1 00:00:00,280 --> 00:00:03,120 Speaker 1: Hey everyone, it's Mango here. With summer winding down, we 2 00:00:03,160 --> 00:00:05,720 Speaker 1: are taking a little break, but we will be back 3 00:00:05,760 --> 00:00:09,600 Speaker 1: with brand new episodes starting September ninth, and we have 4 00:00:09,680 --> 00:00:12,760 Speaker 1: been working hard on so many fun episodes this summer. 5 00:00:12,800 --> 00:00:15,400 Speaker 1: I cannot wait for you to listen to them. In 6 00:00:15,440 --> 00:00:18,560 Speaker 1: the meantime, we are re airing our countdown of the 7 00:00:18,600 --> 00:00:21,600 Speaker 1: twenty five greatest science ideas of the past twenty five years. 8 00:00:22,079 --> 00:00:26,439 Speaker 1: This list was so joyous to make. Mary and Gabe 9 00:00:26,480 --> 00:00:29,639 Speaker 1: did all this extra research for it. We pulled in 10 00:00:29,720 --> 00:00:33,800 Speaker 1: contributors for various places. We got incredible songs written for 11 00:00:33,880 --> 00:00:37,639 Speaker 1: the show. The whole thing is bizarre and delightful and 12 00:00:37,680 --> 00:00:42,200 Speaker 1: fascinating and joyous, and honestly, I just hope you enjoy 13 00:00:42,280 --> 00:00:44,880 Speaker 1: it half as much as we enjoyed making it. Let's 14 00:00:44,880 --> 00:00:51,440 Speaker 1: dig in. You're listening to Part Time Genius, the production 15 00:00:51,520 --> 00:00:59,520 Speaker 1: of Kaleidoscope and iHeartRadio. Guess What Will? What's that? Mango? 16 00:00:59,760 --> 00:01:02,760 Speaker 1: I can't believe it, but we are already halfway through 17 00:01:02,760 --> 00:01:05,600 Speaker 1: our countdown to the twenty five best science ideas from 18 00:01:05,680 --> 00:01:08,400 Speaker 1: the past twenty five years. It's crazy. So twelve and 19 00:01:08,440 --> 00:01:11,840 Speaker 1: a half in exactly twelve and a half in and 20 00:01:12,120 --> 00:01:13,720 Speaker 1: I don't know about you, but I feel like these 21 00:01:13,720 --> 00:01:16,039 Speaker 1: stories keep getting better and better. I mean that's kind 22 00:01:16,040 --> 00:01:17,200 Speaker 1: of how a countdown. 23 00:01:16,840 --> 00:01:19,039 Speaker 2: Works, but I feel like you should tell people what 24 00:01:19,360 --> 00:01:21,280 Speaker 2: is coming up next, preview it. 25 00:01:21,440 --> 00:01:25,959 Speaker 1: Well, today's episode has five stories, including what Nascar does 26 00:01:26,000 --> 00:01:28,640 Speaker 1: to our brains, a clock that changed the way we 27 00:01:28,680 --> 00:01:32,960 Speaker 1: think about time, and our attempt to explain particle physics 28 00:01:33,040 --> 00:01:36,759 Speaker 1: through music. Is that even possible? There's only one way 29 00:01:36,800 --> 00:02:01,080 Speaker 1: to find out, so let's dive in. Hey, the podcast listeners, 30 00:02:01,120 --> 00:02:03,880 Speaker 1: welcome to Part Time Genius. I'm mungkish Heatikur, and as 31 00:02:03,920 --> 00:02:07,520 Speaker 1: always I'm joined by my good friend Will Pearson and 32 00:02:07,720 --> 00:02:10,640 Speaker 1: our palam producer Dylan is over there in the booth 33 00:02:10,960 --> 00:02:14,040 Speaker 1: wearing his lucky sunglasses. So I have a good feeling 34 00:02:14,040 --> 00:02:15,400 Speaker 1: about today's episode. 35 00:02:15,639 --> 00:02:18,560 Speaker 2: So in case you're wondering, yes, he does have unlucky 36 00:02:18,600 --> 00:02:21,040 Speaker 2: sunglasses and we had to ask him to stop wearing 37 00:02:21,080 --> 00:02:23,519 Speaker 2: them during the show. Only the lucky sunglasses. 38 00:02:23,520 --> 00:02:26,880 Speaker 1: That's right, it was a whole thing. It was anyway. 39 00:02:26,960 --> 00:02:28,919 Speaker 1: Before we get into the countdown, I just want to 40 00:02:28,960 --> 00:02:31,400 Speaker 1: remind you to subscribe to Part Time Genius on your 41 00:02:31,440 --> 00:02:35,160 Speaker 1: favorite podcast app, which should be iHeart the iHeart app 42 00:02:35,440 --> 00:02:37,640 Speaker 1: and if you enjoy the show, which I hope you do, 43 00:02:37,760 --> 00:02:40,200 Speaker 1: please give us a nice rating and review. It really 44 00:02:40,240 --> 00:02:44,360 Speaker 1: helps us out. And also we actually read the comments. 45 00:02:44,400 --> 00:02:47,560 Speaker 1: Someone has to do a show on three D printing 46 00:02:47,639 --> 00:02:49,960 Speaker 1: and we're planning one in the works. And this week 47 00:02:50,200 --> 00:02:53,880 Speaker 1: someone named Elliott wrote the best podcast My name is Elliott, 48 00:02:54,160 --> 00:02:56,560 Speaker 1: Oh I like that, which is the greatest narrative. 49 00:02:56,840 --> 00:02:59,600 Speaker 2: You know, went from how he felt about the podcast 50 00:02:59,680 --> 00:03:02,000 Speaker 2: to his you know it was good, good stuff. 51 00:03:02,040 --> 00:03:05,320 Speaker 1: Well, Elliott, if you're listening messages on our Instagram, so 52 00:03:05,360 --> 00:03:08,040 Speaker 1: we can send you something fun. But let's get into 53 00:03:08,120 --> 00:03:08,520 Speaker 1: the show. 54 00:03:08,720 --> 00:03:11,560 Speaker 2: Actually, it just hit me Dylan is probably wearing those 55 00:03:11,560 --> 00:03:15,200 Speaker 2: glasses because you know what's next on our countdown Mango. 56 00:03:17,000 --> 00:03:19,960 Speaker 1: That Dylan is so clever. Okay, so the first thing 57 00:03:20,000 --> 00:03:23,639 Speaker 1: we're covering today is NASCAR. Now, over the years, there 58 00:03:23,639 --> 00:03:26,360 Speaker 1: have been lots of studies on NASCAR to improve the 59 00:03:26,400 --> 00:03:29,040 Speaker 1: safety for drivers. There have been research papers on how 60 00:03:29,080 --> 00:03:33,200 Speaker 1: the car's bodies and safety measures affect injuries. NASCAR also 61 00:03:33,240 --> 00:03:35,840 Speaker 1: a worded a grant to Michigan State University to study 62 00:03:35,880 --> 00:03:39,320 Speaker 1: everything from heat exhaustion and drivers to figure out better 63 00:03:39,360 --> 00:03:43,200 Speaker 1: exercises and diet regimen for the athletes, and there have 64 00:03:43,240 --> 00:03:47,800 Speaker 1: been studies on why fatherhood affects drivers because NASCAR drivers 65 00:03:47,840 --> 00:03:51,280 Speaker 1: often drop one point six places on average the year 66 00:03:51,400 --> 00:03:52,400 Speaker 1: after having a kid. 67 00:03:52,600 --> 00:03:54,240 Speaker 2: Wow, it does kind of make you wonder like if 68 00:03:54,280 --> 00:03:56,720 Speaker 2: it's at all related to the fact that they're probably 69 00:03:56,760 --> 00:03:57,480 Speaker 2: sleeping less. 70 00:03:57,600 --> 00:04:00,320 Speaker 1: I think that's probably part of it. But scientists also 71 00:04:00,440 --> 00:04:02,920 Speaker 1: hypothesized that when you have a kid, you think about 72 00:04:02,920 --> 00:04:06,440 Speaker 1: your mortality money, and so you might be less prone 73 00:04:06,480 --> 00:04:09,520 Speaker 1: to make risky moves on the course. That makes sense anyway. 74 00:04:09,520 --> 00:04:11,920 Speaker 1: The most interesting study I read about was done by 75 00:04:11,920 --> 00:04:18,440 Speaker 1: this psychologist, Guy Vidioloni from West Virginia University Institute of Technology, 76 00:04:18,920 --> 00:04:22,200 Speaker 1: and it's a four year study called quote Driving under 77 00:04:22,200 --> 00:04:25,520 Speaker 1: the Influence of Nascar. It isn't so much about what 78 00:04:25,560 --> 00:04:28,080 Speaker 1: happens on the track as it is how the races 79 00:04:28,160 --> 00:04:32,640 Speaker 1: influence people watching at home. So according to NPR, Vidilioni 80 00:04:33,080 --> 00:04:35,640 Speaker 1: looked at all the traffic accidents that took place in 81 00:04:35,680 --> 00:04:38,760 Speaker 1: West Virginia and then whittled it down to accidents that 82 00:04:38,839 --> 00:04:42,359 Speaker 1: mimicked what happened on a racetrack. So these were things 83 00:04:42,440 --> 00:04:46,080 Speaker 1: like pile ups of multiple cars or accidents where there 84 00:04:46,160 --> 00:04:50,240 Speaker 1: was aggressive driving and His conclusion was that five days 85 00:04:50,279 --> 00:04:55,680 Speaker 1: after major NASCAR races, there's a big spike in traffic accidents. Now, 86 00:04:55,800 --> 00:04:58,719 Speaker 1: VIDILIONI actually put in a whole bunch of controls to 87 00:04:58,720 --> 00:05:01,360 Speaker 1: make sure he wasn't just saying something wild. He wanted 88 00:05:01,360 --> 00:05:04,039 Speaker 1: to be really conservative about his conclusions, but he counted 89 00:05:04,400 --> 00:05:07,840 Speaker 1: about six hundred and fifty extra accidents on West Virginia 90 00:05:07,920 --> 00:05:11,279 Speaker 1: roads in the days after the races, essentially because people 91 00:05:11,360 --> 00:05:15,960 Speaker 1: were quote acting out NASCAR in their own driving this wild. 92 00:05:16,920 --> 00:05:19,159 Speaker 2: Although the thing that stands out to me Mango is like, 93 00:05:19,240 --> 00:05:21,719 Speaker 2: why is this on the fifth day after a race 94 00:05:21,800 --> 00:05:23,239 Speaker 2: instead of like immediately after. 95 00:05:23,360 --> 00:05:25,640 Speaker 1: I don't think he figured that part out exactly. Like 96 00:05:25,680 --> 00:05:28,360 Speaker 1: he theorized that maybe it's because races tend to take 97 00:05:28,400 --> 00:05:31,600 Speaker 1: place on weekends, and so a Thursday or Friday after 98 00:05:31,839 --> 00:05:33,640 Speaker 1: tends to be the days that you let loose after 99 00:05:33,680 --> 00:05:36,279 Speaker 1: a rough week. But his study is really pointing to 100 00:05:36,320 --> 00:05:40,559 Speaker 1: the subtle ways that media affects behavior in the real world. Now, 101 00:05:40,720 --> 00:05:43,640 Speaker 1: NASCAR is just one example of this. Another famous case 102 00:05:43,839 --> 00:05:47,000 Speaker 1: is of the MTV show sixteen and Pregnant, where the 103 00:05:47,040 --> 00:05:50,440 Speaker 1: reality show actually captured the difficulties for high school students 104 00:05:50,480 --> 00:05:53,920 Speaker 1: trying to raise kids, and people were really affected by it. 105 00:05:53,960 --> 00:05:56,960 Speaker 1: The show led to a five point seven percent reduction 106 00:05:57,240 --> 00:06:00,640 Speaker 1: in teen births, which apparently was a third of the 107 00:06:00,720 --> 00:06:03,400 Speaker 1: overall decline in teen births in the country. 108 00:06:03,440 --> 00:06:03,960 Speaker 2: Oh wow. 109 00:06:04,279 --> 00:06:04,479 Speaker 3: Yeah. 110 00:06:04,520 --> 00:06:07,240 Speaker 2: Academics actually sometimes refer to it as the you are 111 00:06:07,320 --> 00:06:09,960 Speaker 2: what you watch phenomenon, And it's pretty interesting to see, 112 00:06:10,200 --> 00:06:12,719 Speaker 2: sort of like how MLK talked about the interracial kiss 113 00:06:12,760 --> 00:06:15,200 Speaker 2: on the original Star Trek being one of the most 114 00:06:15,200 --> 00:06:19,160 Speaker 2: important moments on television, or how President Joe Biden credited 115 00:06:19,160 --> 00:06:22,120 Speaker 2: Will and Grace with changing America's perception of gays more 116 00:06:22,160 --> 00:06:23,400 Speaker 2: than just about anything else. 117 00:06:23,800 --> 00:06:26,520 Speaker 1: Yeah, that's right. So anyway, this whole NASCAR thing won't 118 00:06:26,520 --> 00:06:28,680 Speaker 1: be a problem ten to fifteen years from now when 119 00:06:28,720 --> 00:06:31,320 Speaker 1: we're all taking way mos everywhere and getting the chauffeured 120 00:06:31,320 --> 00:06:34,880 Speaker 1: around and robotic cars. But until then, all you NASCAR 121 00:06:35,000 --> 00:06:39,160 Speaker 1: watchers out there, he doctor Villlioni's advice, and be a 122 00:06:39,200 --> 00:06:41,640 Speaker 1: little mindful of how you're driving the week after a 123 00:06:41,680 --> 00:06:43,880 Speaker 1: big race. We want to keep you safe. 124 00:06:43,640 --> 00:06:48,240 Speaker 2: Absolutely, all right, Mango, let's say you are a clockmaker. 125 00:06:48,279 --> 00:06:50,280 Speaker 2: I'm just going to say that. Okay, Now, you've built 126 00:06:50,320 --> 00:06:53,400 Speaker 2: a beautiful time piece that counts hours and minutes. But 127 00:06:53,480 --> 00:06:55,680 Speaker 2: now you've got a problem. You want your clock to 128 00:06:55,720 --> 00:06:58,279 Speaker 2: count each second with pinpoint accuracy. 129 00:06:58,640 --> 00:06:59,520 Speaker 1: So how do you do it? 130 00:06:59,400 --> 00:07:02,799 Speaker 2: It turns out you need to crack open the periodic table, 131 00:07:03,120 --> 00:07:06,360 Speaker 2: because according to the International System of Units, this is 132 00:07:06,360 --> 00:07:07,760 Speaker 2: how you measure a second. 133 00:07:08,160 --> 00:07:08,680 Speaker 1: Quote. 134 00:07:09,040 --> 00:07:12,120 Speaker 2: The second is defined by taking the fixed numerical value 135 00:07:12,160 --> 00:07:16,240 Speaker 2: of the caesium frequency the unperturbed ground state high perfine 136 00:07:16,360 --> 00:07:20,120 Speaker 2: transition frequency of the cesium one thirty three atom to 137 00:07:20,240 --> 00:07:22,800 Speaker 2: be nine billion, one hundred and ninety two million, six 138 00:07:22,840 --> 00:07:26,240 Speaker 2: hundred and thirty one thousand, seven hundred and seventy when 139 00:07:26,280 --> 00:07:29,280 Speaker 2: expressed in the unit hurtz, which is equal to s 140 00:07:29,360 --> 00:07:30,600 Speaker 2: the power of negative one. 141 00:07:30,680 --> 00:07:34,720 Speaker 1: You got it. So that is the definition of a second. Yeah, 142 00:07:34,720 --> 00:07:36,680 Speaker 1: it's the definition of a second. I got lost in 143 00:07:36,760 --> 00:07:37,480 Speaker 1: the reading of it. 144 00:07:37,520 --> 00:07:40,240 Speaker 2: But as you may have noticed, it's a little bit complicated. 145 00:07:40,480 --> 00:07:42,240 Speaker 2: So the only way to measure it is with an 146 00:07:42,280 --> 00:07:46,040 Speaker 2: atomic clock. And the way this work sounds completely made up, 147 00:07:46,040 --> 00:07:49,640 Speaker 2: but I promise it's actually real. Basically, an atomic clock 148 00:07:49,760 --> 00:07:52,880 Speaker 2: is a machine that shoots laser beams at caesium ions, 149 00:07:53,240 --> 00:07:56,800 Speaker 2: measures frequency at which their electrons jump to different energy levels, 150 00:07:57,040 --> 00:07:59,160 Speaker 2: and then sends the readings to a place called the 151 00:07:59,240 --> 00:08:01,680 Speaker 2: International buz Ro of Weights and Measures. 152 00:08:03,120 --> 00:08:04,320 Speaker 1: So this is a real place. 153 00:08:04,680 --> 00:08:08,200 Speaker 2: It's a real inner governmental organization. Yeah, and it's actually 154 00:08:08,280 --> 00:08:09,080 Speaker 2: based in France. 155 00:08:09,680 --> 00:08:13,200 Speaker 1: So we've got laser clock sending data to friends. I 156 00:08:13,200 --> 00:08:14,440 Speaker 1: guess I'm with you that far. 157 00:08:14,560 --> 00:08:16,880 Speaker 2: Okay, I'm glad you're keeping up. So there are around 158 00:08:16,920 --> 00:08:20,160 Speaker 2: four hundred and fifty atomic clocks in the world, all 159 00:08:20,200 --> 00:08:23,440 Speaker 2: sending these readings. So timekeepers at the International Bureau of 160 00:08:23,440 --> 00:08:26,600 Speaker 2: Weights and Measures they crunch these numbers from the clocks 161 00:08:26,920 --> 00:08:30,320 Speaker 2: and then vote on the quote official time, which they 162 00:08:30,320 --> 00:08:34,720 Speaker 2: publish in a monthly publication that comes out monthly called 163 00:08:35,360 --> 00:08:36,280 Speaker 2: Circular Tea. 164 00:08:37,120 --> 00:08:40,000 Speaker 1: I never thought I'd say this about anything that involves caesium, 165 00:08:40,120 --> 00:08:43,160 Speaker 1: but uh, that is pretty adorably whimsical. 166 00:08:43,400 --> 00:08:46,920 Speaker 2: It is in a way, but it's also pretty serious. 167 00:08:46,920 --> 00:08:49,679 Speaker 2: Stuff like this process is how we determine what's called 168 00:08:50,080 --> 00:08:54,000 Speaker 2: international atomic time. And a standard atomic clock made with 169 00:08:54,080 --> 00:08:57,080 Speaker 2: caesium is so accurate it can keep time for about 170 00:08:57,080 --> 00:09:00,280 Speaker 2: one hundred million years without skipping a beat. 171 00:09:00,440 --> 00:09:00,680 Speaker 1: Wow. 172 00:09:01,000 --> 00:09:03,640 Speaker 2: But starting in the mid adds, researchers at the National 173 00:09:03,679 --> 00:09:07,680 Speaker 2: Institute of Standards and Technology or in IST, a federal 174 00:09:07,760 --> 00:09:10,800 Speaker 2: lab in Colorado, they began developing a new generation of 175 00:09:10,840 --> 00:09:15,240 Speaker 2: atomic clocks that could make caesium seem outdated. Actually, so 176 00:09:15,559 --> 00:09:19,120 Speaker 2: what makes these atomic clocks so special? Well, they use 177 00:09:19,240 --> 00:09:23,200 Speaker 2: aluminum instead of caesium, so basically a positive aluminum twenty 178 00:09:23,240 --> 00:09:27,120 Speaker 2: seven ion. In two thousand and eight, NST scientists built 179 00:09:27,120 --> 00:09:29,360 Speaker 2: something they call the quantum logic clock. 180 00:09:29,760 --> 00:09:29,880 Speaker 1: Now. 181 00:09:29,880 --> 00:09:33,960 Speaker 2: It contains a single aluminum ion cool to nearly absolute zero, 182 00:09:34,480 --> 00:09:38,440 Speaker 2: shot with an ultraviolet laser, and the aluminum ion acts 183 00:09:38,520 --> 00:09:41,240 Speaker 2: like the second hand on a clock, so it ticks 184 00:09:41,280 --> 00:09:44,320 Speaker 2: by jumping up and down between energy levels. But instead 185 00:09:44,360 --> 00:09:47,720 Speaker 2: of ticking once for every second, it ticks a quadrillion 186 00:09:47,880 --> 00:09:48,920 Speaker 2: times per second. 187 00:09:48,920 --> 00:09:50,600 Speaker 1: That is a big number, make note. 188 00:09:50,840 --> 00:09:54,160 Speaker 2: And it's so accurate it won't lose a second for 189 00:09:54,400 --> 00:09:58,440 Speaker 2: thirty three billion years. That's almost triple the age of 190 00:09:58,480 --> 00:09:59,840 Speaker 2: the observable universe. 191 00:10:00,280 --> 00:10:02,920 Speaker 1: That is really hard to imagine. 192 00:10:02,520 --> 00:10:04,600 Speaker 2: Yeah, or hard to put to the test, I think. 193 00:10:06,160 --> 00:10:08,640 Speaker 2: And this aluminum clock does more than just tell time. 194 00:10:08,800 --> 00:10:12,120 Speaker 2: It's even changing our understanding of space time because researchers 195 00:10:12,160 --> 00:10:15,480 Speaker 2: have used it to test Einstein's theory of relativity. According 196 00:10:15,520 --> 00:10:18,880 Speaker 2: to Einstein's theory, gravity affects the passage of time so 197 00:10:18,920 --> 00:10:21,600 Speaker 2: the stronger the pull of gravity, the slower the time. 198 00:10:22,000 --> 00:10:23,880 Speaker 2: And as a result of this, somebody who lives in 199 00:10:23,920 --> 00:10:27,360 Speaker 2: the mountains of Colorado, where gravity's pull is slightly lower, 200 00:10:27,600 --> 00:10:31,319 Speaker 2: they'll age faster than somebody who lives at sea level. Now, 201 00:10:31,320 --> 00:10:34,640 Speaker 2: the quantum logic clock is so sensitive it actually proved 202 00:10:34,640 --> 00:10:37,000 Speaker 2: that a person standing at the top of a staircase 203 00:10:37,480 --> 00:10:41,280 Speaker 2: or someone standing on a stool experienced a faster passage 204 00:10:41,280 --> 00:10:44,400 Speaker 2: of time. It showed that each additional foot of height 205 00:10:44,440 --> 00:10:48,280 Speaker 2: adds about ninety billions of a second to your lifetime. 206 00:10:48,520 --> 00:10:55,640 Speaker 1: So NBA players would live longer than jockeys. I have 207 00:10:55,880 --> 00:10:58,960 Speaker 1: a dumb question to ask, why do we need clocks 208 00:10:58,960 --> 00:10:59,800 Speaker 1: to be this accurate. 209 00:11:00,280 --> 00:11:03,760 Speaker 2: It's a fair question, but take GPS for example. GPS 210 00:11:03,840 --> 00:11:07,000 Speaker 2: isn't just a location tracking technology, it's also a type 211 00:11:07,000 --> 00:11:09,319 Speaker 2: of clock. So if you're driving down the highway and 212 00:11:09,360 --> 00:11:11,959 Speaker 2: the GPS is five seconds late telling you to take 213 00:11:11,960 --> 00:11:14,800 Speaker 2: an exit, you'd be pretty mad about this. Right, for 214 00:11:14,880 --> 00:11:17,280 Speaker 2: the GPS to be useful, it needs to show both 215 00:11:17,320 --> 00:11:20,840 Speaker 2: an accurate location and an accurate time. It needs that 216 00:11:20,920 --> 00:11:24,200 Speaker 2: time to be precise down to the second. And it 217 00:11:24,280 --> 00:11:26,800 Speaker 2: turns out that's true for a lot of other technologies 218 00:11:26,840 --> 00:11:32,280 Speaker 2: as well. Take telecommunications, satellite networks, radio signals, lots more 219 00:11:32,320 --> 00:11:35,199 Speaker 2: things like this. Anyway, it's hard to overstate the importance 220 00:11:35,240 --> 00:11:38,080 Speaker 2: of this quantum logic clock in the nerdy and wonderful 221 00:11:38,080 --> 00:11:41,120 Speaker 2: world of time keeping. Those caesium clocks that impressed you 222 00:11:41,200 --> 00:11:43,560 Speaker 2: at the start of this segment will eventually end up 223 00:11:43,559 --> 00:11:47,559 Speaker 2: being obsolete. And while experiments with other elements are ongoing 224 00:11:47,679 --> 00:11:50,360 Speaker 2: right now, aluminum is the leading contender to become the 225 00:11:50,440 --> 00:11:53,079 Speaker 2: ticking heart of what we call a second. 226 00:11:53,800 --> 00:11:56,199 Speaker 1: Hey, listeners, do not go anywhere. We've got to pause 227 00:11:56,200 --> 00:11:58,600 Speaker 1: for a quick break. But there is so much weird 228 00:11:58,679 --> 00:12:16,880 Speaker 1: science right after Welcome back to part time Genius. When 229 00:12:16,920 --> 00:12:19,280 Speaker 1: we're talking the twenty five greatest science ideas of the 230 00:12:19,400 --> 00:12:24,280 Speaker 1: last twenty five years, and we're up to number so 231 00:12:24,320 --> 00:12:26,600 Speaker 1: it probably won't surprise you to learn that water is 232 00:12:26,679 --> 00:12:29,680 Speaker 1: the most consumed material on Earth. But can you guess 233 00:12:29,679 --> 00:12:32,760 Speaker 1: what comes in second? Mm? I'm gonna go with coffee. 234 00:12:33,080 --> 00:12:35,040 Speaker 1: You know I might have guessed that too, but know 235 00:12:35,240 --> 00:12:39,360 Speaker 1: the answer is concrete. Oh really? Since the Industrial Revolution, 236 00:12:39,520 --> 00:12:43,520 Speaker 1: humans have poured nearly nine hundred billion tons of concrete, 237 00:12:43,840 --> 00:12:47,000 Speaker 1: and nowadays we're pouring the stuff at a breakneck speed, 238 00:12:47,400 --> 00:12:50,240 Speaker 1: especially in the developing world. For example, in the time 239 00:12:50,280 --> 00:12:55,440 Speaker 1: period between twenty eleven and twenty thirteen, China poured more 240 00:12:55,520 --> 00:12:59,760 Speaker 1: cement than the US did during the entire twentieth century. 241 00:13:00,240 --> 00:13:03,640 Speaker 1: Isn't that incredible? But all that concrete has a big downside. 242 00:13:03,720 --> 00:13:07,160 Speaker 1: It's responsible for eight to nine percent of global carbon 243 00:13:07,200 --> 00:13:08,240 Speaker 1: dioxide emissions. 244 00:13:09,120 --> 00:13:11,280 Speaker 2: I never thought of concrete as being such a big 245 00:13:11,360 --> 00:13:13,280 Speaker 2: pollution problem. I know, it's not a great thing. I 246 00:13:13,280 --> 00:13:15,880 Speaker 2: think of, you know, the sidewalks and things that cars 247 00:13:15,960 --> 00:13:17,640 Speaker 2: drive on, But I didn't think of it in that way. 248 00:13:18,160 --> 00:13:21,400 Speaker 1: Yeah, I didn't realize it either. But apparently making concrete 249 00:13:21,440 --> 00:13:24,800 Speaker 1: is an energy intensive process. So it starts by taking 250 00:13:24,840 --> 00:13:28,120 Speaker 1: limestone and baking it to temperatures over twenty six hundred 251 00:13:28,160 --> 00:13:32,480 Speaker 1: degrees fahrenheit. That kind of heat requires powerful kilns fired 252 00:13:32,480 --> 00:13:35,120 Speaker 1: by fossil fuels, and that's just to make cement. To 253 00:13:35,240 --> 00:13:39,000 Speaker 1: turn cement into concrete, you have to add aggregates like sand, 254 00:13:39,080 --> 00:13:42,360 Speaker 1: and really lots of it. As a result, sand mining 255 00:13:42,520 --> 00:13:44,560 Speaker 1: is a big business around the world. We've actually talked 256 00:13:44,559 --> 00:13:48,480 Speaker 1: about this before. There's even a burgeoning black market for sand, 257 00:13:48,600 --> 00:13:52,960 Speaker 1: backed by so called sand mafias. Anyway, this dangerous mix 258 00:13:53,000 --> 00:13:56,600 Speaker 1: of pollution, mining and mafia's got scientists wondering how to 259 00:13:56,640 --> 00:14:00,000 Speaker 1: make concrete production more green, Like, what if we supple 260 00:14:00,080 --> 00:14:03,720 Speaker 1: minute sand with something else, something more sustainable, something that 261 00:14:03,720 --> 00:14:07,880 Speaker 1: could reduce concrete's carbon footprint. And it's something that you 262 00:14:07,960 --> 00:14:11,679 Speaker 1: mentioned just a few minutes ago. Wait, coffee. Yeah, so coffee. 263 00:14:11,679 --> 00:14:15,160 Speaker 1: Every day, humans drink two billion cups of coffee and 264 00:14:15,240 --> 00:14:17,720 Speaker 1: most of the coffee grinds just end up in a landfill. 265 00:14:17,800 --> 00:14:22,400 Speaker 1: But in twenty twenty three, Australian engineering researchers had an idea, 266 00:14:22,960 --> 00:14:26,200 Speaker 1: what if we used those ground up beans to make concrete. 267 00:14:26,400 --> 00:14:29,720 Speaker 1: So that's what they did. They scorched coffee grounds to 268 00:14:29,760 --> 00:14:32,800 Speaker 1: about six hundred degrees, which made the grounds break down 269 00:14:32,800 --> 00:14:37,320 Speaker 1: into a substance called biochar, which is basically charcoal. And 270 00:14:37,560 --> 00:14:40,120 Speaker 1: when they began testing, they discovered that if you replaced 271 00:14:40,120 --> 00:14:43,240 Speaker 1: just fifteen percent of the sand in concrete with coffee 272 00:14:43,280 --> 00:14:48,560 Speaker 1: fueled biochar, the concrete becomes thirty percent stronger. And how 273 00:14:48,560 --> 00:14:51,560 Speaker 1: does that actually work. It turns out the biochar retains 274 00:14:51,600 --> 00:14:54,480 Speaker 1: water better than sand, and as a result, the concrete 275 00:14:54,560 --> 00:14:58,320 Speaker 1: cries slower than usual, which reduces the risk of shrinking 276 00:14:58,440 --> 00:15:01,920 Speaker 1: and cracking, helping it maintain its strength. There are actually 277 00:15:01,920 --> 00:15:05,720 Speaker 1: two benefits to this discovery. One, by using spent coffee, 278 00:15:05,720 --> 00:15:09,160 Speaker 1: it reduces the demand for sand, and two, by making 279 00:15:09,200 --> 00:15:12,520 Speaker 1: concrete stronger, it reduces the amount of cement required for 280 00:15:12,600 --> 00:15:16,000 Speaker 1: each bag, and with less cement and sand required, the 281 00:15:16,040 --> 00:15:19,720 Speaker 1: total carbon footprint of each bag of concrete could drop significantly. 282 00:15:20,200 --> 00:15:23,120 Speaker 1: As it happens, a major industry group called the Global 283 00:15:23,160 --> 00:15:26,760 Speaker 1: Cement and Concrete Association has pledged to go carbon neutral 284 00:15:26,840 --> 00:15:30,320 Speaker 1: by twenty fifty and thanks to those coffee loving Aussies, 285 00:15:30,720 --> 00:15:35,360 Speaker 1: they've got a really strong foundation to work with. It's 286 00:15:35,400 --> 00:15:39,680 Speaker 1: an incredible discovery and asso pun mego. I'll take it 287 00:15:40,680 --> 00:15:41,440 Speaker 1: all right now, mego. 288 00:15:41,480 --> 00:15:43,000 Speaker 2: We happen to be living through one of the most 289 00:15:43,080 --> 00:15:46,920 Speaker 2: polarizing moments in recent history. IM sure if you've noticed this, 290 00:15:47,080 --> 00:15:49,280 Speaker 2: But I think one thing we can all agree on 291 00:15:49,440 --> 00:15:53,000 Speaker 2: is that dinosaurs are really, really cool. That should be 292 00:15:53,040 --> 00:15:55,240 Speaker 2: the thing that brings us together. In fact, that might 293 00:15:55,280 --> 00:15:57,680 Speaker 2: be some of the firmest common ground we have left 294 00:15:57,720 --> 00:15:58,880 Speaker 2: at this point. What do you think? 295 00:15:59,400 --> 00:16:01,480 Speaker 1: Yeah, I mean, I'd like to think a little more 296 00:16:01,480 --> 00:16:04,840 Speaker 1: positively than that, but in general, yeah, I mean, everyone 297 00:16:04,840 --> 00:16:06,240 Speaker 1: loves dinosaurs. 298 00:16:05,960 --> 00:16:08,320 Speaker 2: Exactly, and it's always struck me that even though we're 299 00:16:08,600 --> 00:16:11,600 Speaker 2: dealing with creatures that are over one hundred million years 300 00:16:11,600 --> 00:16:14,400 Speaker 2: old in some cases, to this day, we are still 301 00:16:14,520 --> 00:16:17,200 Speaker 2: finding new things out about them. And the last quarter 302 00:16:17,200 --> 00:16:20,640 Speaker 2: century has been particularly generous. We've on earthed so many 303 00:16:20,680 --> 00:16:24,120 Speaker 2: new fossils and developed so many breakthrough research techniques that 304 00:16:24,240 --> 00:16:28,320 Speaker 2: some scientists are now calling this the Golden Age of paleontology. 305 00:16:28,360 --> 00:16:28,840 Speaker 3: Huh. 306 00:16:29,080 --> 00:16:31,400 Speaker 2: There are way too many of these dino revelations for 307 00:16:31,480 --> 00:16:34,680 Speaker 2: us to cover today, but singling out just one didn't 308 00:16:34,720 --> 00:16:37,360 Speaker 2: seem right either, So instead, I thought I would walk 309 00:16:37,400 --> 00:16:39,640 Speaker 2: us through some of my favorite highlights and they can 310 00:16:39,760 --> 00:16:41,320 Speaker 2: kind of all share this spot together. 311 00:16:41,360 --> 00:16:43,440 Speaker 1: What do you think, I love it like a big 312 00:16:43,640 --> 00:16:47,720 Speaker 1: heap of dino discoveries is exactly what this science series needs. 313 00:16:47,960 --> 00:16:52,040 Speaker 2: Absolutely, I thought you'd approve of this. So what stuck 314 00:16:52,080 --> 00:16:54,000 Speaker 2: out to me most is all this research that sort 315 00:16:54,040 --> 00:16:57,040 Speaker 2: of challenges what we thought we knew about dinosaurs, which 316 00:16:57,240 --> 00:16:58,840 Speaker 2: for most of us is just what we saw in 317 00:16:58,880 --> 00:17:00,000 Speaker 2: the Jurassic Park movie. 318 00:17:00,080 --> 00:17:00,280 Speaker 1: Sure. 319 00:17:00,480 --> 00:17:02,440 Speaker 2: For instance, in one of the most famous scenes of 320 00:17:02,480 --> 00:17:05,679 Speaker 2: the original movie, we see a t rex chasing after 321 00:17:05,720 --> 00:17:07,919 Speaker 2: a speed jeep and nearly catching up to it. 322 00:17:07,960 --> 00:17:10,159 Speaker 1: So that didn't happen in real life. That was just 323 00:17:10,200 --> 00:17:11,240 Speaker 1: a movie, Yeah, exactly. 324 00:17:11,320 --> 00:17:14,000 Speaker 2: In fact, she was even closer than she appeared to 325 00:17:14,000 --> 00:17:15,440 Speaker 2: remember because of that whole mirror. 326 00:17:15,600 --> 00:17:17,480 Speaker 1: Yeah, I think we all remember that. 327 00:17:17,480 --> 00:17:20,920 Speaker 2: That scene was considered plausible for nearly a decade after 328 00:17:20,960 --> 00:17:24,880 Speaker 2: the film's release, with many paleontologists speculating that a real 329 00:17:24,960 --> 00:17:27,600 Speaker 2: t rex could run as fast as forty five miles 330 00:17:27,600 --> 00:17:31,040 Speaker 2: an hour. But in two thousand and two, researchers John 331 00:17:31,119 --> 00:17:34,760 Speaker 2: Hutchinson and Mariano Garcia used some clever math to show 332 00:17:34,800 --> 00:17:37,800 Speaker 2: that the rex likely had a much slower role than 333 00:17:37,840 --> 00:17:42,200 Speaker 2: we previously thought. So, using biomechanical data from the dinosaur's 334 00:17:42,240 --> 00:17:45,920 Speaker 2: closest living relatives those would be birds, now, the pair 335 00:17:46,040 --> 00:17:48,840 Speaker 2: was able to extrapolate just how much muscle mass it 336 00:17:48,840 --> 00:17:50,760 Speaker 2: would take for an animal the size of a t 337 00:17:50,960 --> 00:17:54,520 Speaker 2: rex to actually be able to run. As a general rule, 338 00:17:54,600 --> 00:17:57,080 Speaker 2: no more than fifty percent of an animal's body mass 339 00:17:57,119 --> 00:17:59,800 Speaker 2: is composed of muscle in only a fraction of that 340 00:18:00,040 --> 00:18:02,879 Speaker 2: muscle is allocated to the legs. But for a t 341 00:18:03,040 --> 00:18:05,920 Speaker 2: rex to run forty five miles an hour, its leg 342 00:18:05,960 --> 00:18:08,679 Speaker 2: muscles would need to account for eighty six percent of 343 00:18:08,720 --> 00:18:11,040 Speaker 2: its total body. Right, some real masks. 344 00:18:11,200 --> 00:18:14,760 Speaker 1: Those are monster legs. It feels like the leg muscles 345 00:18:14,800 --> 00:18:17,600 Speaker 1: would be up to its eyeballs. But uh, you know, 346 00:18:17,760 --> 00:18:19,320 Speaker 1: in that case, there's no room for anything else. 347 00:18:19,520 --> 00:18:22,080 Speaker 2: Yeah, it doesn't add up there. So even though the 348 00:18:22,080 --> 00:18:24,760 Speaker 2: researchers had poked a giant hole in one of Jurassic 349 00:18:24,800 --> 00:18:28,320 Speaker 2: Park's best scenes, the filmmakers didn't hold it against them. 350 00:18:28,480 --> 00:18:31,000 Speaker 2: In fact, Hutchinson was even hired to consult on one 351 00:18:31,040 --> 00:18:33,439 Speaker 2: of the Jurassic Park sequels based on the strength of 352 00:18:33,480 --> 00:18:34,120 Speaker 2: this breakthrough. 353 00:18:34,400 --> 00:18:37,320 Speaker 1: That's pretty awesome. But I'm curious, do we know what 354 00:18:37,440 --> 00:18:39,040 Speaker 1: a t rex's top speed would be? 355 00:18:39,760 --> 00:18:41,879 Speaker 2: Well, the two thousand and two study concluded that t 356 00:18:42,040 --> 00:18:44,600 Speaker 2: rex would have had a hard time topping twenty five 357 00:18:44,640 --> 00:18:47,679 Speaker 2: miles an hour, and according to a twenty seventeen study 358 00:18:47,680 --> 00:18:50,800 Speaker 2: from the University of Manchester, they probably can only reach 359 00:18:50,840 --> 00:18:54,119 Speaker 2: speeds of around twelve miles a mile, so any faster 360 00:18:54,200 --> 00:18:57,480 Speaker 2: and the seven ton predators would risk shattering their bones. 361 00:18:57,520 --> 00:19:00,280 Speaker 1: Actually. Wow, so it's almost like at speed that a 362 00:19:00,359 --> 00:19:02,000 Speaker 1: human could outrun. At this pace. 363 00:19:02,160 --> 00:19:04,879 Speaker 2: Yeah, and remember that's the top speed. The t Rex 364 00:19:04,960 --> 00:19:08,600 Speaker 2: was even slower when walking exactly how slow remained a 365 00:19:08,640 --> 00:19:12,480 Speaker 2: mystery until twenty twenty one, when Dutch researchers built on 366 00:19:12,600 --> 00:19:16,000 Speaker 2: those earlier findings and used computer modeling to prove that 367 00:19:16,080 --> 00:19:18,720 Speaker 2: Rex walked at a leisurely pace of between two and 368 00:19:18,800 --> 00:19:21,800 Speaker 2: three miles an hour. Now, another point of departure from 369 00:19:21,800 --> 00:19:25,520 Speaker 2: the Jurassic movies is that the predatory dinosaurs, including t Rex, 370 00:19:25,880 --> 00:19:29,800 Speaker 2: did not have permanently exposed teeth. Researchers and artists have 371 00:19:29,960 --> 00:19:33,800 Speaker 2: long believed that bipedal carnivores have lipless mouths where their 372 00:19:33,880 --> 00:19:36,719 Speaker 2: upper teeth would hang over their lower jaws, not unlike 373 00:19:37,040 --> 00:19:38,959 Speaker 2: you know, maybe like a crocodile or something like that. 374 00:19:39,040 --> 00:19:41,440 Speaker 2: But according to a twenty twenty three study from the 375 00:19:41,520 --> 00:19:46,240 Speaker 2: University of Portsmouth, the dinos actually kept their choppers discreetly 376 00:19:46,280 --> 00:19:49,879 Speaker 2: covered with a pair of thick lizard lips. Isn't that 377 00:19:49,960 --> 00:19:52,720 Speaker 2: kind of funny to imagine? So the researchers found that 378 00:19:52,800 --> 00:19:56,679 Speaker 2: toothwaar and lipless reptile groups was much different from that 379 00:19:56,760 --> 00:20:00,560 Speaker 2: of carnivorous dinosaurs, and based on computer modeling, it would 380 00:20:00,560 --> 00:20:03,320 Speaker 2: have been impossible for a lipless t rex to close 381 00:20:03,359 --> 00:20:06,720 Speaker 2: its mouth without the lower jaw actually crushing the very 382 00:20:06,760 --> 00:20:08,000 Speaker 2: bones that supported it. 383 00:20:08,440 --> 00:20:12,000 Speaker 1: That is really interesting, And you know, I feel like 384 00:20:12,119 --> 00:20:16,360 Speaker 1: with all these breakthroughs, they've kind of defanged this idea 385 00:20:16,680 --> 00:20:20,320 Speaker 1: of a really frightening t rex, right, but like suddenly 386 00:20:20,400 --> 00:20:23,520 Speaker 1: they're like only strolling around at two miles per hour. 387 00:20:24,720 --> 00:20:28,359 Speaker 1: Like they don't have those goofy grins anymore, right, you know, 388 00:20:28,440 --> 00:20:32,400 Speaker 1: bearing their teeth and a dinosaurs supposed to have feathers, 389 00:20:32,520 --> 00:20:34,720 Speaker 1: right like on top of everything else, they're fluffy. 390 00:20:35,240 --> 00:20:37,320 Speaker 2: Actually, I've got some good news on that front because 391 00:20:37,359 --> 00:20:40,480 Speaker 2: while many dinosaurs are now believed to have sported feathers, 392 00:20:40,760 --> 00:20:43,640 Speaker 2: including raptors and a few of the t rex's cousins, 393 00:20:44,040 --> 00:20:46,560 Speaker 2: the rex itself is thought to have had this smooth, 394 00:20:46,800 --> 00:20:50,560 Speaker 2: more scaly skin. The exception would have been juvenile t rexes, 395 00:20:50,600 --> 00:20:53,920 Speaker 2: whose small bodies may have needed feathers for thermal insulation 396 00:20:54,680 --> 00:20:57,080 Speaker 2: by the time they reach adulthood, though their forty foot 397 00:20:57,119 --> 00:20:59,760 Speaker 2: long bodies were so good at retaining heat that they 398 00:20:59,760 --> 00:21:02,800 Speaker 2: know or needed those downy coats. So if anything, an 399 00:21:02,840 --> 00:21:05,200 Speaker 2: adult t rex may have had a stripe of bristles 400 00:21:05,240 --> 00:21:07,560 Speaker 2: on its back and shoulders, but those would have been 401 00:21:07,600 --> 00:21:09,920 Speaker 2: used to attract a mate rather than to keep warm. 402 00:21:10,000 --> 00:21:12,359 Speaker 1: All right, So that's at least one thing the movies 403 00:21:12,400 --> 00:21:13,440 Speaker 1: seem to have gotten right. 404 00:21:13,520 --> 00:21:15,719 Speaker 2: Yeah, and there's there's still room for improvement on that 405 00:21:15,760 --> 00:21:18,920 Speaker 2: front too, because while the t rex was scaling, they 406 00:21:19,080 --> 00:21:22,480 Speaker 2: likely weren't the drab uniform color they're often depicted as 407 00:21:22,520 --> 00:21:26,480 Speaker 2: you know, you always picture that exact colors. Recent analysis 408 00:21:26,480 --> 00:21:29,280 Speaker 2: of t rex fossils have turned up evidence of melanin, 409 00:21:29,359 --> 00:21:32,640 Speaker 2: the same pigment found in human skin and bird feathers, 410 00:21:32,640 --> 00:21:35,040 Speaker 2: and that suggests that the rex's skin may have had 411 00:21:35,160 --> 00:21:39,520 Speaker 2: patches of several different colors, possibly even like a camouflage pattern, 412 00:21:39,560 --> 00:21:42,080 Speaker 2: which makes sense you think about the stripes and spots 413 00:21:42,119 --> 00:21:43,240 Speaker 2: of modern predators. 414 00:21:43,680 --> 00:21:46,520 Speaker 1: That is crazy, you know. I kind of imagine like 415 00:21:46,760 --> 00:21:48,800 Speaker 1: being given like a t rex as a kid and 416 00:21:48,880 --> 00:21:51,399 Speaker 1: told to color it, and like, you know, you pined 417 00:21:51,440 --> 00:21:55,359 Speaker 1: with fancy colors, and that seems completely wrong, right. I 418 00:21:55,359 --> 00:21:59,080 Speaker 1: also had no idea that melanin could fossilize. 419 00:21:58,480 --> 00:22:01,640 Speaker 2: Well, paleontologists didn't eat either until two thousand and eight, 420 00:22:02,119 --> 00:22:04,520 Speaker 2: and since then discovery has led to all kinds of 421 00:22:04,560 --> 00:22:08,080 Speaker 2: new insights about the appearance of dinosaurs, including some pretty 422 00:22:08,119 --> 00:22:11,040 Speaker 2: solid guesses about the exact colors of their skin and 423 00:22:11,119 --> 00:22:13,080 Speaker 2: feathers now more than anything. 424 00:22:13,119 --> 00:22:13,399 Speaker 1: Though. 425 00:22:13,720 --> 00:22:16,040 Speaker 2: All the advances we've talked about show us that the 426 00:22:16,119 --> 00:22:19,439 Speaker 2: dinosaurs weren't the straightforward terrors that we often see in 427 00:22:19,520 --> 00:22:22,800 Speaker 2: pop culture. Like any other animal, they live full lives. 428 00:22:22,800 --> 00:22:24,920 Speaker 2: That included some quieter moments as well. 429 00:22:25,960 --> 00:22:28,639 Speaker 1: I like how you're trying to make it seem like 430 00:22:28,680 --> 00:22:31,440 Speaker 1: we should all be adopting them from shelters. I feel 431 00:22:31,440 --> 00:22:33,480 Speaker 1: like it's the right thing to do. I would still 432 00:22:33,520 --> 00:22:35,000 Speaker 1: be a terrified one. Oh totally. 433 00:22:35,040 --> 00:22:36,600 Speaker 2: I mean, you know me, I'm terrified when I see 434 00:22:36,640 --> 00:22:38,560 Speaker 2: a cat, can imagine a dinosaur? 435 00:22:39,200 --> 00:22:39,520 Speaker 1: All right? 436 00:22:39,560 --> 00:22:43,119 Speaker 2: Well, because dinosaurs are so cool, we decided today on 437 00:22:43,160 --> 00:22:45,880 Speaker 2: our Instagram we're going to give away some super special, 438 00:22:46,560 --> 00:22:50,360 Speaker 2: scientifically accurate dinosaur action figures. It is important to call 439 00:22:50,440 --> 00:22:53,520 Speaker 2: them action figures. I called it a dolt earlier. Gabe 440 00:22:53,520 --> 00:22:55,280 Speaker 2: got very like that. 441 00:22:55,320 --> 00:22:56,040 Speaker 1: I didn't like it. 442 00:22:56,119 --> 00:22:57,920 Speaker 2: He is our resident toy expert, so I'm going to 443 00:22:58,000 --> 00:22:59,840 Speaker 2: have to lean on that and I will agree to 444 00:23:00,000 --> 00:23:02,040 Speaker 2: ill at an action figure. So head over to our 445 00:23:02,080 --> 00:23:04,800 Speaker 2: instagram at part Time Genius and find out how you 446 00:23:04,880 --> 00:23:05,280 Speaker 2: can win. 447 00:23:05,680 --> 00:23:07,479 Speaker 1: Okay, listeners, you've got to pay for the show with 448 00:23:07,520 --> 00:23:10,159 Speaker 1: some ads, but uh, we'll be right back after this 449 00:23:10,280 --> 00:23:27,879 Speaker 1: quick break. Welcome back to part time Genius, where we're 450 00:23:27,920 --> 00:23:30,440 Speaker 1: listing out the best ideas in science in the last 451 00:23:30,480 --> 00:23:35,280 Speaker 1: twenty five years. Nay, okay, well, so how much do 452 00:23:35,359 --> 00:23:37,679 Speaker 1: you know about sub atomic particles? 453 00:23:38,640 --> 00:23:42,119 Speaker 2: All right, Well, my knowledge of subatomic particles would, if 454 00:23:42,160 --> 00:23:45,119 Speaker 2: I'm being honest, probably fit inside a sub atomic particle. 455 00:23:45,200 --> 00:23:47,919 Speaker 1: Yeah, that's what I thought. So here's a quick overview 456 00:23:47,960 --> 00:23:51,640 Speaker 1: that'll help you understand our next great science discovery. So 457 00:23:52,000 --> 00:23:55,080 Speaker 1: let's start with protons. These tiny particles hang out in 458 00:23:55,119 --> 00:23:58,200 Speaker 1: the nucleus of every atom, and they're made up of 459 00:23:58,320 --> 00:24:02,560 Speaker 1: even tinier particles called quirks, which in turn are held 460 00:24:02,560 --> 00:24:07,199 Speaker 1: together with even tinier particles called gluons. Now, gluons have 461 00:24:07,280 --> 00:24:10,560 Speaker 1: no mass, but they do carry energy, specifically something called 462 00:24:10,640 --> 00:24:13,560 Speaker 1: the strong force, and in terms of nuclear physics, it 463 00:24:13,600 --> 00:24:17,600 Speaker 1: basically means it holds stuff together. Now stay with me, 464 00:24:17,680 --> 00:24:20,040 Speaker 1: because I'm sure you know that deep in a tunnel 465 00:24:20,080 --> 00:24:24,320 Speaker 1: near Geneva there's something called the large hadron particle collider. 466 00:24:24,880 --> 00:24:28,520 Speaker 1: And a hadron is any clump of two or three quirks, 467 00:24:28,560 --> 00:24:32,119 Speaker 1: And what this thing does is it blasts particles like 468 00:24:32,200 --> 00:24:36,159 Speaker 1: protons at each other at insane speeds, so scientists can 469 00:24:36,200 --> 00:24:39,000 Speaker 1: find out what happens when they crash into each other. 470 00:24:39,320 --> 00:24:42,320 Speaker 1: And even before this technology existed, scientists have been thinking 471 00:24:42,320 --> 00:24:46,240 Speaker 1: about the outcomes of proton collisions. So one hypothesis they 472 00:24:46,320 --> 00:24:49,560 Speaker 1: came up with was that protons might exchange a couple 473 00:24:49,560 --> 00:24:53,359 Speaker 1: of the gluons that hold them together, creating a super weird, 474 00:24:53,600 --> 00:24:57,840 Speaker 1: massless little particle made up of only gluons, which they 475 00:24:57,920 --> 00:25:01,480 Speaker 1: called and this is true a blue ball glue ball? 476 00:25:01,760 --> 00:25:04,800 Speaker 1: Is that the actual scientific term, though it is so 477 00:25:05,080 --> 00:25:08,919 Speaker 1: ah way, In nineteen seventy three researchers put forward a 478 00:25:09,040 --> 00:25:11,520 Speaker 1: very specific version of this theory. They said that it 479 00:25:11,600 --> 00:25:15,359 Speaker 1: was possible for three gluons to briefly stick together after 480 00:25:15,400 --> 00:25:17,959 Speaker 1: a collision. Now, at the time, there was no actual 481 00:25:18,000 --> 00:25:20,280 Speaker 1: proof of this, It was just an idea. And they 482 00:25:20,359 --> 00:25:23,240 Speaker 1: call this hypothetical particle the odderon. 483 00:25:24,000 --> 00:25:25,479 Speaker 2: All right, so I want to make sure I understand. 484 00:25:25,520 --> 00:25:29,560 Speaker 2: So an oduron is what like a triple glue ball? Yeah, yeah, 485 00:25:29,600 --> 00:25:31,440 Speaker 2: you know, it's weird. I had never thought of particle 486 00:25:31,440 --> 00:25:33,640 Speaker 2: physics involving this much fun vocabulary. 487 00:25:33,680 --> 00:25:35,359 Speaker 1: I feel like I might have majored in it if 488 00:25:35,400 --> 00:25:36,159 Speaker 1: I had known all this. 489 00:25:36,320 --> 00:25:37,760 Speaker 2: But all right, So are you going to tell me 490 00:25:37,800 --> 00:25:40,720 Speaker 2: that someone finally proved this odoron thing is real? 491 00:25:41,320 --> 00:25:44,320 Speaker 1: So in twenty twenty one, a group of scientists using 492 00:25:44,320 --> 00:25:48,080 Speaker 1: the Large Hadron Collider did in fact find evidence of odon. 493 00:25:48,280 --> 00:25:51,280 Speaker 1: So yes, when protons collide in this thing, about three 494 00:25:51,359 --> 00:25:54,000 Speaker 1: quarters of the time they get smashed apart, but about 495 00:25:54,040 --> 00:25:57,280 Speaker 1: twenty five percent of the time the protons survive intact. 496 00:25:57,400 --> 00:26:00,520 Speaker 1: They just kind of bounce off each other. And because 497 00:26:00,600 --> 00:26:04,080 Speaker 1: at the point of impact, they exchange gluons, sometimes two, 498 00:26:04,280 --> 00:26:07,760 Speaker 1: sometimes three, and those gluons keep them together. So are 499 00:26:07,800 --> 00:26:10,680 Speaker 1: you still with me here? I think so? Right. So, 500 00:26:11,040 --> 00:26:13,679 Speaker 1: quirks carry a charge kind of like a positive or 501 00:26:13,680 --> 00:26:16,879 Speaker 1: negative electric charge, but this is expressed in terms of color, 502 00:26:17,280 --> 00:26:20,400 Speaker 1: so they can be red, green, or blue, and when 503 00:26:20,400 --> 00:26:22,760 Speaker 1: you have all three of those stuck together, the charge 504 00:26:22,800 --> 00:26:25,800 Speaker 1: is said to be white or balanced. But there's also 505 00:26:25,960 --> 00:26:29,280 Speaker 1: something called an anti color, which is the property of 506 00:26:29,480 --> 00:26:33,679 Speaker 1: anti quarks. Is this like antimatter, Yeah, So the antiquirk 507 00:26:33,840 --> 00:26:37,480 Speaker 1: is the antimatter evil twin of the quirk, and it's 508 00:26:37,640 --> 00:26:41,080 Speaker 1: either anti red, anti green, or anti blue. But what's 509 00:26:41,119 --> 00:26:44,919 Speaker 1: interesting is gluons have both colors and anti colors, so 510 00:26:45,520 --> 00:26:48,280 Speaker 1: you could have a gluon that carries red and anti green, 511 00:26:48,560 --> 00:26:51,680 Speaker 1: which sounds like a very strange Christmas ornament. A spokesperson 512 00:26:51,760 --> 00:26:55,480 Speaker 1: for the Oderon experiment told Gizmoto that the math of 513 00:26:55,520 --> 00:26:59,320 Speaker 1: Vaulteer is quote too hard to explain, but suffice it 514 00:26:59,359 --> 00:27:02,840 Speaker 1: to say, su Suer has observed frequency differences in proton 515 00:27:02,920 --> 00:27:07,600 Speaker 1: proton collisions versus proton anti proton collisions, and they realized 516 00:27:07,640 --> 00:27:10,199 Speaker 1: the difference had to do with changing color balances that 517 00:27:10,280 --> 00:27:13,200 Speaker 1: could only be explained by the existence of a triple 518 00:27:13,240 --> 00:27:17,399 Speaker 1: gluon clump. The odder On I'm trying real hard here, mango, 519 00:27:17,440 --> 00:27:19,320 Speaker 1: but I gotta be honest. This is making my head 520 00:27:19,480 --> 00:27:22,639 Speaker 1: heart a little bit. I know it is complicated stuff, 521 00:27:22,760 --> 00:27:26,359 Speaker 1: but it's also an incredible discovery. But to make the 522 00:27:26,400 --> 00:27:30,040 Speaker 1: story a little more personal, we asked our pal David Nagler, 523 00:27:30,200 --> 00:27:33,960 Speaker 1: who is an incredibly talented musician and composer, to write 524 00:27:34,000 --> 00:28:00,880 Speaker 1: a song about it, Hiding in. 525 00:28:00,960 --> 00:28:05,840 Speaker 3: Plain sight Now I'm in the light light because of 526 00:28:05,920 --> 00:28:11,879 Speaker 3: a proton proton and a proton anti proton condition. That's 527 00:28:11,960 --> 00:28:16,680 Speaker 3: the difference between the two. Three good on stuff like good. 528 00:28:17,440 --> 00:28:21,200 Speaker 3: Thanks to the particle physicists for clearing up being decision 529 00:28:23,440 --> 00:28:29,480 Speaker 3: I'm an a lot, but I'm not that odd and 530 00:28:30,119 --> 00:28:49,280 Speaker 3: out un. I'm a real hot rod. It's not monochromatic light. 531 00:28:50,480 --> 00:28:54,320 Speaker 3: I'm red, green and blue making white. It may seem 532 00:28:54,360 --> 00:28:58,040 Speaker 3: like a fax, but it's only quantum chromo dynamics. Folks 533 00:28:59,440 --> 00:29:04,760 Speaker 3: deep in the particle e Sallerator keeping proton longevity greater. 534 00:29:05,880 --> 00:29:08,120 Speaker 3: So I can agree. The force is. 535 00:29:08,080 --> 00:29:10,640 Speaker 1: Strong in me strong. 536 00:29:12,120 --> 00:29:20,240 Speaker 3: Autobun, but I'm not that and autorum. I've got a 537 00:29:20,360 --> 00:29:54,720 Speaker 3: real hot bond man. Aut'm not that and auto um. 538 00:29:56,200 --> 00:29:57,000 Speaker 1: It's not that b. 539 00:30:04,680 --> 00:30:05,840 Speaker 3: And it's. 540 00:30:13,880 --> 00:30:16,080 Speaker 1: Wow. It seems so complicated, but you know what mego. 541 00:30:16,160 --> 00:30:18,560 Speaker 1: It also makes me want to dance. Yeah, the song 542 00:30:18,680 --> 00:30:20,520 Speaker 1: or the science that you know, all of it. I'm 543 00:30:20,560 --> 00:30:24,000 Speaker 1: just feeling good after this. I couldn't agree more. And 544 00:30:24,200 --> 00:30:26,960 Speaker 1: big thanks to David Nageler for helping us out with this. 545 00:30:27,240 --> 00:30:29,080 Speaker 1: We'll put a link to his website in the show 546 00:30:29,160 --> 00:30:31,760 Speaker 1: notes so that you can check out his music. It's 547 00:30:31,840 --> 00:30:35,360 Speaker 1: not usually about physics. Okay, that's it for today's episode, 548 00:30:35,360 --> 00:30:38,240 Speaker 1: but be sure to tune in tomorrow when our countdown 549 00:30:38,320 --> 00:30:42,160 Speaker 1: continues with a scientific secret Lurking and home depot, some 550 00:30:42,320 --> 00:30:46,640 Speaker 1: lively molecules and a medical treatment that began in a really, 551 00:30:47,000 --> 00:30:50,240 Speaker 1: really gross place. You won't want to miss it. And 552 00:30:50,480 --> 00:30:53,520 Speaker 1: if you'd like to win that realistic dinosaur action figure, 553 00:30:53,680 --> 00:30:56,000 Speaker 1: head on over to our instagram at part Time Genius 554 00:30:56,280 --> 00:31:01,280 Speaker 1: to check out today's giveaway contest. As always from Will, Gabe, 555 00:31:01,400 --> 00:31:04,320 Speaker 1: Mary and Dylan, thank you so much for listening.