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Speaker 1: Hey, Daniel, what's your favorite part of the pizza. Oh,

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Speaker 1: I'm all about the crust. The crust makes the pizza.

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Speaker 1: You're crust guy. Huh, Well, it turned out that's just

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Speaker 1: like a planet. All the interesting stuff in a planet

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Speaker 1: like ours happens on the crust. That's where the good

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Speaker 1: stuff is, right. You know that totally makes sense because

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Speaker 1: I can't count the number of times I've burnt my

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Speaker 1: tongue on the hot lava of tomato sauce on pizza.

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Speaker 1: It's like a molten core, all that cheese exactly exactly,

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Speaker 1: and you always want to bite it before it's cooled

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Speaker 1: off and turned into a nice place to live. You know,

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Speaker 1: you always got to get in there. But you know,

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Speaker 1: you're right, the crust is very important, and you know

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Speaker 1: that's where you hold the pizza. That's where we hold

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Speaker 1: onto our planet. So it's it's a big deal. Yeah.

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Speaker 1: What about what about the cheese stuff crust? It's like

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Speaker 1: a crust in a crust. Yeah, what is the what

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Speaker 1: is the geological analogy of cheese stuffed crust? Right, that's

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Speaker 1: like underwater, that's like a sub subterranean lakes or something

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Speaker 1: of cheese. Yeah, well, I'm like those intolerant. So Hi,

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Speaker 1: I'm Orge and I'm Daniel, and welcome to our podcast,

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Speaker 1: Pizzas in the Universe. Daniel and Jorge explain what makes

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Speaker 1: a pizza a pizza and what doesn't make a pizza.

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Speaker 1: We have no idea. We do have some idea based

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Speaker 1: on my deep expertise of being a particle physicist. I'm

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Speaker 1: here to expound on what's a pizza and what's not

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Speaker 1: a pizza. Now, welcome to our podcast. Daniel and Jorge

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Speaker 1: Explain the Universe, a production of I Heart Radio in

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Speaker 1: which we find topics here, there, everywhere and break them

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Speaker 1: down so that you can understand them while you enjoy

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Speaker 1: your pizza. That's right. We're also the authors of the

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Speaker 1: book We have No Idea, which you can find in

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Speaker 1: bookstores and online or just borrow from your grandma because

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Speaker 1: she read it and she loved it. She loved it,

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Speaker 1: she told us. Are you in touch with everybody's grandma?

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Speaker 1: I'm in touch with the cosmic grandma. Like the you

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Speaker 1: like the idea of imagining all of a sudden imagining

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Speaker 1: some like you know underground Internet Grandma network that you've

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Speaker 1: typed into. It's just a giant book. Club. Basically, can

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Speaker 1: you mobilize them in emergencies to do something important? Yes,

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Speaker 1: there's I have a big red button here, he says,

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Speaker 1: Raise grandma army. Yeah, somebody's hungry quick, somebody hasn't had lunch,

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Speaker 1: somebody's looking thin. Cook. Cook. But not today, We're going

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Speaker 1: to not talk about something that's out there in the

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Speaker 1: universal mystery. But today we're going to focus on a

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Speaker 1: question very near us and actually underneath you. That's right.

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Speaker 1: Today we're going to talk about where we all live,

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Speaker 1: the place that you call home. Today's topic is what's

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Speaker 1: inside the Earth or what is the Earth made out of?

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Speaker 1: We we live on it, we walk in it, we

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Speaker 1: running it, we swim in it. But do how many

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Speaker 1: people know what this giant ball that we're riding around

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Speaker 1: space on is made out of? Yeah? It's a special place.

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Speaker 1: I mean, as far as we know so far, it's

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Speaker 1: host to all life that we've ever seen. Right, everything

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Speaker 1: anybody has ever touched or tasted has been on Earth.

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Speaker 1: So it's an important place. You know. It's the spaceship

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Speaker 1: we are riding through the universe on, and there's a

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Speaker 1: lot going on, right, you can't just ignore it, especially

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Speaker 1: for those of us living in California. You know, we're

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Speaker 1: wondering about like earthquakes and all sorts of crazy stuff,

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Speaker 1: So it's important to know what's going on inside the earth. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: magnetic fields and having to move around and shielding us

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Speaker 1: from cosmic rays. It's all because of what's going on inside.

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Speaker 1: Mm hmmm um. You know, continental drift and super volcanoes

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Speaker 1: and all sorts of stuff. If the Earth was just

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Speaker 1: a quiet lump of rocket, wouldn't be quite so exciting

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Speaker 1: to live on. Yeah. And lava, of course, lava. Who

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Speaker 1: doesn't love a lava? Who doesn't love a love a lamp?

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Speaker 1: You know? I was teaching ones and I usually like

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Speaker 1: to open my class with asking people for random questions,

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Speaker 1: you know, get them warmed up, and who's gonna totally

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Speaker 1: random question? Right? And somebody wants to asked me what

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Speaker 1: does lava taste like? That is a good random question.

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Speaker 1: I said pain, Pure pain tastes like pain, tastes like

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Speaker 1: charred tongue. No, I said pineapples. It tastes like pineapples,

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Speaker 1: does it? I have no idea what lava tastes like. No,

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Speaker 1: in like the bill of second between lava, like scorching

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Speaker 1: your tongue. Um it probably you just taste like rock, right,

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Speaker 1: It's just probably like living a rock, salty, salty, exactly metallic. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: So people out there, do not do this investigation. Do

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Speaker 1: not approach lava, do not play with lava, do not

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Speaker 1: lick lava. Um I probably doesn't taste like pineapple maybe

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Speaker 1: in Hawaii actually, And so we got into this question

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Speaker 1: a little bit, Daniel, because we were wondering, we were

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Speaker 1: thinking about ideas with this up for an episode, and

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Speaker 1: we were wondering, what would happen if you dug a

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Speaker 1: hole through the entire Earth and jumped into it? Right,

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Speaker 1: that's a that's a pretty weird question. Yeah, And you know,

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Speaker 1: this is the kind of thing you see in science

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Speaker 1: fiction all the time, you know, journey to the Center

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Speaker 1: of the Earth, and um I was watching gravity falls

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Speaker 1: and they have the bottomless pit, you know, they jump

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Speaker 1: in and fall forever. And so it's a trope that

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Speaker 1: you see a lot of times. You know, people wonder

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Speaker 1: like can you get into the center of the Earth,

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Speaker 1: And so it's a fun It's also a fun physics

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Speaker 1: question I ask in my freshman physics class sometimes, like

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Speaker 1: what would happen if you drill the hole all the

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Speaker 1: way through the earth and then jumped inside. You know,

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Speaker 1: so for from the point of view of like gravitation. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: but you know, I'm an engineer, so I kind of

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Speaker 1: got hung up on the question of how you would

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Speaker 1: even make that whole or could you have a tunnel

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Speaker 1: that goes through the center of the earth? And would

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Speaker 1: you let us to the question what what is inside

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Speaker 1: the earth? What's going on? What would you drill a

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Speaker 1: hole through? Yeah? Exactly is it hard or easy? Do

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Speaker 1: you like dig down a hundred meters and then you

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Speaker 1: know it's just like a big pile of soft stuff,

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Speaker 1: or is it like diamond down there, or you know

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Speaker 1: it's impossible to dig into? Yeah, this is pretty interesting stuff. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: so we might get to that question of what would

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Speaker 1: happen if you jump through a whole the go through

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Speaker 1: the entire earth. But but today's episode, we'll we'll talk

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Speaker 1: about the earlier question, which is what is the earth

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Speaker 1: made out of? That's right, We'll take you on a

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Speaker 1: tour from the very top all the way to the

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Speaker 1: very center of the earth. Yeah, and as usual, we

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Speaker 1: were wondering how many of you out there know the

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Speaker 1: answer to this question? How many people know what's inside

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Speaker 1: to earth? And so Daniel went out there as usual,

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Speaker 1: out into the street and ask people, random strangers what

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Speaker 1: they thought was inside to Earth. Here's what people had

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Speaker 1: to say. Is the Earth just one big rock or

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Speaker 1: is it more complex under our feet? There are more

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Speaker 1: complex features below our feet and something fel like the mantle,

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Speaker 1: um core, cross shoe as lissile spear, messile scree or

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Speaker 1: something like that. I know that there's it's not just

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Speaker 1: a big rock, but yeah, I don't know the components

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Speaker 1: of what they send it. Well. I think there's like

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Speaker 1: different layers of rocks. But that's it, okay, like different,

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Speaker 1: just different layers and different just difficult that the Earth

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Speaker 1: it's not just one of big rock, Okay, it's like

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Speaker 1: layers and like there's like dirt rock, gravel, and thought

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Speaker 1: it's up and they're like for some reason, like my

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Speaker 1: mind went to like minecraft. So then like the should

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Speaker 1: be like lava area across is like made out of

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Speaker 1: like different minerals, like different rocks. And well around the earth,

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Speaker 1: the first layers the crust, then um there's soft softer

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Speaker 1: more hot rock um and there are two layers of

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Speaker 1: magma um at the center of the core of the Earth. Well,

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Speaker 1: it sounds like most people, um just sort of guess

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Speaker 1: that they just made out of rock and dirt and

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Speaker 1: some lava. Yeah, a lot of people know there's like

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Speaker 1: rock and dirt and gravel. And I love the people

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Speaker 1: who refer to Minecraft as their their reference. But you know,

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Speaker 1: there's there's some evidence they're like, you know, Minecraft is

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Speaker 1: a little bit educationally, you dig down deep enough in

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Speaker 1: Minecraft and you get to Magma, So yeah, good job Minecraft. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: and zombies, and that's what that's what I know about minecrafts. Also, Minecraft,

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Speaker 1: you know, says that the universe is pixelated, and I'm

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Speaker 1: pretty sure they get that right. Also, so you know,

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Speaker 1: the physics of Minecraft is really pretty solid, interesting, just

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Speaker 1: maybe a few orders of magnitude exactly. They need a

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Speaker 1: few more bits, you know, it's not an eight bit

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Speaker 1: universe we live in. Well, there's the idea that we

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Speaker 1: maybe we are all in a video game, right, that's true. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: we could certainly be in a simulation. Um My kids

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Speaker 1: watched Ready Player one last week and they looked at

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Speaker 1: it and they were like, whoa, that's pretty cool. He

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Speaker 1: can almost live inside that game. And then you could

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Speaker 1: see the idea of being formed in their minds. Wait,

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Speaker 1: what if we were inside a game right now? Really?

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Speaker 1: Whoa And they weren't even stoned. I promise they weren't

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Speaker 1: even stone. They came up with that question totally sober. Well,

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Speaker 1: that's a that's a topic of a podcast we already recorded,

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Speaker 1: is that are we living in a video game? But

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Speaker 1: today's we're going to focus on what's in what's in

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Speaker 1: the earth. So take us through, Dannuel. If we start

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Speaker 1: where we are now, sitting or standing or right on,

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Speaker 1: and we go down, what what do we hit first? Well,

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Speaker 1: the thing to remember is that the Earth is huge, right,

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Speaker 1: So it seems like almost flat because the curvature is

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Speaker 1: so small. That's just because the Earth is enormous, right,

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Speaker 1: And so remember as we take our tour down to

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Speaker 1: the center of the Earth, the scale of things from

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Speaker 1: us all the way down to the center is thousands

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Speaker 1: of kilometers, right. So that amazes me already when I

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Speaker 1: learned that the crust, this part that we stand on,

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Speaker 1: you know, the part that's like rock and whatever, that's

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Speaker 1: only like fifty kilometers thick, and it varies under the ocean,

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Speaker 1: it's even thinner, you know, the top amount everest. Of

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Speaker 1: course it's thicker, but it's like a tiny little shell.

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Speaker 1: It's like an eggshell around a yoke. And that's the

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Speaker 1: part that we live on. What do you mean, So

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Speaker 1: the first layer underneath our feet is called the crust?

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Speaker 1: Is that the official physics name? The crust, that's the

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Speaker 1: official physics slash pizza name. Yeah, it's the crust. That's

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Speaker 1: when you grab onto the planet from you know, what,

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Speaker 1: what what could you have instead of a crust? Well,

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Speaker 1: if you were like on you put her. For example,

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Speaker 1: Jupiter doesn't have a crust. It has like a metallic

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Speaker 1: hydrogen core and then like helium rain and then like

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Speaker 1: you know, liquid hydrogen oceans. And you know, there's no

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Speaker 1: like firm place you can really land. There's no rock

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Speaker 1: on Jupiter. It's just we're pretty lucky to be a

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Speaker 1: rocky planet that has some crust to it. Yeah, Jupiter

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Speaker 1: is just kind of like a big blob of wet stuff.

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Speaker 1: It's it's like a sun that never took off right um.

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Speaker 1: And and you know, earlier in Earth, in the life

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Speaker 1: of Earth, when it was really really young, it was

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Speaker 1: just basically a ball of magma, and so the surface

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Speaker 1: was all you know, hot molten rock. There was no

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Speaker 1: cold crust to walk on Earth, and so the Earth

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Speaker 1: yeah verver early on. Oh we form from but I

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Speaker 1: thought we formed from like bits of stuff out there

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Speaker 1: in space. How did it try into a big ball

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Speaker 1: of lava? Yeah, so we did form from big from

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Speaker 1: bits of stuff. Right, that's rewind a few billion years,

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Speaker 1: and you have like a huge cloud of gas and dust, right,

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Speaker 1: and rubble that's all left over from other stars that

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Speaker 1: have that you know, had you know, billions of years

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Speaker 1: to burn and and then explode and spew their stuff

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Speaker 1: into space, and then gravity gradually gathers it back together.

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Speaker 1: And then gravity made the Sun, and he gathered all

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Speaker 1: the extra bits together into the planets. And the gravitational pressure, right,

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Speaker 1: the collision between the stuff and the pressure pulling this

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Speaker 1: stuff together, that's what That's what creates a lot of

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Speaker 1: the heat. Also, there's when you have a really hot

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Speaker 1: stuff inside the Earth and you have things like uranium

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Speaker 1: and all sorts of other stuff emitting radiation. So it

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Speaker 1: makes the Earth hot. Right. The gravitational pressure and the

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Speaker 1: radiation from the core made the young Earth very very

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Speaker 1: nasty and hot and wet. So no place you can

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Speaker 1: go for a nice walk. It's it's being squeezed down in. Okay.

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Speaker 1: So the first layer is this good thing you call

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Speaker 1: the crust, and it's made out of just like rocks,

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Speaker 1: and like the same rocks we see on the surface. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: I mean it is the surface, right, and it goes

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Speaker 1: down about you know, thirty five kilometers fifty kilometers depends

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Speaker 1: on exactly where you are. And people have tried I

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Speaker 1: love this. People have tried to dig through the crust

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Speaker 1: right to see like how far could we go? How

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Speaker 1: deep could we can we dig? You know? And um,

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Speaker 1: the Russians actually have won that race back when there

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Speaker 1: was a Soviet Union. They dug a shaft which was

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Speaker 1: I think twelve kilometers down, so it's like, you know,

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Speaker 1: maybe a third or a fourth of the way through

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Speaker 1: the crust. It was almost like a pin preak. It did.

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Speaker 1: They didn't really get through the crust. Yeah, And you know,

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Speaker 1: all of these things, these little holes we're talking about

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Speaker 1: the size of the crust, even like the peak of

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Speaker 1: Mount Everest, all these things are tiny features compared to

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Speaker 1: the size of the earth. As you're saying, it's like

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Speaker 1: a pin prick. And you remember if you held the

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Speaker 1: Earth in your hand. None of the features on the

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Speaker 1: Earth would even be recognizable. They might not even be observable.

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Speaker 1: You could probably run your thumb over the Earth and

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Speaker 1: not even tell where Mount Everest was. It would be

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Speaker 1: like it would look shiny, like a shiny marble, Yeah, shiny,

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Speaker 1: slightly wet marble exactly, um and so, and and the

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Speaker 1: outer layers this crust which is only you know, thirty

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Speaker 1: to fifty kilometers thick, so it's really pretty thin. So

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Speaker 1: we would see like just regular dirt and rocks and

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Speaker 1: stuff for fifty kilometers. That's a lot that I mean,

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Speaker 1: that's like from yeah, I know, and it's it's this

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Speaker 1: conflict in scales, right, Like fifty kilometers seems like a lot,

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Speaker 1: and we try to dig through it and it's too far, right,

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Speaker 1: and so on one hand, it feels like a lot.

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Speaker 1: On the other hand, it's a tiny little fraction. But

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Speaker 1: this is the kind of thing you discover when you

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Speaker 1: were exploring physics and space and the universe, right, all

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Speaker 1: these conflict in scales, Like the Earth is huge, but

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Speaker 1: actually it's tiny compared to the Sun, which is huge good,

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Speaker 1: which is actually tiny you compared to the galaxy, right,

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Speaker 1: It's one of the things I love about physics. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: and maybe you can drive fift kilometers in your car

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Speaker 1: in less than an hour, but if you try to

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Speaker 1: dig fifty kilometers down, it would take you a little

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Speaker 1: bit longer. Yeah. I don't even know how they did it.

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Speaker 1: This this hole that they dug in the Soviet Union,

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Speaker 1: that's twelve kilometers deep. It's only like twenty something centimeters wide, right,

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Speaker 1: so they have to have like a crazy drill bit

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Speaker 1: and you know, they probably had a really long extension chord,

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Speaker 1: like a twelve kilometer extension chords, you know what I mean,

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Speaker 1: probably had like Christmas lights and everything. They're using every

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Speaker 1: extension chord. And then probably they were in the Soviet Union.

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Speaker 1: That's why they went broke. They're like, everybody, don't use

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Speaker 1: any electronics, give us your chord. In Russia, whole drills

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Speaker 1: you I don't even know what that means exactly. So

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Speaker 1: the crust is fifty kilometers thick. We've only barely pricked

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Speaker 1: the like the outer bits of it, right, the deepest

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Speaker 1: minds hardly scratched the surface. And it's a tiny fraction

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Speaker 1: of the size of the Earth. Wow, it's just like

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Speaker 1: a little x X shell really exactly. It's like if

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Speaker 1: you ordered a pizza and the crust was like almost invisible,

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Speaker 1: like you could just barely grab it before you got

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Speaker 1: the tomato sauce, right, it would be like a I

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Speaker 1: hate it when they cut pieces and squares because then

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Speaker 1: you get pieces without crust. You hate that. That's the

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Speaker 1: best way to cut pizza. What are he's talking about? No,

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Speaker 1: they you don't get any crust. I thought you were

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Speaker 1: a crust man. Oh yeah, but you have crust on

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Speaker 1: the bottom. I mean that's how the crust is for

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Speaker 1: to hold up the pizza. The part of the crust

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Speaker 1: without tomato and cheese is wasted to dry. I thought, okay, well,

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Speaker 1: well there'll be another episode. Daniel and Horry argue, aby pizza. Okay,

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Speaker 1: so let's say you you dig through fifts down and

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Speaker 1: you break through the crust. What what what do you?

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Speaker 1: What do you find? Then you get to something they

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Speaker 1: call the mantle, and the mantle is basically rocks that

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Speaker 1: are being squeezed really hard, you know, by gravitational pressure

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Speaker 1: by the crust on top of it, and they're like

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Speaker 1: not fluid but not exactly solid. It's like a bunch

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Speaker 1: of rocks that are rubbed together really hard and and um,

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Speaker 1: they can slide around a little bit. Wait, what do

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Speaker 1: you mean fluid? They're like, um, like grains of sand

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Speaker 1: is fluid or or like really the rocks themselves deform

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Speaker 1: and and and flow. I think it's a little bit

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Speaker 1: of both. I think it's a little bit like the

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Speaker 1: way glaciers flow. Right. You hear about glaciers like flowing

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Speaker 1: across the surface of the earth and carving out mountains, right,

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Speaker 1: and then you go visit a glacier and it's just

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Speaker 1: a big piece of ice and you're like, how is

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Speaker 1: this thing flowing? Right? Well, it flows very slowly, um,

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Speaker 1: you know, like uh, like glass flows or something like

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Speaker 1: if you went up to it and touch it, it

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Speaker 1: would look feel solid, but over time it would be deforming.

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Speaker 1: And you know, I think there's elements of it that

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Speaker 1: are more liquid and elements elements of it that are

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Speaker 1: more solid. Right. That's why we have magma that creeps

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Speaker 1: up through holes in the crust and turns into lava

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Speaker 1: when it's abused out in volcanoes. By the way, huge

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Speaker 1: Internet debate over whether what to call magma and what

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Speaker 1: to call lava. Is there really that's what you mean.

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Speaker 1: People are you? You mean? People are you in the

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Speaker 1: internet over things that are not that important? Someone on

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Speaker 1: the internet was wrong. I can't go to sleep. It's

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Speaker 1: magma when it's still underground, and as soon as it

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Speaker 1: comes above ground, then you call it lava. So if

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Speaker 1: you say that a volcano pews out magma, you're gonna

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Speaker 1: go like a thousand people online telling you you're wrong,

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Speaker 1: that's actually lava or underground. Well, let's let's be sure

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Speaker 1: here to to not anger anyone on the internet. That's

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Speaker 1: not the point of this podcast is to annoy people

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Speaker 1: and piss them off. So the dismantle, this kind of

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Speaker 1: liquid rock um is super thick, you're telling me earlier. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: it's like almost three kilometers thick. So it's a huge

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Speaker 1: chunk of the earth. Right, it's much much thicker than

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Speaker 1: the crust. So if you were to somehow be able

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Speaker 1: to dig all the way through the crust, right, which

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Speaker 1: seems almost impossible, you can get to the mantle, and

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Speaker 1: the mantle is like, is really thick. So that's a

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Speaker 1: huge part of the drilling. If you wanted to get

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Speaker 1: down to the center of the earth, you'd be like

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Speaker 1: drilling from Florida to California. Yeah, but it'd be super

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Speaker 1: hot and super high pressure the whole time, right, So

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Speaker 1: it's not just like a nice drive across country, right,

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Speaker 1: it's really difficult environment. You need a lot of extension

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Speaker 1: cords air conditioning, that's right. And it's because the mantle

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Speaker 1: is not actually solid that we have earthquakes and tectonic

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Speaker 1: activities and mountains and stuff like that. It's always shifting

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Speaker 1: and moving mm hmmm. Yeah. You can sort of think

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Speaker 1: of the crust has broken into pieces that are floating

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Speaker 1: in slow motion on top of this, you know, semi liquid,

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Speaker 1: semi solid mantle magma business, right, slide around and bang

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Speaker 1: into each other. And all the interesting stuff that happens

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Speaker 1: on the surface is because of that action. I see,

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Speaker 1: because you're saying it's like the crust is pretty solid,

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Speaker 1: so we are kind of like floating icebergs kind of, right,

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Speaker 1: so that the crust is solid, but the rocks underneath

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Speaker 1: is fluid. And so when you move these like solid pieces,

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Speaker 1: that's when you get the crunching and the earthquakes. M

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Speaker 1: And it's pretty thick, which is good because you wouldn't

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Speaker 1: want to drive, you know, an entire tectonic plate through

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Speaker 1: something like you know, as as thin as water, um

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Speaker 1: and things, we get pretty crazy. This mantle is really thick.

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Speaker 1: It's like ten to the ten times thicker than tar, right,

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Speaker 1: so it's not something that you can easily sluice through

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Speaker 1: like dancer. Yeah, they have some measure of thickness, you know,

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Speaker 1: the viscosity. Basically, it's more viscous than tar by a

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Speaker 1: factor of ten to the ten. Oh, I see, I

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Speaker 1: see viscus. Okay, it's it's not um. If you had

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Speaker 1: a bowl of it, how long would it take a

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Speaker 1: drop to form and drop out? Actually, that's fascinating. Have

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Speaker 1: you seen this experiment, the tar pitch experiment. Yeah? Yeah,

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Speaker 1: like it it um. It's like something so thick it

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Speaker 1: just hangs there for a long time. Yeah. It takes

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Speaker 1: like a you know, two decades for a drop to

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Speaker 1: form and fall. And they've been doing the experiment for like,

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Speaker 1: I don't know, eighty years or something, and in eighty

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Speaker 1: years they had like four four drops fall, and every

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Speaker 1: time one is about to fall, everybody's like super excited

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Speaker 1: about it. Anyway, this stuff is is much thicker. We

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Speaker 1: take billions of years for a single drop to form Oh.

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Speaker 1: So let's say so we were we're digging our our

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Speaker 1: tunnel through the center of the Earth. We would dig

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Speaker 1: a tunnel and we would be safe. We wouldn't move

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Speaker 1: with it, like with the tunnel closing on itself or something. Well,

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Speaker 1: there's a lot of pressure, right, Yeah, it's really thick,

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Speaker 1: you're right, so it might hold itself up. But there's

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Speaker 1: also a huge amount of pressure. Right, there's tons and

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Speaker 1: tons and tons of stuff bearing down. So I think

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Speaker 1: that that tunnel would have to be really strong to survive.

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Speaker 1: And that's my bone with like all those movies about

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Speaker 1: Journey to the Center of the Earth, I'm like, where's

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Speaker 1: all the stuff? You know? It always seems to be

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Speaker 1: like fluffy empty space, like they're just like digging through

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Speaker 1: styrofoam peanuts or something. But in reality, if you if

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Speaker 1: you dug a truck tunnel, like the walls would cave

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Speaker 1: in really quickly because it's under so much pressure. Right, Yeah,

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Speaker 1: you need some super material to stabilize the walls. Yeah,

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Speaker 1: at of antium probably. All right, let's keep digging down,

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Speaker 1: but first let's take a quick break. All right, So

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Speaker 1: we're digging through to the center of the Earth, and

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Speaker 1: we we passed the crust, and we passed the mantle.

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Speaker 1: We're now about three thousand kilometers into the earth, and

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Speaker 1: then we things change right after the mantle. Now we

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Speaker 1: hit a new layer which is called the liquid outer core. Yeah, exactly.

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Speaker 1: And you might wonder, like why do they give these

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Speaker 1: things different names? Is the Earth really just continuous? And

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Speaker 1: this is just like scientists putting labels on stuff, because

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Speaker 1: scientists love putting labels on stuff, like is there a boundary? Really?

415
00:22:26,840 --> 00:22:29,320
Speaker 1: Like it doesn't to do the things suddenly changed when

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Speaker 1: you keep digging, they kind of do. Yeah, there really

417
00:22:31,280 --> 00:22:34,840
Speaker 1: are surfaces there, right, Like things do change. The mantle

418
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Speaker 1: really is different from the crust, and the crust and

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Speaker 1: the mantle is really also different from this from this core,

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Speaker 1: both the liquid outer core and then the solid intercore.

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Speaker 1: There really is a change there, which is fascinating. Right,

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Speaker 1: Why isn't it continuous? Why isn't it smooth? Why are

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00:22:48,240 --> 00:22:50,800
Speaker 1: there these edges? But there are? And so you get

424
00:22:50,840 --> 00:22:53,560
Speaker 1: to this place where it's like liquid rock, you know,

425
00:22:53,680 --> 00:22:57,440
Speaker 1: it's like molten metal and rock. It's like incredible because

426
00:22:57,480 --> 00:23:00,680
Speaker 1: it's so hot and undre's so much pressure that basically

427
00:23:00,840 --> 00:23:03,720
Speaker 1: all the rocks melt, right, and you get lava. Yeah,

428
00:23:04,200 --> 00:23:07,560
Speaker 1: that's right. And remember magma magma, magma magma. Dude, there's

429
00:23:07,560 --> 00:23:11,520
Speaker 1: no lava that. And so it's really hot and really dense,

430
00:23:11,760 --> 00:23:14,159
Speaker 1: and so you've got this liquid metal and and all

431
00:23:14,200 --> 00:23:16,679
Speaker 1: sorts of rock and all this stuff mixing around in there, right,

432
00:23:16,800 --> 00:23:19,520
Speaker 1: it's it's like super duper danse right. Yeah, it's you're saying.

433
00:23:19,560 --> 00:23:23,639
Speaker 1: It's it's a rams per cubic meter cub oh, I

434
00:23:23,720 --> 00:23:27,840
Speaker 1: see ten thousand, So it's like five tons or so

435
00:23:28,640 --> 00:23:31,199
Speaker 1: in a in a in a suitcase size. Yeah, well

436
00:23:31,320 --> 00:23:34,240
Speaker 1: do you have a cubic meter size suitcase? Wow? I

437
00:23:34,320 --> 00:23:38,600
Speaker 1: really don't want to travel with you. Man, it's only

438
00:23:38,640 --> 00:23:42,399
Speaker 1: a cubic meter. I think you could probably fit your

439
00:23:42,400 --> 00:23:48,000
Speaker 1: whole family into a cubic meter man, yes, definitely a

440
00:23:48,080 --> 00:23:51,560
Speaker 1: lot um. Anyway, it's pretty dense down there, it's pretty hot,

441
00:23:51,600 --> 00:23:54,760
Speaker 1: it's pretty nasty, and but that's important. Right. If it

442
00:23:54,960 --> 00:23:57,080
Speaker 1: wasn't liquid down there, then you couldn't get all sorts

443
00:23:57,119 --> 00:24:00,680
Speaker 1: of interesting stuff happening, like magnetic fields. Oh that this

444
00:24:00,800 --> 00:24:03,680
Speaker 1: is where the magnetic field comes from. Is this liquid

445
00:24:04,080 --> 00:24:08,200
Speaker 1: molten core? It's really a layer, right, because were still

446
00:24:08,240 --> 00:24:10,040
Speaker 1: not down to the core. That's right, this is the

447
00:24:10,160 --> 00:24:13,320
Speaker 1: liquid outer core. And um, we don't really understand the

448
00:24:13,359 --> 00:24:15,560
Speaker 1: earth magnetic field very well. And for those of you

449
00:24:15,640 --> 00:24:18,280
Speaker 1: interested in that, we have a whole awesome podcast episode

450
00:24:18,400 --> 00:24:21,159
Speaker 1: just about the magnetic field. But a critical thing for

451
00:24:21,240 --> 00:24:24,560
Speaker 1: having a magnetic field is having a conducting fluid, so

452
00:24:24,640 --> 00:24:28,080
Speaker 1: a fluid that can conduct electricity and move around. And

453
00:24:28,200 --> 00:24:31,200
Speaker 1: so we think that like currents in this inner bits,

454
00:24:31,280 --> 00:24:34,000
Speaker 1: inner liquid bits of the Earth are what provides the

455
00:24:34,600 --> 00:24:37,600
Speaker 1: basically the motion for the magnetic field of the Earth. Oh,

456
00:24:38,080 --> 00:24:41,800
Speaker 1: it acts like a giant um like a giant solenoid

457
00:24:41,920 --> 00:24:44,119
Speaker 1: kind of right, like a giant. It's like a more

458
00:24:44,320 --> 00:24:47,240
Speaker 1: a giant electro magnet. You know, there's currents and they're

459
00:24:47,280 --> 00:24:50,840
Speaker 1: spinning and that generates a magnetic field, which causes more currents,

460
00:24:50,880 --> 00:24:53,640
Speaker 1: which causes more spinning, which causes more magnetic fields called

461
00:24:53,680 --> 00:24:57,560
Speaker 1: the dynamo. It's pretty cool. Wow. It's like it's like

462
00:24:57,640 --> 00:24:59,440
Speaker 1: we do, haven't. It's like we have an engine in

463
00:24:59,480 --> 00:25:02,080
Speaker 1: the middle of Earth. Yeah, we do exactly, and it's

464
00:25:02,119 --> 00:25:06,080
Speaker 1: a geological sized engine, right, I mean building something that

465
00:25:06,200 --> 00:25:09,679
Speaker 1: big would be incredible, right. This is these are structures

466
00:25:09,800 --> 00:25:12,399
Speaker 1: that are powered and that are operating and are bigger

467
00:25:12,480 --> 00:25:15,400
Speaker 1: than anything humans have ever constructed, right, so we should

468
00:25:15,440 --> 00:25:18,439
Speaker 1: definitely be in all of them. Wow. Okay, and then

469
00:25:18,520 --> 00:25:20,520
Speaker 1: if we if you make it through and it's and

470
00:25:20,600 --> 00:25:22,719
Speaker 1: again it's just like rock, But what does that mean?

471
00:25:22,840 --> 00:25:26,280
Speaker 1: Rock like an iron or metal like everything is just

472
00:25:26,400 --> 00:25:28,600
Speaker 1: kind of mixed in there. So it's mostly iron, and

473
00:25:28,640 --> 00:25:31,159
Speaker 1: there's a bunch of magnesium mixed in there also, and

474
00:25:31,280 --> 00:25:32,920
Speaker 1: then there's you know, just some rocks which you know,

475
00:25:33,040 --> 00:25:35,600
Speaker 1: silicate rocks and this kind of stuff. And remember where

476
00:25:35,640 --> 00:25:38,040
Speaker 1: all this comes from. Right? Where does all this iron

477
00:25:38,160 --> 00:25:41,640
Speaker 1: come from? It comes from the heart of a burning star. Right.

478
00:25:42,000 --> 00:25:45,280
Speaker 1: All of this was created infusion inside a star somewhere

479
00:25:45,320 --> 00:25:48,080
Speaker 1: else billions of years ago, which was then flung through

480
00:25:48,119 --> 00:25:50,920
Speaker 1: space and gathered back together. You know, the Earth doesn't

481
00:25:51,040 --> 00:25:53,520
Speaker 1: make any of these metals. There's no fusion happening here.

482
00:25:53,920 --> 00:25:55,639
Speaker 1: So everything that the Earth is made out of, that

483
00:25:55,680 --> 00:25:57,240
Speaker 1: you and me are made out of, had to be

484
00:25:57,440 --> 00:26:01,800
Speaker 1: formed somewhere else and then exploded through base. Wow, Like

485
00:26:02,520 --> 00:26:05,880
Speaker 1: there was an event sometime ago that created a whole

486
00:26:05,960 --> 00:26:11,679
Speaker 1: earthful of these metals. Yeah, exactly, Um, and huge quantities. Right,

487
00:26:11,720 --> 00:26:13,760
Speaker 1: It's not like you've got to scoot a spoonful of

488
00:26:13,840 --> 00:26:17,040
Speaker 1: iron here, like you have enormous amounts, and it's not

489
00:26:17,240 --> 00:26:20,200
Speaker 1: it's not also a coincidence that it's iron. It's not random.

490
00:26:20,560 --> 00:26:25,080
Speaker 1: Iron is the point where fusion stops being energetically favorable. Right.

491
00:26:25,520 --> 00:26:28,760
Speaker 1: It's the point in a star where squeezing things together

492
00:26:28,840 --> 00:26:31,879
Speaker 1: to make something heavier stops releasing energy, and then it

493
00:26:32,040 --> 00:26:34,960
Speaker 1: costs energy to make things heavier. So iron is sort

494
00:26:34,960 --> 00:26:37,639
Speaker 1: of the natural endpoint for fusion inside stars, which is

495
00:26:37,680 --> 00:26:40,040
Speaker 1: why you find so much of it, right, And so

496
00:26:40,200 --> 00:26:43,240
Speaker 1: you that's why most rocky planets out there would be

497
00:26:43,359 --> 00:26:45,440
Speaker 1: made out of iron. Right. I'm not sure about that,

498
00:26:45,520 --> 00:26:47,000
Speaker 1: but I think there must be a lot of iron

499
00:26:47,040 --> 00:26:51,479
Speaker 1: out there and rocky planets. Okay, so we're now about

500
00:26:52,400 --> 00:26:55,960
Speaker 1: almost six thousand kilometers into our tunnel to the center

501
00:26:56,000 --> 00:27:01,719
Speaker 1: of the Earth and bringing up snacks. Did you did

502
00:27:01,760 --> 00:27:03,960
Speaker 1: you pack one cubic meter? No, we're just going for

503
00:27:04,040 --> 00:27:07,560
Speaker 1: a Daniel. We're just going. We're holding our our hunger here.

504
00:27:08,200 --> 00:27:12,360
Speaker 1: It's like a diet trip. We're like, we're weight trip

505
00:27:12,400 --> 00:27:14,040
Speaker 1: to the center of the Earth. We're hoping there's a

506
00:27:14,119 --> 00:27:18,119
Speaker 1: McDonald's down down there at the center. Actually to spoil

507
00:27:18,240 --> 00:27:20,440
Speaker 1: the surprise. If you do make the center of the earth,

508
00:27:20,520 --> 00:27:25,560
Speaker 1: your weight does drop to zero. Oh interesting, interesting teaser.

509
00:27:30,040 --> 00:27:32,960
Speaker 1: So that we are, we're down, and we we dug

510
00:27:33,000 --> 00:27:37,480
Speaker 1: through the mantel, we swam through the molten outer core.

511
00:27:38,600 --> 00:27:41,240
Speaker 1: So here's here's where the tunnel idea would collapse, right,

512
00:27:41,240 --> 00:27:45,680
Speaker 1: because you couldn't. It's like it's liquid black Man down there, right, Yeah,

513
00:27:45,760 --> 00:27:48,359
Speaker 1: it's totally liquid metal. So you can't just dig a tunnel, right,

514
00:27:48,359 --> 00:27:50,919
Speaker 1: It's like digging a tunnel through the ocean. Right, something

515
00:27:51,040 --> 00:27:53,080
Speaker 1: to support it, and that's something would have to be

516
00:27:53,160 --> 00:27:55,680
Speaker 1: super strong and resistant to to heat. So I don't

517
00:27:55,680 --> 00:27:57,320
Speaker 1: even know what you could make it out of. You

518
00:27:57,480 --> 00:28:01,120
Speaker 1: have to be like a diamond diamonds earth ship, yeah,

519
00:28:01,280 --> 00:28:03,760
Speaker 1: something like something like that. You have to construct a

520
00:28:03,880 --> 00:28:06,359
Speaker 1: diamond tunnel as you go or something. I mean, this

521
00:28:06,480 --> 00:28:10,520
Speaker 1: is already implausible, but it sounds possible. But they did

522
00:28:10,560 --> 00:28:15,440
Speaker 1: it in movies. What do you mean that was in Minecraft?

523
00:28:15,520 --> 00:28:17,600
Speaker 1: You can dig to the center of the earth, so obviously.

524
00:28:19,280 --> 00:28:21,879
Speaker 1: Uh so there, Let's say you're you're swimming through this

525
00:28:22,000 --> 00:28:25,760
Speaker 1: magma for another two thousand kilometers and then then you'll

526
00:28:25,840 --> 00:28:28,280
Speaker 1: hit You'll hit it like a surface, right, if you

527
00:28:28,359 --> 00:28:31,040
Speaker 1: keep going down to the center. Yeah, you hit a surface, right,

528
00:28:31,600 --> 00:28:34,600
Speaker 1: and um, what you hit is this this solid inner

529
00:28:34,680 --> 00:28:37,560
Speaker 1: core which is mostly iron and nickel, And it's basically

530
00:28:37,760 --> 00:28:42,000
Speaker 1: just a huge ball of metal, right, And you might

531
00:28:42,040 --> 00:28:44,800
Speaker 1: ask like why is it solid? Right? It's solid because

532
00:28:44,800 --> 00:28:47,920
Speaker 1: of all the incredible pressure it's squeezing it down, right,

533
00:28:48,520 --> 00:28:51,560
Speaker 1: And and it's also it's interesting to me that it's

534
00:28:51,600 --> 00:28:55,160
Speaker 1: almost the size of the moon. It's like three the

535
00:28:55,200 --> 00:28:57,200
Speaker 1: size of the moon. Is this just like ball of

536
00:28:57,320 --> 00:29:00,920
Speaker 1: metal in the center of the earth? Huh? Way, why

537
00:29:01,000 --> 00:29:03,640
Speaker 1: is it metal? Why isn't it like like at some

538
00:29:03,760 --> 00:29:07,080
Speaker 1: point rocks, if you put them under pressure, they'll melt

539
00:29:07,200 --> 00:29:09,560
Speaker 1: into magma. But at something if you keep pressing them,

540
00:29:09,640 --> 00:29:13,920
Speaker 1: they'll actually solidify. Yeah, exactly, they'll solidify. And you know,

541
00:29:14,000 --> 00:29:17,200
Speaker 1: the Earth is cooling, right, the earth um was hot

542
00:29:17,280 --> 00:29:19,760
Speaker 1: and nasty when it was born, and it's been cooling

543
00:29:19,800 --> 00:29:23,040
Speaker 1: because space is cold, and eventually it's going to you know,

544
00:29:23,160 --> 00:29:26,320
Speaker 1: cool down even more. And so the center it's cooling

545
00:29:26,360 --> 00:29:29,479
Speaker 1: sort of from the center out, I guess you can imagine, right,

546
00:29:29,560 --> 00:29:32,640
Speaker 1: like the center is um it's getting solid, and this

547
00:29:32,760 --> 00:29:36,440
Speaker 1: solid in your core is growing right as the liquid

548
00:29:36,680 --> 00:29:39,480
Speaker 1: liquid part is sort of falling, the falling to the

549
00:29:39,640 --> 00:29:41,840
Speaker 1: center and and it's growing by I think like a

550
00:29:41,960 --> 00:29:45,920
Speaker 1: millimeter or two every year. Wow, so we got time.

551
00:29:48,040 --> 00:29:51,120
Speaker 1: We got time before Earth freezes over, is what you're

552
00:29:51,120 --> 00:29:55,560
Speaker 1: saying exactly Exactly, You've got time to finish that novel

553
00:29:55,600 --> 00:29:57,440
Speaker 1: you've been working on or whatever before the core of

554
00:29:57,480 --> 00:30:00,680
Speaker 1: the Earth solidifies. But it's important because then it's sort

555
00:30:00,680 --> 00:30:02,560
Speaker 1: of game over for life on Earth, right, because then

556
00:30:02,600 --> 00:30:05,240
Speaker 1: we wouldn't have a magnetic field. Yes, we need a

557
00:30:05,280 --> 00:30:08,080
Speaker 1: magnetic field to survive, because without a magnetic field, we

558
00:30:08,080 --> 00:30:11,320
Speaker 1: wouldn't be protected from space weather and space radiation and

559
00:30:11,360 --> 00:30:13,600
Speaker 1: stuff like that. Um. But you know it's going to

560
00:30:13,640 --> 00:30:16,240
Speaker 1: be the long time before the magnetic field stops because

561
00:30:16,280 --> 00:30:18,600
Speaker 1: the center of the Earth freezes. Um. But you know

562
00:30:18,680 --> 00:30:21,000
Speaker 1: it has happened, like on Mars. We think Mars used

563
00:30:21,000 --> 00:30:22,640
Speaker 1: to have the magnetic field. We think it used to

564
00:30:22,760 --> 00:30:25,200
Speaker 1: have all sorts of interesting stuff going on inside, but

565
00:30:25,320 --> 00:30:29,400
Speaker 1: now it's basically just a dead rock, right, and it

566
00:30:29,480 --> 00:30:31,479
Speaker 1: doesn't have a magnetic field anymore. And we don't think

567
00:30:31,520 --> 00:30:32,880
Speaker 1: it has a whole lot of stuff going on in

568
00:30:32,920 --> 00:30:37,200
Speaker 1: the inside though you know we're not. Um, wow, but yeah,

569
00:30:37,280 --> 00:30:39,160
Speaker 1: that could be the future of the Earth. But you know,

570
00:30:39,240 --> 00:30:41,200
Speaker 1: but then maybe we will have left the Earth and

571
00:30:41,360 --> 00:30:45,160
Speaker 1: explore the universe or developed ways to make artificial magnetic

572
00:30:45,200 --> 00:30:47,800
Speaker 1: fields or something else. Crazy, all right, So that's that's

573
00:30:47,800 --> 00:30:50,680
Speaker 1: at the center of the Earth. It's a ball the

574
00:30:50,760 --> 00:30:53,320
Speaker 1: size of the moon made out of metal, really thick

575
00:30:53,680 --> 00:30:57,400
Speaker 1: and hot and and solid metal. And that's it. Is

576
00:30:57,440 --> 00:30:58,960
Speaker 1: it Is it like that all the way to the

577
00:30:59,040 --> 00:31:01,080
Speaker 1: very center of the Earth. We think so, yeah, we

578
00:31:01,120 --> 00:31:03,040
Speaker 1: think it's just one big ball of metal. And in fact,

579
00:31:03,440 --> 00:31:05,720
Speaker 1: some people for a while thought that maybe that ball

580
00:31:05,760 --> 00:31:08,320
Speaker 1: of metal was just one big crystal. Right, you know

581
00:31:08,400 --> 00:31:11,840
Speaker 1: how metals can form crystals, these like regular lattices of

582
00:31:11,920 --> 00:31:15,080
Speaker 1: atoms that lineup, and for wild people thought it might

583
00:31:15,160 --> 00:31:17,840
Speaker 1: just be like a huge crystal. But now they're not

584
00:31:17,920 --> 00:31:22,440
Speaker 1: so sure. They downgraded their diamond rating on the Earth.

585
00:31:23,520 --> 00:31:25,840
Speaker 1: That's right, And we have to go change our insurance

586
00:31:25,880 --> 00:31:30,080
Speaker 1: policy because the new appraisers said it wasn't worth as much. Hey,

587
00:31:30,200 --> 00:31:32,120
Speaker 1: we like it. We love the Earth. It doesn't matter.

588
00:31:32,720 --> 00:31:35,440
Speaker 1: I love you anyway, baby, So it's not worth as much.

589
00:31:35,480 --> 00:31:40,040
Speaker 1: I guess it's worth everything to me, man, it's our home. Um, yeah, exactly.

590
00:31:40,200 --> 00:31:42,680
Speaker 1: So that's the descent of the earth. But remember, you

591
00:31:42,720 --> 00:31:45,800
Speaker 1: know we haven't visited these places. All this stuff we've learned,

592
00:31:45,800 --> 00:31:49,320
Speaker 1: we've learned sort of indirectly. Yeah, that's the amazing thing, um.

593
00:31:49,560 --> 00:31:51,880
Speaker 1: And so let's let's get into that. But let's take

594
00:31:51,920 --> 00:32:07,080
Speaker 1: a quick break, all right. So now we're we're gonna

595
00:32:07,120 --> 00:32:08,880
Speaker 1: get to the question of of what happens if you

596
00:32:09,000 --> 00:32:11,520
Speaker 1: jump through all down through the middle of the earth? Um.

597
00:32:11,760 --> 00:32:13,240
Speaker 1: But first I really want to know how we know

598
00:32:13,360 --> 00:32:16,000
Speaker 1: all this stuff, Daniel, Like, if we if we haven't

599
00:32:16,120 --> 00:32:18,960
Speaker 1: been able to drill down that deep, how do we

600
00:32:19,080 --> 00:32:21,080
Speaker 1: know what's all the way down to the center of

601
00:32:21,120 --> 00:32:24,280
Speaker 1: the earth. It's really an impressive triumph of science, right,

602
00:32:24,600 --> 00:32:26,960
Speaker 1: science were desperate to of the answer to your question.

603
00:32:27,000 --> 00:32:29,960
Speaker 1: And sometimes you can't see directly like you'd love to write,

604
00:32:30,240 --> 00:32:32,360
Speaker 1: so you have to look indirectly, have to look for clues,

605
00:32:32,720 --> 00:32:34,640
Speaker 1: and we look for ways to figure out what's going

606
00:32:34,680 --> 00:32:36,600
Speaker 1: on inside and we have a whole bunch of them,

607
00:32:37,000 --> 00:32:38,440
Speaker 1: and then we try to make sure they'll tell us

608
00:32:38,480 --> 00:32:42,000
Speaker 1: the same story. And my favorite one is the way

609
00:32:42,080 --> 00:32:43,719
Speaker 1: we look at the inside of the earth is by

610
00:32:43,840 --> 00:32:48,480
Speaker 1: looking at the impact from earthquakes, and we use earthquakes

611
00:32:48,560 --> 00:32:50,640
Speaker 1: the way you might like tap on the wall of

612
00:32:50,720 --> 00:32:53,000
Speaker 1: your house to figure out like is it hollow? Is

613
00:32:53,040 --> 00:32:55,760
Speaker 1: there a stud there? You can tell sort of what's

614
00:32:55,800 --> 00:32:59,360
Speaker 1: behind the wall by listening to how the sound moves

615
00:32:59,440 --> 00:33:01,560
Speaker 1: through it. Oh, I've heard of that. Like if there's

616
00:33:01,560 --> 00:33:03,840
Speaker 1: an earthquake that happens in one part of the world,

617
00:33:04,400 --> 00:33:06,800
Speaker 1: then you check with everybody else around the world to

618
00:33:06,960 --> 00:33:11,480
Speaker 1: see how that wave propagated. That's right, because the wave

619
00:33:11,560 --> 00:33:14,320
Speaker 1: from the earthquake. Right, earthquakes are these huge events, and

620
00:33:14,360 --> 00:33:16,760
Speaker 1: they cause a shock wave through the earth, and that

621
00:33:16,880 --> 00:33:20,400
Speaker 1: shock wave travels at different speed through different kinds of stuff. Right,

622
00:33:20,720 --> 00:33:22,120
Speaker 1: so you can build a model and you can say,

623
00:33:22,200 --> 00:33:24,840
Speaker 1: all right, well, if the earth was all water, how

624
00:33:24,960 --> 00:33:27,960
Speaker 1: fast would the shock wave arrive in Hawaii or arrive

625
00:33:28,040 --> 00:33:30,360
Speaker 1: in Russia? If the worth if the earth was all

626
00:33:30,640 --> 00:33:33,200
Speaker 1: you know, rock, how how fast would it move? And

627
00:33:33,280 --> 00:33:36,920
Speaker 1: they bounced when they when it changes medium, right, like

628
00:33:36,960 --> 00:33:39,440
Speaker 1: a wave, some of some of some of the your

629
00:33:39,680 --> 00:33:41,640
Speaker 1: wave will bounce back if it if it goes from

630
00:33:41,680 --> 00:33:44,760
Speaker 1: like air to water, or one type of rock to

631
00:33:44,800 --> 00:33:47,120
Speaker 1: another type of rock. And so that's another way can

632
00:33:47,200 --> 00:33:51,320
Speaker 1: they can tell where where are these um transitions between

633
00:33:51,360 --> 00:33:55,160
Speaker 1: different kinds of earth are. Yeah, you get all sorts

634
00:33:55,200 --> 00:33:58,000
Speaker 1: of interesting reflections. Just like when light hits the window,

635
00:33:58,200 --> 00:34:00,680
Speaker 1: most of it goes through, but some of it ounces off. Right.

636
00:34:00,720 --> 00:34:03,000
Speaker 1: You can use a window sometimes like a mirror. In

637
00:34:03,080 --> 00:34:04,800
Speaker 1: the same way as you were saying. Every time a

638
00:34:04,840 --> 00:34:07,560
Speaker 1: wave goes through a transition, a boundary from one kind

639
00:34:07,600 --> 00:34:10,600
Speaker 1: of material to another, part of it reflects, so they

640
00:34:10,640 --> 00:34:12,960
Speaker 1: can see these reflections. That's how we know that there

641
00:34:13,040 --> 00:34:16,400
Speaker 1: really are transitions there is that. Every time there's an earthquake,

642
00:34:16,760 --> 00:34:19,520
Speaker 1: the wave travels around the mantle, but it also reflects

643
00:34:19,719 --> 00:34:23,400
Speaker 1: off the mantle interface with the core, and then sometimes

644
00:34:23,440 --> 00:34:25,239
Speaker 1: it goes even deeper and then it reflects off the

645
00:34:25,320 --> 00:34:28,000
Speaker 1: inner core. So we can tell that there really are

646
00:34:28,160 --> 00:34:31,520
Speaker 1: layers there from these reflections, and we can get estimates

647
00:34:31,600 --> 00:34:34,520
Speaker 1: for their density based on how fast they're moving. We

648
00:34:34,680 --> 00:34:37,120
Speaker 1: know that that that's what the Earth looks like because

649
00:34:37,440 --> 00:34:39,600
Speaker 1: if it was made in any other way, if it

650
00:34:39,680 --> 00:34:42,839
Speaker 1: looked like any other way inside, we would see these

651
00:34:42,920 --> 00:34:45,279
Speaker 1: waves come out differently. That's right. It's sort of like

652
00:34:45,360 --> 00:34:48,000
Speaker 1: a big ultrasound, right, you know the way ultrasound works

653
00:34:48,040 --> 00:34:50,240
Speaker 1: to see like a baby inside the mom without cutting

654
00:34:50,239 --> 00:34:52,919
Speaker 1: her open. Obviously, is it sends these tiny little shock

655
00:34:52,960 --> 00:34:57,359
Speaker 1: waves ultrasound meaning higher frequency than you can hear into

656
00:34:57,440 --> 00:34:59,680
Speaker 1: your body, and it listens to how they come back,

657
00:34:59,760 --> 00:35:03,040
Speaker 1: and based on the speed and etcetera, it tells where

658
00:35:03,160 --> 00:35:05,520
Speaker 1: the stuff is and where the stuff isn't. So basically,

659
00:35:05,600 --> 00:35:09,759
Speaker 1: earthquakes are a way to ultrasound the Earth. Those guys

660
00:35:09,800 --> 00:35:11,560
Speaker 1: are the only ones who celebrate when this an earthquake.

661
00:35:11,600 --> 00:35:14,160
Speaker 1: They're like, huge earthquake. We get a new picture of

662
00:35:14,200 --> 00:35:16,080
Speaker 1: the inside of the Earth. We get to tell the

663
00:35:16,160 --> 00:35:17,960
Speaker 1: Earth there's a boy or a girl, oh my god,

664
00:35:20,600 --> 00:35:25,640
Speaker 1: or neither. Yeah, And so that's really that's, um, the

665
00:35:25,760 --> 00:35:27,719
Speaker 1: primary way we know about it. And to do that

666
00:35:27,800 --> 00:35:29,600
Speaker 1: you have to build models, right, And so you say, well,

667
00:35:29,640 --> 00:35:32,480
Speaker 1: maybe the Earth the Earth is this, in which case

668
00:35:32,520 --> 00:35:34,680
Speaker 1: we would see the reflections looking at that, and then

669
00:35:34,719 --> 00:35:36,880
Speaker 1: you compare what you predict to what you observe in

670
00:35:36,960 --> 00:35:39,759
Speaker 1: the tweet and tune and this tells us a lot

671
00:35:39,920 --> 00:35:41,680
Speaker 1: about what we know about the inside of the Earth

672
00:35:41,760 --> 00:35:45,960
Speaker 1: without ever going there. Wow, that's pretty cool, got science, man, science,

673
00:35:46,040 --> 00:35:51,160
Speaker 1: you are awesome. Yeah, buy yourself a pizza, a real pizza,

674
00:35:51,200 --> 00:35:53,759
Speaker 1: not one with pineapples on it. And um, you know,

675
00:35:53,880 --> 00:35:56,439
Speaker 1: we have some direct evidence, like we have dug down

676
00:35:56,560 --> 00:35:59,360
Speaker 1: pretty far to see what the crust is made out of,

677
00:36:00,080 --> 00:36:02,840
Speaker 1: and um, you know, sometimes things do crack open and

678
00:36:03,239 --> 00:36:05,440
Speaker 1: magma comes out from the earth and turns into lava,

679
00:36:05,920 --> 00:36:08,520
Speaker 1: and we can sample that and see what it is, right,

680
00:36:08,800 --> 00:36:11,080
Speaker 1: And we can look at rock outcroppings, you know, places

681
00:36:11,120 --> 00:36:13,239
Speaker 1: where like the crust has been lifted up so we

682
00:36:13,280 --> 00:36:17,120
Speaker 1: could see what used to be underneath. Um, stuff like that. Wow,

683
00:36:17,520 --> 00:36:20,440
Speaker 1: But it's pretty amazing that basically the Earth is not

684
00:36:20,640 --> 00:36:22,799
Speaker 1: a big ball of rock, right, Like it's this kind

685
00:36:22,840 --> 00:36:30,160
Speaker 1: of active, moving, squishy, dynamic ball of stuff. Yeah. Yeah,

686
00:36:30,200 --> 00:36:31,879
Speaker 1: it's there's a lot of stuff going on, right, It's

687
00:36:31,920 --> 00:36:33,920
Speaker 1: not just a rock. If it was just a rock,

688
00:36:34,000 --> 00:36:36,400
Speaker 1: then life on Earth would be very different, maybe impossible,

689
00:36:36,560 --> 00:36:39,719
Speaker 1: right without the magnetic field to protect us in our atmosphere.

690
00:36:40,120 --> 00:36:42,360
Speaker 1: So we should be grateful that there's a huge engine

691
00:36:42,440 --> 00:36:44,640
Speaker 1: humming under our feet, that all this stuff is happening,

692
00:36:45,160 --> 00:36:47,080
Speaker 1: you know. And I wonder something I was trying to

693
00:36:47,120 --> 00:36:49,520
Speaker 1: figure out but couldn't is like when we first became

694
00:36:49,560 --> 00:36:52,279
Speaker 1: aware of this, you know, because as humans, you know,

695
00:36:52,360 --> 00:36:54,520
Speaker 1: we know we live on the surface, but like a thousand,

696
00:36:54,640 --> 00:36:57,000
Speaker 1: two thousand years ago, people must have had a very

697
00:36:57,040 --> 00:37:00,719
Speaker 1: primitive understanding of what the Earth was made out of. Well,

698
00:37:00,760 --> 00:37:02,880
Speaker 1: they probably thought what I talk which is just a

699
00:37:02,960 --> 00:37:06,440
Speaker 1: giant rock, right, yeah, And people I think, like more

700
00:37:06,440 --> 00:37:09,160
Speaker 1: than add years ago were able to make density measurements

701
00:37:09,239 --> 00:37:11,520
Speaker 1: of the Earth. Right, they know the size of the Earth.

702
00:37:11,840 --> 00:37:14,840
Speaker 1: They know basically know how big it is, and you

703
00:37:14,880 --> 00:37:16,440
Speaker 1: can figure out, you know, with the strength of the

704
00:37:16,480 --> 00:37:18,480
Speaker 1: gravitational force, and from that you can figure out what

705
00:37:18,520 --> 00:37:20,040
Speaker 1: the mass of the Earth is, and that tells you,

706
00:37:20,160 --> 00:37:22,640
Speaker 1: like what's the average density. So, like more than a

707
00:37:22,880 --> 00:37:25,000
Speaker 1: d years ago were able to measure the average density

708
00:37:25,000 --> 00:37:27,480
Speaker 1: of the Earth and discover that it was more dense

709
00:37:27,640 --> 00:37:30,400
Speaker 1: on average than it was in the surface, which suggested

710
00:37:30,440 --> 00:37:33,839
Speaker 1: that like something denser was going on under our feet.

711
00:37:33,960 --> 00:37:41,319
Speaker 1: But that was really the first clue. Wow, cool, all right,

712
00:37:41,360 --> 00:37:43,000
Speaker 1: So that's that's what the Earth is made out of.

713
00:37:43,200 --> 00:37:46,960
Speaker 1: It's a thin crust on top of a fluid rock,

714
00:37:47,320 --> 00:37:52,160
Speaker 1: on top of a giant layer of magma two thousand

715
00:37:52,239 --> 00:37:55,880
Speaker 1: kilometers thake uh. And then down to a little um

716
00:37:56,160 --> 00:38:04,040
Speaker 1: crystal diamond ball the size of the moon um iron nickel, right,

717
00:38:04,600 --> 00:38:06,680
Speaker 1: you can you can advertise it on the internet. It's

718
00:38:06,719 --> 00:38:09,960
Speaker 1: a crystal diamond, and then they'll be disappointed when you're

719
00:38:09,960 --> 00:38:12,560
Speaker 1: sending them just an iron nickel ball. But sure, go ahead,

720
00:38:12,880 --> 00:38:14,920
Speaker 1: we'll call it like an iPhone. You know, it's a

721
00:38:15,000 --> 00:38:21,200
Speaker 1: metallic nickel exactly, exactly right. So okay, let's say let's

722
00:38:21,200 --> 00:38:23,240
Speaker 1: get down then to what we set out to answer,

723
00:38:23,320 --> 00:38:26,520
Speaker 1: which is what would happen if you jump down a

724
00:38:26,600 --> 00:38:29,120
Speaker 1: hole through the earth. Well, we were already established it's

725
00:38:29,120 --> 00:38:31,920
Speaker 1: impossible to dig that hole. Yeah, so let's let's imagine

726
00:38:31,960 --> 00:38:34,680
Speaker 1: it's possible that aliens come and have some super digging

727
00:38:34,719 --> 00:38:37,520
Speaker 1: technology and some super tunnel technology, and we can actually

728
00:38:37,600 --> 00:38:40,080
Speaker 1: make that whole all the way through the earth and

729
00:38:40,160 --> 00:38:42,120
Speaker 1: out the other side, right through the very center and

730
00:38:42,440 --> 00:38:45,239
Speaker 1: hold it open, because you know, the magma wants to

731
00:38:45,320 --> 00:38:49,200
Speaker 1: flow in, the liquid rock wants to crush it in,

732
00:38:49,640 --> 00:38:54,440
Speaker 1: and that that corn middle doesn't really um it's so

733
00:38:54,600 --> 00:38:57,760
Speaker 1: dense it doesn't want to get drilled through, right, yeah, exactly.

734
00:38:57,800 --> 00:38:59,800
Speaker 1: So you need a lot of legal paperwork before you

735
00:38:59,840 --> 00:39:01,960
Speaker 1: can jump into this hole. But let's assume that we

736
00:39:02,040 --> 00:39:04,520
Speaker 1: figured out all the physics and all the law aspects

737
00:39:04,560 --> 00:39:07,040
Speaker 1: of it, and that we're ready to jump. Right before

738
00:39:07,080 --> 00:39:09,000
Speaker 1: we do that, we want to do some science. Okay,

739
00:39:09,040 --> 00:39:11,400
Speaker 1: so there's a whole there's a tunnel going through the

740
00:39:11,520 --> 00:39:14,280
Speaker 1: center of the Earth out to the other side. Okay,

741
00:39:14,360 --> 00:39:17,040
Speaker 1: and what happened? What what what happens to be jump into? Yeah,

742
00:39:17,120 --> 00:39:19,160
Speaker 1: So that it's really fascinating because you have to think

743
00:39:19,200 --> 00:39:21,760
Speaker 1: about the force of gravity. So you're on the surface

744
00:39:21,800 --> 00:39:24,920
Speaker 1: of the Earth. The whole earth is pulling you towards

745
00:39:25,080 --> 00:39:27,319
Speaker 1: the center of the earth. Right, because the whole Earth

746
00:39:27,520 --> 00:39:30,560
Speaker 1: is a smaller radius than you do. Right, every little

747
00:39:30,560 --> 00:39:32,279
Speaker 1: bit of it is pulling it. But you can think

748
00:39:32,360 --> 00:39:35,080
Speaker 1: about you can treat it gravitationally as if it was

749
00:39:35,200 --> 00:39:37,759
Speaker 1: just like a particle at the center of the Earth

750
00:39:38,000 --> 00:39:40,600
Speaker 1: that was pulling on you because it's all under your feet.

751
00:39:41,480 --> 00:39:45,680
Speaker 1: But once you jump into that hole, then some parts

752
00:39:45,719 --> 00:39:48,160
Speaker 1: of the Earth are no longer on the inside. Some

753
00:39:48,239 --> 00:39:50,839
Speaker 1: of them are like on the outside. So imagine you're

754
00:39:50,880 --> 00:39:53,360
Speaker 1: like halfway down this hole. Like let's say you're a

755
00:39:53,480 --> 00:39:58,480
Speaker 1: kilometer down falling eating your snack. Now there's a whole

756
00:39:58,520 --> 00:40:02,120
Speaker 1: bunch of earth Earth above you that's now pulling you back. Right. Actually,

757
00:40:02,160 --> 00:40:05,720
Speaker 1: the earth above you on average doesn't have any effect

758
00:40:05,760 --> 00:40:08,880
Speaker 1: on you. There's the one that the stuff that's just

759
00:40:09,080 --> 00:40:11,320
Speaker 1: above you, Yeah, that's pulling on you. But there's like

760
00:40:11,480 --> 00:40:15,400
Speaker 1: this kilometer thick shell of Earth, right, and the stuff

761
00:40:15,480 --> 00:40:17,120
Speaker 1: that's on the other side is pulling on you, and

762
00:40:17,200 --> 00:40:18,800
Speaker 1: the stuff that's above you is pulling on you. It

763
00:40:18,920 --> 00:40:22,920
Speaker 1: all cancels out. So if you're inside a shell, then

764
00:40:23,040 --> 00:40:29,080
Speaker 1: all the gravitational forces cancel out. What yeah, yeah, I mean, imagine,

765
00:40:29,080 --> 00:40:31,520
Speaker 1: for example, what happens when you get to the center, right,

766
00:40:31,520 --> 00:40:33,000
Speaker 1: What happens when you get to the center. Is there

767
00:40:33,040 --> 00:40:36,839
Speaker 1: any gravity there? No, because every point, every little bit

768
00:40:36,880 --> 00:40:40,280
Speaker 1: of the Earth is pulling you equally in all directions, exactly.

769
00:40:40,520 --> 00:40:43,040
Speaker 1: And that's true for any shell that you're on the

770
00:40:43,120 --> 00:40:46,000
Speaker 1: inside of. So if you're halfway down the Earth, then

771
00:40:46,080 --> 00:40:49,279
Speaker 1: you only feel the gravitational force of the part of

772
00:40:49,320 --> 00:40:52,040
Speaker 1: the Earth that's closer to the center than you are,

773
00:40:52,280 --> 00:40:55,600
Speaker 1: right a sphere of that radius. The stuff that's above you,

774
00:40:55,800 --> 00:40:58,400
Speaker 1: you don't feel like Let's say we're digging the tunnel

775
00:40:58,880 --> 00:41:02,279
Speaker 1: and we only get halfway there and we stop and

776
00:41:02,480 --> 00:41:04,640
Speaker 1: we stand there on the bottom of that hole. You're saying,

777
00:41:05,000 --> 00:41:07,600
Speaker 1: I would weigh half as much like I could jump.

778
00:41:07,920 --> 00:41:09,520
Speaker 1: It would feel like it we're standing on the moon

779
00:41:09,800 --> 00:41:12,040
Speaker 1: as you're digging down, you would you would start to

780
00:41:12,120 --> 00:41:15,480
Speaker 1: feel weightless, Yes, exactly. So as you so you jump

781
00:41:15,520 --> 00:41:18,120
Speaker 1: into this hole, right, and just before you jump, you're

782
00:41:18,120 --> 00:41:20,839
Speaker 1: feeling the full gravitational force of the Earth. And as

783
00:41:20,920 --> 00:41:23,359
Speaker 1: you go down, the gravitational force starts to go down,

784
00:41:23,480 --> 00:41:25,960
Speaker 1: and it goes down linearly, so that when you get

785
00:41:26,000 --> 00:41:28,239
Speaker 1: to zero, when you get to the center, there's no

786
00:41:28,520 --> 00:41:30,520
Speaker 1: force on you anymore, which makes sense, as you were saying,

787
00:41:30,520 --> 00:41:33,440
Speaker 1: because you're pulled in every direction. Wow. So if you open,

788
00:41:33,600 --> 00:41:36,360
Speaker 1: like if you drill drill through, you're falling through and

789
00:41:36,520 --> 00:41:39,040
Speaker 1: you get to the center and you would be floating

790
00:41:39,080 --> 00:41:42,600
Speaker 1: around in space just like no, because you'd have you'd

791
00:41:42,600 --> 00:41:45,279
Speaker 1: have a huge velocity, right, you'd have to have been

792
00:41:45,320 --> 00:41:47,000
Speaker 1: pulled down from a bunch of stuff, so you have

793
00:41:47,080 --> 00:41:49,879
Speaker 1: a huge amount of velocity and you shoot right through

794
00:41:49,960 --> 00:41:51,959
Speaker 1: the center. Right, the center would be your highest speed.

795
00:41:52,000 --> 00:41:54,279
Speaker 1: It's like on a roller coaster. You start at the

796
00:41:54,320 --> 00:41:56,840
Speaker 1: top right and it rolls you down a hill. The

797
00:41:56,880 --> 00:41:59,799
Speaker 1: bottom of the hill right, then you're going really really fast.

798
00:42:00,000 --> 00:42:02,399
Speaker 1: If there's no friction, you would just keep going, yeah,

799
00:42:02,480 --> 00:42:05,279
Speaker 1: because you've been falling all this time, exactly. Unless it's

800
00:42:05,280 --> 00:42:06,960
Speaker 1: like a party down there and people hanging out and

801
00:42:07,000 --> 00:42:09,400
Speaker 1: ready to catch you. You just shoot right through the

802
00:42:09,480 --> 00:42:12,080
Speaker 1: center of the earth, and then gravity would start to

803
00:42:12,120 --> 00:42:14,680
Speaker 1: slow you down again on your way through the other

804
00:42:14,800 --> 00:42:17,960
Speaker 1: side of the tunnel. Right, it would stake. Now now

805
00:42:18,000 --> 00:42:21,439
Speaker 1: it's pulling you back, polling you back, it's slowing you down,

806
00:42:22,080 --> 00:42:25,160
Speaker 1: and it's just enough gravity to slow you down so

807
00:42:25,200 --> 00:42:27,520
Speaker 1: that you would emerge from the tunnel on the other

808
00:42:27,640 --> 00:42:30,719
Speaker 1: side and then just stop with the same speed that

809
00:42:30,880 --> 00:42:33,080
Speaker 1: you had just when when you jumped in. Yeah, which

810
00:42:33,160 --> 00:42:36,160
Speaker 1: is zero, right, So I'm assuming that the tunnel on

811
00:42:36,200 --> 00:42:39,239
Speaker 1: the other side comes out of exactly the same elevation, right.

812
00:42:39,719 --> 00:42:42,040
Speaker 1: If you then you would come right out of the

813
00:42:42,080 --> 00:42:44,520
Speaker 1: tunnel and you just sort of like hover right above

814
00:42:44,520 --> 00:42:47,000
Speaker 1: the tunnel for a second before falling back down again.

815
00:42:47,440 --> 00:42:48,839
Speaker 1: And if you didn't do anything, you would just sort

816
00:42:48,880 --> 00:42:51,560
Speaker 1: of go back and forth, oscillating back and forth through

817
00:42:51,600 --> 00:42:54,920
Speaker 1: the earth forever, up and down, up and down. Have

818
00:42:55,040 --> 00:42:56,759
Speaker 1: you calculated how long would take you to do that

819
00:42:57,000 --> 00:42:59,960
Speaker 1: take that trip? I have not done that calculation. Actually

820
00:43:00,920 --> 00:43:02,759
Speaker 1: leave it as homework for the listener. But you have

821
00:43:02,840 --> 00:43:05,680
Speaker 1: to be careful because if you jump, if your elevation,

822
00:43:05,920 --> 00:43:07,400
Speaker 1: your distance from the center of the Earth when you

823
00:43:07,600 --> 00:43:11,600
Speaker 1: jump is um less than the elevation where you're going

824
00:43:11,640 --> 00:43:13,000
Speaker 1: to come out on the other side, and you're not

825
00:43:13,080 --> 00:43:15,960
Speaker 1: gonna make it, right, if you start on the Death

826
00:43:16,080 --> 00:43:18,240
Speaker 1: Valley and you want to come out the amount everest,

827
00:43:18,360 --> 00:43:20,400
Speaker 1: and you're not gonna make it to the top amount everest, right,

828
00:43:21,840 --> 00:43:25,000
Speaker 1: You're just gonna fall back down into the hole. Yeah, exactly, exactly.

829
00:43:25,560 --> 00:43:27,560
Speaker 1: But if the Earth was a perfect sphere and you

830
00:43:27,680 --> 00:43:29,359
Speaker 1: jumped onto one side, then you come out the other

831
00:43:29,440 --> 00:43:31,759
Speaker 1: side of exactly the same height above the surface. But

832
00:43:31,840 --> 00:43:34,520
Speaker 1: if you slow yourself down and you stopped at the core,

833
00:43:35,160 --> 00:43:38,200
Speaker 1: then you would be waitless and you'd be floating there. Yeah, exactly,

834
00:43:38,400 --> 00:43:40,319
Speaker 1: because the earth gravity would be pulling on you from

835
00:43:40,360 --> 00:43:44,080
Speaker 1: every direction simultaneously, which is like having no gravity. Wow.

836
00:43:44,520 --> 00:43:46,040
Speaker 1: And that would be a pretty awesome moment, right, and

837
00:43:46,160 --> 00:43:48,200
Speaker 1: be like at the center of the Earth, the entire

838
00:43:48,320 --> 00:43:52,480
Speaker 1: Earth around you. Right. Yeah, I hope you're not clustrophobic.

839
00:43:52,680 --> 00:43:54,680
Speaker 1: It would be pretty hard to climb back out, right,

840
00:43:54,880 --> 00:43:56,719
Speaker 1: that's kind of the problem. Yeah, that would be a

841
00:43:56,880 --> 00:43:59,479
Speaker 1: very long climb. Oh my gosh, Wow, I hope somebody

842
00:43:59,520 --> 00:44:03,440
Speaker 1: built a live are h all right? Well? That that

843
00:44:03,680 --> 00:44:06,040
Speaker 1: that's um that's what the Earth is made out of.

844
00:44:06,239 --> 00:44:08,840
Speaker 1: And if you dropped a pizza down a hold that

845
00:44:09,239 --> 00:44:11,399
Speaker 1: goes through the center of Earth, they would just come

846
00:44:11,560 --> 00:44:15,200
Speaker 1: right back to you, right eventually. Yeah, Or you could

847
00:44:15,239 --> 00:44:17,200
Speaker 1: deliver pizza to the other side of the Earth just

848
00:44:17,280 --> 00:44:18,920
Speaker 1: by dropping through that hole and it would just like

849
00:44:19,080 --> 00:44:20,840
Speaker 1: come on out the other side and float there for

850
00:44:20,920 --> 00:44:24,080
Speaker 1: a second while they're somebody would grab It's a totally

851
00:44:24,160 --> 00:44:26,279
Speaker 1: realistic way. I bet Elon Musk is working on that

852
00:44:26,360 --> 00:44:30,880
Speaker 1: pizzas and the bonuses. It would be warm because it

853
00:44:31,440 --> 00:44:33,160
Speaker 1: would heat up on the way you could you could

854
00:44:33,239 --> 00:44:35,719
Speaker 1: dump it in frozen and it would come out nice

855
00:44:35,760 --> 00:44:39,000
Speaker 1: and coasting. This is a great business opportunity. I hope

856
00:44:39,040 --> 00:44:43,719
Speaker 1: the lawyers are scribbling this down as you're talking. All right, Well,

857
00:44:43,760 --> 00:44:46,359
Speaker 1: thanks for joining us. I hope that, um, that wasn't

858
00:44:46,360 --> 00:44:48,480
Speaker 1: too hardcore for you guys out there. I hope we

859
00:44:48,520 --> 00:44:50,759
Speaker 1: didn't get too crusty on you. All right, Thanks for

860
00:44:50,840 --> 00:44:53,160
Speaker 1: joining us, See you next time. Thanks for tuning in.

861
00:45:01,320 --> 00:45:03,640
Speaker 1: If you still have a question after listening to all

862
00:45:03,680 --> 00:45:06,880
Speaker 1: these explanations, please drop us a line. We'd love to

863
00:45:06,960 --> 00:45:09,320
Speaker 1: hear from you. You can find us at Facebook, Twitter,

864
00:45:09,480 --> 00:45:13,080
Speaker 1: and Instagram at Daniel and Jorge that's one word, or

865
00:45:13,239 --> 00:45:16,600
Speaker 1: email us at feedback at Daniel and Jorge dot com.

866
00:45:17,200 --> 00:45:20,000
Speaker 1: Thanks for listening and remember that Daniel and Jorge Explain

867
00:45:20,080 --> 00:45:23,040
Speaker 1: the Universe is a production of I Heart Radio from

868
00:45:23,120 --> 00:45:26,000
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869
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Speaker 1: favorite shows.