00:24:40,636 Speaker 1: a position to hold onto which choices they made. We 360 00:24:40,876 --> 00:24:45,516 Speaker 1: are not transparent to ourselves. We should have our inner 361 00:24:45,596 --> 00:24:49,516 Speaker 1: socrates check whether we mean what we just said. So 362 00:24:49,556 --> 00:24:52,236 Speaker 1: these are kind of funny examples about our choices, and 363 00:24:52,316 --> 00:24:54,596 Speaker 1: you know, who we might find attractive or what image 364 00:24:54,636 --> 00:24:56,956 Speaker 1: we might like better. But this is also a big 365 00:24:56,996 --> 00:24:59,596 Speaker 1: problem for our happiness, because our happiness also seems to 366 00:24:59,756 --> 00:25:02,556 Speaker 1: depend on our preferences and how we think we should behave. 367 00:25:02,796 --> 00:25:04,596 Speaker 1: If we don't have knowledge of that, that's going to 368 00:25:04,676 --> 00:25:06,396 Speaker 1: be a big problem for how we act in the world. 369 00:25:06,716 --> 00:25:09,316 Speaker 1: That seems exactly right. So when you ask the but 370 00:25:09,396 --> 00:25:13,356 Speaker 1: what makes them happy and they make their first guesses, 371 00:25:13,396 --> 00:25:15,796 Speaker 1: they give answers like, oh yeah, what makes me happy 372 00:25:16,156 --> 00:25:21,276 Speaker 1: is money, and what makes me happy is external approval. 373 00:25:21,716 --> 00:25:24,636 Speaker 1: And when people say those things, they're convinced of them. 374 00:25:24,676 --> 00:25:26,836 Speaker 1: And exactly the same way that the person on the 375 00:25:26,876 --> 00:25:29,636 Speaker 1: bridge was convinced that they were falling in love with 376 00:25:29,676 --> 00:25:32,796 Speaker 1: this other person and they didn't recognize that they were 377 00:25:32,836 --> 00:25:37,476 Speaker 1: wrong about what they thought they knew. In that same way, 378 00:25:37,876 --> 00:25:41,036 Speaker 1: we're wrong about a whole bunch of things we think 379 00:25:41,116 --> 00:25:44,076 Speaker 1: we know about what makes us happy. I mean, this 380 00:25:44,116 --> 00:25:46,036 Speaker 1: whole podcast is filled with them, right, You know, we 381 00:25:46,076 --> 00:25:49,036 Speaker 1: have episodes about how we think you know, spending money 382 00:25:49,036 --> 00:25:51,436 Speaker 1: in our ourselves will make us feel happy, but actually 383 00:25:51,476 --> 00:25:53,476 Speaker 1: we find out that spending money on other people is 384 00:25:53,516 --> 00:25:55,516 Speaker 1: really the way to go. We have episodes on how 385 00:25:55,756 --> 00:25:58,556 Speaker 1: trying to add to our workload will make us happy 386 00:25:58,556 --> 00:26:00,636 Speaker 1: because we want accolades at work, but then we find 387 00:26:00,636 --> 00:26:03,236 Speaker 1: that having more free time will make us happier. You know. 388 00:26:03,316 --> 00:26:05,916 Speaker 1: There's even a famous episode where I get lots of 389 00:26:05,956 --> 00:26:09,756 Speaker 1: critiques from people online where we tell people, hey to strangers, 390 00:26:09,756 --> 00:26:12,516 Speaker 1: that will make you happy, but people consult their self knowledge, 391 00:26:12,516 --> 00:26:14,276 Speaker 1: and their self knowledge says nah, that will make me 392 00:26:14,316 --> 00:26:16,836 Speaker 1: feel like crap. I mean, it just feels like the 393 00:26:16,876 --> 00:26:19,556 Speaker 1: whole field is one where we really need to recognize 394 00:26:19,556 --> 00:26:21,716 Speaker 1: that our minds seem to be lying to us if 395 00:26:21,756 --> 00:26:23,916 Speaker 1: we want to make some progress. But it's kind of 396 00:26:23,916 --> 00:26:26,076 Speaker 1: a problem because we don't really know what we don't know. 397 00:26:26,476 --> 00:26:30,516 Speaker 1: That's right, And the first step towards being able to 398 00:26:30,556 --> 00:26:36,316 Speaker 1: recognize what we don't know is being ready to accept 399 00:26:36,996 --> 00:26:40,596 Speaker 1: that any given moment where you seem to know something, 400 00:26:41,116 --> 00:26:44,316 Speaker 1: you might not. You might know it, but you might not. 401 00:26:44,836 --> 00:26:46,916 Speaker 1: And so let's walk through why we're so bad as 402 00:26:46,956 --> 00:26:49,276 Speaker 1: self knowledge. Right. One comes from the structure of the 403 00:26:49,316 --> 00:26:51,676 Speaker 1: way our minds work, which is like we kind of 404 00:26:51,716 --> 00:26:54,636 Speaker 1: just don't have access to everything in our heads. Yeah. So, 405 00:26:54,996 --> 00:27:00,156 Speaker 1: anybody who's ever heard of the notion of the unconscious, 406 00:27:00,596 --> 00:27:04,316 Speaker 1: or read a novel in which a character does something 407 00:27:04,396 --> 00:27:08,796 Speaker 1: for a reason that they themselves don't recognize, or anybody 408 00:27:08,836 --> 00:27:12,836 Speaker 1: who has ever been involved in therapy knows that one 409 00:27:13,116 --> 00:27:19,036 Speaker 1: of the fundamental ways of understanding human beings it is 410 00:27:19,036 --> 00:27:21,716 Speaker 1: to understand that a lot of what we do is 411 00:27:21,756 --> 00:27:27,116 Speaker 1: not for conscious reasons, it's for unconscious reasons. And what 412 00:27:27,156 --> 00:27:31,276 Speaker 1: it means for something to be unconscious by definition is 413 00:27:31,316 --> 00:27:34,916 Speaker 1: that it's not something to which we have direct, immediate, 414 00:27:35,196 --> 00:27:39,516 Speaker 1: automatic access as we move around in the world. And 415 00:27:39,596 --> 00:27:42,236 Speaker 1: so that's the problem of things in our minds being unconscious, 416 00:27:42,316 --> 00:27:44,196 Speaker 1: things we don't have access to. But there is also 417 00:27:44,276 --> 00:27:48,396 Speaker 1: a problem where our mind isn't just a unitary thing too, right, Yes, 418 00:27:48,596 --> 00:27:53,316 Speaker 1: so we sometimes act as if there's a single thing 419 00:27:53,476 --> 00:27:57,796 Speaker 1: that we're thinking at any moment, but it's never the 420 00:27:57,796 --> 00:28:00,956 Speaker 1: case that there's only one thing going on in your 421 00:28:00,996 --> 00:28:04,956 Speaker 1: head at once. Previously, Laurie, you and I have the 422 00:28:05,036 --> 00:28:08,596 Speaker 1: chance to talk about a metaphor from Plato which divides 423 00:28:08,636 --> 00:28:11,476 Speaker 1: the mind into three parts. It says that there are 424 00:28:11,676 --> 00:28:16,716 Speaker 1: two horses and a charioteer, a driver of those horses, 425 00:28:16,716 --> 00:28:19,276 Speaker 1: and one of those horses is interested in things like 426 00:28:19,636 --> 00:28:23,116 Speaker 1: food and reproduction. The second horse is interested in things 427 00:28:23,156 --> 00:28:26,276 Speaker 1: like honor and social approval, and then the driver of 428 00:28:26,316 --> 00:28:31,476 Speaker 1: these horses is interested in reason and rationality. And Plato's 429 00:28:31,716 --> 00:28:37,396 Speaker 1: image there is echoed by everything we now know about 430 00:28:37,476 --> 00:28:40,196 Speaker 1: the brain. So in the middle of all of our 431 00:28:40,236 --> 00:28:43,636 Speaker 1: brains is a lizard brain, which is responding to really 432 00:28:43,716 --> 00:28:49,316 Speaker 1: primitive things. When you are making a judgment about the world, 433 00:28:49,756 --> 00:28:52,356 Speaker 1: there's stuff coming in from your visual system, and there's 434 00:28:52,356 --> 00:28:54,956 Speaker 1: stuff coming in from your auditory system, but there's also 435 00:28:54,996 --> 00:28:57,676 Speaker 1: stuff coming in from your amigdala, which is giving you 436 00:28:57,716 --> 00:29:01,156 Speaker 1: a sense of your emotions, and there may be things 437 00:29:01,236 --> 00:29:03,636 Speaker 1: coming in from your memory. And all of these things 438 00:29:03,876 --> 00:29:07,596 Speaker 1: are coming in in lots and lots of different directions 439 00:29:07,596 --> 00:29:10,356 Speaker 1: and pulling you in different directions, and your mind has 440 00:29:10,396 --> 00:29:14,436 Speaker 1: to make a decision about what it's going to say 441 00:29:14,436 --> 00:29:17,996 Speaker 1: it sees. One of the nicest examples of this is 442 00:29:18,236 --> 00:29:22,316 Speaker 1: in an optical illusion. So if you're sitting in a 443 00:29:22,436 --> 00:29:26,396 Speaker 1: train looking out the window and the train next to 444 00:29:26,436 --> 00:29:30,876 Speaker 1: you starts moving, your visual system gives you a certain 445 00:29:31,156 --> 00:29:34,396 Speaker 1: kind of information, and it runs to the front of 446 00:29:34,396 --> 00:29:39,036 Speaker 1: your brain and it gets there to your conscious rational 447 00:29:39,276 --> 00:29:44,396 Speaker 1: part before the stuff from your somatosensory or your vestibular system, 448 00:29:44,596 --> 00:29:48,436 Speaker 1: And so you even though it's the other train that's 449 00:29:48,516 --> 00:29:52,196 Speaker 1: moving and you're sitting still, your eyes full you they 450 00:29:52,236 --> 00:29:54,316 Speaker 1: get to the front of your brain first. They tell 451 00:29:54,356 --> 00:29:56,876 Speaker 1: your brain what to think, and your brain thinks, oh 452 00:29:56,916 --> 00:30:00,956 Speaker 1: my god, my train is moving, but it's not. And 453 00:30:01,196 --> 00:30:06,276 Speaker 1: that kind of mistake happens endlessly in brains that are 454 00:30:06,316 --> 00:30:11,436 Speaker 1: built up of complex evolution nary layers, as every human 455 00:30:11,516 --> 00:30:14,916 Speaker 1: brain is. So our pesky minds make it hard for 456 00:30:15,036 --> 00:30:18,436 Speaker 1: us to really know ourselves. But don't disparage us yet, 457 00:30:18,876 --> 00:30:21,036 Speaker 1: because when we get back from the break, we'll learn 458 00:30:21,076 --> 00:30:23,196 Speaker 1: that we can get better at self knowledge if we 459 00:30:23,236 --> 00:30:26,996 Speaker 1: commit to harnessing our inner Socrates. We'll see how when 460 00:30:27,036 --> 00:30:38,036 Speaker 1: the happiness lab returns in a moment. When I first 461 00:30:38,076 --> 00:30:40,796 Speaker 1: watched Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure back in the nineteen eighties, 462 00:30:41,156 --> 00:30:43,716 Speaker 1: my childhood self was able to pick up tiny snippets 463 00:30:43,756 --> 00:30:46,756 Speaker 1: of the Socratic canon, mostly in the form of bad 464 00:30:46,756 --> 00:30:53,116 Speaker 1: punch lines from the movie Excellent. But it wasn't actually 465 00:30:53,196 --> 00:30:55,716 Speaker 1: until later in my education that I was introduced to 466 00:30:55,716 --> 00:30:59,476 Speaker 1: one of Socrates' key phrases, one that's super important for 467 00:30:59,516 --> 00:31:02,356 Speaker 1: feeling happier and one that I find to be, to 468 00:31:02,516 --> 00:31:06,316 Speaker 1: paraphrase Bill and Ted, most excellent. The quote that people 469 00:31:06,596 --> 00:31:12,676 Speaker 1: often think of and associate with Socrates is the unexamined 470 00:31:12,916 --> 00:31:17,076 Speaker 1: life is not worth living. So what does it mean 471 00:31:17,156 --> 00:31:21,196 Speaker 1: to say the unexamined life is not worth living? There 472 00:31:21,196 --> 00:31:24,956 Speaker 1: are two ways of thinking about that, both with regard 473 00:31:24,996 --> 00:31:28,596 Speaker 1: to one's relation to what we might call outer knowledge 474 00:31:28,876 --> 00:31:31,636 Speaker 1: that is the way the world is, and with regard 475 00:31:31,756 --> 00:31:35,036 Speaker 1: to what we might call inner knowledge, that is the 476 00:31:35,076 --> 00:31:37,316 Speaker 1: way we ourselves are. So let me start with the 477 00:31:37,396 --> 00:31:39,756 Speaker 1: outer knowledge. What does Socrates mean when he says the 478 00:31:39,836 --> 00:31:44,156 Speaker 1: unexamined life is not worth living? He means society as 479 00:31:44,236 --> 00:31:50,796 Speaker 1: we inherit. It isn't perfect. Your country may have a 480 00:31:50,876 --> 00:31:55,356 Speaker 1: religion which has landed on certain really important truths and 481 00:31:55,516 --> 00:32:00,236 Speaker 1: missed other really important truths. Your society may have some 482 00:32:00,356 --> 00:32:03,916 Speaker 1: values which are really important to human flourishing, but some 483 00:32:03,996 --> 00:32:07,916 Speaker 1: values which really impede human flourishing. And there are many 484 00:32:07,996 --> 00:32:10,996 Speaker 1: many discoveries to be made about the world. This is 485 00:32:11,076 --> 00:32:15,516 Speaker 1: the time when science as a way of making sense 486 00:32:15,636 --> 00:32:20,356 Speaker 1: of reality begins. For example, people begin to do astronomical 487 00:32:20,716 --> 00:32:25,276 Speaker 1: work and understand the relation between the stars and the 488 00:32:25,356 --> 00:32:28,796 Speaker 1: planets and the earth. All of those are what Socrates 489 00:32:28,796 --> 00:32:32,916 Speaker 1: we call the examined life in an external sense. And 490 00:32:32,956 --> 00:32:36,876 Speaker 1: so the unexamined life is the life where you aren't 491 00:32:37,076 --> 00:32:40,836 Speaker 1: curious about the natural world around you and you aren't 492 00:32:40,876 --> 00:32:45,076 Speaker 1: ready to challenge the social world around you. So that's 493 00:32:45,196 --> 00:32:49,836 Speaker 1: version one of the unexamined life. The second version of 494 00:32:49,836 --> 00:32:54,036 Speaker 1: the unexamined life that Socrates is concerned about is the 495 00:32:54,076 --> 00:32:58,276 Speaker 1: case where you trust your first impression instead of your 496 00:32:58,316 --> 00:33:04,196 Speaker 1: deeper self. That is the case where you don't awaken 497 00:33:04,236 --> 00:33:07,836 Speaker 1: your inner Socrates to ask yourself, Am I really in 498 00:33:07,876 --> 00:33:10,476 Speaker 1: love with this person? Or is it just that my 499 00:33:10,596 --> 00:33:13,556 Speaker 1: palms are sweaty? Am I really happier when I make 500 00:33:13,596 --> 00:33:17,036 Speaker 1: lots of money? Or am I just taking at face 501 00:33:17,236 --> 00:33:22,036 Speaker 1: value something that my brain is telling myself? Is my 502 00:33:22,116 --> 00:33:25,836 Speaker 1: train really moving? Or am I just responding to what 503 00:33:26,076 --> 00:33:31,196 Speaker 1: vision got into my body faster than the other senses. 504 00:33:31,916 --> 00:33:35,036 Speaker 1: So the second sense in which Socrates means the unexamined 505 00:33:35,076 --> 00:33:37,796 Speaker 1: life is not worth living is that he means we 506 00:33:37,876 --> 00:33:42,196 Speaker 1: need to examine our own assumptions about what we think 507 00:33:42,396 --> 00:33:45,836 Speaker 1: we want and about what we think we need. Another 508 00:33:45,876 --> 00:33:48,236 Speaker 1: way we can do this is through the practice of mindfulness. 509 00:33:48,596 --> 00:33:51,836 Speaker 1: Why does mindfulness help us kind of know ourselves better? So, 510 00:33:51,956 --> 00:33:59,476 Speaker 1: mindfulness is a practice whereby we try to authentically recognize 511 00:33:59,916 --> 00:34:04,316 Speaker 1: what is going on inside us. It's a process of 512 00:34:04,476 --> 00:34:14,076 Speaker 1: removing distraction and focusing liberately attention on something particular. And 513 00:34:14,156 --> 00:34:17,956 Speaker 1: there's a way in which you can think of meditation 514 00:34:18,516 --> 00:34:24,636 Speaker 1: as a non verbal analog of Socratic self examination. So 515 00:34:24,636 --> 00:34:28,716 Speaker 1: Socrates says, keep asking yourself, why do you think that? 516 00:34:29,076 --> 00:34:31,116 Speaker 1: But why do you think that? But why do you 517 00:34:31,156 --> 00:34:36,516 Speaker 1: think that? That's the verbal version of Socratic self questioning. 518 00:34:37,156 --> 00:34:42,036 Speaker 1: Meditation is the non verbal version of Socratic self question 519 00:34:42,596 --> 00:34:47,476 Speaker 1: It says, attend what's really going on, what's really going on? 520 00:34:47,796 --> 00:34:51,516 Speaker 1: What's really going on? So both of these are processes 521 00:34:51,756 --> 00:34:57,836 Speaker 1: of eliminating distraction and coming to authenticity. Neither of them 522 00:34:57,876 --> 00:35:02,076 Speaker 1: demands that you get all the way there. It just says, 523 00:35:02,196 --> 00:35:05,356 Speaker 1: here's a process that you can follow that's going to 524 00:35:05,436 --> 00:35:10,836 Speaker 1: bring you closer to the truth, close sure to understanding, 525 00:35:11,436 --> 00:35:15,516 Speaker 1: and that is being ready in the Socratic sense, to 526 00:35:15,636 --> 00:35:20,276 Speaker 1: challenge yourself and ask why, and being ready in a 527 00:35:20,316 --> 00:35:25,556 Speaker 1: meditation sense to focus yourself and eliminate distraction. So the 528 00:35:25,596 --> 00:35:27,796 Speaker 1: first way that we can really get better self knowledge, 529 00:35:27,836 --> 00:35:31,316 Speaker 1: according to Socrates, is through this idea of the Socratic 530 00:35:31,356 --> 00:35:34,036 Speaker 1: method and applying it to ourselves. What does this look like, 531 00:35:34,116 --> 00:35:35,996 Speaker 1: say in the context of, you know, maybe thinking that 532 00:35:36,076 --> 00:35:39,036 Speaker 1: money might bring us happiness when it might not. So 533 00:35:39,396 --> 00:35:42,356 Speaker 1: you might ask yourself in the way that Socrates would 534 00:35:42,356 --> 00:35:44,636 Speaker 1: ask you, why do you think that money is going 535 00:35:44,676 --> 00:35:47,276 Speaker 1: to give you happiness? Think back to a time that 536 00:35:47,316 --> 00:35:50,676 Speaker 1: you got money, what did you really feel? Think back 537 00:35:50,716 --> 00:35:54,396 Speaker 1: to other times when you were happy? What were those times? Like? 538 00:35:54,676 --> 00:35:57,836 Speaker 1: I think that took things that you've learned from science 539 00:35:58,076 --> 00:36:01,676 Speaker 1: about what it is that makes people happy. Why would 540 00:36:01,716 --> 00:36:05,436 Speaker 1: you think those scientific facts don't apply to you. It's 541 00:36:05,516 --> 00:36:08,196 Speaker 1: exactly like you come home and you have a fight 542 00:36:08,236 --> 00:36:10,916 Speaker 1: with your spouse. Spouse says, why are you yelling at me? 543 00:36:11,316 --> 00:36:14,716 Speaker 1: And you say blah blah blah, and your saust asks 544 00:36:14,756 --> 00:36:17,916 Speaker 1: you a question again and you realize, Oh, I'm yelling 545 00:36:17,956 --> 00:36:21,276 Speaker 1: at you because I was irritated by something that happened 546 00:36:21,316 --> 00:36:24,036 Speaker 1: to me on the bus on the way home, and 547 00:36:24,116 --> 00:36:27,596 Speaker 1: so I'm taking frustration that came from one source, and 548 00:36:27,756 --> 00:36:32,436 Speaker 1: I'm bringing it out in another source. That kind of 549 00:36:32,716 --> 00:36:35,796 Speaker 1: capacity to recognize that we're doing something for a reason 550 00:36:36,116 --> 00:36:39,476 Speaker 1: other than the reason we thought we were doing it's 551 00:36:39,556 --> 00:36:43,276 Speaker 1: familiar to all of us when we think about our 552 00:36:43,316 --> 00:36:46,876 Speaker 1: relations to other people, and so it shouldn't be surprising 553 00:36:47,116 --> 00:36:50,676 Speaker 1: that it's also the case when we're making decisions for ourselves. 554 00:36:51,036 --> 00:36:52,876 Speaker 1: I think a final way that we can really embrace 555 00:36:52,916 --> 00:36:56,036 Speaker 1: our inner Socrates is to really understand what the science 556 00:36:56,116 --> 00:36:58,876 Speaker 1: is telling us. Right that sometimes it's just really hard 557 00:36:58,876 --> 00:37:01,156 Speaker 1: to know our minds because of the unconscious makes us 558 00:37:01,556 --> 00:37:04,476 Speaker 1: our own selves impenetrable. But if we know what's going 559 00:37:04,476 --> 00:37:06,596 Speaker 1: on with other people, that that can kind of help 560 00:37:06,676 --> 00:37:09,916 Speaker 1: us make better decisions ourselves. Yes, So, one of the 561 00:37:09,956 --> 00:37:14,236 Speaker 1: amazing things about human beings is that each of us 562 00:37:14,516 --> 00:37:19,156 Speaker 1: is different from one another, but in certain fundamental ways, 563 00:37:19,516 --> 00:37:22,796 Speaker 1: we've each been given the same set of stuff to 564 00:37:22,956 --> 00:37:25,876 Speaker 1: work with. All of us have brains that were subject 565 00:37:25,876 --> 00:37:30,516 Speaker 1: to the same evolutionary process. All of us are affected 566 00:37:30,676 --> 00:37:37,036 Speaker 1: by features of our external environment. And therefore one of 567 00:37:37,076 --> 00:37:42,476 Speaker 1: the ways to understand yourself is to understand other people. 568 00:37:43,236 --> 00:37:48,596 Speaker 1: And it's really really unlikely that everybody else in the 569 00:37:48,636 --> 00:37:52,836 Speaker 1: world would be some way, and you, yourself would be 570 00:37:53,116 --> 00:37:58,556 Speaker 1: another way. You are unique. You're unique in the configuration 571 00:37:59,036 --> 00:38:03,436 Speaker 1: of facts which are true of you, but general tendencies 572 00:38:03,756 --> 00:38:08,476 Speaker 1: that if your skin is cut, you will bleed, that 573 00:38:08,516 --> 00:38:11,996 Speaker 1: if you are feeling sadness, your pupils will show a 574 00:38:11,996 --> 00:38:17,116 Speaker 1: certain kind of dilation. Those are fundamental facts about human beings. 575 00:38:17,316 --> 00:38:20,436 Speaker 1: And one of the many, very good ways to learn 576 00:38:20,476 --> 00:38:23,796 Speaker 1: about ourselves is to learn about others. And one of 577 00:38:23,796 --> 00:38:27,796 Speaker 1: the very many good ways to learn about others is 578 00:38:27,796 --> 00:38:31,756 Speaker 1: to use scientific understanding. I think another insight of kind 579 00:38:31,756 --> 00:38:34,676 Speaker 1: of finding our inner Socrates, is this idea that we 580 00:38:34,716 --> 00:38:36,676 Speaker 1: can sort of treat ourselves the way we would treat 581 00:38:36,716 --> 00:38:39,396 Speaker 1: a friend. Like if our friend was really struggling with something, 582 00:38:39,436 --> 00:38:41,356 Speaker 1: we might ask them questions, we might kind of get 583 00:38:41,396 --> 00:38:44,356 Speaker 1: curious with them, and ultimately what we're doing is just 584 00:38:44,396 --> 00:38:47,316 Speaker 1: treating ourselves in the same friendlike way that we might 585 00:38:47,516 --> 00:38:51,396 Speaker 1: treat other people when they're dealing with difficult situations. That's right. 586 00:38:51,436 --> 00:38:55,556 Speaker 1: It's sometimes said a friend is a second self, but 587 00:38:55,956 --> 00:38:59,876 Speaker 1: a self is a second friend. And just as when 588 00:38:59,916 --> 00:39:02,716 Speaker 1: we're asking a friend questions, why do you think that? 589 00:39:02,836 --> 00:39:05,956 Speaker 1: Why do you think that? Hey, that's inconsistent with that. 590 00:39:06,316 --> 00:39:09,636 Speaker 1: We don't do it in an accusatory way. We don't say, oh, 591 00:39:09,756 --> 00:39:13,036 Speaker 1: you loser, you were being mean to the cat because 592 00:39:13,076 --> 00:39:16,556 Speaker 1: you were angry at the bus driver. We say, hey, 593 00:39:16,636 --> 00:39:19,556 Speaker 1: that's so funny. You're being mean to the cat because 594 00:39:19,596 --> 00:39:21,476 Speaker 1: you were upset with the bus driver. Now that you 595 00:39:21,596 --> 00:39:24,596 Speaker 1: understand that, isn't it easier for you to be compassionate 596 00:39:24,636 --> 00:39:26,556 Speaker 1: towards the cat in the way that you wanted it 597 00:39:26,596 --> 00:39:29,436 Speaker 1: to be? So. One of the nice things about using 598 00:39:29,436 --> 00:39:33,796 Speaker 1: a friend to understand yourself, or using yourself to understand 599 00:39:33,796 --> 00:39:38,476 Speaker 1: your friend is that they're both ways of evoking simultaneously 600 00:39:38,676 --> 00:39:44,676 Speaker 1: compassion and responsibility. You say simultaneously, I'm not letting you 601 00:39:44,836 --> 00:39:49,396 Speaker 1: off the hook to yourself or your friend, and I 602 00:39:49,556 --> 00:39:56,076 Speaker 1: understand that it is challenging, and that simultaneous attitude of 603 00:39:56,116 --> 00:40:01,356 Speaker 1: compassion and responsibility towards self and other, through self and 604 00:40:01,676 --> 00:40:05,196 Speaker 1: other is a key lesson that we can take from 605 00:40:05,236 --> 00:40:08,916 Speaker 1: this Socratic image. Sometimes when people hear about this idea 606 00:40:09,396 --> 00:40:11,596 Speaker 1: that we don't know ourselves very well, it can be 607 00:40:11,636 --> 00:40:16,236 Speaker 1: a little bit destabilizing. How have you handled this? Heart 608 00:40:16,276 --> 00:40:20,796 Speaker 1: of what self knowledge requires is a certain kind of 609 00:40:21,036 --> 00:40:26,556 Speaker 1: humility that is really authentically understanding that you don't know 610 00:40:26,676 --> 00:40:31,396 Speaker 1: yourself brings with it a kind of vertigo. You have 611 00:40:31,596 --> 00:40:35,076 Speaker 1: this sense that I don't really know what's going on inside. 612 00:40:35,156 --> 00:40:38,556 Speaker 1: But then there's this reassuring sense that even though you 613 00:40:38,636 --> 00:40:41,716 Speaker 1: don't know what's going on inside, at least you're no 614 00:40:41,796 --> 00:40:45,676 Speaker 1: longer under the false impression that you thought you knew 615 00:40:45,716 --> 00:40:48,796 Speaker 1: what was going on inside when in fact you didn't. 616 00:40:49,236 --> 00:40:52,116 Speaker 1: And even though there is a certain kind of anxiety 617 00:40:52,196 --> 00:40:57,636 Speaker 1: which comes with recognizing that you really are opaque to yourself, 618 00:40:58,156 --> 00:41:01,236 Speaker 1: at least realizing that you're opaque to yourself is a 619 00:41:01,236 --> 00:41:05,756 Speaker 1: little more transparent than thinking that you're transparent to yourself. 620 00:41:06,316 --> 00:41:09,476 Speaker 1: Knowing all these practices and studying Socrates yourself, have you 621 00:41:09,516 --> 00:41:11,996 Speaker 1: been able to better turn on your inner Socrates to 622 00:41:11,996 --> 00:41:18,276 Speaker 1: promote happiness? Absolutely, when I find myself frustrated, one of 623 00:41:18,396 --> 00:41:22,436 Speaker 1: the tricks that I have tried to habituate in myself 624 00:41:22,996 --> 00:41:27,916 Speaker 1: is just an asking of why am I feeling this 625 00:41:28,156 --> 00:41:33,676 Speaker 1: emotion right now? Often it comes in the context of 626 00:41:33,716 --> 00:41:36,716 Speaker 1: a case where I have a project that I want 627 00:41:36,796 --> 00:41:41,196 Speaker 1: to engage in and I find myself procrastinating on it, 628 00:41:41,596 --> 00:41:45,436 Speaker 1: and I ask myself, why am I putting this off? 629 00:41:45,836 --> 00:41:49,396 Speaker 1: And often it's because I don't know what the next 630 00:41:49,436 --> 00:41:53,476 Speaker 1: step is, or I'm told and I'm staying where I 631 00:41:53,516 --> 00:41:55,996 Speaker 1: am because I have a Radian story in this room 632 00:41:56,036 --> 00:42:00,516 Speaker 1: and I need something in another room. And discovering that 633 00:42:00,596 --> 00:42:06,156 Speaker 1: these little things and make a difference that just likely 634 00:42:06,276 --> 00:42:09,076 Speaker 1: move me towards what I'm trying to do. I never 635 00:42:09,396 --> 00:42:12,156 Speaker 1: try to get all the way there all at once, 636 00:42:12,756 --> 00:42:17,396 Speaker 1: but Socratic self questioning can help me understand what direction 637 00:42:17,516 --> 00:42:20,236 Speaker 1: I need to go to take the very next step. 638 00:42:21,956 --> 00:42:24,796 Speaker 1: Socrates's ideas were so challenging in his own time that 639 00:42:24,836 --> 00:42:28,636 Speaker 1: he was put to death. Today, many centuries later, Socrates 640 00:42:28,756 --> 00:42:32,156 Speaker 1: is called to constantly question ourselves and our motivations can 641 00:42:32,196 --> 00:42:35,516 Speaker 1: still cause lots of discomfort, But as Tomorrow so eloquently 642 00:42:35,556 --> 00:42:38,396 Speaker 1: put it before, it really is better to know that 643 00:42:38,476 --> 00:42:41,956 Speaker 1: we don't know. So next time you're feeling a negative emotion, 644 00:42:42,356 --> 00:42:44,716 Speaker 1: a flash of anger, or a sense of arousal, or 645 00:42:44,716 --> 00:42:48,076 Speaker 1: a twinge of sadness, take some time to intentionally examine 646 00:42:48,116 --> 00:42:50,996 Speaker 1: the reasons you might be feeling that way and look 647 00:42:51,036 --> 00:42:53,836 Speaker 1: carefully at the steps you can take to address those emotions. 648 00:42:54,236 --> 00:42:56,076 Speaker 1: And if you're planning to do something that you think 649 00:42:56,116 --> 00:42:59,116 Speaker 1: will make you happy. Why not channel your inner Socrates 650 00:42:59,396 --> 00:43:01,716 Speaker 1: and ask if the path you're planning to follow is 651 00:43:01,756 --> 00:43:04,436 Speaker 1: really right for you, Does it fit with what the 652 00:43:04,476 --> 00:43:07,716 Speaker 1: science says truly makes for a happier life? Or are 653 00:43:07,716 --> 00:43:10,276 Speaker 1: you being fooled by the lies of your mind yet again? 654 00:43:11,116 --> 00:43:14,156 Speaker 1: And do remember the great advice of Socrates's later students 655 00:43:14,276 --> 00:43:17,556 Speaker 1: Bill and Ted, because harnessing your inner Socrates is yet 656 00:43:17,596 --> 00:43:20,716 Speaker 1: another great way to be excellent to one another and 657 00:43:20,876 --> 00:43:30,036 Speaker 1: to yourself. If you liked tearing about today's Ancient happiness insights, 658 00:43:30,196 --> 00:43:32,316 Speaker 1: you should make sure you're signed up for Pushkin Plus. 659 00:43:32,676 --> 00:43:35,636 Speaker 1: Pushkin Plus is our subscription service which allows you to 660 00:43:35,716 --> 00:43:39,196 Speaker 1: enjoy ad free listening to this another pushkin podcasts, and 661 00:43:39,276 --> 00:43:41,956 Speaker 1: as a special gift to pushkin Plus subscribers, I'll be 662 00:43:41,996 --> 00:43:45,036 Speaker 1: sharing some of my favorite passages from the original texts 663 00:43:45,156 --> 00:43:47,356 Speaker 1: that you heard about today, So be sure to sign 664 00:43:47,396 --> 00:43:51,276 Speaker 1: up today at Apple Podcasts or at pushkin dot FM. 665 00:43:51,316 --> 00:43:53,876 Speaker 1: Our next edition of Happiness Lessons of the Ancients is 666 00:43:53,916 --> 00:43:56,156 Speaker 1: going to be a little different. We'll head deep into 667 00:43:56,196 --> 00:43:59,356 Speaker 1: the Happiness Lab's past episode archive to look at the 668 00:43:59,356 --> 00:44:03,476 Speaker 1: work of Socrates's famed pupils, Plato and Aristotle. We'll see 669 00:44:03,516 --> 00:44:05,596 Speaker 1: that we're not yet done with the deep wisdom we 670 00:44:05,636 --> 00:44:09,076 Speaker 1: can get from the ancient Greeks. Until next time, stay safe, 671 00:44:09,196 --> 00:44:19,276 Speaker 1: stay happy, and party on. The Happiness Lab is co 672 00:44:19,316 --> 00:44:22,276 Speaker 1: written by Ryan Dilley and is produced by Ryan Dilley, 673 00:44:22,356 --> 00:44:25,676 Speaker 1: Courtney Grano and Britney Brown. The show was mastered by 674 00:44:25,676 --> 00:44:29,076 Speaker 1: Evan Viola and our original music was composed by Zachary Silver. 675 00:44:30,116 --> 00:44:34,916 Speaker 1: Special thanks to Greta Kone, Eric Sandler, Carl Migliori, Nicole Morano, 676 00:44:35,196 --> 00:44:38,676 Speaker 1: Morgan Ratner, Jacob Weisberg, my agent, Ben Davis, and the 677 00:44:38,716 --> 00:44:41,636 Speaker 1: rest of the Pushkin team. The Happiness Lab is brought 678 00:44:41,676 --> 00:44:44,876 Speaker 1: to you by Pushkin Industries and by me, Doctor Laurie Santos.